Nicola Troup

Student ID: 7043284

1st May 2009

Chapter 1 Introduction
Green issues and marketing can work against each other. One wants you to
consume less, the other more. One rejects consumerism, the other fuels it. But they arent
always opposed. Marketing can help sell new lifestyle ideas. Its a much-needed
function today, when we all need to act fast to mitigate the effects of climate change
(Grant, 2007, p.1).

Green marketing is the promotion of environmentally preferable products using a variety of

marketing methods to encourage not only the purchase of Green products but also lifestyle
changes. In todays consumer driven, throw-away society Green marketing is considered to be an
oxymoron, where the terms Green and marketing intrinsically contradict each other since Green
thinking involves reducing the very consumption which marketing aims to stimulate (Peattie,
1992, p.85). Schlegelmilch, (1991, p.4) accuses marketing for being responsible for a whole
variety of sins, including ruining the environment which can be attributed to fuelling
unsustainable consumption (see also Grant, 2007; Peattie, 1999; Peattie, 1992). Peattie (1992,
p.85), highlights that it is easy to assume that marketers and Greens are on a collision course.
However, Grant (2007, p.1) points out that they arent always opposed, praising marketing for
the ability to help sell new lifestyle ideas and change consumption habits. Therefore, if one
concluded that Green marketing was appropriate for addressing global warming, then why is it
not more celebrated? Unbridled excitement for Green marketing in the 1980s lead to a
phenomenon now known as the green consumer bandwagon where brands where falling over
each other to declare their green credentials (Grant, 2007, p.25). However, as Makower (2006)
identified many of those early products were outright failures: biodegradable trash bags that
degraded a little too quickly; recycled paper products with the softness of sandpaper; greener
cleaners that couldn't do their job. The result of such failures meant consumers became negative
and extremely cautious about Green products and Green marketing (Grant, 2007). From this
experience I would argue that we cannot afford another Green marketing era failure as it is
apparent now more than ever that Green issues and marketing need to work together. Now that
Green considerations are seen as being at the forefront of many governmental and organisational
1

Nicola Troup

Student ID: 7043284

1st May 2009

decisions and policies; ignoring climate change is increasingly unacceptable. Green marketing is
not as documented as conventional marketing and therefore I found literature and theories
addressing Green marketing strategies limited. Grant (2007) argues, due to issues driving Green
marketing, such as climate change, being more abstract than that of conventional marketing,
much ambiguity results and he advocated caution in Green marketing efforts. Additionally, due
to consumers now being better informed (Berry and McEachern 2005), penetrating the market
with inappropriate or ineffective Green marketing methods can result in reputation damaging
effects. Grant (2007, p.21) argues that Green marketing is in real danger of being one of those
things everyone agrees is a good idea, but no one quite knows how to do. This can lead to
uninformed company strategies which can then result in unstrategic attempts to integrate Green
ideas into every marketing channel (Grant, 2007, p.21). For all of these reasons Green marketing
remains challenging and largely undocumented so as to advise companies on what strategies to
take. Companies, recognising the importance of Green marketing, now often seek the help of
external environmental advertising agencies to assure they are approaching Green issues and
marketing correctly (Schlegelmilch, 1991). This leads me to conclude that the Green marketing
arena, although complex, has a wealth of opportunities for businesses, consumers and the
environment where solutions are needed more than ever to provide marketers with the tools for
change.

This essay aims to build on the limited advice for companies in relation to Green marketing
communication strategies and explore how consumers view them. This will include comparing
their opinions and perceptions to a range of companies Green marketing communication
strategies. This study is of a comparative nature to facilitate meaningful interpretation of
differing Green marketing communication strategies in relation to my analysis of consumer
opinions. Using three strategies that have been acquired from the literature I will find three
companies who I interpret to exhibit these strategies. Firstly, to ground my study an extensive
literature review will follow to establish the leading theories and frameworks surrounding Green
marketing. Grants (2007) work will be used extensively as it has been found to have a wealth of
practical yet in depth frameworks and theories surrounding Green marketing that was not found
elsewhere in my search of the literature. Secondly, the methodology section will outline the
nature and means of this study for rich qualitative results using an interpretivist methodology.
2

Nicola Troup

Student ID: 7043284

1st May 2009

This study will be based on online methods and will use company website analysis and
netnography techniques to acquire the relevant research data. The results and analysis will then
be displayed in order to give insight into the findings of the relation between the company
website analysis and consumer netnography. Comparisons between the three companies will be
made to develop a detailed discussion of the prominent findings. This will then allow for
discussion of the effects different Green marketing communication strategies have on
consumers opinions and perceptions. Finally, a conclusion will summarise the key findings of
this study and the implications it has for marketing practice in order to review the understanding
gained from the research data. Suggestions and advice for future research to develop the findings
of this study will also be included in the conclusion.

Nicola Troup

Student ID: 7043284

1st May 2009

Chapter 2 - Literature Review

2.1 Introduction
An academic understanding of the theories and relevant concepts and arguments surrounding
Green marketing is essential prior to forming a Green marketing study and examining the results
of chapter four. This review will evaluate and establish the major findings of Green marketing
literature with particular attention paid to theories on Green marketing communication strategies.
Firstly, Green marketing will be assessed in terms of what being Green means and why its
growth is so pervasive. Secondly, strategies, frameworks and methods significant to the
marketing of environmentally preferable products will be discussed. Thirdly, an examination of
the challenges and problems surrounding Green marketing will follow. Finally, the issues
addressed in the literature review will be summarised, and to conclude, the research objectives
will be established for this study.

2.2 The Growth of Green Marketing

Peattie (1992, p.26) describes the growth of Green marketing as Green strands being woven into
the fabric of society and business. However, the meaning of Green is often lost in the
commercial and social hype. Authors such as Grant (2007) and Kilbourne (1998), identify this
problem as hampering the very purpose of Green products to preserve the environment, not as
something simply in vogue. Green is not a trend; it is something which must be a permanent and
normal part of our lives if it is to succeed (Grant, 2007). This section examines what is Green
and why it is a concern today.

Nicola Troup

Student ID: 7043284

1st May 2009

2.2.1 What is Green?

Green is the new black, its in (Grant, 2007, p.59) and is being treated like a fashion where
everything is slowly having a Green twist (Grant, 2007, p.160). However, as Grant (2007, p.61)
highlights what I mean by Green is Greener than the substitutes and competitors rather than
measured against any absolute ideal. This is also to be the way in which the term Green is to
be used for this study. A major misconception of Green marketing identified by Peattie (1992,
p.88) is that going Green is about being totally sustainable immediately with an all or nothing
approach. It takes time to develop Green corporate approaches and cannot simply be conveyed
through what Grant (2007) refers to as image marketing (see section 2.3.1.1).
To make the distinction between honest and superficial Green claims Kilbourne (1998, p. 642)
promotes the adoption of Dobson's (1990) strategy of differentiating between green with a little
"g" signifying managerial approaches and truly Green with a large "G" that considers the larger
issue of sustainability. For the purposes of this dissertation Green will be used to signify the
latter all encompassing view.

2.2.2 Why are we Becoming Greener?

Becks (2005) works on Risk Society provides a rationale for why Green concerns are
permeating society and business. Beck (1992) defines Risk Society as a state arising from
modern societys organised response to dealing with dangers and anxieties that are brought on by
modernization itself. Assuming global warming is anthropocentric (caused by humans), Green
issues fall under being brought on by society. Such hazards as Beck (1992) mentions are
identified by Peattie (2002, p.129), where the potential vulnerability of the environment, and
human life within it, was highlighted by a series of incidents and discoveries such as the
discovery of the Antarctic hole in the ozone layer in 1985 and the Exxon-Valdez oil spill in
1989. The result of this as Giddens (1999, p.3) identifies is that society in now increasingly
preoccupied with the future, which generates the notion of risk. Notably, life is probably
experienced as less risky than in traditional societies, but because present day risks are the result
of human choices, they are political in a way more natural risks were not. Ottman (1993, p.30)
recognizes this growth of concern stating, Green consumers are motivated by a desire to control
5

Nicola Troup

Student ID: 7043284

1st May 2009

a world they see as increasingly risky by exhibiting Green actions and making an effort to buy
Green products.

2.3 Green Marketing Communication Strategies and Methods

From extensive reading of the literature, what immediately presents itself is writers such as
Grant, (2007); Peattie, (2002); Kilbourne, (1998); Ginsberg and Bloom, (2004); and Ottman et
al, (2006), broadly see two distinct approaches that seek to link marketing and environmentalism.
These approaches include firstly what Grant (2007) and others see as a truly holistic approach to
Green marketing where operations are being orientated towards a Green initiative as well as
communication methods. The second approach highlighted in the literature is a superficial,
greenwashing approach which has been dominating markets for years, and involves mostly overt
traditional product communication for monetary reasons rather than environmental reasons
(Grant, 2007). For a flowchart representation of the concepts and theories addressed in this
section and how they relate to one another for the purpose of this study please see appendix 16.

2.3.1 Grants Green Marketing Grid

Grant (2007, p.59) recognises that Green marketing and its methods do not have one universal
definition or consensus, and therefore calls Green marketing a blanket term and suggests there
are 9 different types of methods. Figure 1 shows Grants (2007, p.69) Green Marketing Grid, a
structured 3X3 analytic approach to what Green marketing is for. Grant (2007, p.60) claims
this framework helps us see the possibilities and the diversity within Green marketing. He adds
that no approach in the grid is suggested to be better, only that one may be better suited to a
certain product, company or brand (also supported by Ginsberg and Bloom, 2004 p.80).

Nicola Troup

1st May 2009

Student ID: 7043284

Figure 1 - Green Marketing Grid (Grant, 2007, p.69)

A. Green

B. Greener

C. Greenest

1. Public
Company &
Markets

Set an
Example (A1)

2. Social
Brands &
Belonging

Credible
Partners (A2)

3. Personal
Products &
Habits

Market a
Benefit (A3)

Change Usage
(B3)

Challenge
Consuming
(C3)

Setting new
Standards

Sharing
Responsibility

Supporting
Innovation

Develop the
Market (B1)

New Business
Concepts (C1)

Tribal Brands
(B2)

Trojan Horse
Ideas (C2)

There are three broad types of Green marketing objectives, (A, B, C in figure 1) all of which
have different outcomes. Green (A) activities address commercial outcomes by setting new
standards and responsible products, services, brands and companies. Greener (B) objectives
tackle commercial and Green outcomes such as fostering Green consumer practices and sharing
Green responsibility with customers. Greenest (C) includes commercial, Green and cultural
outcomes, which involves revolutionising consumption and shaping a new culture of
responsibility through innovation (all Grant, 2007, p.61-65).
Grant (2007) also identifies three levels at which Green marketing can operate, public, social and
personal (shown as 1, 2, 3 in figure 1). Grant (2007, p.65) explains that Public consists of
company stories, campaigns and future plans. Social includes the idea of associating a product
with social meanings, to help reinforce a consumers identity and foster a community(Grant,
2007, p.67). Lastly, Personal contains the adaptation of products and habits towards a Green
objective.

Nicola Troup

Student ID: 7043284

1st May 2009

Where marketing objectives and marketing levels meet are the ways in which one can carry out
Green marketing indicated as A1 (Green and public). For the purpose of this literature review
A1, A2, A3 and B1 will be examined as these four approaches have been highlighted as most
relevant to the commercial nature of this study.

2.3.1.1 A - Green
Grant (2007, p.62) uses A, Green, to bring together all companies who are promoting Green
products and describes the process as marketing as usual where the marketing budget is still
spent on awareness, education and perceived product superiority. However, as Grant (2007,
p.79-80) and Stoll (2002) highlight that the use of image marketing is not transferable to Green
marketing as this method is selective and tends to exaggerate by using creative devices. Grant
(2007) compares image marketings unsuitability to Green issues with stretching the truth about
medicines, further stressing how much marketers have to take into consideration when selling
Green products. There must be an actual change in the organisations products if they are to truly
set new standards and reap the benefits, both commercially and environmentally. Otherwise
companies will be at the mercy of consumers accusing them of greenwashing, the Greening of
non-green products for commercial benefits (Grant, 2007; Ginsberg and Bloom, 2004; and
Peattie, 1992).
Grant (2007, p.76) highlights that it is important in advertising communications that companies
see Green as a company principle and not as a product proposition. By companies setting
themselves new standards to go beyond the market norm they can excite and engage
consumers Green side. These new standards should be easy to follow and distinguish such as
using only free-range meats, recyclable packaging or renewable energy sources. However, as
Grant (2007, p.77) supports, it is not just what companies communicate through nicely worded
campaigns and statements, but it is what they do and how they can be held accountable through
policies and principles. This idea advocates that companies should be holistic in their approaches
as to sell the whole company and not just one product, as supported by Peattie (1992). However,
a study by Ackerstein and Lemon (1999) into the receptiveness of Green labels and brands (such
as The Body Shop) verses Green line product extensions (such as Boots Naturals range) sheds
8

Nicola Troup

Student ID: 7043284

1st May 2009

light on this proposition by Grant (2007) and Peattie (1992). Ackerstein and Lemon (1999) noted
remarkably consistent findings which suggest that consumers are fundamentally divided. They
found that Green consumers preferred Green labels over line extensions with the opposite being
true for less Green consumers. This demonstrates an important aspect of how different Green
marketing strategies are received across different consumer groups. Therefore, companies must
first know their Green consumer type before acting on Green initiatives.

2.3.1.2 A1 Set an Example

Within Grants (2007, p.93) A1 framework he suggests that there are three broad views as to the
communication of CSR commitments, or Green marketing strategies, which as he argues align
with distinct country cultures. For the purpose of this study, due to Grants (2007) lack of a
word to term these differing approaches, I have given the strategies he has suggested suitable
names which can be seen in bold below or in appendix 15.

If youve got it, flaunt it an overt Green marketing communication strategy

(American)

Its important people see you are doing your bit an intermediate Green marketing
communication strategy (British)

Do the work and keep quiet about it a covert Green marketing communication
strategy (Scandinavian) (All Grant, 2007, p.93).

This clear direction of Green marketing characteristics provides a useful basis for comparing
these three approaches in terms of consumer receptiveness. Within these strategies above, Grant
(2007, p.71) highlights two ways in which companies can communicate their new standards,
through Framing or Pointing. Grant (2007) describes framing as talking about ones
operations and the new principles they are guided by, for example Marks & Spencers Plan A.
He then breaks down framing to be either around a progressive policy such as Marks &
Spencers, or an opposing frame such as being against genetically modified foods. Whereas,
pointing is the communication of specific actions such as hero products or new procedures
(Grant, 2007, p.71).
9

Nicola Troup

Student ID: 7043284

1st May 2009

Grant (2007, p.101) is clear that he favours the covert, modesty is the best policy approach
where they do not declare virtue (p.79). This strategy is strongly linked to IKEAs methods
according to Grants (2007) argument. Although Grant (2007) sets out these three broad
strategies and indicates his personal preference, there appears to be no comment on how each of
these strategies interact with consumers and how they are received in terms of company and
environmental objectives. However, Grants (2007) framework provides a clear direction and
point of reference when determining and analysing companies adopted strategies.

2.3.1.3 A2 Credible Partners

Grants (2007, p.109) A2 box of his Green marketing grid, Credible Partners, helps me to see
further how he believes successful Green marketing can be carried out. Credible partners can
come in the form of eco-labels such as organic or carbon neutral or cause related such as
carbon offsetting (Grant, 2007, p.110). Here you are not claiming Green credentials (virtue),
you are standing next to others who support yours (Grant, 2007, p.110). By associating your
company with partners that have an appealing, credible and widely accepted Green image it is a
successful way of Greening your brand without being accused of greenwashing (Grant, 2007,
p.110). Both strategies essentially link companies seeking to improve their Green image, with
one that is already established. Ottman et al (2006, p.40) and Wasik (1996) also recommend
acquiring product endorsements or eco-certifications from trustworthy third parties to increase
credibility. Green partnership is supported by Peattie (1992) and Wasik (1996) as a method of
creating good Green public relations and credibility.

2.3.1.4 A3 Market a Benefit

Grant (2007, p.123) advocates a traditional marketing concept in A3 of his Green marketing grid
(Market a Benefit), the Unique Selling Proposition (USP). This concept is highly appropriate
and necessary for Green advertising if the product actually is different and better (Grant, 2007,
p.123). Grant (2007, p.53) states that Green products should also be known for their other
attributes if they are to sell and be, inviting and a positive choice. Grant (2007, p.131)
explains that because people are not always motivated by Green concerns they need other
10

Nicola Troup

Student ID: 7043284

1st May 2009

propositions which must be marketed successfully. Ottman et al (2006, p.27) describes

Consumer Value Positioning to be the marketing of successfully established Green products to
showcase non-green consumer values. In order to do this, Green products require the promotion
of other benefits such as being cheaper because the environment almost never wins in product
attribute trade-offs (Ginsberg and Bloom, 2004, p79, also supported by Grant, 2007; Ottman,
2000; and Banerjee, 1999). Grant (2007, p.125) synthesizes this stating that Green itself is not
actually a functional product benefit. It does nothing for me directly, unless you count saving the
planet that I am standing on. This notion is far too complex and distant for consumers to take in,
or for marketers to convey effectively therefore Green products must still address the USP.
Grant (2007, p.126) divides the Market a Benefit approach into two opposing methods, the
less approach and the more approach where he argues most product benefits can be associated
with one or the other. For example, cheaper product attributes are associated with the less
approach. Whereas higher quality product attributes are associated with the more approach.
The less approach involves budget and low cost propositions where fewer frills (such as less
packaging) result in the Green product being better value for money and lower manufacturing
costs (Grant, 2007, p.126). Grant (2007, p.126) highlights this pitch can reach beyond dark
Greens and appeal to common sense, thus opening up the scope for sales. This advertising
method of conveying Green product advantages such as lower cost (as seen in energy efficient
light bulbs) is cited as rational appeals by Peattie (1992, p.201). Examples of this approach
include major supermarkets such as Tesco and ASDA who reduce the packaging of vegetables.
This approach is characterised by Grant (2007, p.2) as a beautiful coincidence where marketing
methods are beneficial for the environment and for businesses.
The more approach calls for niche and premium propositions which are built on high-value
(Grant, 2007, p.124), symbolism and status (Ottman et al, 2006). By adding more value and
luxury, the marketer is able to command premium prices with a more glamorous Green image.
These added elements could be high quality organic ingredients, or all natural cosmetics. One
example as cited by Grant (2007) is Green & Blacks, a premium quality chocolate company
who aim to incorporate eco values into luxurious chocolate.

