Non-Newtonian Flow

CHEN 4401W
Unit Operations Laboratory
Section 003, Group 6
Section Instructor: Raul Caretta
September 17th, 2013
Planner: Alvaro de la Garza Musi
Experimenter: Chen Fang
Analyzer: Shaw Su

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Abstract
The Uni-Minn Corporation was asked to design a piping system to transport a dilute
guar-xanthan solution by a personal care products client. It was specified by the client
that a days solution should be transferred from a storage tank to a target tank 2000 ft.
away at a flow rate of 150 gallons/min. The specifications also included a height
difference between the tanks of 65 ft. Data was obtained from the Rheological Analysis
Equipment (RAE) and the Brookfield Viscometer, during to laboratory sessions at the
University of Minnesota pilot plant. The rheological constants calculated after were
transferred to construct the requested scale-up design. A comparative analysis between
the two test methods was also done to verify the values of the behavior and consistency
indexes, while also evaluating accuracy and precision. The effect of temperature on the
fluid was also studied.
The solution was analyzed at different Reeves pump settings and recycle stream valve
positions. A variation from 3 to 6.5 was done in the pump, and the recycle stream valve
was opened until there was almost no flow or closed completely to reach higher fluid
velocities. Similarly, the polymer solution was studied using the Rotational viscometer,
with RPM varying from 1 to 100.
Using the RAE, flow rates in the range of 0.15 to 0.65 0.06 kg/s were attained; the
pressure drops recorded at four different points spanned from 300 to 3,000 15 Pa.
Calculations resulted in a consistency index of 0.21 Nsn/m2 and a flow behavior index of
0.65. The Brookfield viscometer produced torque measurements ranging from 10 to 50
0.1 Nm, and apparent viscosities around 250 to 550 15 cp. Using this data the
consistency and flow behavior indexes were found to be 4.90 Nsn/m2 and 0.67
respectively. These values correspond to thinning behavior which indicates the power
law fluid lies in the pseudoplastic fluid region. Tests changing the temperature of the
polymer solution to 24, 25 and 27 0.2 C were done using a hot water bath and the
Brookfield viscometer. Viscosity was recorded and presented an exponential decreasing
behavior with increasing temperature. The consistency index was calculated at changing
temperatures and was found to be 3.6, 3.5, and 4.3 Nsn/m2 at 24, 25 and 27C
respectively. In addition, the flow behavior index was calculated to be 0.72, 0.73, and
0.68 at 24, 25 and 27 C. These values show a decreasing flow behavior index and
therefore increasing pseudoplastic behavior.
Density was measured to be 1090 10 during both lab periods using a 1L beaker. The
polymer content of the solution was obtained by drying the solution for two days in a
convection oven and was calculated to be 0.43 0.01wt%. The data could have been
improved on accuracy and precision by having one person run and record data for the
RAE and using a broader range of temperatures in the Brookfield viscometer tests.
The scale-up piping system was designed using the calculated values for the
consistency and the flow behavior indexes. Two open 190,290 gallon tanks, each with a
25.3 ft diameter, a 50.6 ft height and 20in freeboard were sized to hold a days supply for
the process. A 6-in diameter schedule 40 steel pipe was chosen for the piping in the
system to minimize cost. The Reynolds number was calculated to be 1,655 for the
polymer solution validating laminar flow. A Reynolds number of 197,000 was calculated
for water, indicating turbulent flow. A positive displacement 4HP pump is recommended
for its use in the transfer of the polymer solution from the storage tank to the receiving
tank. In case of water, vacuum pump with 3-HP motor can be used. A recycle stream is
also recommended to have more flexibility when it comes to fluid flow control if the
displacement pump does not offer many settings. The total cost for the design essentials
was calculated to be $1,710,000 not including the recycle stream, valves, fittings or
temperature gages and a rotameter.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.
Introduction, Theory and Technical Background
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Theory and Technical Background
1.3 Design Problem Theory
1.4 Error Analysis
2.
Description of Apparatus
2.1 Rheological Analysis Equipment
2.2 Brookfield Rotational Viscometer
3.
Experimental Procedure
3.1 Rheological Analysis Equipment
3.2 Brookfield Rotational Viscometer
4.
Results
4.1 Polymer Solution Characteristics Data
4.2 Rheological Analysis Equipment Data
4.3 Brookfield Rotational Viscometer Data
5.
Final Data and Results
5.1 Polymer Content and Density
5.2 RAE Results
5.3 Brookfield Rotational Viscometer Results
5.4 Temperature Effects
5.5 Comparison of RAE and Rotational Viscometer results
6.
Discussion of Results, Conclusions and Recommendations
6.1 Discussion of Results
6.2 Conclusions
6.3 Recommendations
7.
Design Problem
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Design Parameters
7.3 Design Calculations
7.4 Non-Newtonian and Water Comparative
8.
Nomenclature
9.
References
10. Appendices
A. Original Data Sheets
B. Sample Calculations
C. Design Problem Calculations
D. Error (Uncertainty) Analysis
E. Data Transfer Sheet

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1. Introduction, Theory and Technical Background

1.1 Introduction
A personal care products client asked the Uni-Minn Development Corporation to design
a piping system that will efficiently transport a guar and xanthan blend for their process.
It was specified that the solution is initially stored in an open storage tank, and it is to
flow at the rate of 120 gallons/minute through 2,000 feet of pipe. The target storage tank
is 65 feet above the tank where the guar and xanthan solution is initially stored.
Rheological constants were obtained in lab to provide an accurate design including
optimal pipe diameter, and pump characteristics. The independent variables were
determined to be the pump setting in the RAE, the RPM in the Brookfield viscometer, the
temperature, and the concentration in both of them. The dependent variables were the
flow rate, and pressure drop in the RAE. In the case of the Brookfield viscometer they
were determined to be the angular velocity, the torque, and the apparent viscosity.
Two laboratory sessions were used to perform the Rheological Analysis Equipment and
Brookfield Viscometer experiments. The RAE was ran at a controlled temperature of
221C, pressure drop measurements were done at different points along the length of
the copper piping. Data obtained regarding pressure changes and flow velocities were
modeled using a power-law fluid function and rheological properties were calculated
through log-log plots of shear rate vs. shear stress.
In the same manner measurements were taken using the Brookfield Viscometer to
obtain different fluid or rheological properties. The parameters calculated were
compared to those calculated using the RAE, to assess precision and provide a
recommendation. Furthermore, temperature tests were done using the Brookfield
viscometer to determine the dependence of non-Newtonian fluids with respect to
temperature changes.
1.2 Theory and Technical Background
Newtonian and Non-Newtonian Fluids
A Newtonian fluid is one who follows Newtons law of viscosity given by equation 1.2.1.
The shear stress
is directly proportional to the shear rate (-dv/dr) with viscosity
as
the proportionality constant. (1)
(1.2.1)
On the other hand, Non-Newtonian fluids do not follow Newtons Law of viscosity, and
can be divided into three categories according to their shear rate/shear stress behavior:
fluids whose behavior is independent of the duration of shear, fluids whose behavior is
dependent, and viscoelastic fluids which present elastic behavior. The guar and xanthan
solution studied presents a time-independent non-Newtonian behavior; its characteristics
correspond to a pseudoplastic fluid. Figure 1.2.1 shows a diagram of the shear
stress/rate relationship of Newtonian fluids and different types of time-independent nonNewtonian fluids. (1)

