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contradiction.
Exercise 1.2. Prove that there is no rational number whose square is 12.
Proof. Let f (x) = x2 12 Q[x]. Hence all possible rational roots are
1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 3, 4, 4, 6, 6, 12, 12.
But none of them satisfy f (x) = 0. Hence no rational number whose square
is 12. (If so, then my proof implies that f (x) = x2 12 has a rational root.)
Exercise 1.3. Prove Proposition 1.15: The axioms for multiplication imply
the following statements.
(a) If x 6= 0 and xy = xz then y = z.
(b) If x 6= 0 and xy = x then y = 1.
(c) If x 6= 0 and xy = 1 then y = 1/x.
(d) If x 6= 0 then 1/(1/x) = x.
(M 4)
1y
(M 5)
x(1/x)y
(M 2)
(M 2)
So .
Exercise 1.5. If A is a set of real numbers which is bounded below, then
inf A is a lower bound, i.e.,
inf A x
for all x A and if inf A b for any other lower bound b of A. Now if A is
bound of A. In fact,
x A x A sup(A) x sup(A) x.
As noted above, if b is any lower bound for A then b is an upper bound for
A so b sup(A) and b sup(A). This is the definition of inf A so
inf A = sup(A).
Exercise 1.6. We prove (a). mq = np since m/n = p/q. Thus bmq = bnp .
By Theorem 1.21 we know that (bmq )1/(mn) = (bnp )1/(mn) , that is, (bm )1/n =
(bp )1/q , that is, br is well-defined.
We prove (b). Let r = m/n and s = p/q where m, n, p, q are integers, and
n > 0, q > 0. Hence (br+s )nq = (bm/n+p/q )nq = (b(mq+np)/(nq) )nq = bmq+np =
bmq bnp = (bm/n )nq (bp/q )nq = (bm/n bp/q )nq . By Theorem 1.21 we know that
((br+s )nq )1/(nq) = ((bm/n bp/q )nq )1/(nq) , that is br+s = bm/n bp/q = br bs .
We prove (c). Note that br B(r). For all bt B(r) where t is rational
and t r. Hence, br = bt brt bt 1rt since b > 1 and r t 0. Hence br is
an upper bound of B(r). Hence br = sup B(r).
We prove (d). bx by = sup B(x) sup B(y) btx bty = btx +ty for all rational
tx x and ty y. Note that tx + ty x + y and tx + ty is rational.
Therefore, sup B(x) sup B(y) is a upper bound of B(x + y), that is, bx by
sup B(x + y) = bx+y . Conversely, we claim that bx br = bx+r if x R and
r Q. The following is my proof.
= br sup{bsr |s r x, s r Q}
= br sup B(x) = br bx .
= sup{bs brs |r x + y, s x, r, s Q}
sup{sup B(x)brs |r x + y, s x, r, s Q}
Exercise 1.8. If we can define an other on the complex field, then one and
only one of the statements
0 < i,
0 = i,
0 > i.
or
aj = rbj
4
1
|{z}
, , 0) Rk .
i -th position
tion and this equation lies in CM for some M and thus the set of all algebraic
numbers is countable.
Exercise 2.3. If not, R = { all algebraic numbers } is countable, a contradiction.
Exercise 2.4. If R Q is countable, then R = (R Q)
contradiction. Thus R Q is uncountable.
5
Q is countable, a
[
[
{1 + 1/n : n N} {2 + 1/n : n N}.
Exercise 2.6. For any point p of X E , that is, p is not a limit point E,
there exists a neighborhood of p such that q is not in E with q 6= p for every
q in that neighborhood.
Hence, p is an interior point of X E , that is, X E is open, that is,
E is closed.