11

Nicola Troup

Student ID: 7043284

1st May 2009

2.3.1.5 B - Greener
Grant (2007, p.134) explains B, Greener, to be moving beyond commercial objectives to
involve consumers more in the process of being Green. An excellent example of this, as cited by
Grant (2007), is Ariels Turn to 30C campaign which promotes their product as being Green
by saving energy (and money) through using colder water yet still achieving the same cleaning
result. Through this, Ariel involved consumers to help the environment and promote their Green
identity. Grant (2007) explains that this excited consumers by sharing enthusiasm for the
environment and motivating them by involving them in a public scheme, community or activity
(p.63) with commercial results being a by-product (p.134). This community notion helps to
combat the feeling of not being able to make an environmental difference by one persons
behaviour alone. This is a common concern of peoples resulting in them possibly not changing
their behavior because of feelings of apathy (Kuhn, 2005). Grants (2007) grid B solutions also
address the problem of the lack of focus on post purchase consumption which makes up for a
large proportion of environmental consumption (Peattie, 1999).

2.3.1.6 B1 - Develop the Market

Grant (2007, p.138) describes developing the market as partnering with consumers to generate
more mainstream demand for Green products and companies. He advocates that this is a natural
way of developing the Green market without running the dangers of greenwash as one is only
passing on good information and encouraging informed choices to improve Green and
commercial objectives (Grant, 2007, p.138). This method lets people know that companies and
consumers are going Green together and is a key sentiment for Green marketing (Grant, 2007,
p.141). Grant (2007, p.139) highlights that companies are in a unique position to bring the
public around to a sustainable outlook and way of life, a point also stressed by Zinkhan and
Carlson (1995, p.2), as companies are able to lead a society toward a more ideal world. Grant
(2007) reveals two approaches of developing the market, the education approach and the
evangelise approach.
The education approach simply concerns educational marketing, or building knowledge rather
than image (Grant, 2007, p.141). Educating consumers about becoming Greener can, as Grant
12

Nicola Troup

Student ID: 7043284

1st May 2009

(2007) has indicated, develop the market for Green products and services. Examples of such
campaigns include Marks & Spencers Look Behind The Label which encouraged consumers
to make more informed product choices based on a variety of factors such as organic and locally
sourced produce. However, in the literature there is a conflict as to whether or not an increase in
environmental knowledge has an effect on environmental behaviour (Dembkowski and HanmerLloyd, 1994). Writers such as Maloney et al (1975) and Borden and Schettino (1979) suggest
there is not a positive relationship between an increase in environmental knowledge and
environmental purchases. Whereas, Grant (2007); Peattie (1992) and Ottman (2002) imply a
strong relationship between an increase in knowledge and environmental behaviour. Studies such
as Ropers Green Gauge (cited in Ottman, 2002) show that 56 percent of Americans would do
more for the environment if they had sufficient knowledge to do so, indicating there is a positive
relationship between environmental education and action. However, Peattie (1992, p.144) warns
that companies educating consumers about Green issues could increase consumer interest in an
environmental issue to the point where they try to conserve rather than consume and seek out the
Greenest product regardless of brand.
Evangelising is the process of explaining ones beliefs and news about a particular aspect, (such
as The Body Shops beauty without cruelty values) in order to convince someone to adopt or
accept them. Grant (2007, p.72) explains this approach to be challenging the status quo through
emotive framing of the issues describing them as political campaigns to shape the public
agenda and move consumer demand in that direction. Grant (2007, p.148-149) highlights that
Green political campaigning is about convincing consumers that the radical position is normal
in order to get mainstream people involved. This approach is not just about commercial
outcomes and rather presses for change from society, industries and the government.

2.3.2 Ginsberg & Blooms Green Marketing Communication Strategies

Similar to Grants (2007) A1 theory, Ginsberg and Bloom, (2004) provide a discussion of
different types of Green marketing communication strategies which can be seen in figure 2.

13

Nicola Troup

Student ID: 7043284

1st May 2009

Figure 2 Green Marketing Communication Strategies (Ginsberg and Bloom, 2004, p.81)

Ginsberg and Bloom, (2004) highlight 4 types of Green marketing strategies (Lean, Defensive,
Shaded and Extreme Green) which strengthens Grants (2007, p.93) three broad views as to the
communication of CSR commitments. Ginsberg and Blooms (2004) diagrammatical
presentation and detailed description provide a strong framework for distinguishing different
company strategies. While it is felt that these strategies are very useful, they are not as distinctive
and separate in the way that Grants (2007) suggestion of three strategies is. I feel that any one
company could fit into one of Grants (2007) typologies and then subsequently into one or two of
Ginsberg and Blooms (2004) strategies as explored below.
2.3.2.1 Lean Green
A Lean Green strategy can be related to Grants (2007, p.93) covert, Scandinavian Green
marketing strategy. Ginsberg and Bloom (2004, p.81) describe a Lean Green strategy as trying
to be good corporate citizens, but are not focused on publicizing or marketing their Green
initiatives. They then go further to note that Lean Green companies are more interested in
reducing production and product costs through pro-environmental activities, thereby creating a
lower-cost competitive advantage, not a Green one (Ginsberg and Bloom, 2004, p.81). This idea
is also in line with Grants (2007, p.126) less approach and Peatties (1992, p.201) rational
appeals.

14

Nicola Troup

Student ID: 7043284

1st May 2009

2.3.2.2 Defensive Green

Grants (2007, p.93) depiction of typical British Green marketing strategy can be seen in
Ginsberg and Blooms (2004, p.82) Defensive Green, where these companies see Green
marketing as a precautionary measure, a response to a crisis or a response to a competitor's
actions. These types of companies are concerned with their brand image and see Green
consumers as profitable constituencies they cannot afford to alienate. The foundation of their
Green marketing advertising is built on gaining a competitive advantage on the basis of
Greenness (Ginsberg and Bloom, 2004, p.82).

2.3.2.3 Shaded Green

Shaded Greens can again be linked to Grants (2007, p.93) covert depiction of Green marketing
strategy. Ginsberg and Bloom (2004, p.82) state that these companies view Green as a long-term
opportunity to develop innovative needs resulting in the possibility for a competitive
advantage. However, they choose not to differentiate themselves on Greenness and instead
advertise their other tangible benefits, leaving Green benefits as secondary (Ginsberg and
Bloom, 2004, p.82) a technique praised by many (see Grant, 2007; Ottman et al, 2006; and
Ottman, 2000).

2.3.2.3 Extreme Green

Finally, Extreme Green companies are shaped around holistic philosophies and values
(Ginsberg and Bloom, 2004, p.83) which permeate their operations (Grant, 2007, p.83) with
their business being fully integrated with environmental issues and advertise heavily as so.
Ginsberg and Bloom (2004, p.83) further identify this style arguing that Green concerns are
usually a major driving force behind Extreme Green companies from the start and that they
often serve niche markets. This type of Green marketing strategy aligns with Grants (2007)
overt strategy.

15

Nicola Troup

Student ID: 7043284

1st May 2009

2.3.3 Corporate Construction of Consumer Responsibility

Caruana and Crane (2008) provide an insightful article evaluating the role of corporate
involvement in shaping consumer responsibility. They argue that a corporations discourse helps
move the passive yet concerned citizen into an active and responsible consumer (Caruana and
Crane, 2008, p.10) by constructing products (in this case responsible tourism) as environmentally
friendly. This discussion provides a valuable examination of how corporations construct Green
products and encourage consumers to purchase them by stimulating their responsible conscience.
Caruana and Crane (2008) identify three methods to be used in conjunction to engage consumers
in environmentally friendly purchases.
Firstly, managing categories involves aligning purchases and products to create responsible and
irresponsible consumer types. By creating these binary distinctions this view categorizes
purchases as being morally good or bad, resulting in consumers desiring to act in the correct
way (Caruana and Crane, 2008, p.17). This can be linked to Grants (2007) ideas of evangelism,
where morals and values are presented so as to persuade a consumer to act in line with them.
Secondly, veiling tensions consists of essentially hiding or veiling the contradictions that may
exist in the responsible product categories (Caruana and Crane, 2008, p.17). In terms of
responsible tourism, the truly responsible thing to do would be to not to go on holiday at all, or
concerning the consumption of products, to instead conserve (a dilemma identified by Peattie,
1992). Caruana and Crane (2008) suggest overcoming this by managing the categories
effectively as previously discussed by pointing (Grant, 2007, p.71) to the products responsible
attributes whilst drawing a moral curtain around others (Davis and Crane, 2003, cited in
Caruana and Crane, 2008, p18).
Finally, institutionalizing responsible choices involves establishing responsible products as
normal. Grant (2007, p.56) supports this argument stating that the key to Green marketing lies in
making Green stuff seem normal. Caruana and Crane (2008, p.19) describe this final process as
a major corollary of the proposed transition from concerned citizen to responsible consumer
where corporations have constructed an institutionalisation of responsible consumer choices.

16

Nicola Troup

Student ID: 7043284

1st May 2009

2.4 Challenges and problems of Green marketing

Green marketing utilises some commercial marketing techniques such as image promotion and
product management to achieve company and environmental goals. However, there are
complications unique to Green marketing due to its more controversial and abstract nature. Many
authors such as Peattie and Crane (2005) identify with the difficult process of Green marketing
adoption, arguing that problems, such as the ones discussed below, prevent the progression
towards a more sustainable environment. Grant (2007, p.29) recognises the challenges of Green
marketing, claiming that they stem from our lifestyles needing to change beyond recognition.
This section identifies some of the practical problems in Green marketing and the possible
effects they could have on stakeholders.

2.4.1 Green Advertising Problems

One would assume that advertising plays a fundamental role in Green marketing due to the
growing attention given to Green issues discussed in section 2.2.1. However, this is not the case
with writers such as Iver and Banerjee (1993 p.494) describing the dire lack of credibility in
Green advertising as shocking. Grant (2007) also recognised this problem and, as highlighted in
section 2.3.1, has suggested many alternatives to promoting companies Green image.
Shrum et al (1995); Zinkhan and Carlson (1995); and Schlegelmilch (1991) highlight the
skeptical and distrustful nature of consumers in regards to Green advertising. Wasik (1996, p.9)
argues consumers, who have become numbed by Green product claims, ecologo programs, and
environmental group agendas, are less receptive to Green messages. A survey done by Abt
Associates (1990, cited in Iver and Banerjee, 1993, p.494) reported that the least credible source
of information was an advertisement placed by a major company. With this surveys results
clearly showing advertisings lack of credible presence in the Green marketing arena, it has
caused marketers to turn to environmental advertising agencies and consultancies to help their
promotion performance and credibility (Schlegelmilch, 1991). Compounding this lack of
credibility in Green advertising, Davis (1992, p.81) highlights the often apparent lack of ethical
considerations integrated into them. He describes Green advertising claims as confused,
misleading or outright illegal, an argument also supported by Wasik (1996); and Grant (2007).
17

Nicola Troup

Student ID: 7043284

1st May 2009

Davis (1992) contends that the ironic lack of ethics in Green marketing may result in long-term
harm, which is evident in the skepticism still found in Green consumers today (Grant, 2007).

2.4.2 Greenwashing
Grant (2007, p.85) comically describes the greenwashing problem as putting a lettuce in the
window of a butchers shop and declaring that you are now turning vegetarian! He holds that
snappy and simplistic Green advertising slogans are not appropriate as consumers are more
sceptical about advertising (see section 2.4.1) which can actually compound the greenwashing
effect. The key to avoiding this is to have credible claims with actual Green product attributes
(Grant, 2007; Peattie, 1992; Ginsberg and Bloom, 2004; and Ottman et al, 2006). Laufer (2003)
argues that greenwashing, as well as being inherently unethical, erodes all that honest Green
marketing stands for such as genuinely improving Green consumption and awareness. Grant
(2007) also highlights that people accuse companies of greenwashing faster and more
passionately than they protest the environmental shortcomings of a company which does not
claim virtue.

2.4.3 Claiming Virtue

Grant (2007, p.79-81) discusses the danger of claiming virtue through Green image marketing
and describes virtue as something that cannot be claimed, let alone proclaimed. Similarly
integrity is highlighted by Grant (2007) as an important factor of successful Green marketing. He
contends that strategies associated with what he refers to as Green image marketing often do
not specifically consider honesty (Grant, 2007, p.81). Grant (2007, p.81) states that a virtuous
image of any sort can lead to a crucifixion, should you ever be found less than perfect. This
outcome can be seen in many examples such as BPs Beyond Petroleum campaign which was
heavily criticized as they are actually many years away from being so (Grant, 2007, p.85).

18

Nicola Troup

Student ID: 7043284

1st May 2009

2.5 Chapter Summary and Research Objectives

A review of the literature has highlighted a number of Green marketing strategies and its
complexities in regards to promoting environmentally preferable products to consumers. Green
concerns have been growing exponentially to the point where it surrounds our daily lives due to
the damage brought on by modernisation. As has been found, Green marketing is not as simple
as conventional marketing as one is trying to convince a wide audience of Green company
credentials, efforts and products. In order to reach the public a range of different Green
marketing strategies can be adopted to influence their purchases or behaviours. Grants (2007)
Green marketing grid has been highlighted as a comprehensive and well supported framework of
Green marketing methods and will be used extensively in this study. The Green marketing
communication methods illustrated in Grants (2007) Green marketing grid are setting an
example, credible partners, marketing a benefit and developing the market. Grant (2007) does
highlight more approaches, however, for the commercial nature of this study only these four
have been analysed. Grant (2007) highlighted three types of strategies which I have named
covert, overt and intermediate (see appendix 15). Notably, all communication methods
mentioned can follow one of these types of strategies as highlighted by Grant (2007) (see
appendix 16).
Reflecting upon the issues raised in this literature review, it was apparent that no insight was
given into the understanding of the effects different Green marketing communication strategies
have on consumers perceptions and opinions. Hence my three research objectives are listed
below where the next chapter will cover the methodology of the following investigation. The
aims of this study are:
1. To explore a range of Green marketing communication strategies related to Grants
(2007) suggestions (overt, intermediate and covert, see appendix 15).
2. To examine and compare how different Green marketing communication strategies effect
the opinions consumers have on the Green communications of a company.
3. To evaluate consumer perceptions of the Green efforts exhibited by the three distinct
Green marketing communication strategies.

19

Nicola Troup

Student ID: 7043284

1st May 2009

Chapter 3 Research Methods

3.1 Introduction
From the three research objectives identified in section 2.5, appropriate research methods must
be applied to fully satisfy the aims of this study. A detailed outline of methodological positions
related to this study will follow to identify the research assumptions and subject orientation. A
critical analysis justifying the use of particular methods to be used in this study will proceed
whilst referencing to previous studies to strengthen the research method rationale. The
foundation of this research will be based on a multiple comparative case study of IKEA, The
Body Shop (TBS) and Tesco in order to identify and explore a range of Green marketing
communication strategies. The effect on consumers these strategies have will be examined and
compared using discourse and semiotics analysis of the relevant companies websites and a
netnography search of consumers opinions and perceptions of the companies Green marketing
communications. Finally this section will conclude to summarise the methods to be employed in
the results and analysis chapter.

3.2 Research Methodology

Identifying the core assumptions underlying research is essential as subject orientation shapes
ones ontological and epistemological position (Marsh & Furlong, 2002) which informs the
research methods used. The ideas and topics involved in this study suggests an interpretivist
position which subscribes to the view that the world does not exist independently of our
knowledge of it' (Grix, 2004, p.84). The need and development of Green marketing and Green
products has arisen socially due to over consumption and pollution resulting from our lifestyles.
The concerns over Green marketing are products of self sabotaging high standards of living, thus
fitting with an interpretivist view that the world is socially constructed. To further this, Green
marketing issues (such as promotional techniques) have consumer concerns associated with them
(such as Green advertisement credibility) which are socially created.
20

Nicola Troup

Student ID: 7043284

1st May 2009

Interpretivists believe in subjectivity and gaining an understanding of social phenomena, rather

than objectivity and seeking explanations as with positivism (Grix, 2004, p.83). Due to
subjectivity being core to this study, I will use first person throughout to further highlight that
interpretations of the data are my own.
The complexities associated with Green marketing, as discussed in chapter two, means that
explanations alone are not feasible or suitable, and rather an understanding as to how different
Green marketing strategies have different effects on consumers perceptions and opinions is
more apt. Qualitative methods, which are to be employed in this study, are strongly associated
with interpretivism which allows for results which are sensitive to social issues and
interpretations from the social world.