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Figure 1.2.1. Shear stress vs. Shear rate graph

The modeling of the flow behavior of non-Newtonian fluids is done through a power-law
equation.
(

(1.2.2)

Equation 1.2.2 above represents the power law equation where K is the consistency
index in
and n is the flow behavior index and its dimensionless. These two
rheological constants characterize a power law fluid. The apparent viscosity is
represented by the following equation.
(

(1.2.3)

For n<1 the apparent viscosity decreases as the shear rate increases, these are known
as shear thinning fluids. Non-Newtonian solutions rheological characteristics are
susceptible to bacterial, heat, enzyme and UV degradation.
Rheological Analysis Equipment
The RAE uses pipe flow and pressure changes to study non-Newtonian flow properties.
Shear stress and shear rate are calculated using the available measurements, and
logarithmic plots are used to find the rheological constants needed.
Shear stress can be calculated the following equation,
(

) ( )

(1.2.4)

Where D is the pipe diameter,

is the pressure drop, L is the length of the pipe, and V
is the fluid velocity. A log-log plot of shear stress
versus ( ) yields to a linear fit with
the slope being n the flow behavior index, and an intercept of K the consistency index.
Similarly, the shear rate at the wall of the pipe is a function of the behavior index n, the
linear fluid velocity V, and the pipe diameter D as shown below.(3)
(

)( )

(1.2.5)

This relation only holds for laminar flow, therefore low fluid velocities have to be
maintained. Finally using the results above the generalized viscosity coefficient is
calculated according to the following relation,

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(1.2.6)

Brookfield Rotational Viscometer

Another important method for measuring flow properties is by using a rotating
concentric-cylinder viscometer. (2) This device is composed by a rotating cylinder, or
spindle, spinning at a constant rotational speed inside another cylinder. The gap
between the walls of these two cylinders is usually small and is filled with the fluid
subject to analysis. A commercial device of this kind is the Brookfield viscometer.
The torque necessary to maintain a constant rotation rate is directly proportional to the
resistance induced by the fluid viscosity and its measured using a torsion wire where the
spindle is suspended from. This device provides a uniform shear rate, and a uniform
corresponding shear stress.
The shear rate at the surface of the spindle for non-Newtonian fluids is as follows;
(

(1.2.7)
[

) ]

Where
is the radius of the spindle,
is the radius of the outer cylinder, and is the
angular velocity of the spindle. The above relationship only holds for 0.5 <
< 0.99. To
calculate the angular velocity of the spindle and the torque required the below equations
are necessary,
(1.2.8)
Given that N is the revolutions per minute. And for torque in Nm,
(1.2.9)
The shear stress at the wall of the spindle is given by
(1.2.10)
Where T is the measured torque, and L is the length of the spindle. Equation 1.2.8 holds
for both Newtonian and non-Newtonian fluids.
Substituting equations 1.2.7 and 1.2.10 in the power-law equation results in the following
equation,

(1.2.11)
[

) )

Which after experimental data is obtained by measuring the torque at different angular
velocities can be used to evaluate flow-property constants. A log T versus log w results
in a linear fit with the parameter n as the slope and the intercept as
, the
consistency factor can be extracted easily from the intercept.
Effect of Temperature Changes
Non-Newtonian fluids apparent viscosity is very sensitive to temperature changes. As
temperature increases power law fluids present a reversible softening which translate to

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a decrease in viscosity. Several experiments have been conducted using rotational

viscometers and they all present an exponential decrease in viscosity with rising
temperature. (7) Another correlation with temperature is the flow behavior index, as
temperature increases the flow behavior index decreases, which means the degree of
pseudoplasticity increases. With respect to other parameters such as shear stress, and
the consistency index the temperature does not present a defined correlation, this might
be due to the reversible property of non-Newtonian fluids which can lead to hysteresis
and stochastic behaviors.
1.3 Design Problem Theory
The client requested a scale-up design of a piping system to transfer a guar-xanthan
solution from one tank to another. The non-Newtonian fluid used in lab is identical to the
one used in the client facilities, therefore the rheological constants obtained from the
RAE and the Brookfield Viscometer were used for the design. Specifications for the
scale up design include, sizing of the pump, providing the optimal pipe diameter needed,
and correct height and diameter for both storage tanks included in the system. Lastly,
differences in design between using a non-Newtonian fluid and water were provided as
requested by the client.
Optimal Pipe Diameter
Cost efficiency is as important as effectiveness when designing a plant, therefore a pipe
which is economically optimum as well as capable to meet the clients requirements is
needed. The following equation is therefore used to calculate the pipe diameter,
[

) ]

(1.3.1)

The above equation from Peters and Timmerhaus is based on economical and design
optimization parameters. It includes several costs which are essential to minimize in a
plant such as electricity, annual average fixed and maintenance costs, etc. The
description of the symbols used is found in the nomenclature section. (8)
Reynolds Number
To validate the use of the results obtained in lab for scale up, it has to be proven that the
fluid is flowing in the laminar region. The generalized Reynolds number equation can be
used for the analysis,
(

(1.3.2)

Where D is the pipe diameter, V is the linear velocity, is the fluids density, K and n are
flow indexes. The transition region to turbulent flow starts at
, so a flow lower
than that has to be attained.
In the case of water a different equation for Reynolds number is needed,
(1.3.3)
Here the laminar region ends after a Reynolds number higher than 2,000.

