Useful Materials Notes

Chapter 1:
Types of Materials:

Metals
o High toughness
o Conductive
o Crystalline
o Metallic bond
Ceramics & Glasses
o Chemically stable
o High temperature resistance
o Brittle
o Low toughness
o Hard
o Crystalline or amorphous
o Ionic/covalent bond
Polymers
o Synthetic
o Lightweight
o Elastic
o Low melting point
o Covalent and secondary
Composites
o Combinations of metals, ceramics & glasses, and polymers
o Covalent or covalent/ionic
Semiconductors
o Chemical purity determines electronic properties

Chapter 2:
Types of Bonding:

Primary (strong, high melting points)

o Ionic
Non-directional
S-shells
o Covalent
Directional
P-shells and d-shells
Low CN
o Metallic
Non-directional
S-shells
High CN
Closely packed
Electron gas
Secondary (weak, low melting points)
o Hydrogen
Attraction of permanent dipoles
o Van der Waals
Attraction of temporary dipoles

Coulombic Attraction
FC =

k q1 q2
r

Repulsive Force
F R= e
Where

and

Net Force
F=FC + F R

are experimentally determined constants

Coordination Number and Radius Ratio

Chapter 3:
Crystalline/Amorphous:

Crystalline = regular repeating pattern

Amorphous = irregular

Unit Cell

Smallest repeating structure

Crystalline Structures

7 crystal systems (axial systems)

14 crystal lattices (Bravais lattices)
Mainly SC (Simple Cubic), BCC (Body-Centred Cubic), and FCC (Face-Centred
Cubic)

Atoms/Unit Cell
APF
CN
a
d
Pattern

SC
1
0.52
6
2R
2Sqrt(3)r
AAAAAA

BCC
2
0.68
8
4r/sqrt(3)
4r
AAAAAA

Density
=

nA
VC NA

is density (g/cm3)
n is atoms/unit cell (atoms)
A is atomic weight (g/mol)
VC is volume/unit cell (cm3)
NA is 6.02x1023 (atoms/mol)

Ionic Packing Factor

APF but when there are two different ions

FCC
4
0.74
12
2sqrt(2)r
2sqrt(6)r
ABCABC

HPC
2
0.74
12
ABABAB

Indices (bar on top for negative)

Lattice Points: [111]

Family of Directions <111>
o [111], [1(bar), 1,1], [1,1(bar), 1],
Lattice Planes: (111)
o Miller indices are the reciprocals of the intercepts
Miller-Bravais Indices: (hkil)
o i = -(h+k)
o used for hexagonal systems
Family of Planes {1,1,1}

a b= a bcos
Where theta is the angle between the vectors

Linear Density

1/r where r is the repeat distance between adjacent atoms

Braggs Law
n =2 dsin
n is the diffraction order
is the wavelength (nm)
d is the spacing between adjacent crystal planes (nm)
2 is the diffraction angle

For a cubic system:

d=

a
h +k 2 +l2
2

BCC
FCC

Diffraction Occurs
h+k+l is even
h,k,l are all even or all odd

HPC

(h+2k) = 3n (where n is

Diffraction Does not Occur

h+k+l is odd
h,k,l are a mix of even and
odd
The rest of the time

an integer), and l is odd

Chapter 4:
Types of Materials:

0-D: point defects

o Impurities
Substitutionals
Different atom in a crystal
Interstitials
Small atom that fits into the crystal
o Vacancies
Hole in the crystal
1-D: linear defects
o Edge dislocations
Extra half plane of atoms
o Screw dislocations
Spiral stacking of crystal planes
o Mixed dislocations
Edge dislocation on one edge, screw on another
2-D: planar defects
o Grain boundaries
Atoms on boundaries (surface) are not in equilibrium
Tilt boundary
Low angle
Caused by edge dislocations
Twist boundary
Low angle
Caused by screw dislocations
Twin Boundary
Two crystal structures are mirror images
Stacking Faults: Annealing Twins
Fault in stacking of planes ie. ABCABCAB ABCABC
FCC
Mechanical Twins
Part of the crystal structure bends and then bends back

Deformation

Elastic
o Reversible
o Bonds are stretched but not broken
Plastic
o Permanent
o Caused by dislocations moving through the substance

Burgers Vector (b)

Vector required to close the loop of an edge dislocation

Perpendicular to the edge dislocation
Parallel to screw dislocation
Consistent with each dislocation (edge and screw) for a mixed dislocation

Hume-Rothery rules for complete miscibility

In order for complete solid solubility to occur between 2 solid metals:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Similar atomic radii (~15%)

Same crystal structure
Similar electronegativites (~10%)
Same valence

Chapter 6 (1):
Engineering Stress
=

P
A0

is engineering stress (Pa)

P is load (N)
A0 is initial cross-sectional area (m2)

Engineering Strain
=

ll 0 l
=
l0
l0

is engineering strain (unit-less)

l0 is initial gauge length (m)
l is final gauge length (m)