3.3 Multiple Comparative Case Study

The main choice of method for my study is a multiple comparative case study. As Yin (1993,
p.1) supports case studies to be an appropriate choice of method when the phenomenon under
study is not readily distinguishable from its context, I have found that this makes my
investigation of Green marketing particularly suitable to case study analysis. This study will use
organisational case studies to examine Green marketing which is an approach that is also
supported by Yin (2003) and can be seen in studies such as Ingenbleek et al (2007) and
Tannenbaum and Woods (1992). Yin (2003, p.11) identifies that the large amount of rich data
from case studies can result in massive, unreadable documents. However, due to the limited
nature of this study and concise documentation this problem can be minimised. A multiple
comparative case study is a suitable method for exploration of different Green marketing
communication strategies due to the results from such studies being often considered more
compelling and more robust (Herriott and Firestone, 1983, cited in Yin, 2003, p.46). This
method can be seen in larger studies such as Cramer et als (2006) 18 company comparative
study of corporate social responsibility. Due to time constraints, my study aims to only compare
three companies Green marketing communication strategies. This will be done in a systematic
way to address the contrasting method and thus effects of differing Green marketing
communication strategies on consumers opinions. The justification of the chosen company case
21

Nicola Troup

Student ID: 7043284

1st May 2009

studies will follow where the methods chosen to study each of the three companies are discussed
in section 3.4 and 3.5.

3.3.1 Justification of Chosen Cases

The three companies chosen to compare Green marketing communication strategies are IKEA,
TBS and Tesco. These have been selected as Grants (2007, p.93) A1 grid Set an Example
distinguishes between three types of Green marketing communication approaches. These have
been termed, overt, covert and intermediate and can be viewed in appendix 15. These companies
have been chosen for the purposes of this study from preliminary research carried out on each of
the companies websites to determine the openness of their Green marketing communications,
and thus their strategy type.

Overt Green marketing communication strategy Tesco

From preliminary research Tesco communicate their Green marketing campaigns

explicitly through their Greener Living website (www.tesco.com/greenerliving) which
ranges from advertising their Green products to tips on Greener gifts. I believe that
Tescos large focus on Green marketing in their extensive devoted website makes them a
suitable candidate for an overt Green marketing communication strategy case.

Intermediate Green marketing communication strategy TBS.

TBSs founder, Anita Roddick, had an emotional connection with environmental issues
which is exhibited in TBSs corporate values. They are world renowned for having
environmental values and have strong Green marketing campaigns such as Protect Our
Planet (http://www.thebodyshop.com/_en/_ww/values-campaigns/protect-planet.aspx?).
However, although their Green concerns are established, I initially perceive them to differ
from an overt Green marketing strategy because their Green efforts seem to be less
obviously connected to commercial concerns. Therefore, I believe TBS is suitable
candidate for the intermediate Green marketing communication strategy case.

Covert Green marketing communication strategy IKEA

IKEA is a Swedish company, which Grant (2007) cites as being modest in their Green
marketing communications. In addition to this, from initial research of IKEAs website
(www.IKEA.com) it was not easy to find out about their Green efforts, which makes
IKEA particularly suitable for the covert Green marketing strategy case study.
22

Nicola Troup

Student ID: 7043284

1st May 2009

3.4 Website Analysis

Company website analysis of IKEA (www.IKEA.com/gb/en/), TBS (www.thebodyshop.co.uk/)
and Tesco (www.tesco.com/) will form the basis for a detailed analysis of their Green marketing
communications. A similar sort of method was used by Caruana and Crane (2008) in their
research of how responsible consumption is constructed, thus justifying the application of this
method. Also, Yin (2003, p.86) endorses this method as being stable as it can be reviewed
repeatedly noting that it is unobtrusive. The analysis of company websites aims to explore
each website systematically before moving onto the next so as not to impair findings. The
research will begin by opening the home page and noting the findings and progression of pages
entered from then on. I foresee no problem in accessing the information from the company
website as this study only aims to evaluate what is readily available to the public. However, as
highlighted by Yin (2003, p.86) there is an opportunity for reporting an unknown bias of the
author. In this case it is important not to analyse the websites with a preexisting opinion of the
company to be investigated. Any Green marketing communications found have to be appreciated
and documented in order to achieve representational and ethical results.

3.5 Netnography

The second element of this study is also conducted online and uses netnography to explore
consumers publicly existing perceptions and opinions about the companies of investigation.
Kozinets (1997; 2002; 2006), a strong advocate of netnography, describes netnography to be a
new qualitative research methodology that adapts ethnographic research techniques to study the
cultures and communities that are emerging through computer-mediated communications or the
internet (Kozinets, 2002, p.62). Netnography is a suitable method for this piece of research as it
involves observing people on the internet unobtrusively and provides window into naturally
occurring behavior (Kozinets, 2002, p. 62) that other marketing research tools do not lend
themselves to (Sandlin, 2007). Kozinets (2006, p.281) supports netnography methods to be
faster, simpler, and much less expensive than traditional ethnography. It can allow almost up-to-

23

Nicola Troup

Student ID: 7043284

1st May 2009

the minute assessments of consumers' collective pulse. Further reason for choosing netnography
is because it has particular strength in the revelatory depth of online communications
whereby interesting and useful conclusions might be drawn from a relatively small number of
messages (Kozinets, 2006, p.64). Therefore, this method is suitable to the time constraints of
this study. Kozinets (2002, p.63) highlights that in the identification of relevant communities,
online search engines will prove invaluable and in line with Kozinets (2002) recommendations
www.groups.google.com will be the search engine used for the netnography element of this
study. For concentrating the search results, the company name (i.e. Tesco) plus Green will be
entered into the search function to garner relevant postings (e.g. Tesco + Green). In order to
generate a manageable and sufficient amount of data, in accordance with Kozinets (2002, p.64),
data collection for this study will continue as long as new insights on important topical areas are
still being generated.
The full results of the netnography are displayed in appendix 45-47 and the accompany CD. The
results relevant to the analysis of the research objectives will be included in chapter four as
quotes. These quotes will be referenced using the users forum name, year of posting and website
code. A website coding system has been used to protect the identity of participants as later
discussed and can be viewed in appendix 21-44.

Ethical considerations are necessary due to the involvement of participants for the netnography
element of this study. Hudson et al (2004) reveal that users often do not want to participant in
such studies. However, this research involves the observation of publicly available information.
Kozinets (2002, p.65) quotes Rafaelis (cited in Sudweeks and Rafaeli 1995) conclusion from a
private versus public information debate stating that informed consent was implicit in the act of
posting a message to a public area. In harmony with Kozinets (2002, p.65) suggestions this
study has taken certain precautions to provide anonymity to users by concealing their real
identities. Although users discussion names have been used to give depth to the study, the user
names do not appear to reflect their real names (e.g. Godoftheforest). Additionally, the websites
from which their comments were taken from will not be revealed. In line with Rafaelis (cited in
Sudweeks and Rafaeli 1995 in Kozinets, 2002, p.65) review, users will not be informed of the
research observation so as to not interfere with the natural flow of conversations. It must be
noted that this approach is contested with King (1996) arguing that users may not be aware of the
24

Nicola Troup

Student ID: 7043284

1st May 2009

public nature of their online communications, making informed consent from users advisable.

3.6 Analysis Methods

The two analysis method to be use for the website analysis and netnography are discourse
analysis and semiotic analysis which are discussed and outlined below. These two methods have
been found to support the aims of my study in producing the most valuable and relevant
qualitative results.

3.6.1 Discourse Analysis

Potter (2000, p.105) is a prominent discourse analyst who argues that this method explores the
why and how of descriptions which is suitable to the interpretivist orientation in this study.
Taylor (2001, cited in OSullivan, 2007, p.297) highlights that discourse analysis is marked by
its close study of language in use, therefore, the analysis of the results from both the website
analysis and netnography will consist of exploring the way in which things are written, described
and use of grammar. Discourse analysis will be used to identify things such as language of the
websites to determine its type of communications, marketing appeals and desired image. For
netnography, discourse analysis will be used to analyse such things as grammar and use of words
to determine users opinions and perceptions of the relevant companys Green communication
efforts. By doing this I will be maximizing on how language actively creates a deeper meaning to
the issues behind what is written and intended to be read (OSullivan, 2007). Building on the
importance of using language analysis for this study, OSullivan (2007, p.297) points out
without language there can be no meaning and we cannot apprehend reality. Discourse analysis
is an accepted method, and has been used in such recent marketing studies as Caruana et als
(2008) study of consumer independence using critical discourse analysis, providing further
justification of this method for this study.

3.6.2 Semiotic Analysis

For this study I have also considered the use of semiotic analysis, the analysis of signs, symbols
and text, which has been praised by Potter (2000) and Fairclough (2001, cited in OSullivan,

25

Nicola Troup

Student ID: 7043284

1st May 2009

2007) for its meaningful analysis. Semiotics is the cultural and linguistic study of signs and
symbols, the meanings they hold and the communication intentions and significance they have
on the viewer (Chandler, 2002). This study demands the use of semiotic analysis because of the
symbolism used in the website analysis, such as the use of culturally environmental colours
(green) to signify an environmental focus. Additionally the netnography results require some
semiotic analysis concerning the emoticons some users may use to evoke their feelings which is
relevant to the objectives of this research. By using semiotic analysis where appropriate a deeper
meaning behind the signs and symbols of the research can be gained, thus benefitting my
discussions.

3.7 Summary
The orientation of this study has been identified as interpretivist where a strong emphasis is
placed on how the world is socially constructed and is associated with qualitative research. This
position is suitable to the complex social nature of Green marketing and will provide a basis for
in depth qualitative analysis of the results. The primary chosen method of this study is a multiple
comparison company case study to provide an understanding of consumers opinions and
perceptions of three different Green marketing communication strategies. The three companies I
have chosen for investigation are IKEA, who I have initially identified as having a covert
strategy, TBS, with an intermediate strategy, and Tesco with an overt Green marketing
communication strategy. The case study analysis will involve two online methods, company
website analysis and netnography of newsgroups and forums. Throughout this chapter these
methods have been justified with supporting literature and previous studies which have
strengthened my choices. These methods will be analysed using the language based discourse
analysis and semiotic analysis, the study of signs and symbol. It is the hope that from these
methods, an in depth evaluation of Green marketing communication strategies will form the
basis of a comprehensive study of their effects on consumers opinions and perceptions.

26

Nicola Troup

Student ID: 7043284

1st May 2009

Chapter 4 Results and Analysis

4.1 Introduction
This chapter commences the research element of this study. Through a company website analysis
of Tescos, TBSs and IKEAs Green marketing communications, a case study has been
constructed to highlight each companys Green marketing communication strategy. Factors
included in the website analysis will be how open their Green marketing communications are
made, the type of information they offer, the type of Green marketing methods they employ from
Grants (2007) Green marketing grid, and the overall look and feel of their online strategy. Then
a netnography of each of the companies will continue in order to search newsgroups, forums and
discussions for consumers opinions and perceptions related to the companies Green marketing
communication strategy. The netnography will look at how consumers explain their opinions
and feelings by use of language, grammar and emoticons. Through the combination of these two
methods I believe that it should allow for meaningful analysis throughout.

4.2 Website Analysis

4.2.1 Tesco Website Analysis

Upon opening Tescos website (www.tesco.com on 25th January, 2009) no immediate Green
marketing communications were found and instead a commercial feel existed (see appendix 3).
Tesco was initially thought to be an overt Green marketing communication strategy company.
However, I have found that Tesco and their Greener living website is more akin to the
intermediate strategy due to their more toned down marketing methods than found in the
preliminary research. When scrolling down on Tescos home page, a link was found to their
Greener living website which is highlighted with a red circle in appendix 3. Tescos Greener
living logo (see appendix 1) is striking because, as opposed to their normal colour scheme of red
and blue (see appendix 2), Tesco is in green. This highlights the difference in brand image
where Greener living Tesco appears to be a separate entity with its own home page, thus

27

Nicola Troup

Student ID: 7043284

1st May 2009

illustrating the resources devoted to providing such Green service. By using the colour green,
Tesco signifies the complete change in appearance where this page appears to concentrate on
Green goals rather than commercial goals. Additionally, their motto, Greener living, refers to
going beyond just purchases, suggesting a more holistic strategy. The emphasis of living in
italics also places importance on this aspect. Tescos Greener living logo also makes use of a
leaf incorporated into the G (as shown in appendix 1). This connotes a feeling of nature and
that Tesco is working in harmony with the environment.
The Greener living home page (see appendix 5) displays items such as recycling, Green home
products, a government link to CO2 calculator and a home insulation service. A common theme
on the home page is education about Green issues and ideas, with solutions being rooted in
Tesco products. Education as a method of communication can be seen in Grants (2007, p141)
B1 Green marketing grid framework Develop the Market. See appendix 48 for an excerpt of
such evidence in Tescos website analysis.
The first item on their navigational tool bar is, What we are doing, which conveys their
commitments and current goals. The first subject on this page is the recycling of Christmas
cards. Here Tesco has teamed up with The Woodland Trust to offer such recycling facilities.
Grant (2007, p.109) identifies this method as A2 of his Green marketing grid -Credible
Partners, and is used throughout Tescos Greener living website.
This first page also offers information about Tescos reductions in carrier bags and the variety of
reusable bags they offer. In addition to this they link some of their reusable bags to Marie Curie
Cancer Care through a 50p donation per bag bought (www.tesco.com/greenerliving/
what_we_are_doing/cath_kidston_bags.page?). Here Tesco can be seen as trying to use more
reasons than the environment to encourage shoppers to not use their free carrier bags which can
be linked to the literature supporting the showcasing of non-green benefits alongside Green ones
(Grant, 2007; Ottman et al, 2006; Ginsberg and Bloom, 2004; and Banerjee, 1999). Additionally,
Tesco are changing the offer of their carrier bags so that customers have to ask for them at check
outs to try and change the throw away culture. They have also gone to lengths to thank customers
for their help to halve the number of carrier bags given out (www.tesco.com/
greenerliving/what_we_are_doing/carrier_bags/default.page?). From my analysis, by including
the customer on this sort of personal level Tesco hopes that customers will cooperate more with
28

Nicola Troup

Student ID: 7043284

1st May 2009

their Green efforts which is in line with Grants (2007) idea of sharing Green responsibility with
customers and minimises feelings of apathy as recognised by Kuhn (2005).
Tesco has a unique rewards point scheme connected to their Clubcard membership. These
Green Clubcard points (www.tesco.com/greenerliving/what_we_are_doing/green_clubcard
_points/default.page?) can be gained through recycling mobile phones and ink cartridges and reusing shopping bags. This type of reward scheme method is to encourage more Green behaviour
from customers and has not been highlighted in the literature.
Tesco also showcases their Green successes in their what we are doing page
(www.tesco.com/greenerliving/what_we_are_doing/greener_packaging/default.page?)

through

their Greener packaging initiative. Grant (2007, p71) highlights this type of Green marketing
communication to be framing, where Tesco are talking about their operations and principles in
a progressive policy. This allows consumers to see what Tesco are doing. Additionally, Tesco
have tied in this approach with Pointing to hero products (Grant, 2007, p.71). Here they have
used their own branded product to display how they have saved tonnes of waste on packaging
(see appendix 4), connecting them to Greener operations. Tesco have also used the Government
agency WRAP (Waste & Resources Action Programme) and DEFRA (Department for
Environment, Food and Rural Affairs) to make their efforts more credible. Another way in which
Tesco is using credible sources (Grant, 2007) is in their trialing of carbon labeling with the
Carbon

Trust

(www.tesco.com/greenerliving/what_we_are_doing/carbon_labelling.page?).

Their attempts to make Green progress, such as their carbon labeling efforts, aim at putting them
at the forefront of environmental supermarkets and to set new standards for all (Grant, 2007).
The final item on Tescos What are we doing page is their 2008 Big Tick Award for an
example of excellence in environmental leadership. As they have highlighted this award quite
prominently, my analysis suggests this is an attempt to further prove their Green efforts to
visitors through third party recognition (Ottman et al, 2006)
The second group of items on Tescos Greener living home page navigation bar is What you
can do and contains the following pages; At home, Your Garden, Getting Around, Family
and Products. Each of these pages contains Articles, Ask an Expert, How we are Helping,
Products, Forums and Your Stories and appeared to be aimed at educating and helping
29

Nicola Troup

Student ID: 7043284

1st May 2009

visitors to be Greener people and consumers. Forums (forums.tesco.com) make up a large

section of the Greener living website possibly in the aim to form more of a community feeling.
Discussion topics include being Green at home, work, school, in the garden, whilst traveling,
with your children and conserving, reducing and recycling. This forms an extensive network
with thousands of posts and hundreds of discussions.
Finally, Tescos Greener living website devotes an entire section of the navigation bar to a
Green Glossary (www.tesco.com/greenerliving/green_glossary.page?) to help educate visitors
about Eco jargon.
Concerning Grants (2007) Green marketing grid, Tescos Greener living seems to be
orientated towards a less approach (Grant, 2007, p.126) where I interpret their focus to be on
being Green and affordable. Examples such as saving carbon and money and save energy,
reduce waste (www.tesco.com/greenerliving/products/green_home/default.page? indicate a less
approach to me with an emphasis on a more rational appeal which non-green shoppers can also
understand (Peattie, 1992, p.201).