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Pump
Pump sizing starts with a mechanical energy balance including potential energy,
pressure drop, kinetic energy, and the summation of the friction losses. It is given by the
following equation,

(1.3.4)

Here
is the velocity correction factor, approximated to be 0.5 for laminar flow in
Newtonian fluids. In non-Newtonian fluids is given by,
(1.3.5)
The pressure drop due to friction (p) in the mechanical energy balance is found using
the following equation,
(1.3.6)
This equation applies to laminar flow and requires the fanning friction factor

The total frictional loss in the pipe (F) is calculated adding all the expansion losses
(hex), contraction losses (Kc), and losses in fittings and valves (Kf). It is given by the
following relation,

(1.3.7)

Solving for the shaft work in the mechanical energy balance, and adding the average
pump efficiency of 75% (4) the work required by the pump is calculated using the relation
below,
(1.3.8)
Finally, the work required can be translated to Break horse power with the following
equation,
(1.3.9)
From here the electric power input can be determined with the next relation,
(1.3.10)

1.4 Error Analysis

Error and uncertainty on experimental results are of extreme importance to validate the
data obtained. These uncertainties are either due to instrument or measurement error.
Propagation of error is done in all subsequent calculations. In addition and subtraction
operations error propagates according to the formula:

(1.4.1)

Where ep is propagated absolute error and e1 through en are absolute errors of the
measurements subtracted or added. Error of measurements in multiplication and division
propagates like:

(1.4.2)

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Where %ep is the percentage error propagated and e1 through en are the percentage
errors of the different measurements multiplied or divided.
Error associated with logarithms is determined using the following formula:
( )

(1.4.3)

To calculate the error associated to the mean of a value pool, the Students t test must
be applied to a 95% confidence interval. The first standard deviation Sp is computed as,
(

(1.4.4)

where xi is the value of the measurement, xavg is the average of the experimental values,
and n is the number of measurements made. The desired value for t to approach a
confidence interval is determined from students t table. Using this value, the error limit
can be determined for the sample mean value, as follows.
(1.4.5)
Hence the final result accounting for errors is expressed in the form xavg and it is
based on the degrees of freedom and a particular confidence level.

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2. Description of Apparatus
In this experiment, two sets of equipment, a Rheological Analysis Equipment (RAE) and
a Brookfield Rotational Viscometer were used to evaluate rheological properties of a
solution containing a blend of 97% guar and 3% xanthan. Results obtained with RAE
were compared with Brookfield Viscometer to see if the information could be obtained
with a much smaller and simpler instrument.
2.1 Rheological Analysis Equipment
A process flow diagram for the rheological analysis equipment was shown as follows.

Recycle line
P4

P3

P1

P2

Bypass line

2.9m

Drain
MOYNO Pump

Figure 2.1.1 Process flow diagram of the rheological analysis equipment

Bypass line and recycle line
Two valves were used in the operation of the RAE to control flow in this experiment, one
on the bypass line and one on the recycle line. For a certain setting of the Reeves Drive
pump speed, opening the bypass line valve more and the flow rate to the weight tank
would be slower. The maximum flow rate at a certain pump speed would be obtained
when the bypass line valve was closed.
The recycle line was used to recycle the polymer fluid in the weight tank back to the
mixer tank. The recycle line valve was closed during a certain run to measure flow rate,
and opened at the end of a run to recycle the fluid in the weight tank back to the mixer
tank.

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Moyno Pumps and Reeves Drive

A Moyno pump, which is a type of positive displacement pump, was used to pump the
polymer solution from the mixing tank to the weight tank. As the rotor turns inside the
stator, cavities are formed which progress toward the discharge end of the pump
carrying the material being handed (2). This leads to low levels of shearing applied to the
pumped fluid hence have application of viscous or shear-sensitive materials. The
volumetric flow rate is thus proportional to the rotation rate. The assumption that all
pumps could have their flow rates adjusted by a valve attached to their outlet therefore
could not be valid for this type of pump since such a valve will have no effect on the flow
rate and closing the valve would cause high pressure. However, a bypass pipe that
allows a certain amount of fluid to return to the inlet could be used to control flow rate for
this kind of pump.
A Robbins & Myers, INC motor was used to drive the pump. The motor used is 5hp,
220/400 volts, serial B6932 KU. A Reeves Drive was used to connect the motor to the
pump. The Reeves Drives used is 5hp, serial 126759, with output speeds 195-1170
RPM, gear ratio of 2.76-1.
Weight tank
The flow rate in this experiment was measured using the weight tank-stop watch
method. An electronic scale is placed under the weight tank to measure weight of fluid
as it accumulates over certain duration of time. A recycle line connects the weight tank
to the mixer tank.
Pressure taps
There were four pressure taps, each connected to a manometer. Plastic tubes connect
the nominal 1-in. pipe at the tap position to a manometer board. The distances between
taps 1-2 and 3-4 are both equal to 2.9m. As a certain Reeves Drive pump speed was set
and the system came to steady state, the fluid in the nominal 1-in. pipe would go to a
certain constant level in the manometer corresponding to the relative pressure at that tap
position. The working fluid was thus the same as the polymer solution being studied.
Pressure was measured three times to reduce the random errors.
Mixer Tank and temperature monitor
The solution was contained in a big 50-gal mixer tank with a paratrol mixer which has a
setting between 0 and 100 in the tank so the solution is well-mixed. The temperature
inside the tank would increase a little due to the mixing. And the temperature indicator
on the side of the tank was used to monitor the temperature inside the tank to keep it
within a 1 range.

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2.2 Brookfield Rotational Viscometer

Figure 2.2.1 Brookfield UL Adapter(2)

A model DV-I+ Brookfield viscometer was also used. The viscometer rotates a spindle
immersed in a fluid through a calibrated spring at a certain rotational speed, and
measures the torque needed to overcome the viscous resistance of the fluid by the
spring deflection. The DV-I model has a RPM range of 0.0-100RPM. The %max rotation
was shown. For a certain measurement, the rotational speed was set, and the
viscometer measures torque in % and viscosity in cp. The spring torque for this model is
7187.0 dyne-cm.
Two types of spindles could be used to attach to the spindle coupling nut thread for
measurement. A cylindrical spindle specified by sp01 or a UL Adapter specified by sp02.
UL Adapter is to measure viscosities below the normal range of the instrument, and to
provide greater sensitivity. The smaller space between the spindle and UL Adapter
ensures a greater sensitivity. The spindle dimensions are below: For spindle #1, radius:
0.9421cm, length 7.493cm, actual length 6.510cm, for the UL adapter radius of spindle
#2: 1.2555cm, radius of UL adapter: 1.3785cm.