Next, if p is a limit point of E, then p is also a limit point of E since
S
E = E E . If p is a limit point of E, then every neighborhood Nr (p) of p
contains a point q 6= p such that q E. If q E, we completed the proof. So
we suppose that q E E = E E. Then q is a limit point of E. Hence,
Nr (q)
where r = 21 min(r d(p, q), d(p, q)) is a neighborhood of q
and contains a point x 6= q such that x E. Note that Nr (q) contains
in Nr (p) {p}. That is, x 6= p and x is in Nr (p). Hence, q also a limit point
of E. Hence, E and E have the same limit points.
Last, the answer of the final sub-problem is no. Put
E = {1/n : n N},
and E = {0} and (E ) = .
Exercise 2.7. We proof (a). Method 1. Bn is the smallest closed subset of
S
X that contains Bn . Note that Ai is a closed subset of X that contains
Bn , thus
n
[
Bn
Ai .
i=1
T
neighborhood Nri (p) of p such that (Nri (p) p) Ai = for all i. Take
T
r = min{r1 , r2 , , rn }, and we have Nr (p) Bn = , a contradiction. Thus
p Ai for some i. Hence
Bn
that is,
Bn =
n
[
Ai .
i=1
n
[
Ai .
i=1
S
S
Method 2. Since i=1 Ai is closed and Bn = ni=1 Ai ni=1 Ai , Bn
Sn
i=1 Ai .
We prove (b). Since B is closed and B B Ai , B Ai for all i. Hence
S
B Ai .
Note: My example is Ai = (1/i, ) for all i. Thus, Ai = [1/i, ), and
Sn
B = (0, ), B = [0, ). Note that 0 is not in Ai for all i. Thus this inclusion
can be proper.
Exercise 2.8. For the first part of this problem, the answer is yes.
Reason. For every point p of E, p is an interior point of E. That is, there
is a neighborhood Nr (p) of p such that Nr (p) is a subset of E. Then for every
real r , we can choose a point q such that d(p, q) = 1/2 min(r, r ). Note that
q 6= p, q Nr (p), and q Nr (p). Hence, every neighborhood Nr (p) contains
a point q 6= p such that q Nr (p) E, that is, p is a limit points of E.
For the last part of this problem, the answer is no. Consider A = {(0, 0)}.
A = and thus (0, 0) is not a limit point of E.
in X E . Therefore X E = X E.
For (e), the answer is no. Take X = R and E = Q. Thus E = and
E = (R) = R 6= .
d(x,y)
Claim: d(x, y) is a metric, then d (x, y) = 1+d(x,y)
is also a metric.
(a) d (p, q) > 0 if p 6= q; d(p, p) = 0. (b) d (p, q) = d (q, p). (c) Let
1+x
1+y 1+z
x(1 + y)(1 + z) y(1 + z)(1 + x) + z(1 + x)(1 + y)
x + xy + xz + xyz (y + xy + yz + xyz) + (z + xz + yz + xyz)
x y + z + 2yz + xyz
xy+z
Thus, d is also a metric.
Therefore, K is compact.
Note: The unique limit point of K is 0. Suppose p 6= 0 is a limit point of
K. Clearly, 0 < p < 1. Thus there exists n Z+ such that
1
1
<p< .
n+1
n
o
n
1
1
Hence Nr (p) where r = min n p, p n+1 contains no points of K, a
contradiction.
Exercise 2.13. Let K be consist of 0 and the numbers 1/n for n = 1, 2, 3,
[
[
S =
Sn {1}.
Sn = (1
n=1
S
Claim: S is compact and the set of all limit points of S is hK {1}. Clearly,
i
1
S lies in [0, 1], that is, S is bounded in R. Note that Sn 1 21n , 1 2n+1
.
T
By Exercise 12 and its note, we have that all limit points of S [0, 1) is
1
1
0, , , n ,
2
2
Clearly, 1 is also a limit point of S. Therefore, the set of all limit points of
S
S
S is K {1}. Note that K {1} S, that is, K is compact. We completed
the proof of our claim.
10
1
2np
Exercise 2.15. For closed: [n, ). For bounded: (1/n, 1/n) {0}.
