Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Faseeh khan
AUDITING
Lecture Notes
For
MBA/M.Com/BS/BBS/B.C
om
Sir M.Faseeh Khan
Lecture Notes
AUDITING
For
BBA/B.Com/BS
Compiled by:
M.Faseeh Khan
Lecture Notes
Lecture Notes
Ans.
Scope of Auditing:
1.
Legal Requirement:
The auditor can determine the scope of an audit of financial statements in
accordance with the requirements of legislations, regulations or relevant professional
bodies. The state can frame rules for determining the scope of audit work. In the same
way professional bodies can make rules to conduct the audit. The auditor can follow all
the applicable on the audit work while checking the accounts of a business concern.
2.
Entity Aspects:
The audit should be organize to cover all aspects of the entity as far as they are
relevant to the financial statement being audited. A business entity has many areas of
working. A small entity may have few functions while a large concern has many
functions. The auditor has duty to go through all the function of a business. The audit
report should cover all function so that the reader may know about all the working of a
concern.
3.
Reliable Information:
The auditor should obtain reasonable assurance as to whether the information
contained in the underlying accounting record and other source data is reliable and
sufficient as the basis for preparation of the financial statements. The auditor can use
various techniques to test the validity of data. All auditors while doing the auditor work
usually apply the compliance test and substance test. The auditor can show such
information in the report.
4.
Proper Communication:
The auditor should decide whether the relevant information is properly
communicated in the financial statement. Accounting is a information system so facts and
figures must be so presented that reader can get information about the business entity.
The auditor can mention this fact in his report. The principles of accounting can be
applied to decide about the disclosure of financial information in the statements.
5.
Evaluation:
The auditor assesses the liability and sufficiency of the information
contained in the underlying accounting records and other source of data by making a
study and evaluation of accounting system and internal controls to determine the nature,
extent and timing of other auditing procedures.
6.
Test:
The auditing assesses the reliability and sufficiency of the information
contained in the underlying accounting record and other source data by carrying out other
test, enquiries and other verification procedures of accounting transactions and account
balance as he considers appropriate in the particular circumstances. There are compliance
test in order to examine the data. The vouching, Verifications and valuations techniques
are also used.
7.
Comparison:
The auditor determines whether the relevant information is properly
communication by comparing the financial statement with the underlying accounting
records and other source data to see whether they properly summarized the transactions
and events recorded therein. The auditor can compare the accounting record with
financial statement in order to check that same data has been processed for preparing the
final accounts of a business concern.
Lecture Notes
Judgments:
The auditor determines whether the relevant information is properly
communicate by consideration the judgments that management has made in preparing the
financial statements, accordingly, the auditor assesses the selection and consistent
application of accounting policies, the manner in which the information has been
classified and the adequacy of disclosure.
The auditor must have the quality of judgment when accounting book do
not provide true data.
9.
Work
Judgments permeates the auditor work, for example in determining the
extent of audit procedures and in assessing the reasonableness of the judgments and
estimates made by management in preparing financial statements. The accounting data is
based on personal judgment of accountant and managers in preparing final accounts.
Such judgments also effect the working of an auditor. He is also bound to make guess
work on the basis of available data.
10.
Evidence:
The audit evidence available to auditor is persuasive rather than
conclusive in nature. Due to judgment and persuasive evidence absolute certainty in
auditing is really attainable. That is why the auditor can express an opinion as true and
fair instead of exact and cent percent correct. The personal judgment affects the value of
many items. The value of such items becomes an opinion so cent percent accuracy is not
there.
11.
Misstatement:
The Auditors carries out procedures designed to obtain reasonable assurance that
financial statement are properly stated in all material aspects. Because a test nature and
other inherent limitations of an audit, together with inherent limitations of any system of
internal control, there is an unavoidable risk that even some material misstatement may
remain undiscovered. The statements show true and fair view instead of exact view of
operations.
12.
Errors:
The auditor may get an indication that some fraud or error may have
occurred which could result in material misstatement would curse the auditor to extend
his procedures to confirm or dispel his suspicion. It is the duty of auditor to check cent
percent items in order to discover the error in accounting books and other records when
he smells any doubt. He should clear the doubt or confirm it while going through the
record.
13.
Opinion:
Constraints on the scope of audit of financial statement that impair the
auditors ability to express an unqualified opinion on such financial statements should be
seen out in his report, and a qualified opinion or disclaimer of opinion should be
expressed as an appropriate.
Q.No.3 Distinguish between Auditing and Accounting?
Accounting
Auditing
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A person who is, at any time during the preceding three years was, a director,
other officer or employee of the company.
A person who is a partner of, or in the employment of a director officer or
employee of the company.
The spouse of a director of a company.
A person who is indebted to the company and
A body corporate.
If after his appointment, auditor becomes disqualified he shall be deemed to have vacated
his office. If he acts as auditor after disqualification he is liable to a fine not exceeding
Rs.5000/- [Sec 254].
Primary
Subsidiary
Lecture Notes
Types of Fraud.