4.2.2 The Body Shop Website Analysis

On The Body Shops (TBS) home page (www.thebodyshop.co.uk/_en/_gb/index.aspx on 27th
January 2009) (see appendix 6) I immediately noticed the green design and natural feel with the
use of dew dropped leaves. Instantly a link was found to view their Green marketing which is
highlighted with a red circle in appendix 6. The link is entitled values and campaigns
(www.thebodyshop.co.uk/_en/_gb/index.aspx) which connotes a deeper level of Green concern
and gives me the opinion that this is at the heart of the organisation. The ease of finding Green
marketing literature on TBSs website indicates to me that this is more of an overt Green
marketing communication strategy than an intermediate strategy as originally was assumed from
the preliminary research. Unlike Tesco, the Green element of TBS seems to be at one with the
commercial side due to its consistency in layout (compare appendix 6 and 7).
On

their

values

and

campaigns

(www.thebodyshop.co.uk/_en/_gb/values-campaigns/

index.aspx) page I immediately noticed the poetic nature of the language used which can be seen
30

Nicola Troup

1st May 2009

Student ID: 7043284

in their motivational introduction below. This type of language appears to be aimed at engaging
customers in TBSs values as the basis for buying their products:
The way we do business, the way we make products, the way we source
ingredients, and the way we use our voice; we're different because of our Values.
Due to TBSs range of values (from animal protection to domestic violence) this study will only
focus on their environment related values which is symbolised by their Protect Our Planet logo
(see appendix 8). Within this logo the use of the word Our helps involve visitors more
emotionally as it helps them to realise the planet as theirs to protect. From my analysis TBSs
inspirational language (an example of which can be seen in appendix 49) is an attempt to uplift
visitors and motivate them into action and to convince people that what TBS are doing is the
only way as opposed to being fashionable (www.thebodyshop.co.uk/_en/_gb/valuescampaigns/index.aspx).
In line with Grants (2007, p.72) argument, I have also interpreted TBSs communications as a
clear example of evangelism due to their extensive use of company campaigns to highlight the
issues their products support. It is my view that TBSs communications are similar to Peatties
(1992, p.201) emotional appeal, where they have used imagery of the planet and its animals to
convey an emotive plea (see appendix 9). I also saw TBS as attemping to include shoppers in
their Green campaigns by encouraging them to buy their Green is not a colour its a state of
mind

bag

for

life

(see

appendix

10)

(www.thebodyshop.co.uk/_en/_gb/catalog

/list.aspx?CategoryCode=C_ShopByLine_SupportOurCampaigns&ParentCatCode=C_ShopByLi
ne). It appears to me that TBS aim to create a true and holistic community of Green people and
not just shoppers.
Ive found Grants (2007, p.71) Framing technique in TBSs website where they explicitly
highlight

their

Environmental

Principles

in

formal

downloadable

document

(www.thebodyshop.co.uk/_en/_gb/services/pdfs/AboutUs/Environmentalprinciples.pdf?).

This

formal document connotes to visitors the seriousness that is taken with their principles and this is
escalated

by

their

voluntary

bi-annual

Values

Reports

(www.thebodyshop.co.uk/

_en/_gb/values-campaigns/index.aspx). Additionally, it was found that TBS also make use of

Pointing (Grant, 2007, p.71) where their ethically sourced Community Trade organic olive oil
31

Nicola Troup

1st May 2009

Student ID: 7043284

(one of the ingredients of some of their products) (www.thebodyshop.co.uk/_en/_gb/valuescampaigns/protect-planet.aspx) is highlighted as a hero product (Grant, 2007, p71).
From my evaluation, overall TBS appears to be concerned with cause related (Grant, 2007,
p.110) values and campaigns rather than directly linking their products to Green issues as with
Tesco. The vibe I get from TBS is that they do not need to closely link their products to Green
issues because they want Green causes to be the foundation of their commercial business goals
and thus their reputation would inevitably be transferred to their products. I interpret TBS as
taking a more approach (Grant, 2007, p.124) in their Green communications where they
suggest that you are getting more natural, effective and caring products with a small price
premium.

4.2.3 IKEA Website Analysis

Upon opening IKEAs home page (www.ikea.com/gb/en/ on 29th January 2009) there was no
obvious Green marketing communications, even on scrolling down. This immediately indicates
to me that, as Grant (2007) argued, IKEA adopts a covert Green marketing communication
strategy. An unobvious link was found to About IKEA which is circled in red on appendix 11.
This

link

took

me

to

their

About

IKEA

page

(www.ikea.com/ms/en_

GB/about_ikea_new/about/index.html) where again no Green marketing communications were

immediately found. When scrolling down a link to Our responsibility (see appendix 12) was
associated to environmental issues stating:
Low prices are the cornerstone of the IKEA vision and our business idea - but not
at any price. At IKEA, we believe that taking responsibility for people and the
environment is a prerequisite for doing good business. (www.ikea.com/ms/en_GB
/about_ikea_new/about/index.html)
This paragraph illustrates that as anticipated, Green issues are not the selling point of IKEA
products and rather the fulfilled responsibility naturally comes with their products. This also
highlights to me that IKEA employ a less approach similar to Tesco where they are focused on
keeping costs low as well as being Green (Grant, 2007, p.126). It is evident to me that IKEA

32

Nicola Troup

1st May 2009

Student ID: 7043284

takes environmental factors seriously with the amount of company material (codes of conduct,
environmental policies, environmental responsibility reports, facts and figures and environmental
brochures)

readily

available

for

visitors

to

view

(www.ikea.com/ms/en_GB

/about_ikea_new/about/read_our_materials/index.html). This is what Grant (2007, p.71) argues

to be framing. IKEA also appear show transparency in presenting their principles and
operations which reveals to me that, although they are quiet about their Green marketing
communications, information about their Green credentials and efforts are available for those
who look for it.
On IKEAs Our Responsibilities page (www.ikea.com/ms/en_GB/about_ikea_new/our_
responsibility/index.html), two environmental pages are highlighted; Climate Change and WWF
Partnerships. I found the Climate Change page (www.ikea.com/ms/en_GB/about_ikea
_new/our_responsibility/climate_change/index.html) to contain a mixture of framing and
pointing (Grant, 2007, p.71). According to my analysis, headings such as IKEA goes
Renewable fall under framing communications (Grant, 2007, p.71). Language used such as
we will and we are, connotes a sense of proactive progression and honesty in addressing
climate change. I read IKEAs use of words as committing them to their procedures and thus
having a positive effect on visitors perceptions. IKEA were also found to employ pointing
techniques (Grant, 2007, p.71) when they communicated that they will phase out the selling of
incandescent light bulbs in 2009 and instead offer compact fluorescent light bulbs (CFL).
Additionally, IKEA offer recycling services for CFLs, wherever they were bought, which further
highlights to me their holistic nature. IKEA then go on to frame (Grant, 2007, p.71) two of
their procedures concerning the transport of their products and people (both employees and
customers). They highlight that all of their products are flat packed to carry more items in each
lorry load, resulting in fewer journeys which equates to less fuel consumption and fewer
emissions

(www.ikea.com/ms/en_GB/about_ikea_new/our_responsibility/climate_change/

index.html). This also saves IKEA money on transportation which Grant (2007, p.2) highlights
as a beautiful coincidence where procedures are right for the environment and for business.
This rational (Peattie, 1992, p.201) policy is easy for customers to understand due to its
economical sense and I view their explanations as a valuable indication to consumers of their
overall honestly. Secondly, IKEA discuss their efforts to try and get customers and co-workers to
use public transport through locating their stores next to such services as buses and trains or
33

Nicola Troup

1st May 2009

Student ID: 7043284

providing a free bus service in some cities. This appeal coincides with Grants (2007) idea that
companies should share Green responsibility with customers. I believe such practical and honest
efforts

are

favoured

by

visitors

because

IKEA

give

you

the

possibility

(www.ikea.com/ms/en_GB/about_ikea_new/our_responsibility/climate_change/index.html)

to

act Greener in ways that go beyond buying their products and recycling. However, I find that
IKEAs transport efforts may be ineffective due to the logistics involved for customers to use
public transport once they have bought large items from IKEA.
IKEA highlight their extensive conservation partnership with WWF (World Wildlife Fund) to
promote responsible forestry, better cotton cultivation, and to address climate change
(www.ikea.com/ms/en_GB/about_ikea_new/our_responsibility/partnerships/wwf.html).

This

page is a combination of framing and pointing all in the name of the eco-label WWF (Grant,
2007, p.71 and p.110 respectively). Concerning their forestry projects IKEA highlight the
international range of projects they have helped in from 2005 to 2008 with WWF and Forest
Stewardship Council (FSC) which can be found at appendix 50.
IKEAs partnership with two well respected environmental agencies, WWF and FSC, brings
more credibility to their actions, products and Green marketing communications (Grant, 2007).
Additionally, throughout this section of their website IKEA have many links to downloadable
information on PDF format where visitors are able to view such communications if they wish to
(an

example

is

shown

in

appendix

13

of

www.mypaper.se/show/ikea/show.asp?

pid=345224322265443). This highlights to me the extent of their concern for environmental

causes due to the resources available and also brings to light the covert Green marketing
communication strategy IKEA have. IKEA employ a modest yet long-term approach where their
marketing is more focused on tangible benefits at a lower-cost competitive advantage rather than
a Green advantage. However, IKEA still try to be a good corporate citizen (Ginsberg and
Bloom, 2004, p.81) all of which is highly evident in their modest Green marketing
communications and information.

34

Nicola Troup

Student ID: 7043284

1st May 2009

4.2.4 Website analysis Summary

After analysing the three company websites, I have highlighted that there are a number of
differences in communication strategies employed across companies. These differences have
been summarised in a table of company methods according to Grants (2007, p.69) Green
marketing grid in appendix 14. Tesco was found to have an intermediate Green marketing
communication strategy and employed many methods on an extensive devoted website. TBS was
found to have an overt Green marketing communication strategy with more cause-related,
evangelistic methods. Finally, IKEA was, as anticipated, found to have a covert Green marketing
communication strategy with many downloadable documents available for visitors. This
discourse and semiotic analysis of the company websites provides a foundation for comparing
one anothers strategy in relation to the opinion held by users on the internet which is to follow.

4.3 Netnography Search Results

This section is complied of the results and analysis of the findings from the Green
www.groups.google.com netnography search of Tesco, TBS and IKEA. From the results a
number of interpreted key themes have been highlighted below. Within these themes relevant
quotes from forum and newsgroup users have been analysed by way of their language, possible
tones, meanings, emoticons and the implications of these concerning the Green marketing
communication strategy of the company in question.

4.3.1 Tesco Newsgroup Search Results

4.3.1.1 Introduction
This sections contains the collated data from searching Tesco + Green in newsgroups and
forums on www.groups.google.com. The data was collected from 8 different discussions where
this was later interpreted and organised into the 5 themes explored below. There was a large
amount of data found, however, I believe the excerpts shown in the below discussions provide
35

Nicola Troup

Student ID: 7043284

1st May 2009

representative results spanning important themes concerning Tescos Green marketing

communication strategy and the perceptions held by online consumers. The 5 themes highlighted
from the data are summarised below:

Green Clubcard point

Questioned Motives

Online Delivery Comments

Greenwashing

Good Opinions about Tesco

A detailed examination and showcasing of the results found will follow and provide insight into
the language and emoticons used through discourse and semiotic analysis.

4.3.1.2 Green Clubcard points

Tescos unique Clubcard system was a major point of discussion in the netnography findings and
mixed reactions have been found varying between excitement and dissapointment. Several
people identified Clubcard points were awarded for recycling and reusing bags, an example of
which can be seen below.
I noticed the green points promotion the other day. All very tree huggy and warm. (Tim
Hall, 2006, Website 5a)
Tim Hall (2006) displayed knowledge of the Green Clubcard points Tesco offers where he
indicated that he noticed the promotion which signifies to me that he was receptive to Tescos
Green marketing communications. However, he did not indicate that he engaged in the Green
Clubcard system which suggests to me that Tescos promotion might not have succeeded in
changing his actions. He then goes on to state that he thought this promotion was all very tree
huggy and warm. This comment was negative and sarcastic as tree huggers is a derogatory
term for environmentalists (wordnetweb.princeton.edu). Tim Halls (2006) disapproving
description connotes a negative perception to the promotion, signifying acknowledgement of a
sudden change in image.
36

Nicola Troup

Student ID: 7043284

1st May 2009

Tesco have now discontinued awarding points as people were abusing the service by
cutting plastics into several pieces to gain more points (I think it was a point per 4
items) (Rockinrocky_robin, 2008, Website 8a)
Rockinrocky_robin (2008) revealed a new aspect of discussion, being the reason for Tesco
discontinuing the Green points scheme for recycling. This development shed light on comments
found in other forums such as GillPs (2008) below:
I'm not quite sure whether Tesco are being petty, or whether it's the people who
(allegedly) cut their recycling up into bits !
However, I've queued often enough at the recycling dump and I have never seen anyone
feeding bits of anything into the machine! You can't cut up glass for a start, tins would be
a right job even with a hacksaw and I really can't imagine many people going to the
effort of cutting up milk bottles etc.
Could the real reason be anything to do with a (tiny little, comparatively speaking) dent
in Tesco's multi-million (or is it billion ?) profits ?? (GillP, 2008, Website 1a)
GillP (2008) highlights issues of trusting motives through her use of language. Firstly she
describes Tesco as being petty for discontinuing the Green points recycling reward scheme,
indicating her disapproval of its withdrawal. She then goes on to indicate that the people who
cutting up recycling are allegedly doing so. This highlights her distrust in the reasons Tesco
gave for the discontinuation of a service she used regularly. GillP (2008) justifies this claim by
stating her experience in the recycling service and argues that I have never seen anyone feeding
bits of anything into the machine! The use of bold font for the word never connotes her
seriousness and emotion felt over this issue. GillP (2008) then reveals that she thinks the real
reason Tesco have discontinued the service is because of a (tiny little comparatively speaking)
dent in Tesco's multi-million (or is it billion ?) profits. Here GillP (2008) ensues that Tesco have
discontinued the recycling points service because of a tiny dent in profit margins. This is an
interesting development as, from Tescos website analysis, a monetary image appears to be the
type of image they are trying to avoid with their Greener living promotion. GillPs (2008) profit
driven view is not unique in my findings, as seen below.
37

Nicola Troup

Student ID: 7043284

1st May 2009

The Clubcard points that they used to awarded for using their recycling facilities were
simply to get you through the front door of the store. (SeeYa, 2008, Website 8a)
SeeYa (2008) displays a less emotional opinion which is that Tesco only awarded Green points
for recycling as a goal to get consumers to spend in their store, again a profit driven motive.
However, I believe that this sort of opinion could be held due to Tescos education often being
supported by purchasing one of their products, as seen in the website analysis section.
I was most disappointed to discover, when I visited my local recycling centre today, that
Tesco are no longer giving Green Clubcard points for every 4 items. Not exactly
encouraging people to recycle is it? By taking my waste to Tesco, I felt I was getting
some reward for helping the environment. (Lbow, 2008, Website 1a)
Here, Lbow (2008) displays their disappointment in the discontinuation of Green Clubcard
points for recycling, highlighting that the new system now gives one point for every two
aluminum cans. Lbow (2008) then goes on to declare that the new system is not exactly
encouraging, which is not Tescos aim from my website analysis. This shows me that there is a
possible inconsistency in the message objective and opinions held by the public. However, Lbow
(2008) brings to light exactly what the Green Clubcard points intended to do, I felt like I was
getting some reward for helping the environment.
Do any of you think that recycling is reward in itself? Tesco being generous enough to
offer reward at all (Bon, 2008, Website 1a)
Bon (2008) comes to Tescos defense and highlights that recycling is rewarding which indicates
to me that they are a more advanced recycler and Green shopper. From my analysis of Tescos
website, this is the type of consumer Tesco would hope to educate their current consumers to be.
Bon (2008) argues that Tesco is generous enough to offer reward for recycling, illustrating a
high opinion held of Tescos promotion in this area.
I really liked that Tesco gave points for recycling, a little bonue and encouragment for
doing the recyling. I will continue to recycle but will save time and petrol by going to the

38

Nicola Troup

Student ID: 7043284

1st May 2009

local giant bins rather than going all the way to the Hatfield Tesco :o) (Mitonski, 2008,
Website 1a)
Finally, Mitonski (2008) highlights a positive opinion to Tescos change in Green Clubcard
points where even now that the point scheme has changed they will continue to recycle but do
so elsewhere. The use of an emoticon also indicates to me that they are happy with this outcome.
Here Tesco appears to have achieved its goal of getting customers to change their lifestyle habits
by initially offering a reward for recycling.