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3. Experimental Procedure
3.1 Rheological Analysis Equipment
Start up
To start up, the main power switch located at the back of the panel was turned on. The
tank mixer was also turned on to mix the solution. The motor was started then the
Reeves Drive pump speed set to 3 for a start-up setting.
Steady state
For a certain Reeves Drive pump speed setting and bypass line valve position, whether
pressure reading was stable was used to determine if steady state was reached. For a
new run, when the pump speed or the bypass valve was set, it was observed that it took
a few seconds for the fluid inside the manometers to reach a new level and stay stable.
When the pressure reading was stable, the steady state was reached and the
measurements were taken after.
Measurements
For all measurement, flow rate was controlled by both the Reeves Drive pump speed
and the position of the bypass line valve. Measurements were taken after both the pump
speed and the valve position were fixed and the system reached steady state. For a
certain run, time and mass for the weight tank and pressure at four tags were measured.
At the start of a run, initial mass on the electronic balance of the weight tank was
recorded, a period of time (most frequently 60s) was recorded by a stop watch and the
final mass on the balance was recorded. The recycle line valve was closed during the
entire run and opened at the end of a run to recycle the fluid in the weight tank back to
the mixer tank. In the meantime while flow rate was measured, pressure measurement
was recorded. Both the weight tank-and-stopwatch and pressure measurements were
taken 3 times for each run to get the experimental errors and reduce random errors.
In order to get a volumetric flow rate from the mass flow rate, mass of the sample was
measurement along with volume of the sample using a 1000 mL graduated cylinder. 5
samples were taken to get a more accurate density measurement.
The polymer content of the solution was determined by placing a measured amount of
polymer solution inside a petri dish with lid on and put in an oven. After two days, the
mass of the dried polymer was measured again to get the polymer content of the
material.
Run conditions and range of variables
The Reeves Drive pump was started at a setting of 3, and increased in a 0.5 interval to a
setting of 6.5. In order to obtain results at very low flow rates to compare with the
Brookfield Viscometer, 7 sets of flow rate were obtained at a pump setting 3 during 2nd
week, from the bypass line valve widely open (where the flow was very narrow and
slow), closed a little bit to the bypass valve completely closed. Lowest flow rate was
obtained with Reeves Drive Pump setting at 3 and bypass valve widely open, highest
flow rate was obtained with Reeves Drive Pump setting at 6.5 and bypass valve closed.
Range of flow rate from 0.01 gal/min to 8.21 gal/min was obtained.

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Shutdown
Recycle line was opened to empty the remaining solution in the weight tank to the mixer
tank. The level of polymer solution in tank was checked to be about 3 to 4 inches below
top of barrel. The mixer was turned off. The Reeves Drive was returned to the setting of
3 and then the motor was stopped. The main power switch was finally turned off.
Precautions
The guar-xanthan solution has been determined to be nonhazardous by the Metropolitan
Waste Control Commission and the University Department of Environment Health and
Safety. The solution has a BOD5 (biological oxygen demand) equal to 6.51g/L and a
COD(chemical oxygen demand) of 8.14g/L and can be discharged to the sewer weekly
by the shop personnel because it is biodegradable.(2)
3.2 Brookfield Rotational Viscometer
Start up
First, check that the viscometer is level. The two leveling screws on the base were
adjusted to keep the viscometer level if necessary. The power switch on the real panel of
the viscometer was then turned on with no spindle attached. The DV-I+ then begins its
Autozero. The spindle (or the UL Adapter) was then taken out from the case and
screwed to the lower shaft of the viscometer and the S01 or S02 was shown on the
display corresponding to the spindle attached.
Measurements
A 1000mL flask containing the polymer solution was placed under the spindle. The
Brookfield viscometer was lowered so that the water line level mark on spindle was at
the same height of the polymer solution level in the flask. Once the rotational speed was
set, it took less than 30 seconds for the system to come to steady state and the reading
to be stabilized. The stability of reading was used to confirm that the system has
reached steady state. The torque in % and viscosity in cp were then displayed and
recorded. The rotational speed was varied from 5 RPM to 100 RPM for the range of
variables. Thermometer was used to measure the polymer solution temperature in the
flask, and was determined to be 21 .
Temperature effect on the rheological properties of the fluid was studied using the
Brookfield UL Adapter during the 2nd lab period. The 1000 mL flask containing the
polymer fluid was immersed in a 4L water bath containing the hot water from the tap.
The system was equilibrated and the temperature was measured. The same sets of
measurements as above were taken at the new temperature. The temperature for the
water bath and solution system decreased slowly to near the room temperature and
there is enough time for measurement at a certain temperature. And during the process
the same sets of measurements were taken at the intermediate temperature.
Shut down
The viscometer motor was turned off. The spindle or the UL Adapter was taken out of
the polymer solution. The spindle and the UL Adapter were cleaned up. The flask was
cleaned.
Precautions
Both guar and xanthan are irritants materials and gloves were worn at all times when
handling the solution using the Brookfield viscometer.

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4. Results: Calculated Data Tables

4.1 Polymer Solution Characteristics Data
During the 2nd week, mass of petri dish (hold the polymer solution), mass of wet polymer
solution, mass of dry polymer plus the petri dish were obtained. Mass of wet polymer
and dry polymer were obtained as follows. The balance used has accuracy to the 4th
digit, with the last digit fluctuating during measurement hence used for error here. This
result would be used to calculate the polymer content of the solution as in the Final
Results part.
Table 4.1.1 Measurement of polymer content of the solution
11.7500g
0.0500g

Mass of wet polymer solution(g)( 0.0005)

Mass of dry polymer (g)( 0.0007g)

During the 2nd week, 5 samples were taken to get measurement uncertainty, with each
the mass and volume of the sample measured. Density was calculated as shown below
and in the Final Data and Results section. Density measurement if necessary to get
volumetric flow rate from the mass flow rate measured and hence get velocity for
calculation of rheological constant using RAE.
Table 4.1.2 Measurement of density of the polymer solution
Run sample

1
2
3
4
5

Mass of
sample(kg)

1.10
1.08
1.08
1.08
1.10

Volume of
sample(mL)

1000
1000
1000
1000
1000

Density of
sample(
)

1100
1080
1080
1080
1100

Average
density of
polymer
(
)

1088 14

4.2 Rheological Analysis Equipment Data

A three number two dash notation, as x-x-x was used for notation of all run number in
the table below. During 1st week, the 1st number was 1 and 2nd week the 1st number 2.
During 1st week, for a single run, three replications were made each with run number for
example 1-1-1, 1-1-2, and 1-1-3 on the original data sheet with table name S3N6 NNF
Week1 Evaluate rheological properties using RAE. This was not right since they are
replications of just one run. The replications are combined as the average calculated as
follows. Velocity and
in SI units are calculated to be used for the shear stress shear
rate plot as in the Final results section. The uncertainty was based on the individual
replications of the measurements.