A) Manipulation, Falsification Or Alteration Of Records Or Documents:
This is usually committed by high officials of an enterprise with the object of either
showing more profits or less profits than they actually are. This type of fraud is
comparatively more difficult to detect. Example of such fraud are:
Inflation or suppression of sales; inflation or suppression of purchases;
overvaluation under valuation of assets and liabilities.
B) Misappropriation of Assets:
This is usually committed when there is very weak internal control. This type of Fraud is
committed by those staff which are delegated with number of works, but without any
check on such work, e.g. cashier is authorised to receive cash, made payments and record
all cash transaction.
C) Suppression or omission of the effects of transactions from records or
documents:
This is, again usually committed by high officials of enterprises. It may involve large
amounts. It may be done for number of purposes e.g. for the purpose of bolstering up a
business which is ain an insecure condition, on order to maintain the confidence of the
shareholders, creditors or the public.
D) Misapplication of accounting policies:
This is usually committed by directors of an enterprise with the object to show either high
or low profit. e.g. The Company has the policy to charge depreciation in the year of
purchase and no depreciation will be charge in the year of sales, but directors do not
charged depreciation in the year of purchase, with the intention of showing higher profit
than actually is.
E) Misapplication of accounting policies:
This is usually committed by directors of an enterprise with the object to show either high
or low profit. e.g. the Company has the policy to charge depreciation in the year of
purchase and no depreciation will be charge in the year of sales, but directors do not
charged deprecation in the year of purchase, with the intention of showing higher profit
than actually is.
Q.No 8 Discuss the types of errors which may be detect during the course of audit.
Write their impact on agreement of trial balance.
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The report shall state whether such principles have been consistently observed in
the current period in relating to the preceding period.
iii.
Informative disclosure in the financial statements are to be regarded as reasonably
adequate unless otherwise stated in the report.
iv.
The report shall contain either an expression of opinion regarding the financial
statements, taken as a whole, or an assertion to the effect that an opinion cannot
be expressed, the reason therefore should be stated. In all cases where an auditors
name is associated with financial statements the report should contain a clear cut
indication of the character of the auditors examination, if any, and the degree of
responsibility he is taking.
The auditing standards are measuring device or models to which the audit must
conform; the standards are established by authority of opinion, custom, and
general consent.
AUDITING PROCEDURES:
Auditing procedures are acts to be performed during the course of an
examination. By applying proper techniques, procedures lead to proof of accuracy
of the accounts and financial statements. Audit procedure constitute the course of
action available in determining the validity of standards and principles. In every
audit there must be review and observation, inspection and count, evidence, proof,
accuracy of proof and reconciliation. With these requirements in mind, auditing
procedures may be as follows:
1.
REVIEW OPERATIONAL ACTIVITIES:
Review such matters as the preparation and routing of invoices, payroll methods,
insurance coverage, depreciation methods etc.
2.
INSPECT AND COUNT:
Inspect and count procedures represent the competent examination of a clients
assets, such as Notes Receivable, Inventories, Investment, Securities, Machinery
and others.
3.
OBTAIN EVIDENCE PROOF:
There must be proof of the existence legitimacy and accuracy of documentary
evidence which resulted in entries in the clients records. The majority of
accounting entries normally are evidenced by a document available for
examination. The following few examples of documents that constitute evidence
proof:
(a)
Assets and revenues;
(b)
Liabilities and expenses, purchase requisition, purchase Orders creditors
invoices, contracts and confirmations;
(c)
Activities and agreements, partnership agreements code of regulations, minutes of
directors and shareholders meetings, loan agreements, and dividend declarations;
(d)
Internal and interdivision transaction, employment records depreciation analysis
cash transfers.
4.
OBTAIN ACCURACY PROOF:
There must be proof of the accuracy of entries in accounting record; the evidence
proofs are traced to the records on the basis of sampling and testing.
5.
PREPARE RECONCILIATIONS:
This involves comparing the clients records with data obtained from independent
sources. For example, the Bank balance is reconciled to cash ledger account
balance.
Audit procedures must be altered, refined and made more efficient from year to
year.
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Lecture Notes
STATUTORY DUTIES:
Statutory duties of an auditor may be summarized as under:
The principal duty of an auditor is to report to the members of the company on the
accounts examined by him and on every Balance sheet, profit and loss account or
any document annexed to the balance sheet laid before the company in general
meeting during the tenure of the office.
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Articles of Association
1)The article is the internal regulation of
the company and over these the members
have full control and they can be easily
altered.
2) They are not only limited by the
Ordinance but they are also subsidiary to
the memorandum.
3) They do not create a contract between
the company & the outsiders.
4) They provide the regulations by which
those object and power are to be carried
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TYPES OF AUDIT
Q.No.16 Write Short notes on:
(1). Continuous Audit
(2) Final Audit
Continuous Audit:
Continuous audit is one where auditors attend the office throughout the year a visit at
frequent interval in order to perform the audit. . Such audits are preferred when the work
involved is considerable and when it is desired that the audited final accounts should be
ready immediately after the close of financial year.
Advantages
Disadvantages
1. It is possible that figures to be
altered either ignorantly or
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Lecture Notes
Final Audit:
Final Audit is one which is started at the close of the accounting year. This is the most
satisfactory form of audit from auditors point of view, and is usually adopted wherever
practicable. It is carried out until complete in the following are the advantages of final
Audit.
