THE RESEARCH PROCESS

DRS 2013 1
OBSERVATION

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY Broad area of

research interest
identified
Lecture 6
4
3 TEORETICAL
PROBLEM 5 6 7
Chapter 7 & 8 DEFINITION
Research
FRAMEWORK GENERATION
OF
SCIENTIFIC
RESEARCH
DATA
COLLECTION,
Variables HYPOTHESES DESIGN ANALYSIS,
problem clearly
Data Collection Methods delineated
identified
identified and
labeled
INTERPRETATION

8
2
DEDUCTION
DR. AYE AYE KHIN PRELIMINARY
Hypotheses
DATA GATHERING
Graduate School of Management (GSM) Interviewing
substantiated?
Research question
Literature Survey
Faculty of Business Management and Professional Studies (FBMP) answered?

Management and Science University

aakhin@msu.edu.my

“The Students need to meet up”

Definition of Research
• “Search for facts – answer to questions and 1 2 3 4 5
solutions to problems. It is a purposive and Literature Problem Research Objectives Hypothesis Findings Conclusion Recommendation
Reviews Question
organized inquiry”. Statement

Chapter 2 Chapter 1 Chapter 3 Chapter 4 Chapter 5

Data Sources of DATA

• Data are facts, figures and other relevant materials, past Data is the raw material for statistical analysis.
and present, serving as bases for study and analysis.
Data can be from

• Types of Data: • primary sources: collected primarily through designed experiments

– Demographic and Socio-economic Characteristics of
Individuals: age, race, religion, marital status,
education, occupation, income, etc.
– Behavioral Variables: Attitudes, opinions, awareness,
knowledge, etc
– Organizational Data: origin, ownership, objectives,
resources, function, performance and growth.
or surveys, by the researcher.
• Primary sources are original sources from which the researcher
directly collects data that have not been previously collected.
• Primary data are first hand information collected through various
sources and methods.
• secondary sources: complied from sources like, records, journals,
books and archives.

There are both advantages and disadvantages in the usage of primary

and secondary data.
 Data and its Use
Data obtained through these homogeneous group (focus
group) members are the least expensive and also lend
themselves for quick analysis. The data obtained provides
qualitative and quantitative information. Since the
members are not selected randomly, the information
collected may not representative. However, it may be basis
for further scientific research.
Sources of Primary Data
• (i) Individuals
• (ii) Focus Groups
• (iii) Panels
Moderator
• The moderator introduces the topic, observes
and takes notes and /or records the discussion.
The moderator plays a vital role in steering the
discussions in a manner that would draw out the
information sought and keeping the members
on track. The moderator never becomes an
integral part of the discussions.
Advantages and Limitations
• Advantages:
– Quick and cheap source of data
– Wider geographical area and longer reference period
– Enables a researcher to verify the findings based on
primary data
• Limitations:
– Data may not meet our specific research need
– The available data may not be as accurate as desired
– Data are not up-to-date
– The source of data may not be available in some cases
(ii) Focus Groups
Normally, a focus group consist of 8 to 10 members with a
moderator leading the discussion on a particular topic or
concept or product. Members are generally chosen on the
basis of their expertise in the topic on which information
sought.
Aim
– It aimed at obtaining respondents’ impression,
interpretation and opinions as the members talk about the
event, concept, product or service.
(iii) Panels
Panels are like a focus groups, as a source of
primary information. Focus groups meet for one-
time group session but the panels meet more than
once and the members are chosen randomly.
Aim
In case where the effects of certain interventions
or changes are to be be studied over a period of
time, panel studies are very useful.
 Data Collection Methods
Types of Panels There are several ways of collecting data, depending the type of
research design

• Static: The same members serve on the panel over Experiment

extended periods of time. Observation
Record Reviews and Historical data
• Dynamic: The panel members are change from time to Personal Interviews
time as various phases of the study are in progress. Telephone surveys
Mail surveys
Computer Direst Interviews
Email surveys
Internet/Intranet (Web Page) Surveys
Interview
Observation (Survey)
Questionnaires

Data Collection Method Interview

• Primary data can be collected through interviews or • Types of Interview:

observations. – Unstructured
• Interview: – Structured
– It may be defined as a two way systematic
conversation between an investigator and an
informant (respondent), initiated for obtaining • Methods of Interview:
information relevant to a specific study. – Face-to-face
• Observation:
– Telephone
– Observation may be defined as a systematic viewing of
a specific phenomenon in its setting for the specific – Mailed
purpose of gathering data for a particular study. – Computer Assisted