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Table 4.2.1 Rheological Analysis Equipment results for the 1st week
Run
1-1-(1,2,3)
1-2-(1,2,3)
1-3-(1,2,3)
1-4-(1,2,3)
1-5-(1,2,3)
1-6-(1,2,3)
1-7-(1,2,3)
1-8-(1,2,3)

Flow rate
(lbs/s)*10
1.09 0.02
0.02 0
0.62 0.02
3.4 0.06
7.40 0.06
9.14 0.04
2.33 0.03
2.79 0.03

Velocity(kg/s)*10
0.94
0.01
5.36
2.94
6.39
7.90
2.01
2.41

0.02
0
0.06
0.06
0.08
0.09
0.04
0.03

(1-2)
(Pascal)
1513.5 21.3
519.8 48.7
3654.6 47.6
2762.2 35.4
3961.9 50.2
4426.1 56.8
2239.2 31.3
2406.0 32.0

(3-4)
(Pascal)
1493.9 12.7
483.8 26.6
3671.0 45.2
2817.8 36.2
4011.0 51.3
4527.4 58.5
2239.2 33.5
2402.6 32.2

For the run number notation, the 1st number 2 indicated the 2nd week, the 2nd number 1
was used for the rheological analysis equipment. Same quantities were calculated as
below.
Table 4.2.2 Rheological Analysis Equipment results for the 2nd week
Run

Flow rate
Velocity(kg/s)*10
(1-2)
(3-4)
(lbs/s)*10
(Pascal)
(Pascal)
2-1-1
5.93 0
5.04 0.07
2987.5 38.4
3094.2 39.8
2-1-2
0.40 0
0.34 0
558.4 15.5
553.0 15.2
2-1-3
1.03 0. 03
0.88 0.03
992.3 15.5
985.2 14.1
2-1-4
0.37 0
0.31 0
496.1 8.3
492.6 9.4
2-1-5
0.29 0.02
0.25 0.02
361.0 8.3
366.3 10.8
2-1-7
0.41 0.02
0.35 0.02
503.3 10.4
497.9 12.8
2-1-8
6.32 0.05
5.37 0.07
3083.5 42.5
3133.3 40.8
2-1-9
7.21 0. 11
6.12 0.11
3279.1 44.0
3353.8 44.0
2-1-10
8.03 0.07
6.82 0.09
3478.3 45.0
3581.4 46.5
2-1-11
9.09 0.05
7.72 0.09
3693.5 48.0
3844.6 50.0
2-1-12
10.11 0.04
8.59 0.10
3930.0 52.0
4143.4 53.7
2-1-13
11.33 0
9.63 0.10
4203.8 57.0
4445.7 58.5
2-1-14
12.42 0.48
10.55 0.42
4442.1 57.8
4712.4 61.9
2-1-14
0.98 0. 02
0.83 0.02
928.3 14.8
917.6 14.7
2-1-15
0.51
0.43 0.02
576.2
583.3 9.7
2-1-16
1.64
0.14 0.02
1298.1 20.8
1280.4 19.6
2-1-17
1.03 0
0.88 0.01
967.4 17.5
935.4 14.9
Certain parameters of the RAE would be needed to calculate the results as indicated in
the final results section. The parameters noted were as follows:
Table 4.2.3 Parameter used for calculation of the Rheological Analysis Equipment
Parameter of the RAE
Value
Diameter of the pipe(d)(m)
0.025m
Distance between pressure taps(L)(m)
2.9m
For the run number notation, during 1st week, only two numbers were used. For easy
reference here, a first number 1 was added. So the Run number below 1-2-1 correspond
to the run number 2-1 on the original data sheet of the 1st week S3N6 NNF Week 1
Rheological Constants using Brookfield Rotational Viscometer. The rotational speed

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was calculated, and the torque measured in % was converted to the absolute value
using the full torque for this model 7187.0 dyne-cm. Since the RPM measured has no
errors associated, the calculated has no errors. The results were as follows:
4.3 Brookfield Viscometer Data
Table 4.3.1 Brookfield Viscometer results for the 1st week
Run

Torque(NM)
*
( .0001)
1-2-1
16.5
5
0.5
1.5
1-2-2
16.5
10
1.0
2.8
1-2-3
16.5
20
2.1
4.8
1-2-4
16.5
50
5.2
9.2
1-2-5
16.5
100
10.5
14.4
1-2-6
16.5
30
3.1
6.3
1-2-7
16.5
60
6.3
10.3
Brookfield UL Adapter was used for the 2nd week to study the temperature effects. The
same quantities were calculated as below:
Temp. (

RPM( 1%)

(rad/s) ( 1%)

Table 4.3.2 Brookfield UL Adapter results for the 2nd week

Run
Temp. (
) RPM( 1%)
(rad/s)
Torque(NM)*
( 1%)
2-2-1
21
5
0.5
6.3
2-2-2
21
10
1.0
10.1
2-2-3
21
20
2.1
16.5
2-2-4
21
50
5.2
30.6
2-2-5
21
60
6.3
34.4
2-2-6
21
100
10.5
46.8
2-2-7
21
30
3.1
21.9
2-2-8
27
5
0.5
5.6
2-2-9
27
10
1.0
9.1
2-2-10
27
20
2.1
15.1
2-2-11
27
50
5.2
28.0
2-2-12
27
100
10.5
42.9
2-2-13
27
30
3.1
19.6
2-2-14
27
60
6.3
31.0
2-2-15
25
5
0.5
4.7
2-2-16
25
10
1.0
8.5
2-2-17
25
20
2.1
14.5
2-2-18
25
50
5.2
27.4
2-2-19
25
100
10.4
42.4
2-2-20
25
30
3.1
19.4
2-2-21
25
60
6.3
30.8
2-2-22
24
5
0.5
4.9
2-2-23
24
10
1.0
8.8
2-2-24
24
20
2.1
15.0
2-2-25
24
50
5.2
28.2
2-2-26
24
100
10.5
43.5
2-2-27
24
30
3.1
20.0
2-2-28
24
60
6.3
31.7