Advantages:
1. The chances of alteration of figures either intentionally or unintentionally by the
clients can be minimized, because once the figure have been finalized and given to
auditors, these cannot be changed without communication to the auditors.
2. The auditors are supplied with full facts relating to the year under review and he can
peruse the books and accounts duly completed.
3.
Thread of the of the work is neat likely to be lost, as the whole work is performed
at one strock.
4.
This type of audit is comparatively more economical than continuous audit.
Q.No.17 Distinguish between an external auditor and internal auditor
Although there are various similarities of work of an internal auditor and external auditor.
But still there are major differences between the two, which are narrated as under: -
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Lecture Notes
External Auditor
Internal Auditor
1 Main objective
To express an opinion whether the
financial statement discloses a true fair
view of the companys affairs.
2. Appointment
Appointed by the shareholders.
3. Scope
Determined by statues (e.g. Companies
Ordinance 1984)
4. Status
He is working independently by his
responsibility is to report to the
shareholders.
5. Qualification
In this case the qualification is determined
In case of public limited companies, the by the management.
auditor must be a chartered Accountant.
Q.18: Briefly describe External Audit?
External Audit
Fields of Auditing may be divided into two parts Internal and External auditor. Internal
Auditors are employees of the company whose services have been acquired by the
company to examine their financial records. They are working in between the Accounting
Department and management to assure the Management that the accounting department
is functioning as it should and that its report are accurate.
Independent or External Auditors are not directly affiliated with the companies or
enterprises whose financial statement they examine. They are independent contractors
who, after adequate examination and investigation, offer a profession opinion as to
whether the concerns financial statements which the have examined present fairly the
results of operations and the financial condition of the enterprise. In fact, External
Auditor stand mid way between the enterprise and other interests which use this
accounting data. Thus to some extent they report on managements influence on
accounting data as well as on the accounting department.
Although both the external and internal auditors are similar to each other in may
respects, yet they differ with each other.
1.
Objective: External auditors are engaged to give an unbiased and impartial report
on the financial position of the company to the share holder as well as outsiders.
2.
Appointment: External auditors are appointed by the proprietors of the business
such as share holders partner etc.)
copyright @ TM Educational System
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4.
5.
6.
Scope: External auditors are required to ascertain the accuracy of the records of
the business and to communicate in an unambiguous language in the cases of
companies that the final accounts disclose true and fair view of the earning
capacity and the financial position of the business. External auditors are also
required to certify that the books of accounts were maintained according to
accepted principles of accounting. They have very wide powers to call for any
information and ask for explanation from any person connected with the business.
The rights, duties, liabilities of external auditors of companies have been
prescribed by law and they cannot be curtailed and restricted in any manner.
Independence: External auditors are completely independent of the management
of the concern, the accounts of which they are required to audit.
Internal check 8 Control: External auditors are only indirectly concerned with
the adequacy of internal checks and controls. They are not bound to suggest
introduction of internal checks in a business. They are free to determine for
themselves the extent to which they should rely upon the existing internal checks
in business. Even very efficient and reliable system of internal check will not be
able to minimize the extent of his liabilities.
Responsibility: External auditors can be held liable besides the share holders by
the outsiders also, who might have acted on their false reports. So they are serving
the interest of outsiders.
Cost Audit
It is not Compulsory
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Visit
The audit staff frequently visits and checks The audit staff visits once and checks the
the accounts.
Business accounts.
3.
Time
The continuous audit is possible as and The final audit is possible only when all the
when accounting entries recorded in books. entries are recorded in the books of
accounts.
4.
Cost
The continuous audit is expensive than The final audit is cheaper than continuous
final audit due to high audit cost.
audit due to less audit cost.
5.
Check
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Lecture Notes
Interim Audit
1. Object:
The object of interim audit is to determine
and check the profit or loss for the period
under audit.
2. Report:
The reported can be presented at the and of
the interim audit and it is submitted to
owners.
3. Period:
3. Period:
The continuous audit can examine the The interim audit can examine the accounts
accounts books and other record for one books and other records up to particular
whole year.
date.
4. Scope:
4. Scope:
There is detailed checking of accounting There are no detailed checking of
records under continuous audit
accounting records under interim audit.
5. Verification:
5. Verification:
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Lecture Notes
9. Regular:
Interim audit is not a regular feature of
business working. It is conducted
occasionally.
10. Size:
10. Size:
Continuous audit is possible for large-scale Interim audit is possible in large scale as
business units due to heavy work.
well as small scale business units.
11. Goals:
11. Goals:
The audit is conducted for many purpose or The audit is conducted for one purpose or
goals. It is legal duty to carry out audit`
goal only. The manager and owner can
determine the goals.
Q.22 What are the types of auditors?
TYPES OF AUDITORS:
Types of Auditors are classified in accordance with the Field of Auditing,
which may be as:
1.
Internal Auditor.
2.
Independent Auditor.
3.
Government Auditor.
1.
2.
3.
Internal Auditors:
Internal Auditors are employees of the enterprise whose records they examine.