Relationship between stress and strain

=

Stress-Strain Graph

Yield Strength
o Point between elastic and plastic phase
o At the top of the linear part of the stress-strain graph
Ultimate Tensile Strength
o Top of the stress strain curve
E, Young Modulus
o Slope of the plastic phase
Fracture Stress
o Stress at which it breaks

Ductility
o the strain that corresponds to the intersection of a line with E as its
slope traced back from the fracture point
o % elongation or % decrease in area
Toughness
o Integral of the whole curve
Modulus of Resilience
o Integral of the elastic phase (energy it can take before being deformed)

Specific Strength

Strength/Density

Strain hardening (a.k.a. Work Hardening)

Second bump in stress-strain curve

Pulled to that bump on graph then let return so that it will be stronger

Necking

Middle of test specimen starts to become thinner and longer

True Stress
T =

P
A

T is true stress (Pa)

P is load (N)
A is cross-sectional area (m2)

True Strain
T =ln (

A0
)
A

T is true strain (unit-less)

A0 is initial cross-sectional area (m2)
A is cross-sectional area (m2)

Poissons Ratio

v=

Contraction perpendicular to the extension under tensile stress

x
z

x is negative strain (strain from change in diameter)

z is positive strain (from youngs modulus)

Shear Stress
=

PS
AS

PS is the load on the sample

AS is the area of the sample

Shear Strain
Shear stress produces an angular displacement , with the shear strain

=tan =

y
aa0
z0

Shear Modulus
G=

Relationship between moduli E and G

E=2G(1+ v)

Three Point Bend Test (modulus of rupture)

MOR=

3 FL
2
2bh

F is fracture force (N)

L is the distance between the two bottom supports (m)
b is the width of the beam (m)
h is the thickness of the beam (m)

Three Point Bend Test (flexural modulus)

E Flex=

L3 m
3
4 bh

m is slope of the tangent of the linear part of the load deflection curve (which is
F/, where is the vertical deflection from the original horizontal position) (N/m)
L is the distance between the two bottom supports (m)
b is the width of the beam (m)
h is the thickness of the beam (m)

Griffith Crack Model

= m
2
c

is the stress applied (Pa)

m is the maximum stress of the material (Pa)
is the radius of the tip (m)

c is the length of the crack (m)

Chapter 6 (2):
Plastic Deformation:

Bonds are broken and reformed

Does not return to its original position
Mechanisms
o Crystalline structure Slip mechanism
Atoms slide over each
Dislocations increase slipping
In perfect crystal high stress because all the atoms slide at once,
in imperfect crystal low stress because one atom at a time slides
o Non-crystalline structure
Viscous flow mechanism

Critical Shear Stress

G (Shear Modulus) is 10x larger than C (critical resolved shear stress)

Resolved Shear Stress

= cos cos =

F
cos cos
A

is the resolved shear stress (Pa)

is the applied stress (Pa)
is the angle between the tensile axis and the slip direction ()
is the angle between the normal of the slip plane and the tensile axis ()
F is the tensile force (N)
A is the cross-sectional area of the wire normally (not the shear plane)

Schmids Law
C = C cos cos =

F
cos cos
A

C is the critical resolved shear stress (Pa) (when the plastic stage starts)

C is the critical applied stress (Pa)

is the angle between the tensile axis and the slip direction ()
is the angle between the normal of the slip plane and the tensile axis ()
F is the tensile force (N)
A is the cross-sectional area of the wire normally (not the shear plane)

Methods to Increase Yield Strength

Use Defects
o Dislocation movement starts in the plane with the highest resolved
shear stress
o Hinder dislocation movement = increased yield strength
o Dislocations have to change directions to move beyond defects
Smaller Grains
o Grain boundaries impede dislocation movement
o

y = 0 + K

1
d

y is yield strength (Pa)

0 is a constant for the metal (Pa)
K is a constant of the metal
d is average grain diameter
Cold working
o Causes work hardening
Solution Hardening
o Impurity atoms
o Interstitials
o Larger Substitutionals
Dispersion Strengthening (Second Phase Strengthening)

Hardness

Resistance to indentation
Not a fundamental property (depends on many factors)

Brinell Hardness (ball)

BHN =

2P
D ( D ( D2d 2) )

P is load (in kgf kilogram-force) ( 1kgf = 9.81N)

D is the maximum diameter of the ball (mm)
d is the diameter of indentation

Creep

Plastic Deformation at high temperatures under constant stress

Metals ceramics polymers
o Can be caused by vacancy climb
o

(with a dot) is creep

is strain
t is time
Exhibits Arrhenius behaviour (faster when hotter)
Q

d
=C e RT
dt

s is strain (m)
C is a constant
Q is the activation energy (J/mol)
R is the universal gas constant (8.314 J/mol)
T is temperature (K)