( .0001)

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Several parameters regarding the Brookfield viscometer were needed to calculate the
rheological constants as in the final results section. The parameters as shown as below:
Table 4.3.3 Parameter used for calculation of the Brookfield Viscometer
Parameter of the cylindrical spindle

Parameter of the UL Adapter

Radius of
spindle(m)

0.00942

Radius of spindle(m)

0.0126

Length of
spindle(m)

0.0749

Radius of UL Adapter(m)

0.0138

Actual length(m)

0.0651

0.911

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5. Final Data and Results

The guar and xanthan polymer solution is expected to be a non-Newtonian power law
fluid. It is passed through a rheological analysis equipment to evaluate the flow behavior
index n, and the consistency index K. The Brookfield Rotational Viscometer is used
alternatively to compare the results.
5.1 Polymer Content and Density
The polymer content of the solution is given as the weight of the dry sample over the
weight of the original wet sample. The density of the solution is obtained by weighing it in
a 1L cup. The results are given in the table below.
Table 5.1.1 Properties of the guar-xanthan solution
Density (kg/m3)
1090 10

Polymer content (%)

0.43 0.01
5.2 RAE Results

The polymer solution is pumped through a capillary tube of 1 inch in diameter, where the
pressure drops across a 2.9 m straight section is measured by a manometer. The
Reynolds number at the highest flow rate is determined to be 930 40, which indicates
laminar flow. This condition is required for the power law model 1.2.2 used for analysis,
where the shear stress at the wall is plotted against shear rate in the logarithmic scale.

shear stress (N/m2)

100

y = 0.2282x0.6551
R = 0.998
21 C
10

1
1

0.1

10

100

1000

shear rate (1/s)

Figure 5.2.1 log-log Flow curve of the guar-xanthan solution, where the shear stress w
is given by DP/4L, and the shear rate 8V/D. Note the small error bars.
The slope and the intercept are given as the exponent n and constant K respectively.

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Table 5.2.1 Rheological constants from RAE analysis

K (Nsn/m2)
0.2282

n
0.6551

The errors in the above constants are from the regression analysis alone and are
approximated to be less than 1%. They are therefore ignored. The temperature under
which the RAE analysis was performed was 21 C.
5.3 Brookfield Rotational Viscometer Results
A cylindrical spindle attached to an electric motor is dipped into the polymer solution
where the angular velocity is controlled to shear the liquid. The torque needed to keep
the RPM constant is calculated and correlated to give the rheological constants in the
following figure.
1

Torque (Nm)

0.1

10

100

0.1

0.01

y = 0.0098x0.6778
R = 0.9992
21 C
0.001

Figure 5.3.1 log log plot of torque vs angular velocity, where the slope is the
exponent, and intercept the constant in the equation above.
The constant 0.0098 is used again to obtain the consistency factor K that relates shear
stress to shear rate. They are given in the table below.
Table 5.3.1 Rheological constants from rotational viscometer
A
0.0098

n
0.6778

K (Nsn/m2)
4.9019

There are ignorable errors from regression analysis for the constants above. The
temperature of the solution was 21 C.

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5.4 Temperature Effects

The temperature effects on the rheological constants and viscosity are evaluated. The
log log plots of torque vs angular velocity are given below.
1
Torque (Nm)

0.1

10

100

0.1

y = 0.0089x0.6834
R = 0.9993
27 C

0.01

0.001

Torque (Nm)

0.1

10

100

0.1

y = 0.0083x0.7294
R = 0.9968
24 C

0.01

0.001

Torque (Nm)

0.1

10

100

0.1

y = 0.0081x0.7315
R = 0.9971
25 C

0.01

0.001

Figures 5.4.1-3 log log plot of torque vs angular velocity at their respective
temperatures, values of A and n given in the boxes

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The rheological constants at its respective temperature are given in the following
table. The associated uncertainties are again negligible and from regression alone.
Table 5.4.1 Rheological constants at 24, 25, and 27 C
Temperature (C)
24
25
27

A
0.0083
0.0081
0.0089

K (Nsn/m2)
3.6731
3.5668
4.3930

n
0.7294
0.7315
0.6834

The plot of effective viscosity vs shear rate is given below to demonstrate the effect of
temperature. The uncertainties are less than 1% and negligible.
3

(Pa s)

2.5
2

21 C

1.5

27C

25C

0.5

24C

0
0

50

100

150

shear rate (1/s)

Figure 5.4.4 Plot of effective viscosity vs shear rate at their respective
temperature from the rotational viscometer
5.5 Comparison of RAE and Brookfield Rotational Viscometer results
The conditions upon which the results are compared are 100% concentration and 21 C,
error bars are too small to show .They are discussed in the subsequent section.

shear stress (N/m2)

1000

y = 4.9242x0.6778
R = 0.9992
Brookfield results

100

RAE results
10
Power (Brookfield
results)

1
1
0.1

10

100

shear rate (1/s)

1000

Power (RAE results)

y = 0.2282x0.6551
R = 0.998

Figure 5.5.1 log log plot of shear stress vs shear rate from both the RAE and the
rotational viscometer results, values of K and n are given in previous tables

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6. Discussion of Results, Conclusions and Recommendations