They, in effect stand between the accounting department staff and management to
assure the latter that the accounting department is functioning as it should, and
that its reports are accurate.
Independent Auditors:
Independent auditors are public accountant directly affiliated with the companies
or enterprises whose financial statement they examine. They are independent
contractors, who, after qualifying the prescribed examination, offer a professional
opinions as to whether the concerns financial statements which they have
examined, present fairly the results of operations and financial condition of the
enterprise. They, in effect, stand midway between the enterprise and other
interested parties using accounting data.
Government Auditors:
Government auditors are those who are in the employment of Government
offices, working under Account and Auditors General of Pakistan.
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INVESTIGATION
To establish a fact or happening or to assess a
particular situation.
2.
LIABILITY:
Investigators liability is based on the
Auditor liability is determined by engagement letter and can be limited.
statute and cannot be limited.
3. Approach:
Relatively through examination of the select
a) Test examination based on review of areas.
internal control.
b) Auditor may rely on compliance and
prima facie evidence.
4.Auditor is concerned about the Investigators may have no relevance with the
consistent use of accounting policies accounting conventions, disclosure
and compliance with disclosure requirements, etc.
requirements.
of
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2.
3.
4.
5.
Validity of Records:
In this working papers, the auditor compiles his data, analysis computations,
notes, schedules, confirmation and all other records pertaining to the audit. They
constitute the only proof of the validity of the records and the audit report. The
client is interested in the audit report, and the audit work papers constitute the
only tangible connecting link between the records of the client the audit, and the
report.
Review of Internal Control:
Audit work papers should indicate the accomplishment of the review of client
internal control. These accomplishments may be evidenced in the internal control
questionnaire, but comment on the internal control of specific items should appear
in each of the appropriate working papers:
Data Reference:
The audit work papers serve the auditor as one source of information for his
remarks and advice in discussing matter with the client. They also aid the auditor
in the solution of questions involving taxes with the reports to the government
agencies. They may be used for reference many years after the completion of an
audit.
Position Defence:
Audit work papers assist the auditor in justifying his position against criticism, in
offering court testimony and in defending himself in the event of legal attack.
They are the best protection of the professional integrity of the auditor.
Review of the Audit:
Audit work papers constitute the best aid for the review of the work and for the
audit report. The purpose of the review is to ascertain that:
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Lecture Notes
All statements are schedules have been properly prepared and are correctly
supported in accordance with accepted principles of accounting and auditing
Standards;
b)
Procedural technique has been suitable and adequate;
c)
Comments and recommendations are appropriate and reasonable; and
d)
All necessary comments have been included.
Audit Working Papers:
Important documents and papers regarding the business are collected that are
needed by the auditor during the course audits. These papers are called working
papers. These working papers contain essential facts about the accounts. So the
auditor without the working papers cannot examine accounts properly.
Audit working papers consists schedules statements, analysis, and other
statements essential for the preparation of final accounts and find report of the
auditor.
IMPORTANCE OF WORKING PAPERS
Importance of working papers can be judged by the following facts:
1.
These papers are very useful in framing the opinion about the efficiency of audit
team.
2.
These papers also throw light on the weak points of the client business.
3.
Working papers are the permanent record of the data examined.
4.
These are very useful for defending the auditor in case of negligence.
5.
Working papers are also very helpful for the auditor in preparing the audit report.
6.
Working papers are also very useful for future audit.
7.
Shifting of work from one clerk to another is also easy in the presence of working
papers.
Q.30: Discus the procedure to investigate in case of suspected fraud, fluctuation in
profit.
DEFINITION OF INVESTIGATION:
The term Investigation implies as examination of the accounts of a business for
some special purpose. It may be defined as:
An inquiry into the resultant profit or loss of any business for the past
several years in order to ascertain the normal profit earning Capacity and
the necessary average working capital required in earning such profits, or
with a view to ascertain the true financial condition of the business for a
particular object in view.
The duties of an investigator to detect suspected fraud will mainly depend upon
the nature of the fraud and the systems of accounting and internal check in force
in the business.
Auditor, at the outset will try to know from his client the reasons, for suspicious
the nature of suspected persons. He will obtain from his client written instruction
as to his duties and scope of work and a statement as to the records and
documents which will be available to him for examination. It is only through a
careful and through examination and verification of books and records that he can
detect frauds. He should be careful in not arousing the suspicious of the suspected
persons that they are involved in the fraud.
Frauds can easily be detecting if one has the knowledge of the different forms
which they may take. Frauds may be of the following types.
a)
Misappropriation of cash.
b)
Misappropriation of goods
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Misappropriation of securities
Manipulation of Accounts.
Investigator shall have to follow a different procedure for detecting each
of these frauds. Since the procedure of investigating in to these fraud will largely
depend upon the methods commonly followed by the dishonest persons in
committing these frauds it shall be worth while to have a knowledge of the
ordinary methods of the commission of these frauds.