4.3.1.3 Questioned Motives

Tescos motives were questioned in three discussions where the notion was that people are
untrusting and believe Tesco to be primarily profit driven. The following quotes demonstrate this
finding:
I am not sure about Tesco's motives for this change. The reason for this change is not
being honestly explained and the reasons given do not make sense. I was told that the
points system was changed to improve the quality of the recycling.. I thought Tesco
wanted to encourage people to recycle and have made a big thing of supporting a
greener way of life. What they now REALLY want from the recycling machines is
aluminum cans. (Chelteda, 2008, Website 1a)
Chelteda (2008) is referring to the change in Green Clubcard points for recycling. Despite
contacting Tesco she is not sure about Tescos motives, claiming that the change in not being
honestly explained. Unhappy about the lack of justifiable reasons Chelteda (2008) states that she
thought Tesco wanted people to recycle due to their big thing of supporting a greener was of
life. On a positive note Chelteda (2008) recognised the purpose of Tescos Greener Living.
However, Chelteda (2008) then expressed that what they REALLY want is to be selective in
their Green initiatives.
It could be a PR exercise to see what it effect is has on sales at one store before rolling it
out nationwide.
39

Nicola Troup

Student ID: 7043284

1st May 2009

As it stands, two things will encourage supermarkets to go down that route.

In no particular order:

The energy saving measures will save money and have a reasonable return on capital
invested.

The public perception of what they are doing will increase their sales.
Supermarkets are businesses. That's their raison d'tre. Altruism isn't. (Besoeker, 2009,
Website 4a)

Besoeker (2009) is commenting on the recent Green stores Tesco has opened such as their Wick
branch in Scotland which boasts wind turbines among other carbon saving options. He argues
that these Green stores are a PR (public relations) exercise driven by the effects it has on
sales. Besoeker (2009) then goes on to suggest two reasons Tesco would become more
environmentally friendly, to save money and to increase sales. Besoeker (2009) sums up that
supermarkets reason to be is to make money not to help humanity. This is a negative view on
Tescos Green marketing endeavors, however, there is no mention of their efforts not being
effective.
The only reason I can find is that Tesco are trying to cash in on this renewable and
green energy source. It just highlights the lengths Tesco will go to to make a profit, pure
greed! (Jay Neal, 2008, 6a)
Jay Neal (2008) also displays Besoekers (2009) opinion in another discussion. The above quote
has been taken from a forum entitled Tesco Boycott and is part of a long angry outburst over
Tescos Green marketing communications where this shortened quote summarises the argument.
Jay Neals (2008) comment is highly negative and again suggests that Tesco is profit driven. Jay
Neal (2008) then goes on to describe Tescos efforts as pure greed! I interpret the emotion felt
in this statement as anger and disgust from the language used. Comments such as these highlight
that despite Tescos Green efforts, it is evident that the notion of supermarkets are a business
only, as highlighted by Besoeker (2009), is still prevalent.

40

Nicola Troup

Student ID: 7043284

1st May 2009

4.3.1.4 Online delivery Comments

Tescos online delivery was a heated topic in one newsgroup that was entitled Tesco online - not
very green! This conversation contained many posts and the following excerpts highlight the
issues brought out. Generally it was found that Tescos home delivery service was not
environmentally friendly on two levels, the number of plastic bags used for delivered goods and
the unnecessary miles traveled from dispatched store.
If you buy groceries online they swamp you with unwanted plastic bags. My last order
came in 27 bags with an average of 3.5 items in each. Absolutely ridiculous. (Helenbee,
2007, Website 3a)
I was pleased to see this time that there were fewer bags than before though. I do
remember one occasion when a small pack of paracetamol was all by itself in a plastic
bag! (Nireus, 2007, Website 3a)
Helenbee (2007) and Nireus (2007) both highlight that their experiences of home delivery were
unsatisfactory due to the amount of plastic bags recieved. Helenbee (2007) even calculated the
average number of items in each bag, upon which she remarked was absolutely ridiculous. This
demonstrates the lengths to which consumer will go to evaluate companies Green credentials.
Nireuss (2007) later comment highlighted that they saw an improvement in the service where
fewer bags were given out. However, Nireus (2007) revealed an experience where they found a
small pack of paracetamol in a bag of its own. I believe that it is these occurrences that
counteract what advertising Tesco might do to improve their Green image.
I subsequently discovered that my order was actually despatched from another store 12
miles away and not the one 4 miles from my house. How "green" is that?! (Gretal, 2007,
Website 3a)
Gretals (2007) experience showed me that the logistical nature of Tescos online delivery is not
consistent with their Green marketing communications where an extra 8 food miles were
unnecessarily added on to her delivery. Gretal (2007) then remarked how green is that?! as
an appropriate conclusion considering their resources devoted to educating consumers about
Greener shopping and transportation as seen in my website analysis. The use of commas around
41

Nicola Troup

Student ID: 7043284

1st May 2009

the word green highlights a distrustful feeling towards their promotions. This section has
shown that although Tesco aim to be Green, it is actions and experiences such as the above
which hamper their efforts. In a consumer society where people are far more informed due to the
internet (Pitt et al, 2002), any bad comments such as these can really hurt their reputation and the
extent to which customers trust them.

4.3.1.5 Greenwashing
In my findings Tesco was accused of greenwashing in two separate forums and casts a negative
image on them and their communications. A greenwashing reputation is not a desired image for
any company as it portrays them as being commercially driven simply using the environment to
gain sales.
Yet another greenwash example, from a company that pretends to be green while
ramping up the air miles, food miles and CO2 emissions. "Chief Exec. of Tesco, Terry
Leahy, today evaded various campaigners at Manchester's Whitworth Art Gallery who
were anxious to discuss his company's recent 25 mil. investment in Manchester
University's "Sustainable Consumption" Institute, yet another Tesco greenwash." (Doug
2008, Website 2a)
Doug (2008) instigated a long discussion that stemmed from this comment. Here he uses a quote
from a news report to justify another greenwash example. Dougs (2008) language suggests an
ongoing negative attitude towards Tescos activities with, yet another, suggesting he has found
other examples of greenwashing in Tescos communications. He claims that Tesco pretends to
be green while ramping up the air miles, food miles and CO2 emissions. The word pretends
holds strong accusations and associates them with being dishonest and not serious about climate
change. Here Doug (2008) seems to be suggesting that Tescos motives lie in using the
environment to have good public relations, increased sales and profits.
Tesco are not above a good dose of Greenwash. (Wobs, 2009, Website 4a)
Wobs (2009) short comment does not accuse Tesco of greenwashing. However, it is still
damaging in the way that it indicates that Wobs (2009) would not be surprised to learn that
42

Nicola Troup

Student ID: 7043284

1st May 2009

Tesco greenwash. I find that considering how recent this comment is (January, 2009), it
highlights that despite Tescos large resources devoted to Green marketing, that they are still
marred by the same opinions that existing about companies in the 1980s (Grant, 2007).

4.3.1.6 Good Opinions about Tesco

Lastly, a range of good opinions about Tesco and their efforts were found which provides me
with another dimension of analysis amongst the many negative opinions found in Tescos
netnography search.
But they are being greener than they were. (Dogpoop, 2008, Website 2a)
Tesco are trying! (Tregony, 2007, Website3a)
Here both Dogpoop (2008) and Tregony (2007) are trying to defend negative comments made
about Tesco. However, from analysing their language, it indicates to me that they accept Tesco
are not completely Green but are greener and are trying. I see it as important that Tesco has
the support of people like Dogpoop (2008) and Tregony (2007) to recognise and defend the
efforts that they are making to be Green.
Who said the recession was going to put an end to green projects? Self dimming lights
and CO2 driven fridges are just 2 of its innovative fixtures Tesco launches 'greenest
store' - Business - News - Manchester Evening News. (FascinatingRhythm, 2009,
Website 4a)
I personally think they did great, but I hope they are working on all of the other TESCO
stores. I'd love to go and see what it is like. (godoftheforest, 2009, Website 4a)
Tesco have opened a store nearby and it has a green roof and sustainable building
materials; people are talking about it and traveling distance to see the store. (Wilki,
2008, Website 7a)
All of the above comments are concerning the work that Tesco has done to point (Grant, 2007) to
their operations in building more Green stores. What is highlighted from the above comments is
43

Nicola Troup

Student ID: 7043284

1st May 2009

the sense of excitement users share. FascinatingRhythm (2009) illustrates that even though were
in the midst of an economic downturn, Tesco are still making the effort to launch their Green
stores such as the one in Wick. Godoftheforest (2009), in the same forum, then goes on to share
their opinion of Tescos Green stores stating that they think it is great and that theyd love to
go and see what it is like. Here I see that Tesco have been successful in educating their
consumers about the efforts they are making concerning their stores and it is causing excitement
as is seen. Wilki (2008) escalates this by affirming the previous users opinions in another forum.
From my website analysis I assume that these types of discussions are what Tesco would hope
for and that in customers sharing excitement about Tescos endeavors it helps to spread their
message further and try and help to change peoples attitudes.

4.3.1.6 Summary
Tescos search provided a large amount of data across 8 discussions with 5 key themes being
interpreted from the netnography data. In addition to this, although exhibiting an intermediate
Green marketing communication strategy, Tesco provided a substantial amount of information
and resources available to online visitors. The effect of this could be interpreted as resulting in
high numbers of online discussions being had about a range of their Green credentials. I believe
the range of 5 interpreted themes has been sufficient in drawing attention to the opinions held by
consumers in relation to Tescos Green marketing communication efforts. Weighing up the
opinions held it has been found that negative ones are more prevalent than positive opinions.
This signifies the struggle that Tesco must endure to convince customers and change their
opinions of Tescos Green marketing communications and motives. Unfortunately Tesco appear
to have been labeled with the wasteful reputation that is associated with supermarkets
(www.bbc.co.uk). The data has shown me that this is an opinion that is still held and is
sometimes validated by Tescos actions, such as with the online delivery comments.

44

Nicola Troup

Student ID: 7043284

1st May 2009

4.3.2 The Body Shop Newsgroups Search Results

4.3.2.1 Introduction
A comprehensive netnography was undertaken searching The Body Shop + Green on
www.groups.google.com. I feel the data gathered is rich in information and emotion that
highlight the opinions held by users in relation to TBSs Green efforts. The quotes were gathered
from 11 different discussions resulting in 4 key themes being interpreted which are listed below:

LOreal

Marketing References

Positive Opinions

Hypocritical comments

A detailed examination of each of these themes and the relevant quotes will follow to try and
draw out the meanings behind them pertaining to TBSs Green marketing communication
strategy.

4.3.2.2 LOreal
A large part of the findings were consumed by TBS being bought over by LOreal in 2006.
LOreal is a cosmetic company who do not share the same Green image as TBS in terms of their
animal testing policies (news.bbc.co.uk). Many users across many forums expressed their
disappointment and feelings towards the takeover highlighting many issues which are examined
below.
The real pity of it all is that The Body Shop is owned by LOreal who test on animals.
(Deb, 2008, Website 2b)
Yes, as Deb points out, the Body shop pretty-much stopped being green a while back
when they sold out to LOreal in 2006. (mobocaster, 2008, Website 2b)

45

Nicola Troup

Student ID: 7043284

1st May 2009

These two quotes were taken as part of the same discussion. Deb (2008) refers to the takeover of
TBS as a real pity where her use of language indicates that she is sad about the takeover.
Mobocaster (2008) takes Debs (2008) comment and states that TBS pretty-much stopped being
green when they were taken over. However, this indicates that there is an acknowledgement of
them being Green prior to the takeover. Mobocaster (2008) also used the term sold out to
describe the takeover which insinuates that TBS sold their company for monetary reasons which
are not the type of values TBS stand for from my website analysis of them. Despite TBS still
advertising that they do not test on animals, it appears that LOreals reputation for doing so has
overcome TBSs efforts. This loss of Green brand image has also been shown in the results of a
Yougov BrandIndex poll after LOreals acquisition of TBS (news.bbc.co.uk).
As for animal testing, I'm not too sure, since they are now owned by LOreal (which
does animal testing). (earthtocarrie, 2009, Website 1b)
In more recent findings, earthtocarrie (2009) still questioned whether TBS test on animals stating
they are not too sure due to them now being owned by LOreal.
I understand they were bought by L'Oreal, and sorry, if someone has already asked this,
but they are still claiming to be animal friendly. I went to one of their locations the other
day and purchased the hemp lip gloss. I understand I would still be supporting L'Oreal,
but I do like The Body Shop, and their products..is it ok for me to buy their stuff?
(ParisNova, 2008, Website 5b)
Here ParisNova (2008) indicates that she is aware of TBS takeover and the implications it now
has for TBSs products. However, she highlights that TBS are still claiming to be animal
friendly and tries to justify buying their products. ParisNova (2008) then asks other users if it is
ok for her to still shop there. This shows that ParisNova (2008) was and still is a keen TBS
customer, however, now has concerns over their ethics due to this takeover.
They aren't changing anything about the Body Shop. Instead, LOreal has said that they
would like to learn from The Body Shop's socially conscious business but so far, they
haven't seemed to make any changes to their own line of products or business.

46

Nicola Troup

Student ID: 7043284

1st May 2009

Purchasing from the body shop is a choice each of us needs to make for ourselves. On the
one hand, you are not supporting animal testing since the products you're buying aren't
tested on animals... On the other hand, your money is going to a company that does test
on animals. I suppose it would be the same as buying a veggie burger from a fast food
chain that sells meat.
Personally, I stopped buying from the Body Shop because I would rather my money went
to more socially conscious businesses. (Delsolarie, 2008, Website 5b)
I too stopped buying from The Body Shop when it was bought by L'Oreal. I don't want
any of my money going to a company that does animal testing. (Chickadee, 2008),
Website 5b
Delsolarie (2008) then responds to ParisNova (2008) stating that TBS are not changing any of
their products or values, clarifying that TBS are still as Green as they claim to be. Delsolarie
(2008) advices that it is a personal choice now if one shops at TBS, however, explains that your
money is going to a company that does test on animals. Delsolarie (2008) argues that she does
not want her purchases from an environmentally and socially conscious business to end up as
profits for a company that does not display the very reasons she would shop at TBS. This same
opinion was held by Chickadee (2008) and helps to emphasise the effect that this takeover has on
TBSs reputation. Here I see Grants (2007) credible partners argument working in reverse.
LOreal has partnered with TBS perhaps in order to form a credible environmental partner.
However, the opposite effect has happened for TBS where being associated with LOreal and
their reputation has resulted in damaging their own reputation (news.bbc.co.uk).
Anita roddick, the founder and once owner of The body shop, sold out by selling the
company to L'oreal, making a mockery of what the body shop once stood for
.(Blueboar, 2007, Website 7b)
Blueboar (2007) also mentioned the notion of selling out to LOreal which was also highlighted
by Mobocaster (2008). This further emphasises the disgust and upset felt at what Anita Roddick
did. Blueboar (2007) then boldly states that Anita Roddick made a mockery of what the body
shop once stood for. The emotion felt in this statement was also shown by an emoticon

47

Nicola Troup

Student ID: 7043284

1st May 2009

displaying anger and sadness which is what has come across in most of the findings concerning
this theme.
Are you joking???? The Body Shop is one of the few places I can by toiletries and
cosmetics safe in the knowledge that they are taking all measures possible to reduce
cruelty to animals by unnecessary testing. Where on earth am I supposed to shop now? A
sad day

(Red Squirrel, 2006, Website 8b)

Oh. Crap. I don't use mainstream toiletries/cosmetics because of the cruelty issues and
the stupid hype. I love the Body Shop's stuff! This is... heartbreaking. (Galaxy, 2006,
Website 8b)
These two comments made by Red Squirrel (2006) and Galaxy (2006) were made directly after
the TBS takeover was made public. Both of their opening sentences display shock, stating Are
you joking??? (Red Squirrel, 2006) and Oh. Crap (Galaxy, 2006). This demonstrates to me the
ethical and environmental trust they had in TBS to cause so much disbelief. The use of multiple
question marks and full stops helps one to realise how much of a shock this would have come to
TBSs consumers. Both Red Squirrel (2006) and Galaxy (2006) revealed that they use to shop at
TBS for the sole purpose that they were ethical in the making of their products which suggests
previous Green marketing communications had been successful in portraying the desired
reputation and image. Red Squirrel (2006) simply stated where on earth am I supposed to shop
now? which demonstrates the distress caused to environmental shoppers. Red Squirrel (2006)
then concluded that it was a sad day with a sad faced emoticon. Galaxy (2006) said that she
loves TBSs products and used an exclamation point to illustrate her feelings. She then remarked
that this takeover is heartbreaking. This demonstrates to me the potential emotional
involvement in Green shopping and the effect major negative changes can have on consumers.