6.1 Discussion of Results
The experimental results obtained from week 1 by means of rotational viscometer have
no readily available empirical correlations to deduct the rheological constants, and
therefore are not used for analysis. This is because the UL adapter wasnt used and the
ratio of the radius of spindle Rb over the radius of cup Rc wasnt less than 0.1. The RAE
results from week 1 have demonstrated shear thickening effects that contradicts to what
was observed in the rotational viscometer, and thus were not used as well.
Week 2 results indicate that the guar-xanthan solution has a flow index n of 0.6551 and
0.6778 from RAE, and rotational viscometer analysis. The observed effect is that as the
shear rate is increased, the viscosity is decreased. This type of non-Newtonian shear
thinning behavior is consistent with the pseudoplastic fluids defined in the theory section.
The consistency factors K for both techniques from figures in the previous section are
where they differ by more than 20 times. They are the result of a combination of
experimental error and measurement error. For the most part the experimental error
comes from the drifting steady state in RAE where the flow rates and temperature are
difficult to control. The measurement errors are also more significant in RAE because of
two separate sources. The first source is due to multiple measurements of pressure
drop, mass, time. These measurements were also recorded by two separate persons,
therefore making it the second source. However, the consistency factor K does not have
the dominant effect on the shear stress and the viscosity compared to the flow index n,
which is the exponent of the power law correlation.
The rotational viscometer is also used to test the effect of temperature of the polymer
solution. This is done with a hot and cold water bath to the cup in which the spindle and
its UL adapter is immersed. It is observed that the as the temperature is increased, the
viscosity decreases and the solution becomes thinner. The effect of hot water bath was
given at 27 C above where the flow index n increased from 0.6778 to 0.6834, indicating
a slower drop in viscosity as the shear rate is increased; the consistency factor K
decreased from 4.9019 to 4.3930, reducing the overall scale of viscosity. Because the
room was conditioned to 21C and the outside temperature was about 25C (78F), the
cold water from tap had a warmer temperature and made the solution equilibrate at
about 25 C. The flow index n increased to about 0.73 while the consistency factor K
dropped to about 3.6, indicating an even smoother drop in viscosity with the scale
reduced the to the minimum with respect to changes in the shear rate. Overall the
pattern is within expectation only that a lower temperature wasnt achieved to give a
broader range to investigate.
The experimental errors in the measurements recorded in the rotational viscometer are
less significant because of the computerized set up for inputs and outputs, as well as its
delicate scale. The source of its error is predominantly from the imperfection of the
instrument. There are also measurement errors in determining the polymer density as
well as its content; they include uncertainties in mass, volume. Replications in these
measurements have statistically replaced these measurement errors with the notably
bigger random errors.

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6.2 Conclusions
The rheological constants obtained from both techniques indicate shear thinning nonNewtonian behavior in consistency with the theory. The difference in the consistency
factor K is the result of equipment scale and easiness to operate. These contributed to
the experimental and measurement uncertainties of the rheological properties. The
precision levels of both methods are equally high under the same temperature of 21 C.
The effect of temperature on the viscosity and rheological constants have shown
thinning of the solution with increased temperature. Due to the range of temperature
tested being from 21 to 27 C with only 6 C difference, the behavior of shear stress vs
shear rate are relatively close to each other. The rheological constants obtained from
both techniques have less than 1% of uncertainty and thereby not included their
corresponding values.
The RAE is a realistic model to perform testing for scaling up in bigger plants. It takes
into account the complexities of the bigger process where many equipments, bends,
valves and pumps are involved. These process components make the thermodynamic
steady state have sizable fluctuations, as well as taking longer to achieve. Therefore it is
necessary to use such model when the objective desires such.
The rotational viscometer is an economic and useful alternative for obtaining the generic
property information prior to doing testing on a bigger model like RAE. The results have
been consistently repeatable and precise. It did however produce a different correlation
for the rheology of the guar-xanthan solution than that of the RAE. Knowing the limitation
and the specifications of the design process are therefore the determining factor on
choosing the testing method. This method would also be suitable for processes that are
small and simple in scale.
6.3 Recommendations
For improvement on data accuracy and precision, its best to have a single person in
charge of running the RAE, verifying the steady state and taking measurements. The
same should be done for using the rotational viscometer as well. The third person can
be in charge of data analysis, recording experimental procedures, and giving
recommendations to the operations of either teammate.
To have a broader range of temperature effects on the rheology of the guar-xanthan
solution, ice bath can be used on the testing with the rotational viscometer. Making sure
the solution is thoroughly mixed before any testing is vital to the quality of data as well.

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7. Design Problem
7.1 Introduction
The Uni-Minn development corporation was asked to design an efficient piping system
for the transport of a 1% guar and xanthan blend to future use in the clients personal
care products. The client required for the solution to be transferred through 2000 feet of
piping at flow rate of 120 gallons/minute from an open storage tank to a target tank 65
feet above the initial tank. Some of the scale-up design specifications were optimal pipe
diameter, pump characteristics, and required instruments, valves or fittings. A process
flow diagram for the suggested piping system is shown below in figure 7.1.1.

V-3

65 feet

2000 feet

T2
Storage Tank 2

Rotameter
P-9

Storage Tank 1

T1

15 feet

V-2

V-1

Positive displacement
Pump

Figure 7.1.1 Process Flow Diagram for the scale-up design

7.2 Design Parameters
According to the specifications given by the client, two tanks were identically sized to
store one days supply. To avoid overflow and spilling the storage tanks size was
established to be 10% greater than the total volume of a days supply. As shown in
Figure 6.1.1 the positive displacement pump was placed 15 feet below the storage tank
to provide the necessary suction head to avoid cavitation. The pump is used to provide
the mechanical energy required to transfer the polymer solution from one tank to the
other. A recycle stream was added to direct flow back to tank 1, this was done to control
flow rate and pressure. Three gate valves were placed in the design, the first one just
before the pump, the second one leads to the recycle stream, and the last one before
the target tank. Furthermore two temperature gages and a rotameter were placed to
monitor temperature in both tanks and measure the flow rate.