S
Exercise 2.16. Let S = ( 2, 3) ( 3, 2). Then E = {p Q : p
S}. Clearly, E is bounded in Q. Since Q is dense in R, every limit point of
Q is in Q. (We regard Q as a metric space). Hence, E is closed in Q.
To prove that E is not compact, we form a open covering of E as follows:
{G } = {Nr (p)|p E and (p r, p + r) S}.
Surely, {G } is a open covering of E. If E is compact, then there are finitely
many indices 1 , , n such that
E G1
Gn .
For every Gi = Nri (pi ), take p = max1in pi . Thus, p is the nearest point
11
nX
o
an
|a
=
4
or
a
=
7
.
n
n n
10
n=1
xk = 0.y1y2 yn
where
pk if k 6= n
yn =
4 if pn = 7
7 if pn = 4
separated.
T
For (c), suppose A B is not empty. Thus there exists x such that x A
S
and x B. Since x A, d(p, x) < . x B = B B , thus if x B,
d(x,p)
.
2
d(x, p)
+ d(x, p)
2
+ d(x, p)
+
<
= ,
2
2
T
T
and it is absurd. Hence A B is empty. Similarly, A B is also empty.
Thus A and B are separated.
=
Note: Take care of > 0. Think a while and you can prove the next
sub-exercise.
For (d), let X be a connected metric space. Take p X, q X with
p 6= q, thus d(p, q) > 0 is fixed. Let
A = {x X|d(x, p) < } and B = {x X|d(x, p) > }.
Take = t = td(p, q) where t (0, 1). Thus 0 < < d(p, q). p A since
d(p, p) = 0 < , and q B since d(p, q) > . Thus A and B are non-empty.
S
By (c), A and B are separated. If X = A B, then X is not connected,
S
a contradiction. Thus there exists yt X such that y
/ A B. Let
E = Et = {x X|d(x, p) = t } yt .
For any real t (0, 1), Et is nonempty. Next, Et and Es are disjoint if
It is a good exercise. If that metric space contains only one point, then it
must be separated.
14
are separated.
(b) Show that a connected metric space with at least two points must be
uncountable. [Hint: Use (a)] For (a), by definition of separated sets, we want
T
T
to show A B = , and B A = . In order to do these, it is sufficient to
T
T
show A B = . Let x A B = , then we have:
(1) x A d(x, p) r; (2) x B d(x, p) > r
T
It is impossible. So, A B = .
For (b), suppose that C is countable, say C = {a, b, x3 , }. We want to
show C is disconnected. So, if C is a connected metric space with at least
two points, it must be uncountable. Consider the set S = {d(a, xi )|xi C},
and thus let r R S and inf S < r < sup S. And construct A and B
S
as in (a), we have C = A B, where A and B are separated. That is C
is disconnected. Another proof of (b). Let a C, b C, consider the continuous function f from C into R defined by f (x) = d(x, a). So, f (C) is
connected and f (a) = 0, f (b) > 0. That is, f (C) is an interval. Therefore,
C is uncountable.
Exercise 2.20. Closures of connected sets is always connected, but interiors
of those is not. The counterexample is
[
[
S = N1 (2, 0) N1 (2, 0) {x-axis} R2 .
S
Since S is path-connected, S is connect. But S = N1 (2) N1 (2) is disconnected clearly.
where T = S S. Thus
(A T c ) B T c (A T c ) B T c A B = .
15
Hence (A T c ) B T c = . Similarly, A T c (B T c ) = .
Now we claim that both A T c and B T c are nonempty. Suppose that
B T c = . Thus
A T c = S A (S S)c = S
A (A B S)c = S
A ((A B) S c )c = S
A ((Ac B c ) S) = S
(A S) (A Ac B c ) = S
A S = S.
Thus B is empty, and it is absurd. Thus B T c is nonempty. Similarly,
A T c nonempty. Therefore S is a union of two nonempty separated sets, a
contradiction. Hence S is connected.