4.3.2.3 Marketing references

In the netnography findings there were two specific references to Green marketing concerning
TBS. This shows me that consumers are aware of their Green marketing efforts; however, the
opinions vary, as shown below.
48

Nicola Troup

Student ID: 7043284

1st May 2009

All that about being green (true or not), has really helped them sell. Kudos to smart
marketing. (earthtocarrie, 2009, Website 1b)
Earthtocarrie (2009) identifies the Green marketing communication TBS does which is a positive
awareness step. However, she feels that their Green claims true or not have just helped TBS to
sell their products. Thus she is accusing them of possible greenwashing and it also highlights the
fact that she is not sure if they are Green. She ends with congratulating TBS stating kudos to
smart marketing. Earthtocarrie (2009) displays a negative opinion of TBS Green marketing
showing that she believes it is for monetary gain.
I very much appreciate the pro-hemp ads the Body Shop has been running in progressive
magazines over the last few years. "What do you call a farmer who grows a crop that's
good for the environment? Criminals. paraphrased from one Body Shop pro-hemp
ad... (Timothy Lynch, 2002, Website 3b)
Timothy Lynch (2002) makes a direct positive reference to TBS pro-hemp advertisements.
Hemp is a controversial ingredient which is the industrial use term for marijuana and is a crop
that is good for the environment. However, because of hemps drug origin, it is shunned by many
countries and illegal to sell (blog.thebodyshop-usa.com/history-hemp/). Timothy Lynch (2002)
displays his appreciation for the pro-hemp advertisements even paraphrasing a statement from
one of their marketing communication. This displays the level of awareness and positive opinion
held about this Green marketing communication where users are moved to the point of sharing a
poignant part of the advertisement with others. This demonstrates to me the positive effect that
TBSs Green marketing communications have had in the past.

4.3.2.4 Positive opinions

Despite the amount of negative comments I found about TBS, numerous positive ones were also
found. I discovered some people were defending TBS, despite the existing LOreal controversy
in some cases, which displays a sense of loyalty to TBS and their values. Also what is interesting
to note is these positive comments come from a 10 year range (1998-2008) which highlights a
consistency in feelings towards TBS.
49

Nicola Troup

Student ID: 7043284

1st May 2009

Hey guys, the Body Shop really is pretty inoffensive. Anita Roddick is an
old hippie who puts in a lot of time to good causes, if they have ever sold
products which were tested on animals it was unknowingly. (Simon Geller, 2002,
Website 3b)
Here Simon Geller (2002) is defending TBS and Anita Roddick after having read some attacks
made in the LOreal discussion. He describes TBS as pretty inoffensive and Roddick as an old
hippie who puts in a lot of time to good causes. Simon Geller (2002) is attempting to shed light
on the fact that TBS are trying and that Anita Roddick genuinely values and displays concern for
environmental issues. I feel that it is positive to see that a user is able to stand up to the negative
comments made, which highlights the level of loyalty some would have to TBS. Simon Geller
(2002) concludes in a confident statement by suggesting that TBS would never knowingly test on
animals.
From what I understand the Body Shop does not sell items tested on animals, which IS
progressive. ( Timothy Lynch, 2002, Website 3b)
In the same discussion Timothy Lynch (2002) backs up Simon Gellers (2002) last statement
arguing that TBS do not test on animals. Timothy Lynch (2002) ends by stating that their values
for not testing on animals IS progressive. The use of capital letters signifies to me that Timothy
Lynch (2002) is trying to convince other users that TBS cannot be compared to other cosmetic
companies which do not stand for the same values.
Using natural stuff for make-up. Try "the body shop" at least they don't make
experiments on animals. (Zeynep, 2008, Website 10b)
Zeyneps (2008) comment was taken from a Facebook discussion page which was entitled What
do you do to be Green? Zeynep (2008) listed using TBSs natural products as one of her efforts
to be Green. This is a positive result as TBS has been associated directly with being a Green
choice for make-up despite the controversy surrounding the LOreal takeover.
From what I understand, some of the body shop products are made without animal
products. I know there musk is fake. Their packaging is recyclable (through the
store) and refillable. They use recycled paper soy inks in their advertising and catalogs.
50

Nicola Troup

Student ID: 7043284

1st May 2009

They are not perfect and neither are we. They may not be the most environmental
company out there but they are a lot better than most. (Katt1369, 1998, Website 11b)
This last comment made by Katt1369 (1998) was the oldest result available across all the case
studies, now 11 years old. Although arguably outdated, I feel this comment is highly valuable as
it demonstrates the range of years that TBS has been talked about positively. Katt1369 (1998)
gives many examples of how TBS are Green which include, not testing on animals, recyclable
packaging and environmentally friendly publications. This not only shows that TBS were
environmentally friendly many years ago, but also that people were aware of this and accepted
their Green marketing communications. Katt1369 (1998) defends TBS by stating that nobody is
perfect and recognises that TBS is trying and are a lot better than most. All of the positive
comments made by people emphasise to me the belief they have in TBS as a result of successful
Green marketing communications.

4.3.2.5 Hypocritical Comments

Hypocritical issues were raised in three separate forums which showed an interesting concern
with the consistency in what TBS proclaims (Protect Our Planet) and what consumers are
seeing in their actions and products. This demonstrates an untrusting and questioning nature
which is explored below.
I received a BIG envelope to inform me about the star loyalty discount thing. So much
about loving the environment... (Efai, 2008, Website 4b)
Efai (2008) noted that she received a BIG envelope from TBS. The use of capital letter to
describe the size of the posted information suggests to me that it was unnecessarily big. Efai
(2008) later shows that she views this action as contradictory, stating so much about loving the
environment. She comes to this conclusion due to the amount of waste generated from sending
out BIG envelopes. This sentence indicates that she has lost confidence in TBSs priorities.
Be careful with so called natural products. I was just in the body shop and they don't
have a lot of natural products. Natural products shouldn't have so many
unpronounceable ingredients. (Country gal, 2005, Website 6b)
51

Nicola Troup

Student ID: 7043284

1st May 2009

Here, Country gal (2005) is warning TBS customers to be careful due to (in her opinion) the
lack of natural ingredients in their natural products. Country gal (2005) calls TBSs products so
called natural products which displays to me she holds a distrustful and negative opinion about
TBS. I feel this demonstrates perhaps the lack of education given by TBS on the natural aspects
of their products so as to deem them natural. This was also largely found to be the case in my
website analysis of TBS.
Just had a look at a jar of skin cream from The Body Shop (who are supposed to be
concerned about green issues) and it contains "isopropyl palmitate" (GreenTea, 2007,
Website 9b)
GreenTea (2007) has gone one step further to mention an ingredient of one of TBSs products.
Isopropyl palmitate is a chemical derived from palm oil which has moisturizing properties.
Although this is a natural ingredient (in line with Country gals (2005) concerns), due to the
economic value held in palm oil, it is known the for hundreds of acres of rainforests being cut
down to make room for palm oil plantations, such as in Malaysia (Khalid and Braden, 2008).
Therefore, as GreenTea (2007) has highlighted, this could be viewed as a product which is not
environmentally friendly. GreenTea (2007) escalates this by stating that TBS are supposed to be
concerned about green issues. This statement again highlights to me the untrusting nature that
has been found across forums.

4.3.2.6 Summary
TBS results spanned a large number (11) of discussions which was anticipated due to them
having an overt Green marketing strategy. I believe the data gained has resulted in a higher
understanding of TBS, Green marketing communication strategies and their differing effects.
One of the most important finding which dominated many of the discussions was in the change
of opinions about TBSs Green credentials due to it now being inextricably linked to LOreal.
TBSs evangelistic communications were found to escalate consumers negative opinion of
TBSs takeover. I view this outcome as working against the credible partners method noted in
Grants (2007) work. This reveals that despite how passionate TBS is about their environmental
values, LOreal has stained the opinions of consumers. However, consumers were still ready to
52

Nicola Troup

Student ID: 7043284

1st May 2009

defend TBS which displays the belief still held in them and what they stand for. I believe this
demonstrates the level to which consumers have an emotional involvement with TBS perhaps
due to successful Green marketing communication strategies in the past.

4.3.3 IKEA Newsgroups Search Results

4.3.3.1 Introduction
The following discussion highlights the findings from a netnography search of IKEA + Green
on www.groups.google.com. Overall I feel the findings demonstrated a high level of education
received from IKEA. Unlike the other two companies, the IKEA findings were limited to only 5
discussion forums. However, I was able to interpret 5 key themes connected to IKEA and their
Green marketing communications which are listed below:

Positive Green Opinions

Standards

Charging for Bags

Provisions and Policies

Negative Green Opinions

Following this will be an analysis of the findings within these themes in order so that I can draw
out interpretations and meanings behind the comments of online users.

4.3.3.2 Positive Green Opinions

A range of positive Green opinions about IKEA were found which I believe reflect users
general feelings of IKEAs covert Green marketing communication strategy according to my
research. Below are the positive results found from the netnography search:
Ikea is a pretty green company. (Moderngal, 2007, Website 1c)
53

Nicola Troup

Student ID: 7043284

1st May 2009

I generally trust IKEA products. There are no "mystery materials" in anything- they'll
tell you what the item is made of and where it was made. Yes, they do sell some plastic
items that were made in China, but they're very clear about which items they are so you
can easily avoid them. (Ruthla, 2007, Website 1c)
I LOVE Ikea. Ikea also uses wood from sustainable wood farms, not old growth forests,
which is nice to know. Also, their stains are vegetable based

And purdy.

(DocsNemesis, 2008, Website 5c)

The above three extracts show a similar quality in the boldness of their first statements.
Moderngal (2007) simply states that she thinks that IKEA is a pretty green company. Ruthla
(2007) then goes on to say that she generally trusts IKEA and their products (in a Green
context). DocsNemesis (2008) also quotes (in a Green context) I LOVE Ikea whereby the use
of capital letters displays the heightened positive emotion felt for IKEA. Ruthla (2007) and
DocsNemesis (2008) both go on to build on their first sentences by justifying it with information
about IKEA and their Green policies and procedures. Ruthla (2007) credits IKEA on the full
disclosure of their materials which leave no mystery materials. She admits that they do make
some plastic items from China, but again credits them on their honesty in reporting this. This is a
clear and constructed argument which is highly positive towards how IKEA discloses
information about their products. DocsNemesis (2008) highlights that she loves IKEA because
they use wood materials from sustainable wood farms. She also approves of their vegetable
based stains for materials by signifying this with a smiling emoticon and describing them as
purdy (slang for pretty). What was significant in the findings was that a number of people were
found to positively repeat information that they would have retrieved for themselves from
IKEAs website.
I've heard IKEA is a better store to buy from as far as green goes. (Jrose_lee, 2008, 5c)
I read that the wood they use comes from sustainable sources. They seem like the better
choice out of the furniture stores in that price range. (Pariah, 2008, Website 5c)
If you're going to shop at a big box store though, I really can't think of a better one than
Ikea. Especially for those of us with limited budgets and the desire to make as little
impact as possible on our environment! (Selkat, 2008, Website 5c)
54

Nicola Troup

Student ID: 7043284

1st May 2009

The three above quotes have one thing in common, that they all identify IKEA as the better
Green choice of cheap furniture stores. In conjunction with my findings from the website
analysis, this also suggest that IKEA use a less approach in their product benefit
communications (Grant, 2007 p.126). Jrose_lees (2008) statement does not convey a personal
positive opinion, however, it could indicate how others generally feel about IKEAs Green
position and image. Pariah (2008) simply reveals that he had read about their sustainable wood
sources and concludes that they seem to be the better choice in terms of Green objectives.
The use of the word seem indicates to me an element of caution in connecting IKEA with being
Green. Finally, Selkat (2008) advises users that IKEA is the best Green option for those with
limited budgets. Here Selkat (2008) actively reaches out to other users, advocating IKEA as the
Greenest choice of big box stores. Selkat (2008) also perfectly harmonizes IKEAs
environmental efforts with what they base their business on, good value for money.

4.3.3.3 Standards
An interesting development concerning the Green opinions held by users was IKEAs strict
environmental material standards. From my website analysis, this information is readily
available for the public to view. The effect of this can be seen in the below comments.
IKEA is a swedish company and makes everything in their store to conform to the EU
safety standards, which are far more "green". (Belleweather, 2008, Website 5c)
I do think it's more green due to EU standards. (Bad Horse, 2008, Website 5c)
Belleweather (2008) and Bad Horse (2008) both highlight the country origin of IKEA and
directly relate their Green credentials to the EU. This country reference was highlighted by Grant
(2007) and it is interesting to see it presented so clearly in the findings. Belleweather (2008)
associates IKEA, a Swedish company with the EU safety standards which she then concludes
are far more green than that of her home country. Bad Horse (2008) also supports this opinion
in the same way.
I find that plenty of things from IKEA are made from China so I wonder if the Swedish
standards apply. (Funkychunkymunky, 2008, Website 5c)
55

Nicola Troup

Student ID: 7043284

1st May 2009

Funkychunkmunky (2008) is the only person found to question IKEAs standards by linking
their products to the country of manufacture, China. However, Funkychunkmunky (2008) only
states that their wonder which highlights to me uncertainty but not an outright accusation. I feel
this suggests some level of trust in IKEA and their policies.

4.3.3.4 Charging for Bags

IKEAs policies on not giving out free bags, but instead offering the ability to buy bags, sparked
some discussion in forums where there were negative feelings about their motives as seen below.
Don't be fooled into thinking that shops charging for plastic bags is a purely ethical or
environmental idea. Ikea charge 5p (UK) each for a plastic bag. They may sell it to you
as a 'green' issue but it is a massive profit product for them. (Mark & The Zebra, 2007,
Website 2c)
In my opinion, the selling of 're-useable bags' is often on closer inspection a bad case of
greenwash. (Simoncbrads, 2007, Website 4c)
Here both Mark & The Zebra (2007) and Simoncbrads (2007) express a highly negative view of
the motives behind selling plastic bags. Mark & The Zebra (2007) warns shoppers not to be
fooled which is a harsh use of language and indicates his negative opinion on the issue. He
claims that the charging of bags is not a purely ethical or environmental idea and highlights the
amount IKEA charge per plastic bag and then insinuates that this is a massive profit for IKEA
and not a green issue. I interpret Mark & The Zebras (2007) comment as accusing IKEA
greenwashing. Building on this, Simoncbrads (2007) directly states that he thinks charging for
plastic bags is a bad case of greenwash. I find that these two comments highlight the ever
present distrust in Green marketing communications (Grant, 2007).

4.3.3.5 Provisions and policies

This theme interpreted from the research highlights the range of knowledge consumers have
about IKEA and their policies, suggesting that people are taking in what they learn about IKEA
56

Nicola Troup

Student ID: 7043284

1st May 2009

despite it being covert. However, it must be noted that this theme was taken exclusively from one
forum which weakens the strength of such arguments.
Their packaging is less extensive. Most of the packaging is recyclable, and they accept
a lot of products for recycling at the store. For example, we recycle our cardboard and
batteries at Ikea, because our city doesn't accept them. (Auntie Sapphire, 2008, Website
5c)
I do like that they recycle and accept things most places don't. I live 1 mile from the
Houston IKEA and they accept CFLs, which is awesome! (Bad Horse, 2008, Website 5c)
The above two quotes are concerned with IKEAs recycling provisions. Auntie Sapphire (2008)
reveals to others that IKEA accept a lot of recyclables and attempt to make most of their
packaging recyclable at the same time. Both Auntie Sapphire (2008) and Bad Horse (2008) relate
to other users their experiences of going to IKEA just to recycle which acts as an encouragement
for others to do the same. Bad Horse (2008) ends by stating that this is awesome! which reveals
his approval of this provision. Here it is seen that education and information from IKEA is being
passed on from customer to customer.
I like that the stores are green too with composting, recycling, a green/living roof,
reusable plates/silver ware in the cafe, a fee for non-reusable bags at checkout, reduced
packaging, sustainable wood management, etc. (Wombatclay, 2008, Website 5c)
Wombatclay (2008) identifies many ways in which IKEA make their stores Green which
indicates the high level of knowledge gained from IKEAs communications. This demonstrates
to me that IKEAs communications are being found and used to inform others.

4.3.3.6 Negative Green opinions

Two general negative Green opinions were expressed in the findings, however, compared to that
of the other two companys explored, IKEA encountered significantly less negative comments.
The below negative opinion were both constructive criticism with suggestions included for
improving.
57

Nicola Troup

Student ID: 7043284

1st May 2009

I don't think Ikea is particularly environmentally friendly as a company. It is cutting

down lots of trees to make and sell furniture. Why don't Ikea encourage Singaporeans to
recycle their furniture? (Baikinman, 2008, Website 3c)
Baikinman (2008) expresses that he does not think IKEA are particularly environmentally
friendly and justifies this with the number of trees needed to be cut down to make their
furniture. Although a seemingly sensible argument, the IKEA website explicitly states how they
source the wood for their furniture sustainably. This demonstrates to me a possible lack of
knowledge which could facilitate for this conclusion. Baikinman (2008) then goes on to suggest
that IKEA could encourage the recycling of furniture. This is a negative comment, but the effort
to suggest improvements indicates to me that Baikinman (2008) perceived IKEA as open to
change.
Even Ikea, though it may have taken some genuinely progressive steps, still needs
eventually to address deeper issues such as encouraging car culture by building huge
out-of-town stores, perpetuating a throw-away and short-term mentality with their cheap
cardboard furniture. (Simoncbrads, 2007, Website 4c)
Simoncbrads (2007) at first recognises the genuinely progressive steps that IKEA have taken,
which would indicate that this is a positive comment with the use of the word genuinely
connoting a sense of trust. However, Simoncbrads (2007) then goes on to advise that IKEA need
to address deeper issues such as to disencourage the car culture that is associated with their
out-of-town stores. Interestingly perhaps if Simoncbrads (2007) had seen the efforts IKEA are
making in the public transport sector, which are available on their website, his opinion may be
changed. However, it was noted in the website analysis of IKEAs transport initiatives that their
efforts could be seen as being ineffective for the very reasons Simoncbrads (2007) states above.
Simoncbrads (2007) also criticises IKEAs cheap cardboard furniture which he suggests fuels a
throw-away and short-term mentality, thus increasing consumption and negative environmental
effects. However, I feel that this has been formed subjectively as IKEA state in their website that
they aim to build long lasting, quality furniture.