Misappropriation of cash
Misappropriation of cash may involve either cash receipts or cash
payments. Cash receipts may be misappropriation in any of the following ways.
a)
Cash receipts from cash sales, travelers collection, V.P.P receipt may be
misappropriated either by not recording them in the books at all or by passing
false enterprise in the books. Cash receipt may not be recorded in the Cash Book
at all.
b)
Unusual income from non-trading sources or income not arising in the ordinary
course of trade can easily be misappropriated by not recording in the books at all.
c)
Misappropriation of cash receipts may also be covered up and concealed by
allowing more cash discount or giving false credits for goods return etc. in the
customers ledger account or by writing off a good account as bad cash recorded
in all such cases is not recorded.
d)
Cash receipts can also be misappropriated by omitting to record casual collections
e.g. scrap sales etc.
e)
Cash can also be misappropriated by the process of short banking lapping,
teeming and lading, under casting the receipt side of the cash book and short
carrying over etc.
Cash payments can also involve misappropriation of the following kinds:
a)
Cheque may be drawn against false invoices or statement accounts which have
already been paid, may again be submitted in support of further cheques.
b)
Cash can be misappropriated while in course of transit or transfer from Branch to
Head Office or from one Bank account to another.
c)
Over casting the payment side of the Cash Book or over carrying of the totals
from one page to another is another device of concealing the amount of cash
already misappropriated.
d)
Cheques drawn for personal use may be charged as business expenditure
e)
Drawing cheque in the name of the person other than the actual payee.
f)
Misappropriation of petty cash transaction and wage payments.
Misappropriation of goods (Stock)
Goods which are readily convertible into cash are usually misappropriated.
Misappropriation of goods is possible only by the collusion of several persons under
circumstances where either the inventory system is very poor or good are of lessee bulk
but of greater value. Goods can equally be misappropriated by people of lower or high
ranks. Investigator in order to detect misappropriation of goods, will make a careful
scrutiny of the system of receipts and dispatches of the goods followed by the business.
Investigator must also compare sales invoices with the out ward stock and compare stock
figures as disclosed by the stock record with those shown by the financial books
Difference may be located by comparison of stock records with entries in the financial
book purchase and sales made towards the close of the financial year shall be paid greater
attention in their examination Investigator shall try to find out the discrepancies between
physical stock and recorded balance of stock.
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Purchases may have been inflated. Check the Purchases Book with the Goods
Inwards Book and the Stock Book to see that all goods entered as purchases: have
been actually received during the year.
4.
Inventories may have not been properly valued. Examine in detail the Inventory
sheets of the past and current years.
5.
Compare the Profit and Loss Account for the very in question with that of
previous years.
Rise in Profits:
If trading profit of a business for a year show a considerable
increase on preceding year, although the sales of that year have equaled the average of
the past, It means that the percentage of gross profit on turnover has gone up. The
accountant should inquire into the following causes which may be principally responsible
for the rise in the rate of gross profit:
1.
The cost of purchase may have fallen without a corresponding fall in the selling
prices, or the selling prices may have risen without a corresponding rise in the
cost of goods purchased. Examine the sales and purchases invoices for the
purpose of ascertaining the prices and compare them with those prevailing in the
past.
2.
Purchases may have been suppressed. Check the Purchases Book with the Goods
Inwards Book and the Stock Book to see that all goods received during the year
have been recorded in the books.
3.
Sales may have been inflated. Check the Sales Book with orders received and
with the Goods Outwards Book and also verify the amount sales returns.
4.
Inventories may not have been properly valued. Examine in detail the stock sheets
of the past and current years.
5.
The Profit and Loss Account for the year in question may not have been prepared
on the same lines as in the past. Ascertain this fact by comparing the Profit and
Loss Account of this year with that of previous years.
AUDIT PROGRAMME
Q.No 31 What is an Audit Programme? List the factors you would bear in mind in
constructing an Audit Programme.
An audit programme is a written scheme of exact detail of the work to be done by the
auditor and his staff in connection with particular audit. Professor Meigs defines an Audit
Programme as An audit programme is a detailed plan of the auditing work to be
performed, specifying the procedures to be followed in verification of each item in the
financial statements and giving the estimated time required. Programme is essential to
ensure that all-important areas of activities are covered and completed within the
allocated time. After considering certain formalities such as type of audit, scope of audit,
purpose of audit, date of submission of audit report, an auditor prepares an audit
programme. The audit programme is a confidential documents prepared for the use of
auditor only. While preparing of an audit programme for the first time, he has to proceed
on the following lines.
1) Conduct the survey of system of internal control and effectiveness of internal control
and review the internal audit procedure to determine the extent to which the auditor may
resort to testing and sampling.
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3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Completeness i.e., They should contain all the essential information so that they
may
be of maximum utility.
Properly organized and arranged. The working papers should be so arranged that
one may not find any difficulty in locating a particular paper. If they are not properly
arranged it will entail loss of time in finding a particular fact while preparing the
report.
Clearness. The facts in the working papers should be set out clearly.
The facts in the working papers should be readily apparent to the reader later on.
i.e. Schedules and working should contain adequate explanatory notes.
Stationary used for working papers should be of good quality so that by frequent
handling, it may not be damaged.
Papers used should be of convenient and uniform size.