Types of Interview Interviewer and interviewees Bias

• Unstructured Interview:
– Interview without any planned sequence of questions
that will be asked from the respondents. The main
aim of the interview is to cause some preliminary
issues to surface so that researcher can decide what
variables need further in-depth investigation.
• Structured Interview:
– Structured interviews are those conducted when it is
know at the outset what information is needed. The
questions will be asked to everybody in the same
manner.
• Interviewer Bias:
– This kind of bias will appear when there no proper trust
and rapport with the interviewee or when the response
are either misinterpreted or distorted.
• Interviewees Bias:
– Interviewees can bias the data when they do not come
out with their true opinions but provide information that
they think is what the interviewer expects of them or
would like to hear.
 Methods to Control/Minimize the Bias
Establish Credibility, Rapport and Motivating Individuals to
Response:
To obtain honest information from the respondents, the
researcher/interviewer should be able to establish rapport
and trust with them. The researcher should state the
purpose of the interview and assure complete
confidentiality about the source of the responses.
Face to Face Interview
• Advantages:
– In direct interviews the researcher can adapt the
questions necessary, clarify doubts and ensure that
the respondents understood the question properly.
The researcher can pick up nonverbal cues from the
respondents.
• Limitations:
– Limited geographical coverage, cost of survey is high,
possibility of interviewer bias and the respondents
may feel uneasy to answer the questions when they
interact face to face.
Mailed Survey
• Advantages:
– Less costly than face to face interview
– Cover extensive geographical area
– Useful in contacting persons such as senor business
executives
– Impersonal, free from interviewer bias
• Limitations:
– Possible to collect information from educated only
– Response rate is low
– The cause for inadequate and non responses can not
be known.
The Questioning Technique
• Ask open end questions first
• Unbiased questions
• Clarifying issues
• Helping the respondent to think through issues
• Taking notes
Telephone Interview
• Advantage:
– With in a short period of time wide geographical
coverage is possible. Most of the respondent may
feel comfortable to answer the questions through
phone then face to face interview.
• Limitations:
– There may be lot of non response problems. The
researcher will not be able to see the respondent
nonverbal communication.
Computer Assisted Interview
• Advantages:
– Quick, more accurate information gathering,
faster and easier analysis of date. The cost of data
collection and analysis also low.
• Limitations:
– Similar to mailed survey and telephone interview
 Questionnaires
This is a common instrument of primary data
collection.
It contain a set of questions logically related to a
problem under study, aim at eliciting responses
from the respondents.
This can be classified under two different types.
One is called as personally administered
questionnaires and another one is called as mail
questionnaires.
Mail Questionnaires
This questionnaires are send to the respondents, who
can complete then at their convenience and send it
back to the researcher.
It possible to cover wide geographical area.
However, the response rate is low.
Principles of Wording
• The content/purpose of the questions
• Language
• Type and form of questions
• The sequence of questions
• The personal data sought form the respondents
Personally Administered Questionnaires
A researcher or a member of the research team can
collect data by meeting the respondents personally,
and any doubts that the respondents might have on
any questions could be clarified on the spot. The
required information collected with in short period of
time.
Guidelines for Questionnaire Design
Sound questionnaire design should focus on three
important areas.
The first related to wording of the questions.
The second related to planning of issues of how the
variables will be categorized, scaled and coded after
the receipt of the responses and,
The finally the general appearance of the
questionnaires.
We will see more details about the wording of the
questions.
Types and Forms of Questions
• Open-ended Versus closed Questions
• Positively and Negatively Worded Questions
• Double-Barreled Questions
• Ambiguous Questions
• Recall Dependent Questions
• Leading Questions
• Loaded Questions
• Socially Desirability Questions.
 Observational Survey
The Sequence of Questions
• Types of Observation:
The sequence of questions in the questionnaire should – Participant Observation:
be such that the respondent is lead from questions of a • In this observation the observer is a part of
general nature to those that are more specific and the group which id observed and he act as
from questions relatively easy to more difficult. both observer and participant.
– Non-participant Observation:
• Observer does not part of the group. This
method calls for skill in recording observations
in an unnoticed manner.

Checklist for Questionnaire Checklist for Questionnaire

1. Are simple words used? 1. Did you talk down to the respondent?
2. Is the language vague?
2. Are you asking two questions or one?
3. Are the questions short?
4. Are the questions easy to understand? 3. Are any questions too sensitive?
5. Are the questions specific or general? 4. Is the question necessary?
6. Are the questions leading? 5. Is the questionnaire layout appealing?
7. Are the questions loaded?
8. Is any objectionable language used?
6. Is the questionnaire layout easy to follow?
9. Have any assumptions been made in the questions? 7. Is there enough room to answer the questions?
10. Are any hypothetical questions used? 8. Are the instructions easy to understand?