58

Nicola Troup

Student ID: 7043284

1st May 2009

4.3.3.7 Summary
From the IKEA netnography research, I feel a number of interesting themes were highlighted. I
believe one of the most intriguing finding was the range and depth of knowledge users appeared
to have about IKEA and their policies. The type of information that users repeated is only
available through their Green marketing communications which indicates that, although covert,
consumers are still seeking and acknowledging such educational information. However, the
restricted findings (only 5 discussions), in comparison to the other two companies, could be
attributed to IKEAs covert approach and therefore could have an effect on how much they are
discussed online. Additionally, in the findings it was highlighted that some negative opinions
were only perhaps held through inadequate knowledge, possibly as a result of their covert
publications. I feel that the effects of IKEAs covert Green marketing communication strategy
were apparent and very much in line with Grants (2007) arguments and should provide a good
basis for which to company the other two strategies to.

4.4 Chapter Summary

The data for this study was compiled from a website analysis and netnography search of three
companies, Tesco, TBS and IKEA. I feel the findings were rich in valuable qualitative data and
will provide numerous points of comparison for the discussion of results. The website analysis
revealed to me the type of Green marketing communication strategy each of the companies
employed. I found Tesco to have an intermediate strategy (contrary to the initial assumption
made that it was overt), TBS to have an overt strategy (instead of having an intermediate
strategy), and IKEA to have a covert strategy. Within the netnography research many themes
were highlighted from online users opinion and thoughts where a number of valuable
comparisons of different strategies will be able to be discussed further in the next section. By
comparing the rich results from the website analysis and linking this to the findings of the
netnography, I believe that valuable discussions and findings will be able to be drawn from
differing Green marketing communication strategies.

59

Nicola Troup

Student ID: 7043284

1st May 2009

Chapter 5 Discussion of Results

5.1 Introduction
Each of the three companies were examined through company website analysis and netnography
which resulted in a wealth of qualitative data available for discussion. Please see appendix 17 for
a comparative table of the findings for each company. The following discussion aims to build on
what was found in chapter 4 and explore the case study results in a comparative manner. By
looking at the results from the netnography and linking it to the relative website analysis I was
able to examine the opinions and perceptions of online consumers concerning TBSs (overt),
Tescos (intermediate), and IKEAs (covert) Green marketing communication strategies. With
this I will be able to draw on and compare the results in terms of their similarities and differences
concerning each companys strategy. The discussion will reflect on and compare the effects
Green marketing communication strategies have on consumers opinions and perceptions found
online. From this it is believed, new understanding will be able to be developed, opening new
avenues of investigation and research. Finally a summary will conclude the discussion to
highlight the most important findings and implication for future Green marketing communication
strategies.

5.2 Evangelism in communications

Evangelism was one of the Green marketing communication method highlighted by Grant (2007)
in B1 of his Green marketing grid (see figure 1). From TBSs website analysis it was found that,
as Grant (2007) highlighted, they strongly employed evangelistic methods in an overt way. TBS
has long been associated with their environmental campaigning and the use of their business as a
platform for their political stances. These strong messages provoked a lot of emotion in the
netnography results where I found that it caused people to be emotionally invested in TBS and
the issues they stand for. This could be seen in the 10 year time span of people defending them.
However, I feel that although evangelism builds up and inspires people, thus benefiting the
company and the environment, it also opens the company up for disaster should you fall short of
60

Nicola Troup

Student ID: 7043284

1st May 2009

your own standards (linked to Grants, 2007, theories of claiming virtue). Even though
evangelism does not proclaim ones own actions, it provides a higher standard for ones actions
to be judged by. I saw this Green marketing fail point presented in the strong presence of
negative findings due to TBSs takeover by LOreal. From the comments users made about this
controversial action it was apparent they felt the takeover undermined all that TBS stood for in
terms of their environmental values. As Grant (2007) argued, online users were very quick to
express their hurt, disappointment and anger felt from the takeover despite TBSs many years of
environmental success. The result of which, as I have found, is negative perceptions and loss of
consumer trust. TBSs overt strategy coupled with their evangelistic methods has meant that TBS
appear to be hypocritical since their actions violate the causes TBS proclaim.

With these

findings I believe that an overt Green marketing communication strategy demands much caution
as the damage that it can cause to a companys reputation can be great should the company falter
or change their course of action as seen in TBS case study. This also suggests to me that
evangelism, while effective and emotive, is seen to be risky if ones standards are not followed
through in their entirety.

5.3 Education in communications

Tesco, with an interpreted intermediate Green marketing communication strategy, used
education widely in their Greener living website with solutions to problems being rooted in
their products. However, what I found was that perhaps due to the constant reference of
education back to Tescos products, online users were negative about Tescos motives (further
discussed in section 5.6). Although Tescos intermediate strategy meant the Green education
section of their website was not obvious to find from their home page, once reached the
resources of education available were significant. However, I believe consumers were generally
unable to successfully recall or relate educational information on a broad level considering the
amount of education available to them. This suggests to me that the educational element of
Tescos website has not been used to its full potential. Therefore, it could be thought that the
intermediate strategy is not suitable to educational methods. However, IKEAs covert
educational success suggests that this may not be the case.

61

Nicola Troup

Student ID: 7043284

1st May 2009

One of IKEAs communication methods consisted of linking environmental education to their

policies and practices. Unlike Tesco, I saw IKEAs customers as being successfully able to recall
a lot of educational information which I attribute to their provision of education through
downloadable material. This is especially poignant because to get access to such information
takes effort to search for it as it is not obviously displayed due to their covert strategy. According
to my research, the fact that users frequently referred to such information suggests that a covert
strategy might not affect how many people are able to access educational communications.
Building on this, users were observed as relaying education successfully to other users,
supported them and sharing their experiences. Such behaviour works in IKEAs favour as
positive word of mouth is particularly powerful and is a free form of advertisement (East et al,
2008). However, all of the findings surrounding IKEA and their covert education methods were
not positive. Two negative comments from the findings possibly stemmed from consumers not
being informed about certain aspects of IKEAs education of procedures and policies. I have
deduced that this could be linked to their covert Green marketing communication strategy which
maybe resulted in false criticism. This could suggest that covert strategies can have negative
effect on consumers opinions, an element that was not highlighted by Grant (2007). However,
the research to suggest this conclusion is limited and further investigation into this aspect would
be required to draw more meaningful interpretations.

5.4 Anti-credible partners

With TBS having built their business around sustainability and held in high regards in ethical
and Green brand polls (Grant, 2007) one would expect to find positive results. However, TBS
findings appeared to be overrun by negative comments surrounding them being taken over by
LOreal. This action appeared to leave consumers in the discussion findings being constantly
concerned about where their money is ultimately going and that TBSs dealings are not
consistent with their overt evangelistic standards (as discussed in section 5.2). In line with the
online comments it appears that TBSs reputation has been stained by LOreals low animal
testing standards (news.bbc.co.uk) where the clashing of these two business practices has
resulted in negative responses. This seems to be the opposite of Grants (2007, p109) Credible
Partners approach in grid A2. Taking Grants (2007) theory, one would deduce that TBSs
62

Nicola Troup

Student ID: 7043284

1st May 2009

positive Green image would result in benefiting LOreal. However, it appears that LOreals lack
of a positive Green image (news.bbc.co.uk) has instead tainted TBSs Green image. My possible
reasoning for this outcome comes from levels of power, for example, LOreal bought, and now
has the power over, TBS which thus results in LOreals reputation dominating TBSs. I believe
that it is a combination of these above factors which have lead to anti-credible partners due to
the negative effect that this partnership appears to have. However, such definitive findings would
require other similar situations to provide stronger conclusions such as investigating the Cadbury
takeover of Green & Blacks chocolate.

5.5 Trust in covert strategies

The IKEA findings suggested that customers appeared to have more trust in what IKEA said
concerning standards, materials and policies, where there were minimal questioning of motives
and IKEAs honesty. From studying their website, I believe it is possible that this level of trust
could be because of the wealth of downloadable official publications and information available.
Although access to this information was covert, I found that people responded well to this
strategy where they could be more likely to believe Green marketing communication information
they find themselves. This aspect also added to more excitement seen in user comments which I
suspect is due to their participation in finding this covert information and sharing it with others.
This result was important in its demonstration of why Grant (2007) is so passionate about covert
strategies.

5.6 Suspicion of Green marketing communications

It was interesting to note that all of the companies, at least in one instance, were accused of
having a monetary focus in their environmental efforts. This immediately suggested to me that
people are arguably dubious about all Green marketing strategy motives regardless of company
(Grant, 2007).
Tescos netnography results showed that the online opinions were influenced by the belief that
supermarkets are profit driven (Besoeker, 2009, Website 4a). From my research it appeared that
63

Nicola Troup

Student ID: 7043284

1st May 2009

consumers were very focused with companies ulterior motives. Many times Tesco was accused
of being driven by profits, for example in their Green Clubcard points initiative and
Greenwashing accusations. This confusion of motives is noted by Grant (2007, p.22) where he
argues that this type of reaction to new Green behaviour is the why are they suddenly being so
nice to me? syndrome. Tesco perhaps would have benefited from a more covert strategy, like
IKEAs, so that consumers would be able to accept their Green endeavours on a quieter level
before more overt Green communications are made. However, a progression of Green marketing
communication strategies might not be suited to all companies. Online users also appeared to be
concerned about Tescos integrity in their self proclaimed standards where several users were
able to identify situations where they felt Tesco were not acting accordingly, particularly
concerning home delivery. Due the high number of people expressing concerns, this suggests to
me that the more overt the Green marketing communication strategy, the more as risk you could
run at being judged negatively as consumers appear to be seeking out negative factors (Grant,
2007).
IKEA were accused of having monetary motives behind their policy that customers should pay
for bags. This type of accusation was also seen in the Tesco results and generally this notion of
paying extra for something that was previously free does not appear to appeal to consumers.
These comments were minimal yet it was interesting to see that consumers were able make
negative comments on the same basis about two differing Green marketing communication
strategies. Users also appeared to be highly suspicious of TBS after the LOreal takeover, where
it was found that trust in TBS and their actions seemed to be lost in many users. This element of
TBS findings was discussed in more depth in section 5.4.

5.7 Honesty in Reporting Shortcomings

An interesting aspect was found in the netnography findings of Tesco and IKEA where I gather
that there was an appreciation of honesty that appeared to appeal to users. This is in line with
addressing one of Peatties (2002, p.88) misconceptions about Green marketing - you do not
have to be completely Green to practice Green marketing.

64

Nicola Troup

Student ID: 7043284

1st May 2009

In the IKEA results, I found that users liked being able to identify the country where products
were made (sometimes China) regardless of the implications. I believe that this show openness
on IKEAs part and promotes trust between IKEA and consumers. Here it is seen that consumers
acknowledge that IKEA are trying where possible, however, cannot always act Green and thus
report such shortcomings.
Despite the high number of negative comments in the Tesco netnography findings, some users
did stand up for Tesco and defended their actions with the fact that they are trying to improve.
This was encouraging to see that despite such negative comments, some users were able to put
into perspective Tescos improvements. Such results suggests to me that adopting an at least
were trying (Grant, 2007, p.85) position is a humble approach which appears to be something
that consumers were able to relate to due to the amount of defensive comments found of this.
Incorporating the findings of IKEA and Tesco, I suggest that one method of combating negative
reactions to any Green marketing communication strategy would be to admit that as a company,
they are not Green in their entirety and are making efforts to become Greener. This, Grant (2007,
p.79) argues would subdue the claiming of virtue effect and makes companies efforts more
realistic and believable.

5.8 Cultural Alignment

In the findings IKEA was the only company that had its reputation and opinions directly linked
to its Swedish and European origin. Cultural alignment Green marketing communication
strategies were introduced by Grant (2007) and here I see it playing a strong role in how much
people trust their high European standards; directly linking and thus reflecting positively on
IKEA. However, within IKEA results, I also saw how Chinas negative environmental reputation
was highlighted concerning certain materials and products sold at IKEA. Here I found that
consumers appear to align both positive and negative elements of environmental products and
strategies to the countries of origin, this is known as the country-of-origin effect (Verlegh et al,
2005). This suggests to me that companies should identify whether their country of origin would
have a negative or positive effect on their Green marketing communication strategy and thus act
accordingly to promote or deflect such attention.
65

Nicola Troup

Student ID: 7043284

1st May 2009

5.9 Summary
I believe that the discussion element of this study has provided highly valuable conclusions
where from the findings it was apparent to me that different Green marketing communication
strategies have differing effects on a number of different areas. This concept builds further on
Grants (2007, p.93) theory of three types of Green marketing communication strategies (see
appendix 15). For example in the findings education communications appeared to vary in its
receptivity from strategy to strategy with Tescos (intermediate) large educational resources not
being as successfully recalled as IKEAs (covert). In line with another of Grants (2007)
arguments, covert strategies were found to exhibit a higher level of trust from consumers in my
findings. However, it was also found that Grant (2007) seemed to overlook the possible negative
aspects of such covert strategies. I found that instances did occur where negative comments were
made possibly in ignorance due to IKEAs covert strategy.
In overt strategies, TBSs strategy and reputation was tainted due to their actions not matching
up to their evangelistic methods and high self proclaimed standards. Such effects suggest to me
that overt strategies are highly effective when acting in harmony with them, but in disregarding
ones own standards the company could suffer detrimental reputation ruin. Building on Grants
(2007, p.109) idea of credible partners, I termed the negative partnership seen in the LOreal
takeover of TBS as an anti-credible one as from consumers opinions it appeared to result in
only damaging TBSs reputation.
One finding that was consistent across all strategies on a number of levels was a suspicion of
ulterior motives where users questioned if companies were driven by profits and if they were
being truthful in their communications and actions. Another notion that was found in the
discussion was that consumers appear to appreciate honesty and accept when companies admit
they are not completely Green instead of claiming they are Green (Peattie, 2002; and Grant,
2007). In order to address the problem of suspicion I would suggest that incorporating an
element of honesty in reporting into any strategy would prove to be beneficial, providing that
they are working on becoming Green. Finally, cultural alignments were found within the IKEA
results where many users appeared to be influenced by the country-of-origin effect in a positive
manner due to IKEA being inextricably linked to high European environmental standards.

66

Nicola Troup

Student ID: 7043284

1st May 2009

Overall what I found was that differing Green marketing communication strategies have a
multitude of effects and implications which this study has only just begun to understand. This
analysis suggested that the effect of Green marketing communication strategies permeates more
aspects than was outlined by Grant (2007). Here consumers differing reactions to the
implementation of the same methods in different strategies provides me with the conclusion that
Green marketing communication strategies may have a bigger effect on companies
communication methods than anticipated. The limited research in this area demands attention
where more detailed results from further studies can provide valuable information for marketing
and environmental success.