Stress Relaxation

Decreasing stress over time for constant strain

polymers

Grain Boundary Sliding During Creep

creates voids at an inclusion trapped at the grain boundary

creates a void at the triple point of where three grains meet

Lowering Creep Rates

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Keep temperatures low

Keep loads low (i.e. low )
Use high melting point alloys
Add thermally stable particles that impede dislocation mobility
Minimize grain boundary sliding by using columnar grains or single crystals

Larson-Miller Parameter
L=

T ( A+ Bln t )
1000

L is the Larson-Miller Parameter

T is temperature (K)
A and B are experimental constants
T is time (hours)

Chapter 7, 9 and 10:

Relative Thermal Expansion
l
= T
l0
l is length (m)
is the coefficient of thermal expansion (1/K)
T is temperature (K)

Thermal Conductivity (Fouriers Law)

dQ
)
dt
k=
dT
A( )
dx
(

K is thermal conductivity (W/K)

Q is the heat (J)
T is temperature (K)
A is area (m^2)
x is distance (m)

Gibbs Phase Rule

When pressure and temperature are variable:

F=CP+2
When only pressure or temperature is variable:

F=CP+1
F is degrees of freedom

C is number of components
P is the number of phases

Phase Diagrams
Eutectic

- points down

Peritectic

- points up

Eutectoid

- points down

Peritectoid

- points up

- liquid to solid

- liquid to solid
- solid to solid

- solid to solid

Tie Line and Lever Rule

Draw a line at a given temperature

The percent composition of each component is the fraction of the distance away
over the whole length of the line

Cold Working

%CW =

A0 A f
100
A0

A0 is the area before plastic deformation (m2)

Af is the area after plastic deformation (m2)

Chapter 8:
Fracture Toughness
K=Y a
K is stress intensity factor (MPa sqrt(m))
Y is geometric factor
is stress (MPa)
a is depth of crack(m)
****internal then sub in half of the length given
KC is the critical stress intensity factor

Fracture Toughness of Brittle Materials

For a Vickers hardness indentation

K IC = 0

E
P
H
d

3
2

K is stress intensity factor (MPa sqrt(m))

0 is geometric factor (0.016???)
E is elastic modulus (N/m2)
H is Vickers hardness (N/m2)
P is load (N)
d is distance from tip of crack to centre

Paris Law
da
m
=A ( K )
dN

K is stress intensity factor (MPa sqrt(m))

N is number of load cycles
A is a constant
m is a constant
a is crack length

Weibull
m

f =1e

)
0

f is probability of failure
is stress applied
0 is reference stress
m is a constant

Chapter 13 and 15:

Resistivity
=

RA
l

is resistivity (m)
R is resistance ()
A is area (m2)
l is length (m)

Conductivity
=

is conductivity (1/ m)
is resistivity (m)
R is resistance ()

Conductivity and Resistivity Depend on:

1.
2.
3.
4.

Defects
Temperature
Atomic Arrangement (lattice type, degree of crystallinity)
Electron structure and atomic bonding

Current Density (Flux)

J=

I
=E=|e| n v
A

J is current density (A/m2)

I is current (A)
A is area (m2)
E is electric field strength (V/m)
is conductivity (1/ m)
e is the charge of an electron (C)
n is the number of electrons per unit volume (1/m 3)
v is velocity (average) (m/s)

Temperature Dependence of Resistivity

( T )=ref (1+ ref T )
resistivity (m)
T is temperature (K or C)
ref is the temperature coefficient of resistivity (TCR)

Effect of an Impurity on Resistivity

= 0 (1+ x)
0 resistivity of pure metal (m)
B is a material constant
x is the amount of impurity addition

Effect of Temperature on Carriers

= 0 e

Eg
2 kT

is conductivity (1/ m)
Eg is bandgap energy (J)
K is boltzmanns constant (1.38 x 10-23 J/K)

T is temperature (K)

Chapter 14:
Magnetism
1. Diamagnetic
a. slightly < 1
2. Paramagnetic
a. Ferromagnetic true Ferromagnetic
i. significantly > 1
b. Ferrimagnetic
i. slightly > 1
c. Antiferromagnetic
1

Magnetic Field

B =
H
B is induction (T)
is the magnetic permeability of the material
H is magnetic field (T)

M =( r1)
H

M is magnetization (T) Volume of magnetic dipoles

r is the relative permeability (r/ ) where = 4 x 107 (H/m)
r - 1 is the magnetic susceptibility
H is magnetic field (T)

General
ASTM Grain Size (G)
n=2G1
n is the number of grains at 100x per sq. in
G is average grain size

Count the number of full grains + half of the number of partial grains in the image
to get n

Conversion between other magnifications

n100 =(

mag 2
) nmag
100

Hall-Petch Equation
y = 0 +

ky
d

y is yield stress
0 is a material constant
ky is a material constant
d is the ASTM average grain diameter