Papers should be carefully fastened together, arranged in a logical order, properly
and adequately referenced and the subject matter clearly marked on the top.
Sufficient space should be left after each note so that any decision taken may be
taken
down in that space.
AUDIT EVIDENCE
Q.34 What is meant by audit evidence. List the types of audit evidence available to
an auditor and explain any two of them in detail?
Evidence in auditing means any document, piece of information, voucher, written or oral
statement or any procedure which assist an auditor in forming his opinion in regard to the
accuracy of data under audit check. The nature and type of audit evidence differs from
situation. In some situation, the auditor may like to see all original documents connected
with a particular transaction and in different situation he may be satisfied with verbal
explanation given to him. And in other situation he may form his opinion by only
examining the procedures designed, enforced and followed. However, it is necessary that
evidence should always be in the form of document a written statement. Evidence,
therefore, could be any thing which assists and auditor in the approval of financial
activities, transactions and statements and in the award of opinion on such financial
statement.
Types of Audit Evidence:
There are following different types of audit evidence collected by the auditor during the
course of his audit.
1) Observation Physical Examination:
This is the best audit evidence in auditing. The auditor verifies the physical existence for
the items like: i) Machinery and equipment
copyright @ TM Educational System
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3.
4.
5.
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AUDIT TECHNIQUES
Q.No.36. What do you understand by Audit Techniques. List the types of audit
Techniques and write note on them.
Audit techniques are the methods generally applied in the collection of audit evidence.
The application of audit techniques largely depends on the intelligence of the auditor and
also the type of transactions being examined by him. The approach of applying audit
techniques may differ from auditor to auditor and from one situation to another. Only by
applying appropriate audit techniques, the auditor can successfully complete the audit
assignment & confidentially award the audit report.
There are following common types of audit techniques applied during the course of audit:
1) Physical examination
2) Confirmation
3) Examination of original documents
4) Recomputation
5) Retracing of book keeping procedures
6) Scanning
7) Inquiry
8) Examination of subsidiary records.
9) Correlation with related information
10) Observation of pertinent activities & conditions.
The above techniques are discussed in detail as under:
1) Physical Examination:
Physical examination and physical count is known as eye witness in auditing because the
auditors personally and physically examined the particular item. This is the best audit
evidence in auditing. This technique is generally applied to the items of property for
instance;
I. Machinery and equipment
II. Furniture and fixture
III. Tools
IV. Inventories
V. Investments
VI. Cash in hand, etc.
Normally the auditor visits the audit at year end to physically verify and count the
inventories at year end as shown by records. Similarly if investment figures is shown in
the ledger at considerable big amount, the auditor satisfy himself by examining the
investment documents physically.
2) Confirmation
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7) Inquiry
According to International Auditing Guideline No.8 para 15, Inquiry consist of
seeking appropriate informations of knowledgeable person inside or outside the entity
Response to inquiries may provide the auditor with information which he did not
previously possess or may provide him with corroborative evidence
Inquiries may be formal written inquiries addressed to third parties or it may be
informal inquiries addressed to persons inside the entity. The auditor should decide under
a given situation as to which type of inquiry is to be resorted to form his purpose.
8) Examination of Subsidiary Records:
In large organization, numbers of accounts are operated, for all these accounts;
there is an account, known as control account. The auditor must compare the controlling
and subsidiary accounts in order to locate the discrepancies, irregularities, wrong postings
or castings in the subsidiary record and if this record is not checked, the errors may pass
undetected resulting in the control accounts being inaccurate. The subsidiary record may
be checked on test basis depending on the existence, effectiveness and continuation of
internal control. Example of accounts where subsidiary accounts are maintained are
inventory purchases, accounts receivable, accounts payable etc.
9) Correlation with Related Information:
In most of the operating accounts a correlation is generally found. The auditor should
note such operating accounts and study the relationship between them. For instance,
reserve for bad debts be correlated with bad debts expenses for the period. Similarly
allowance for depreciation be correlated with depreciation expense for the period.
The auditor should make sure that consistency has been maintained in the operation of
various accounts.
Q.36: a) what do you understand by Audit Techniques and Audit Evidence?
b) Name only two specific audit techniques & its relevant in the
Verification of the following: (i) Bank Balance (ii) Accounts Receivable
(iii) Allowance for Bad debts (iv) Mdse.Inventory (v) Loose tools
(vi)
Allow. for Depreciation (vii) Investment
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While verifying the quantity of stock, he should find out whether the internal
check system in connection with stocktaking is efficient enough to prevent
any manipulation.
He should ask his client to produce the stock sheets and enquire into the
method of stocktaking. He should obtain a copy of the stocktaking
instructions issued to the clerks who took stock. Where practicable he should
attend and observe whether stocktaking instructions are being followed
properly.
If a stock book has been maintained, he should compare it with the purchases
and sales books in regard to quantity.
He should check the stock sheet provided to him duly authorized by
responsible person. If he fined any alteration in stock sheet he should insist
upon the initials against each alteration.
He should check the calculations, additions and castings.
He should check a few items in stocks sheet especially the bigger ones and
compare them with the stock records.e.g. bin cards or store ledger control
accounts.