67

Nicola Troup

Student ID: 7043284

1st May 2009

Chapter 6 - Conclusion

Although Green marketing has been observed since the 1980s, the emphasis placed on
companies going Green today has never been stronger. What was evident from my review of the
literature was that authors see honest and progressive Green marketing campaigns as essential to
commercial and environmental success. They have written little about the differing potential
Green marketing strategies and recommendation for action. However, I found no documentation
of studies on the effects that differing strategies may have on consumers opinions and therefore
companies reputations. Thus, this was found to be a suitable and appropriate area of research to
help build on the limited literature.
This study aimed to explore and compare three Green marketing strategies using website
analysis of company websites. Using typologies defined from Grants (2007) work (see appendix
15) I was able to identify three companies which I found to represent the three differing
strategies; TBS as overt, IKEA as covert and Tesco as intermediate. From this I was able to
observe how these differing Green marketing communication strategies related to the opinions
and perceptions online consumers have. Combining these two elements of my research resulted
in the ability to evaluate consumer perceptions of the Green efforts exhibited by the three distinct
Green marketing communication strategies.
The amount of data gathered for each of the three companies particularly varied in terms of their
netnographic research where comparatively little discussion forums were found for IKEA which
I interpret as being a result of the low profile strategy IKEA has been found to have. Whereas,
Tesco and TBS searches resulted in a large number of discussions. To improve the quality of
data, an approach in which I interacted with online users could have been used in conjunction
with the netnographic techniques used. Suggestions for this could be interviews with users
online. It is felt though that the results from the netnography were representative of the issues
and opinions raised in the discussions.
As I saw in the literature review of Grants (2007) Green marketing methods, there were many
combinations of methods that a company could choose. What was interpreted from the findings
68

Nicola Troup

Student ID: 7043284

1st May 2009

was that a companies Green marketing strategy may affect deeper marketing levels that what
Grant (2007) had argued. For example what was seen in the consumer discussions was that
methods of education were received differently across an intermediate (Tesco) and covert
(IKEA) strategy. Although Grant (2007) and other writers did not directly address this issue of
consumer responses, my results were interpreted as suggesting that differing Green marketing
communication strategies produce effects that permeate more aspects than was anticipated. A
more extensive and exhaustive study and discussion on this issue would help to broaden my
understanding of the effects strategies can have.
What was found was that TBS, which is often held in high environmental regard (Grant, 2007),
suffered reputation damage due to its 2006 takeover by LOreal. I attributed the backlash from
online consumers to be partly due to TBSs overt Green marketing strategy coupled with their
evangelistic communications. Although evangelism is effective whilst maintaining good
environmental standing, it appeared to have a crippling effect should environmental standards or
actions be perceived as relaxing. This suggests to me that when adopting methods of
communication a company should investigate the possible positive or negative relationship this
could have with the overall Green marketing strategy of the company. Drawing on Grants
(2007, p.109) theories of credible partners, I also saw the LOreal takeover of TBS as being an
anti-credible partner.
Finally, in IKEAs covert strategy I found a number of examples which sheds light on why this
strategy was so highly favoured by Grant (2007). Additionally, IKEA was also found to be the
only company whose Green credentials had been linked to its country of origin as Grant (2007)
had also done. Having what I assessed as the lowest number of negative comments, the effects of
the covert strategy were striking in the way that they were also consistent with Grants (2007)
view that IKEAs strategy is best received by consumers. Additionally online users were able to
recall and relate information from the companys covert communications, suggesting to me that a
low profile might not effect how many people are able to access and talk about IKEAs Green
credentials. However, two of the negative comments made seemed oblivious to relevant IKEA
policies. Although they were presented in a constructive manner, as highlighted in the previous
chapter, this signified to me the possibility of negative comments arising due to IKEAs covert

69

Nicola Troup

Student ID: 7043284

1st May 2009

strategy. This finding was marginal in my results but I suggest that a more extensive study into
this matter may reveal richer data from which more meaningful interpretations could be made.
Consumer questioning of corporate motives was a consistent finding in response to each strategy.
Therefore, I suggest that consumers would appreciate honesty in policies, even if this entails
commenting on Green failures or shortcomings. My interpretation leads me to believe that
consumers cannot believe if a company suddenly turns Green and would rather accept it being
presented as a goal they are working towards. This is in harmony with suggestions both from
Grant (2007) and Peattie (2002) where claiming virtue is not beneficial and being Green is not a
one step strategy.
Areas of possible future research are able to be highlighted from this study where a progression
of the same methodology and research process with different companies on a wider scale would
result in richer data. For example, in the discussion, more definitive and meaningful
interpretations could have been highlighted had each of the three companies belonged to the
same industry. Due to the nature of the three varying industries (Supermarkets, Cosmetics and
Furniture) this meant that research on Green marketing communication strategies and its
consumer effects could have been affected by these differences. Such fundamental differences
for instance lie in the frequency of consumers visiting or purchasing from each company which
could have an effect on how consumers feel about each strategy due to differing levels of Green
marketing strategy exposure. Examining companies within the same industry (for example
extending supermarkets to also include Sainsburys and Marks & Spencers) would provide a
higher platform to compare differing Green marketing communication strategies. Different
industries and their adopted strategies may be received differently by consumers and this would
be an interesting avenue to pursue to gain further knowledge about the effects of Green
marketing communication strategies.
I believe that this study has only just touched on the dynamics of Green marketing
communication strategies and its effects. As mentioned, there is an obvious and regrettable lack
of literature for research and guidance on this subject and the ever growing problem and
concomitant focus on climate change calls for more people to research this relatively new
phenomenon. Green marketing, although seemingly oxymoronic, has, as I have argued, the
70

Nicola Troup

Student ID: 7043284

1st May 2009

power to influence consumers greatly. Further investigation into the complexities of strategies
such as this study, can not only benefit business, but consumers and the environment too,
resulting in a state which Grant (2007, p.2) suggested as being the solution to Green marketing,
beautiful coincidences.

71

Nicola Troup

Student ID: 7043284

1st May 2009

Bibliography
Ackerstein, D. S. and Lemon, K. A. (1999) Greening the Brand: Environmental Marketing
Strategies and the American Consumer, p.233-254, in Charter, M. and Polonsky, M. J. (Eds.)
(1999) Greener Marketing: A Global Perspective on Green Marketing Practice, Sheffield:
Greenleaf Publishing.
Banerjee, S. B. (1999) Corporate Environmentalism and the Greening of Strategic Marketing:
Implications for Marketing Theory and Practice, p.16-40 in Charter, M. and Polonsky, M. J.
(Eds.) (1999) Greener Marketing: A Global Perspective on Green Marketing Practice, Sheffield:
Greenleaf Publishing.
Beck, U. (2005) Risk Society: Towards a New Modernity, New Delhi: Sage.
Berry, H. and McEachern, M. (2005) Informing ethical consumers, p.69-88 in Harrison, R.,
Newholm, T. & Shaw, D. (Eds.) The Ethical Consumer, London: Sage.
Borden, R. T. and Schettino, A. P. (1979) Determinants of Environmentally Responsible
Behaviour, Journal of Environmental Education, Vol. 10, No. 4, p.35-3.
Caruana, R. and Crane, A. (2008) Constructing Consumer Responsibility: exploring the role of
corporate communications', Organization Studies, Vol. 29, No. 12, p.1495-1519.
Caruana, R., Crane, A. and Fitchett, J. A. (2008) Paradoxes of consumer independence: a
critical discourse analysis of the independent traveler, Marketing Theory, September, Vol. 8,
Issue 3, p.253-272.
Chandler, D. (2002) Semiotics: The Basics, London: Routledge.
Charter, M. and Polonsky, M. J. (Eds.) (1999) Greener Marketing: A Global Perspective on
Green Marketing Practice, Sheffield: Greenleaf Publishing.
Cramer, J., Van der Heijden, A. and Jonker J. (2006) Corporate social responsibility: making
sense through thinking and acting, Business Ethics: A European Review, October, Vol. 15, Issue
4, p.380-389.
72

Nicola Troup

Student ID: 7043284

1st May 2009

Davis, J. (1992) Ethics and Environmental Marketing, Journal of Business Ethics, Vol.11,
Issue 2, p.81-87.
Dembkowski, S., and Hanmer-Lloyd, S. (1994) The Environmental Value- Attitude-System
Model: a Framework to Guide the Understanding of Environmentally-Conscious Consumer
Behaviour, Journal of Marketing Management, Vol. 10, p.593-603.
Dobson, A. (1990) Green Political Thought, London: Harper-Collins Academic, cited in
Kilbourne, W. E. (1998) Green Marketing: A Theoretical Perspective, Joumal of Marketing
Management, Vol. 14, p.642.
East, R., Hammond, K., and Lomax, W. (2008) Measuring the impact of positive and negative
word of mouth on brand purchase probability, International Journal of Research in Marketing,
September, Vol. 25, Issue 3, p.215-224.
Giddens, A. (1999) Risk and Responsibility, Modern Law Review, Vol.62, No.1, p.1-10.
Ginsberg, J. M., and Bloom, P. N. (2004) Choosing the Right Green Marketing Strategy, MIT
Sloan Management Review, Vol. 46, Issue 1, p.79-84.
Grix, J. (2004) The Foundations of Research, New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Grant, J. (2007) The Green Marketing Manifesto, West Sussex: John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
Harrison, R., Newholm, T., and Shaw, D. (Eds.) (2005) The Ethical Consumer, London: Sage.
Hudson, J. M., and Bruckman, A. (2004) Go away: participant objectives to being studied and
the ethics of chatroom research, The Information Society, Vol. 20, p.127-139.
Ingenbleek, P., Binnekamp, M., and Goddijn, S. (2007) Setting standards for CSR: A
comparative case study on criteria-formulating organizations, Journal of Business Research,
May, Vol. 60, Issue 5, p.539-548.
Iver, E., and Banerjee, B. (1993) Anatomy of Green Advertising, Advances in Consumer
Research, Vol. 20, p.494-501.

73

Nicola Troup

Student ID: 7043284

1st May 2009

Khalid A. R., and Braden, J. B. (2008) Welfare effects of environmental regulation in an open
economy: the case of Malaysian palm oil, Journal of Agricultural Economics, November, Vol.
44, Issue 1, p.25-37.
Kilbourne, W. E. (1998) Green Marketing: A Theoretical Perspective, Joumal of Marketing
Management, Vol. 14, p. 641-655.
King, S. A. (1996) Researching internet communities: proposed ethical guidelines for the
reporting of results, Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. 12, p.119-127.
Kozinets, R. (1997) "I Want To Believe": A Netnography of The X-Philes' Subculture of
Consumption, Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. 24, Issue 1, p.470-475.
Kozinets, R. (2002) The Field Behind the Screen: Using Netnography for Marketing Research
in Online Communities, Journal of Marketing Research, February, Vol. 39, Issue 1, p.61-72.
Kozinets, R. (2006) Click to Connect: Netnography and Tribal Advertising, Journal of
Advertising Research, September, Vol. 46, Issue 3, p.279-288.
Kumar, R. (2005) Research Methodology, A Step-by-Step Guide for Beginners, 2nd Edition,
London: Sage.
Kuhn, M. (2005) The Greening of Markets, Cheltenham: Edwards Elgar Publishing Limited.
Laufer, W. S. (2003) Social Accountability and Corporate Greenwashing, Journal of Business
Ethics, March, Vol.43, Issue.3, p.253- 261.
Maloney, M. P., Ward, M. P., and Braucht, G. N. (1975) A Revised Scale for the Measurement
of Ecological Attitudes and Knowledge, American Psychologist, July, Vol. 30 p.787-790.
Marsh, D., and Furlong, P. (2002) A Skin Not A Sweater: Ontology and Epistemology in
Political Science, p.17-41 in Marsh, D. and Stoker, G. (2002) Theory and Methods in Political
Science, 2nd Edition, London: Palgrave Macmillan.
Marsh, D., and Stoker, G. (2002) Theory and Methods in Political Science, 2nd Edition, London:
Palgrave Macmillan.

74

Nicola Troup

Student ID: 7043284

1st May 2009

O'Sullivan, T. J. (2007) Get MediaSmart: a critical discourse analysis of controversy around

advertising to children in the UK, Consumption, Markets and Culture, Vol. 10, No. 3, p.293314.
Ottman, J. A., Stafford, E. R., and Hartman, C. L. (2006) Green marketing Myopia: Avoiding
Green Marketing Myopia, Ways to Improve Appeal for Environmentally Preferable Products
Environment, Heldref Publications, June, Vol. 48, No. 5, p.22-36.
Ottman, J. A. (2002) Green Marketing: A Cool Strategy to Stop Global Warming and
Corporate Abuses, In Business, p.30-32.
Ottman, J. A. (2000) Green Marketing: Its Not Just the Environment Stupid, In Business,
September/October, p.31.
Ottman, J. A. (1993) Green marketing: Challenges & Opportunities for the new marketing Age,
Lincolnwood, IL: NTC Books.
Ottman, J. A. (1992) The four Es: make going green your competitive edge, Marketing News,
Vol. 26 No.3, p.7 in Peattie, K. (1995) Environmental Marketing Management, Meeting the
Green Challenge, London: Financial Times Management.
Peattie, K., and Crane, A. (2005) Environmentally Responsibly Marketing: Legend, Myth, Farce
or Prophesy?, Qualitative Market Research: An International Journal. Vol.8, No.4, p.357-370.
Peattie, K. (2002) Towards Sustainability: The Third Age of Green Marketing, The Marketing
Review, Vol. 2, p.129-146.
Peattie, K. (1999) Rethinking Marketing: Shifting to a Greener Paradigm, p.57-70 in Charter,
M., and Polonsky, M. J. (Eds.) (1999) Greener Marketing: A Global Perspective on Green
Marketing Practice, Sheffield: Greenleaf Publishing.
Peattie, K. (1995) Environmental Marketing Management, Meeting the Green Challenge,
London: Financial Times Management.
Peattie, K. (1992) Green Marketing, London: Pitman Publishing.

75

Nicola Troup

Student ID: 7043284

1st May 2009

Pitt, L. F., Berthon, P. R., Watson, R. T., and Zinkhan, G. M. (2002) The Internet and the birth
of real consumer power, Business Horizons, Jul/Aug2002, Vol. 45 Issue 4, p.7.
Potter, J. (2000) Representing Reality: Discourse, Rhetoric and Social Construction, London:
Sage Publications Ltd.
Sandlin, J. A. (2007) Netnography as a consumer education research tool, International
Journal of Consumer Studies, May, Vol. 31, Issue 3, p.288-294.
Schlegelmilch, B. (1991) Green, Ethical and Charitable: Another Marketing Ploy or A New
Marketing Era? Wales: University College of Swansea.
Shrum, L. J., McCarty J. A., and Lowrey, T. M. (1995) Buyer Characteristics of the Green
Consumer and Their Implications for Advertising Strategy, Journal of Advertising,Vol. 24, No.
2, p.71-82.
Stoll, M. L. (2002) The Ethics of Marketing Good Corporate Conduct, Journal of Business
Ethics, Nov/Dec, Vol.41, Issue.1/2, p.121-129.
Tannenbaum, S. I., and Woods, S. B. (1992) Determining a Strategy for Evaluating Training:
Operating Within Organizational Constraints, Human Resource Planning, Vol. 15, Issue 2,
p.63-81.
Verlegh, P. W. J., Steenkamp, J. E. M., and Meulenberg, M. T. G. (2005) Country-of-origin
effects in consumer processing of advertising claims, International Journal of Research in
Marketing, June, Vol. 22, Issue 2, p.127-139.
Wasik, J. F. (1996) Green Marketing and Management: A Global Perspective, Massachusetts:
Blackwell Publishers Inc.
Yin, R. K. (1993) Applications of Case Study Research, California: Sage Publications, Inc.
Yin, R. K. (2003) Case Study Research: Design and Methods, 3rd Edition, California: Sage
Publications, Inc.
Zinkhan, G. M., and Carlson, L. (1995) Green Advertising and the Reluctant Consumer,
Journal of Advertising, Vol. 24, p.1-6.
76

Nicola Troup

Student ID: 7043284

1st May 2009

Websites Bibliography
www.bbc.co.uk/insideout/yorkslincs/series7/supermarket_landfills.shtml Supermarket
Landfills (February 2005) (accessed on 26/01/09)
blog.thebodyshop-usa.com/history-hemp/ (accessed on 23/03/09)
forums.tesco.com/n/pfx/forum.aspx?nav=messages&webtag=tescogreenmb (accessed on
25/01/09)
www.groups.google.com (accessed on 01/02/09)
news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/4894854.stm (April 2006) (accessed on 25/03/09)
Makower, J., (2006) Where Are All the Good, Green Products? (October 6th, 2006)
www.worldchanging.com/archives//005031.html (accessed on 23/03/09)
www.ikea.com/gb/en/ (accessed on 29/01/09)
www.ikea.com/ms/en_GB/about_ikea_new/about/index.html (accessed on 29/01/09)
www.ikea.com/ms/en_GB/about_ikea_new/about/read_our_materials/index.html (accessed on
29/01/09)
www.ikea.com/ms/en_GB/about_ikea_new/our_responsibility/climate_change/index.htm l
(accessed on 29/01/09)
www.ikea.com/ms/en_GB/about_ikea_new/our_responsibility/index.html (accessed on
29/01/09)
www.ikea.com/ms/en_GB/about_ikea_new/our_responsibility/partnerships/wwf.html (accessed
on 29/01/09)
www.mypaper.se/show/ikea/show.asp?pid=345224322265443 (accessed on 29/01/09)
www.tesco.com (accessed on 25/01/09)
www.tesco.com/greenerliving/at_home/default.page? (accessed on 25/01/09)
www.tesco.com/greenerliving/at_home/articles/ten_things.page? (accessed on 25/01/09)
www.tesco.com/greenerliving/getting_around/default.page? (accessed on 25/01/09)
www.tesco.com/greenerliving/green_glossary.page? (accessed on 25/01/09)
www.tesco.com/greenerliving/family/default.page? (accessed on 25/01/09)
www.tesco.com/greenerliving/products/green_home/default.page? (accessed on 25/01/09)

77

Nicola Troup

Student ID: 7043284

1st May 2009

www.tesco.com/greenerliving/what_we_are_doing/carbon_labelling.page? (accessed on
5/01/09)
www.tesco.com/greenerliving/what_we_are_doing/carrier_bags/default.page? (accessed on
25/01/09)
www.tesco.com/greenerliving/what_we_are_doing/cath_kidston_bags.page? (accessed on
25/01/09)
www.tesco.com/greenerliving/what_we_are_doing/green_clubcard_points/default.page?
(accessed on 25/01/09)
www.tesco.com/greenerliving/what_we_are_doing/greener_packaging/default.page? (accessed
on 25/01/09)
www.tesco.com/greenerliving/your_garden/default.page? (accessed on 25/01/09)
www.thebodyshop.co.uk/_en/_gb/catalog/list.aspx?CategoryCode=C_ShopByLine_SupportOur
Campaigns&ParentCatCode=C_ShopByLine (accessed on 27/01/09)
www.thebodyshop.co.uk/_en/_gb/services/pdfs/AboutUs/Environmentalprinciples.pdf?
(accessed on 27/01/09)
www.thebodyshop.co.uk/_en/_gb/values-campaigns/index.aspx (accessed on 27/01/09)
www.thebodyshop.co.uk/_en/_gb/values-campaigns/protect-planet.aspx (accessed on 27/01/09)
wordnetweb.princeton.edu/perl/webwn?s=tree%20hugger (accessed on 4/2/09)

78