T
T
Exercise 2.21. For (a), we claim that A0 B0 is empty. (B0 A0 is simT
ilar). If not, take x A0 B0 . x A0 and x B0 . x B0 or x is a
T
T
limit point of B0 . x B0 will make x A0 B0 , that is, p(x) A B, a
contradiction since A and B are separated.
Claim: x is a limit point of B0 p(x) is a limit point of B. Take
any neighborhood Nr of p(x), and p(t) lies in B for small enough t. More
precisely,
r
r
x
<t<x+
.
|b a|
|b a|
Since x is a limit point of B0 , and (xr/|ba|, x+r/|ba|) is a neighborhood
N of x, thus N contains a point y 6= x such that y B0 , that is, p(y) B.
T
Also, p(y) Nr . Therefore, p(x) is a limit point of B. Hence p(x) A B,
T
a contradiction since A and B are separated. Hence A0 B0 is empty, that
borhoods of radius .
Take = 1/n(n = 1, 2, 3, ), and consider the set A of the centers of
the corresponding neighborhoods.
Fix p X. Suppose that p is not in A, and every neighborhood Nr (p).
17
Note that Nr/2 (p) can be covered by finite many neighborhoods Ns (x1 ), , Ns (xk )
of radius s = 1/n where n = [2/r] + 1 and xi A for i = 1, , k. Hence,
d(x1 , p) d(x1 , q) + d(q, p) r/2 + s < r where q Nr/2 (p) Ns (x1 ). Therefore, x1 Nr (p) and x1 6= p since p is not in A. Hence, p is a limit point of A if
Note that Fk Fk+1 and Fn is closed for all n, thus p lies in Fk for
T
T
all k. Hence p lies in Fn , but Fn is empty, a contradiction.
T
some n, then E Vn is uncountable since Vn is open. Thus x W c . (If
T
x W , then there exists Vn such that x Vn and E Vn is uncountable, a
contradiction.) Therefore P W c .
T
Conversely, suppose x W c . x
/ Vn for any n such that E Vn is countT
able. Take any neighborhood N(x) of x. Take x Vn N(x), and E Vn is
T
uncountable. Thus E N(x) is also uncountable, x is a condensation point
of E. Thus W c P . Therefore P = W c . Note that W is countable, and
T
T
thus W W E = P c E is at most countable.
To show that P is perfect, it is enough to show that P contains no isolated
point. (since P is closed). If p is an isolated point of P , then there exists a
T
neighborhood N of p such that N E = . p is not a condensation point of
E, a contradiction. Therefore P is perfect.
Moreover, b
/ O, for if b O, then for some > 0 we have (b, b+) O,
whence (x, b + ) O, contradicting the definition of b. Similarly, a
/ O.
Consider the collection of open intervals {Ix }, x O. Since each x O
S
is contained in Ix , and each Ix O, we have O = Ix .
Let (a, b) and (c, d) be two intervals in this collection with a point in
\
Vn 6= .
n=1
TT
Since V1 G0 G1 and Vn+1 Gn+1 , G0 (
n=1 Gn ) 6= .
Note: By Baires theorem, Ive proved the equivalent statement. Next,
Fn has a empty interior if and only if Gn = Rk Fn is dense in Rk . Hence
we completed all proof.
Exercise 3.1. Since {sn } is convergent, for any > 0, there exists N
20
Exercise 3.2.
n2 + n n =
as n .
n2
n
1
1
=p
2
+n+n
1/n + 1 + 1
By the induction, {sn } is strictly increasing. Next, we will show that {sn }
is bounded by 2. Similarly, we apply the induction again. Hence {sn } is
strictly increasing and bounded, that is, {sn } converges.
Exercise 3.4. By direct computing s1 = 0, s2 = 0, s3 =
3
, s6
4
3
, s7
8
7
,
8
So lim inf sn =
1
, lim sup sn
2
1
, s4
2
1
, s5
4
= 1.