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7.3 Design Calculations

Design calculations were done transferring the results from lab using the Rheological
Analysis Equipment (RAE) due to the similarity of the apparatus with the design
requirements. The approximations done in the scale-up design were the following,
laminar flow remains therefore the superficial velocity can be approximated to be the
fluids velocity. The temperature change is negligible through the piping system, both
tanks are well mixed, and there is zero polymer degradation because the solution is run
only for a day. For sakes of accuracy and precision only week 2 data was transferred to
scale up.
Two identical storage tanks were sized to a 110% of the total volume of a days solution
supply. The calculated diameter was 25.3ft, the height 50.6ft and a freeboard of 20in,
equaling a total storage volume of 190,290 gallons. Local provider USA Tank provides
tanks this size for a price of $830,800.(4) Using equation 1.3.1 the optimal pipe diameter
was calculated to minimize the total cost; a schedule 40 steel 6in diameter pipe was
decided due to commercial availability. To fulfill the 2000ft required piping, ninety eight
21ft pieces are provided by Metals Depot, the total cost of piping was calculated to be
$45,667. (5) Equation 1.3.2 was used to calculate the Reynolds number and verify the
flow remains in the laminar region. A NRe of 1,655 resulted, which proves the flow is still
laminar. The velocity correction factor was found to be 0.306 by equation 1.3.5.
The work shaft necessary for the pump was calculated using the mechanical energy
balance described by equation 1.3.4. Friction losses through the pipe due to flow were
added up with losses due to valves and fittings, and due to sudden contraction of the
fluid. These calculations resulted in a required shaft work of 72.32 lbf ft/lbm,
approximating a pump efficiency of 75% (1) along with a calculated mass flow rate of
22.67lb/s the brake horse power of the pump was found to be 4HP with an electrical
need of 4KW. Grainger provides a positive displacement gear pump for the price of
$3,572 which operates at 250RPM. (6) The total initial investment for the essentials of the
scale up design, not including recycle stream, valves, and a rotameter is of $1,710,000.
Similar calculations were done for water to study the difference in behavior with the
guar-xanthan solution in the scale-up design. For water, the Reynolds number was
found to be 197,446 which implied turbulent flow. The pressure losses in the system
translated to a shaft work of 67.9 lbf ft/lbm needed for the pump in this case. Using 75%
efficiency and a mass flow rate of 16.67lbm/sec a pump of 3HP would be recommended.
Refer to Appendix C for sample calculations.
7.4 Non-Newtonian and water comparative
The comparison between water and the guar-xanthan solution presented significant
differences regarding the pressure losses and the flow behavior. First off, the Reynolds
number was much greater than that of the non-Newtonian fluid, the water itself
presenting turbulent flow. This turbulence refutes the approximation that the superficial
velocity is equal to the velocity of the fluid. Degradation is not an issue for water and
therefore turbulent flow is allowed. Also, a lower pressure drop was calculated using
water. This is due to the large difference between real and apparent viscosities of the
two solutions.

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8. Nomenclature
Symbols listed in the order in which they appear.
:

Shear stress
: Shear rate
Viscosity
Consistency index
Flow behavior index
Apparent Viscosity
Pipe diameter
Pressure drop
Length of pipe
Pi
Fluid linear velocity
Generalized viscosity coefficient
Radius of spindle
Radius of outer cylinder
Angular velocity
Revolutions per minute
Torque
Length of spindle
Optimal pipe diameter
: Cost of electricity
Mass flow rate
Working hours a year
Annual fixed charges
Purchase cost of piping per feet of pipe
Constant for material determined for steel pipes
Pump efficiency
Density
Ratio of total cost of fittings and insulation bought per feet of pipe
Reynolds number
Velocity correction factor
Shaft work
Velocity
Height
Friction forces
Compressor efficiency
Generic loss due to friction
Real shaft work
Measured error
Standard deviation
Value of measurement
Average of experimental values
Error limit

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9. References
1.

Geankoplis, Christie, Transport Processes and Speration Process Principles,

4th ed., Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ (2003).

2.

University of Minnesota, CHEN 4401W Non-Newtonian Flow References

3.

University Of Minnesota, CHEN 4401W RAE Instruction Manual

4.

USA Tanks, USA Storage Tank Sales

http://usatanksales.com/industrialwater.html, and phone quote (accessed Sept.15 2013)

5.

Metal depot, The Metal depot online, https://www.metalsdepot.com/ (accessed

Sept. 15 2013)
6.

Grainger, Positive displacement gear pump

http://www.grainger.com/Grainger/ecatalog/N-1z0dvzg (accessed Sept. 15 2013)

7.

Peters, M.S. and Timmerhous, K., Plant Design and Economics for Chemical

Engineers, 3rd ed. McGraw-Hill Companies, NY.

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D. Error Analysis
D.1 Sources of errors
All measurements were associated with errors. For all measurements, the true value
was unknown, so the true error was not known. Calibration was not performed in this
experiment and the systematic errors were not considered (calibration for the Brookfield
Viscometer might be needed but not a consideration for this lab). The most important
sources of error were from the random errors caused by time-varying phenomena in the
instrument, the surroundings and users, and the quantity being measured. The
instrument sources of errors were as follows:
Sources of errors, the errors in physical quantities measured in this lab included the
error in time, weight tank, pressure, Brookfield Viscometer, density and polymer content,
each discussed as follows.
The flow rate was measured using the stopwatch-weight tank method. Due to the
inaccuracy of human operating with stopwatch, the error in time measurement was 1s.
Due to the fluctuation of electronic scale during measurement, the error in weight
measurement was determined to be 0.4lbs. These two errors were accounted for by
the replications.
Pressure had an error of
by making replications.

0.5mm the fluid in the RAE. This error was also accounted for

The RPM had an error of 1%. The error on the reading torque was .1%, and the error on
viscosity varied with the value of the viscosity. The bigger the viscosity value, the bigger
the error.
Error in weight measurement was the fluctuation at the last digit of the scale: 0.0005g,
and was used to determine the error on polymer content. Error in density was accounted
for by replications.
D.2 Experimental uncertainties estimates with replications
In this experiment, most random errors, including error in flow rate, pressure, and
density were reduced by replication.
When multiple replications were obtained, the standard deviation was calculated.
Equation
was used in combination with students T table to get an estimate on the

true error.
For the density measurement, five values obtained were 1100, 1080, 1080, 1080, 1100.

For 4 degrees of freedom with 95% confidence level, t=2.776

Use equation

to get

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So the density is 1088 14

Mass of wet polymer solution was measured directly as 11.75
polymer was (4.7600 0.0005)-(4.7100 0.0005)g=0.0500g
(

%polymer=

0.0005g. Mass of dry

For run 2-1-1 as in the original data sheet, in the 3 replications of time weight
measurement, flow rate were determined to be
,
and
0.269 0kg/s.

, so the flow rate was

lbs./s, which equals to

V=

So V=
For run 2-1-1, three replications of pressure measurements were the same, so
(650 0)-(370 ) =280
mm polymer fluid

So

)=2987.5

(1-2) =

pascal

Use the same method to get

)= 3094.2 39.8 Pascal

All error for measurements on torque was determined to be .1%, which was
D..3 Propagation of error (calculated according to sample calculation)
For run 2-1-1

So

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Shear rate

Shear rate
(

The correlation between the shear stress and the shear rate are from plot of logarithmic
scale where the trend line is fitted to a power law behavior. The exponent n and the
constant K are obtained this way such that the uncertainties are from regression alone.
The regression analysis for the constants K and n are so small that are ignored as
discussed in the final results section. The above equation reduce to

For run 2-2-3 of the Brookfield viscometer, the rpm has an error of 1% of the reading

The shear rate

(

For the shear stress,

This error was ignored to the 1st digit after the digital point.
For the Reynolds number using run 2-1-14,

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Using the formula when

, b=constant

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