He should see that the goods which have been sold but not delivered to the
buyer on the stocktaking day are not included in the stock in hand.
He should see that the goods, which have been purchased and he relative
invoices of which have been entered in the purchases book, are included in the
closing stock.
He should see that goods received from others to be sold on their behalf are
not included in stock-in-hand.
He should see that assets like furniture, tools etc, are not included in the stock
in hand.
Determine the polices of pricing observed for different classes of inventories
by the company and ensure that these are consistently followed.
Obtain a certificate from the managements as to facts regarding inventory
taking, pricing and conditions.
Q.40: State the necessary steps for the verification of: (a) Cash in hand (b) Cash in
bank.
Verification Steps for Cash on Hand
To verify cash on hand, the auditor should take the following steps:
1. He should review the internal control system operated by the organization.
2. He should obtain details of the funds limits.
3. Visit the client at year end to physically count the cash.
4. He should himself count the cash, irrespective of the size of cash funds.
5. He should count in the presence of cashier or imprest holder.
6. The custodian acknowledges he return of cash and signs to this effect on the
work sheet prepared by he auditor.
7. For I.O.Us, see that the recipients sign the chits. Ensue that a responsible
official approves the same.
8. Obtain balance confirmation certificate from management and trace with
cashbook and working papers prepared at the time of physical count.
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Prepaid Expenses:
The following steps should be taken in their verification of prepaid expenses:
1) Obtain the schedule of prepaid expenses.
2) Trace opening balance from last years file.
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INTERNAL CONTROL
Q.45: What is internal Control? Clearly distinguish between Internal Check,
Internal Audit and Internal Control.
Internal Control
According to International
Auditing Guideline No. 6,
the system of internal
control is the plan of
organization and all the
methods and procedures
adopted by the management
of an entity to assist in
achieving
management
objectives of ensuring, as
far as practicable, the
orderly
and
efficient
conduct of its business,
including adherence to
management polices, the
safeguarding of assets, the
prevention and detection of
frauds and errors, the
Internal Check
Internal Check can be
defined as the checks on
the day to day transactions
which operate continuously
as part of the routine system
whereby he work of one
person
is
proved
independently, the objective
being the prevention or
early detection of errors and
frauds, it includes matter
such as the delegation and
allocation of authority and
he division of work the
method
of
recording
transactions, and the use of
independently as-certained
total against a large number
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Internal Audit
Internal Audit can be
defined as, An independent
appraisal activity within an
organization for the review
of operations as a service to
management, it is a
managerial control which
functions by measuring and
evaluation the effectiveness
and other control.
Internal Audit acts as a
separate, higher level of
internal control to determine
the level whether the
underlying
accounting
system
and
internal
accounting controls there in
a re functioning effectively.
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Initiation Of Purchase:
All purchases should be based on purchase requisitions initiated by those having
appropriate authority.
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DISVISIBLE PROFIT
Q.53: Explain in detail the difficulties in determination of Divisible profit?
OR
What are the divisible profit? What should be the guiding principles in
determining the divisible profit?
Ans:
DISVISIBLE PROFIT AND DIVIDENDS.
Concept of Profit.
Authorities on the subject have defined the word Profit as under:
1.
Generally speaking, the profit of the business during a given period of time is the
excess over the expenditure for the period.
2.
It is the excess of assets over the liabilities and the capital between two period ?
Difficulties in the determination of Profit.
Following are the difficulties in the determination of profit:
1.
How to value the assets at the close of the period?
2.
How should the liabilities be valued?
3.
Whether the previous losses must be written off before arriving at the correct
amount of profit?
4.
Whether or not it is necessary that reserves, special provisions for depreciation
etc., be given a careful consideration?
5.
The question of capital expenditure being treated as revenue expenditure and vice
versa, is to be given a careful consideration.
6.
A careful consideration should be given to those expenses, the benefit of which
may be divided in the subsequent accounting period.
Effects of incorrect determination of profit.
1.
Understatement of profit: if profit are understated, they result in depriving the
present shareholders of their dividends to which they were entitled. This will
decline the value of shares in the market.
2.
Overstatement of profit: If profit are overstated, they result in an improper
payment of dividend an overstatement of the profits may result in increased
remuneration payable to managing agents, thereby causing a corresponding loss
to the company.
Dividends paid out through an overstatement of profit will mean payment out a
capital of the company and it may become insolvent.
Divisible Profit.
The term divisible profit means all profits that can be legally distributed to the
shareholders of the company.
General Rules
Rule (A):
The excess of current income over current expenditure is divisible as profits
provided that:
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Depreciation has been allowed for on floating assets and in some cases on fixed
assets but not necessarily so.
Sufficient reserves are retained to cover liabilities.
Revenue losses are made goods before profits are distributed but capital losses
need not necessarily be made good before revenue profits are distributed.
Depreciation of wasting assets of a company formed to work a wasting property,
e.g. mines etc., need not be made good in arriving at net profit for distribution.
Rule (B)
Capital profits are divisible if they are realized and a surplus remains after making
good any capital losses. It is, necessary, however, that:
i)
The Articles of the company shall not prohibit distribution
ii)
Capital losses be made goods before capital profits are divided, i.e., the capital
profits remain after the whole of the other assets have been valued.