Exercise 3.5. Let a = lim sup an , b = lim sup bn , and c = lim sup(an + bn ).
Suppose {an } and {bn } is bounded below. If a = + or b = +, then the
conclusion always holds. Hence we assume that a and b are finite. Hence give
> 0, there is an integer N such that an + bn < a + b + whenever n N.
It follows that c is finite. Since c = lim sup(an + bn ), for the same there
is an integer m N such that c < am + bm . Put n = m and combine
them, we have c < a + b + , or c < a + b + 2. Since is arbitrary small,
c a + b, that is,
Exercise 3.6. For (a). The partial sum sn =
sn =
n
X
k=1
Pn
k=1 ak
is
n
X
ak =
( k + 1 k) = n + 1 1.
k=1
Hence
an = lim sn = is divergent.
For (b).
n+1 n
1
an =
=
.
n
n( n + 1 + n)
So
1
.
2n3/2
P
By Theorem 3.25 and 3.28,
an converges.
an
For (c).
lim sup
n
p
n
an converges.
1
1
2
n
< n
n
|1 + z |
|z| 1
|z|
P
P
whenever n N. By Theorem 3.25 and 3.26,
|an | converges. So
an
converges absolutely if |z| > 1.
|an | =
k
k
X
X
an
1
an
a
n
n2
n
n=1
n=1
n=1
k
X
22
Pk
P
P 1
an
are
convergent;
thus
a
for all n N. Also, both
an and
n=1 n n
n2
P
a
an
is bounded. Besides, n n 0 for all n. Hence
is convergent.
n
n=p
q1
X
n=p
n=0
n=0
an bn
converges.
Return to this exercise, suppose {bn } is decreasing and bn b, then the
P
new sequence {bn b} decreases with 0 as its limit. Also,
an converges
Pn
implies that { k=0 ak } is bounded. By Dirichlets Convergence Test,
X
n=0
an (bn b)
P
P
converges. Also,
an converges implies that
ban converges. Add them,
P
and we have
an bn converges. Finally, suppose {bn } is increasing and
bn b. Thus the neq sequence {b bn } decreases with 0 as its limit. Using
the same argument, we also get the same conclusion.
= lim sup
n
p
n
|an | 1,
1
1,
an
0 iff 1 1+1 0 iff a1n iff
Exercise 3.11. For (a). Note that 1+a
n
an
P an
an 0 as n . If
converges, then an 0 as n . Thus for
1+an
P an
some = 1 there is an N1 such that an < 1 whenever n N1 . Since
1+an
am
an
converges, for any > 0 there is an N2 such that 1+a
+
+
<
for
1+an
m
am
1+am
+ +
an
1+an
>
am + + an < 2
aN+k
aN+1
+ + sN+k
sN+1
P an
converges,
sn
aN+1
sN+k
an
1+an
aN+k
+ + sN+k
diverges.
a
++a
N
For (b).
Thus
am
an
aN
aN +k
sN
++
=
++
1
sm
sn
sN
sN +k
sN +k
P
for all k N. But sN +k as k since
an diverges and an > 0.
P an
Take = 1/2 and we obtain a contradiction. Hence
diverges.
sn
n1
n
For (c). sn1 sn iff s12 sn s1n1 iff as2n snasn1
= ssnns
iff as2n
sn1
>
sn1
1
sn
k
X
an
n=2
Note that
1
sn
s2n
k
X
n=2
1
sn1
0 as n since
1
1
1
)=
.
sn
s1 sn
an diverges. Hence
24
P an
s2n
converges.
P an
P an
For (d).
may converge or diverge, and
converges. To
2
1+nan
P an 1+n anP
an
1
see this, we put an = 1/n. 1+nan = 2n , that is,
= 2 1/n diverges.