Direct and Indirect Observation Advantages and Limitations

• Direct Observation: • Advantages:
– This means observation of an event personally by the – Free from respondents bias
observer when its takes places. This method is more
flexible and allows the observer to see and record – Useful in note the effect of environmental
different aspects of the event behavior as they occur. influences on specific outcomes and certain
• Indirect Observation: groups of individuals, example, child preferences
– This does not involve the physical presence of the of toys
observer, and the recording is done by mechanical, • Limitations:
photographic or electronic devices.
– Very slow and costly method of data collection
– Observer bias
 DRS 2013
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Lecture 7
Chapter 9 QUESTIONNARIES DESIGNS
Data Collection Methods: Questionnaires

DR. AYE AYE KHIN

Graduate School of Management (GSM)
Faculty of Business Management and Professional Studies (FBMP)
Management and Science University
aakhin@msu.edu.my

MEASUREMENT SCALES

• We have learned how to operationalize concepts, and now we
need to measure them in some manner.
• In chapter 12 (textbook) we will examine the types of scales that
can be applied to measure different variables.
• Whereas in chapter 13, we will see how we apply them (scaling
techniques).
– A scale is a tool or mechanism by which
individuals are distinguished as to how they differ
from one another on the variables of interest to
our study.
– Scales are efficient data reduction devices. They
allow us to summarize several indicators in a
single numerical score. Hence it is called as
composite measure. Totally are 4 Scales.

NOMINAL MEASUREMENT/SCALE ORDINAL MEASUREMENT/SCALE

• In this level of measurement, objects or persons are order by

• This is the simplest and lowest level of measurement.
• It is useful for categorizing variables into sub-classes by
assigning a numerals of any other symbols to mutually exclusive
sub-classes.
• For example the variable of sex is classified as males ‘1’ and
females ‘2’ or as ‘M’ and ‘F’. Nominally scaled numbers only act
as a labels for the classification.
• It is called Nominal Scale.
• Therefore, we cannot perform any arithmetic operations on
these numbers because they only indicate the presence or
absence of some characteristics.
rank.
• Ranks are assigned in ascending or descending orders.
• It is called Ordinal Scale.
• This level of information contains all the information of a
nominal scale plus some relative means of ordering.
• Moreover, this measurement is useful to perform some
statistical analysis, like, rank correlation, median, and non-
parametric tests.
 INTERVAL MEASUREMENT/SCALE
• This measurement has the powers of nominal and ordinal
measurements plus one additional strength – the concept of
equality of interval.
• It is called Interval Scale.
• But the numbers on an interval scale cannot be multiplies or
divided, since the scale does not have any true zero.
• Example of interval scales are, measures of central tendency,
dispersion, correlation and some test of significance.
TYPES OF DATA
A. Qualitative Data: Data that can be categorized.
They can be classified further into: Nominal and Ordinal data.
Nominal: categorical characteristics that you can name.
Example: Gender: Male or Female – based on physical traits.
Blood group: A, B or AB or O – based on allele types.
Ordinal: categorical characteristics can be named and ranked
Example: Socio economic status: Low, Middle or High.
Exam grades: A, B, C, D or E – based on achievement
DICOTOMOUS QUESTIONS
Dichotomous: question having only two possible responses
Surveys often use dichotomous questions that ask for a
Yes/No
True/False
Agree/Disagree response.
There are a variety of ways to lay these questions out on a
questionnaire:
What is your gender: Male ____ Female ____
Do you smoke now: Yes ____ No ____
RATIO MEASURMENT/SCALE
• This is the highest and most ideal level of measurement.
• This is suitable for measuring properties which have
natural zero points.
• It is called Ratio Scale.
• Since there is an absolute natural zero, all arithmetic
operations including multiplication and division are possible.
• Examples are weight, height, distance, money value,
population counts, rate of return and so on.
• This measurement is suitable for all statistical and
mathematical treatments.
TYPES OF DATA…
B. Quantitative Data: Data that can be measured or counted.
They can be classified into: Discrete data and Continuous data.
Discrete : numerical characteristics that are countable.
Example: Number of workers in factories
Number of medical leaves taken by staff.
Continuous: numerical characteristics that are measurable.
Example: Distance traveled.
Body Mass Index (BMI) of students.
BASED ON LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT
Questions can also classified in terms of level of measurement
Example: measuring race using a nominal question.
Here, the number next to each response has no meaning except as a placeholder
for that response.
The assignment of numbers:
‘1’ for Asian, ‘2’ for African, ‘3’ for European and ‘4’ for others.
Race: 1 = Asian
2 = African
3 = European
4 = Others
 BASED ON LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT… LIKERT SCALE OF MEASUREMENT

The respondents can be asked to rank order their preferences Survey questions are also constructed as an attempt to measure
for mode of transportation using an ordinal question: on an interval level.