Rule (C):
Capital expenditure which has been charged to revenue can be subsequently
recouped to Revenue Account out of Capital and thus become available for
distribution if a profit is shown. This also applies where a loss on Capital Account
has been debited to Revenue account, and the assets have subsequently
appreciated by the amount.
Rule (D):
Capital profits due to an actual appreciation of fixed assets based on a revaluation
made bonfire can be set against a debit balance on Profit and Loss Account
brought forward from previous period, thus permitting dividend to be paid out of
current profits.
Rule (E):
When goodwill and presumably, other assets have been written down excessively
out of profits, the excess may be credited back to profit and loss account
distributed as dividend. The above rules are largely dependent on particular
circumstances and subject to the Memorandum and Article of Association of the
company.
Factors for consideration by directors.
The directors should consider the following factors:
1.
The liquidity position of the company.
2.
Liquidity requirements in future for operative expenses and for expansions etc.
3.
The dividend payments made in the past and the rates approved by the directors.
4.
Other requirements against the payment of dividend.
5.
The industrial outlook and the competitive position in the industry.
6.
Overall economic condition of the country.
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Audit Report
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AUDIT REPORT
Q.54: Describe the contents of an audit report ?
According to international Auditing guidelines 13 the auditors report should
include the following basic elements:
Title:
An appropriate title such as Auditors Report should be used. This helps the
reader to identify the auditors report and to easily distinguish it from reports that
might be issued by others e.g by management.
Addressee:
The report should be appropriately addressed as required by the circumstances
of the engagment and local regulations.
Signature:
The report should be signed in the name of the firm, the personal name of the
auditor, or both, as appropriate.
Auditors Address :
An appropriate title such as Auditors Report should be used. This helps the
reader to identify the auditors report and to easily distinguish it from reports that
might be issued by others e.g by management.
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b)
c)
d)
The auditors report should express this satisfaction in a clear and affirmative
manner [IAG13].
Q.56:
Qualified Report :
An auditor may not be able to express an unqualified opinion where any of the
following circumstances exist ;
a) There is a limitation on the scope of his work ;
b) There is a disagreement with management in respect to the financial
statements ; or
c) There is a significant uncertainty affecting the financial statements; the
resolution of which is dependent upon future events
Such a report is known as qualified audit report [IAG13].
Q.57:
Discuss the circumstances which warrants of a qualified
report to the shareholders of a company ?
A)
B)
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C)
Significant Uncertainty:
Under this category, may be included circumstances where there is:
i)
ii)
Major ligtigation
Unability to substantiate cash transactions.
Q.58:
Write a detail notes on the contents of statutary report
and the scope of statutary audit ?
According to Sce. 157 (1) of companies ordinance 1984, every company limited
by shres & limited shall, with in a period of not less then three months, nor mare
than six months, from the date at which the company is entitled to commence
business, hold a generally meeting of the members of the company, which shall
he called The Statutary Meeting.
The directors shall, at least twentyone days the date on which the meeting is
held, forward a report to every members [Sec 157 (2)].
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AUDIT REPORT
FORMAT
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Q.60:
Unqualified Report
Auditors Report to the Member
We have audited the annexed balance sheet of ___________________________ as at
___________________ and the related profit and loss account, statement of changes in
equity ans cash flow statement together with the noted forming part thereof, for the year
then ended and we state that we have obtained all the information and explanations
which, to the best of our knowledge and belief, were necessary for the purposes of our
audit.
We conducted our audit in accordance with the auditing standards as applicable in
Pakistan. These standards require that we plan and perform the audit to obtain reasonable
assurance about whether the above said statements are free of any material misstatement
In Our Opinion
In our opinion, proper books of accounts have been by the company as required by the
companies ordinance, 1984;
In our Opinion:
The balance sheet and profit and loss account together with the notes thereon have been
drawn up in conformity with the companies ordinance, 1984, and are in agreement with
the books of account and are future in accordance with accounting policies consistently
applied;
The expenditure incurred during the year was for the purpose of the company
The business conducted, investments made and the expenditure incurred during the year
were in accordance with the objects of the company;
In our opinion and to the best information and according to the explanations given to us,
the balance sheet, profit and loss account, statement of changes in equity and cash flow
statement together with the notes forming part thereof conform with approved accounting
standards as applicable in Pakistan, and give the information required by the companies
ordinance, 1984, in the manner so required and respectively give a true and fair view of
the state of the companys affairs as at December 31, 2000 and of the profit, changes in
equity and its cash flows for the year then ended; and
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Qualified Report
Auditors Report to the Member
We have audited the annexed balance sheet of
as at
and the related profit and loss
account, statement of changes in equity ans cash flow statement together with
the noted forming part thereof, for the year then ended and we state that we
have obtained all the information and explanations which, to the best of our
knowledge and belief, were necessary for the purposes of our audit.
We conducted our audit in accordance with the auditing standards as applicable
in Pakistan. These standards require that we plan and perform the audit to obtain
reasonable assurance about whether the above said statements are free of any
material misstatement.
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
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