Rank the modes of transportation in order of preference The most common one is the traditional 1-to-5 rating
from best (1) to worst (4)… (or 1-to-7, or 1-to-9, etc.).

_____ Road This is sometimes referred to as a Likert response scale.

_____ Air
_____ Rail Example:
_____ Sea
The death penalty is justified under certain circumstances.
We want the respondent to put a 1, 2, 3 or 4 next to the mode of transportation, 1 2 3 4 5
where 1 is the respondent's first choice Strongly Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly
Disagree Agree

SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL GUTTMAN SCALE

An object is assessed by the respondent on a set of bipolar adjective pairs (using 5- Interval measures can also be done using a cumulative or Guttman scale.
point rating scale):
The respondent checks each item with which they agree.
Please indicate your opinion on the National Training on the scale below The items are constructed so that they are cumulative.
If you agree to one, you probably agree to all of the ones above it
Very Some Neither Some Very
Much What What Much
Example:
Interesting Boring Please tick √ against each statement that you agree with:

Simple Complex ___Are you willing to permit illegal immigrants live in your country?
___Are you willing to permit illegal immigrants live in your community?
Uncaring Caring ___Are you willing to permit illegal immigrants live in your neighborhood?
___Would you be willing to have an illegal immigrant live next door?
Useful Useless ___Would you let your child marry an illegal immigrant?

MULTIPLE RESPONSES SCALE MEASUREMENT

The respondents can be asked to select all that applies Measurements like age, income are all continuous in nature

Example: When asked for actual age or income, many would not respond
In your opinion what is/are the favorite breeding places for Aedes mosquitoes
Thus, most often they are asked in an ordinal form
Please tick √ against each statement that you agree with:
Measurements like years of education, distance from home can be asked as
____Inside the flower vase scale measurement.
____Water tanks
____Unused tires Example:
____Fish ponds
____Perimeter drains How far is your working place from your house: ______ km

In fact each of these statements is an item by itself, measuring on a dichotomous

scale of Yes/No. Yes if ticked, No if not
 Experimental Design/Research
Laboratory Experiment Field Experiment
• Experimental design/research is the researcher to
control the research situation so that casual Artificial-Low Realism Natural-High Realism
relationships among the variables may be evaluated Few nuisance Many nuisance
clearly. Variables Variables
• Hence, the experiment research method has degree
of control over the research situation. High control Low control
• One independent variable is manipulated and its Low Cost High Cost
effect on dependent variables is measured, while all
other variables that may affect such a relationship are Short Duration Long Duration
eliminated or controlled.
• Hence, the researcher create an artificial situation Subjects Aware of Subjects Unaware of
(Lab experiment, or in the natural environment in Participation Participation
which activities regularly take places (field experiment).

Procedures and Concepts in

Experimental and Control Groups
• Experimental Group:
– The group of subjects exposed to an experimental
treatment, in the form of controls or/and manipulation.
• Control Group:
– The group of subjects not expose to experiment
treatment, work situation or variable remains the same,
without any change.
Experimental Research
– Control group: The group of subjects not expose to
experiment treatment, work situation or variable remains
the same, without any change.
– Matching group: The match characteristic variables are
picked up.
– Randomization: The variables picked up randomly from
the different groups.
– Manipulation of independent variable: The researcher
has some degree of control treatment over the
independent variable.

Internal & External Validity Factors Affecting Internal Validity

• Internal Validity:
– It refers to the confidence we place in the cause-and- Even the best designed lab studies could be influenced by
effect relationship. factors that might affect the internal validity of lab
experiment. Some confounding factors might still be
– Example: ‘To what extent does the research design to say present. The possible confounding factors are,
that the independent variable ‘X’ causes a changes in the
dependent variable ‘Y’? 1. history,
• External Validity: 2. maturation,
– It refers to the extent of generalizability of the results of 3. testing,
a causal study to other setting, people, or events. 4. instrumentation,
Example: Field experiment have more external validity 5. selection,
then lab experiment, since the lab setting does not 6. statistical regression and
reflect the real world setting.
7. mortality.
 Types of Experimental Design and
Solomon Four-Group Design
Internal Validity
There are few commonly used experimental designs; • It is advisable to set up two experimental group and two
Quasi-Experimental Designs control groups.
Pre-test and post-test Experimental Group Design • One experimental group and one control group can be given
both the pre-test and post-test.
Post-test Only with Experimental & Control Groups
• The other two groups will be given only post-test.
True Experimental Designs
Pre-test and Post-test Experimental & Control Group Designs
Solomon Four group Design