1+nan
Besides, if we put
an =
1
n(log n)p
am
an
rn
rn
++
>1
=1
rm
rn
rm
rN
m
for all n > N. But rn 0 as n ; thus arm
+ + arnn 1 as n . If
we take = 1/2, we will get a contradiction.
For (b). Note that rn+1 < rn iff rn+1 < rn iff rn + rn+1 < 2 rn iff
rn + rn+1
r + r
rn+1
2( rn rn+1 ) iff arnn < 2( rn rn+1 ) since an > 0 for all n. Hence,
k
k
X
X
an
<
2( rn rn+1 ) = 2( r1 rk+1 ).
rn
n=1
n=1
P an
P an
25
an
= 0.
bn
bn if
Pn
k=0
|ak |, Bn =
Pn
k=0
|bk |, Cn =
Pn
k=0
|ck |. Then
t0 + t1 + + tn
.
n+1
Choose M > 0 such that |tn | M for all n. Given > 0, choose N so that
26
Note: If you know O.Stolz Theorem, the proof will be very simple. A
similar exercise is stated here: If lim an = a, lim bn = b, then
a1 bn + a2 bn1 + + an b1
= ab.
n
n
lim
Another proof of (a). Given > 0, there exists N1 such that |sn s| <
whenever n > N1 . Thus
|s0 s| + |s1 s| + + |sn s|
n+1
|s0 s| + + |sN1 s| n + 1 N1
+
.
n+1
n+1
n s
n + 1 N1
< 2.
n+1
For (b). Let sn = (1)n . Hence |n | 1/(n + 1), that is, lim n = 0.
However, lim sn does not exists.
For (c). Let
, n = 0,
1
sn =
n1/4 + n1 , n = k 2 for some integer k,
1
n
, otherwise.
1/4
1/4
n n =2+
n n .
2
n n1/4
n =
+
.
n+1
n+1
The first term 2/(n + 1) 0 as n . Note that
n n1/4
0
< n1/2 n1/4 n1 = n1/4 .
n+1
27
kak =
k=1
n
X
k=1
n
X
k=1
k(sk sk1 ) =
ksk
= nsn +
= nsn
n1
X
k=1
n1
X
k=1
n1
X
n
X
k=1
ksk
n
X
ksk1
k=1
(k + 1)sk
k=0
ksk
n1
X
k=1
(k + 1)sk s0
sk s0 = (n + 1)sn
= (n + 1)(sn n ).
That is,
n
X
sk
k=0
1 X
sn n =
kak .
n+1
k=1
i=m+1
(sn si ) + (m + 1)(n m )
= (n m)sn
= (n m)sn
n
X
i=m+1
X
n
i=0
si + (m + 1)(n m )
m
X
si
si + (m + 1)(n m )
i=0
n
X
m+1
1
sn n =
(n m ) +
(sn si ).
nm
n m i=m+1
28
(n (m + 1))M
(n m 1)M
=
.
(m + 1) + 1
m+2
Fix > 0 and associate with each n the integer m that satisfies
n
m
< m + 1.
1+
Thus
nm
nm1
and
< ,
m+1
m+2
or
m+1
1
Hence,
1
|sn | |n | + (|n | + |m |) + M.
if m n N.
X
m
a
n
k=n
Theorem 3.23. If
p
n
|an |.
P
(a) if < 1,
an converges;
P
(b) if > 1,
an diverges;
bn an converges.
Theorem 3.45. If
an converges.
P
P
P
Theorem 3.47. If
an = A, and
bn = B, then (an + bn ) = A + B,
P
and
can = cA for any fixed c R.
P
Theorem 3.55. If
an is a series in Ck which converges absolutely, then
P
every arrangement of an converges, and they all converge to the same sum.
Proof of Theorem 3.22. Theorem 3.11(c) implies it.
m
X
k=n
ck ,
30
k=n
k=n
1 x2n
xn xn+1 = xn
xn +
=
xn
=
>0
2
xn
2
xn
2
xn
since xn > . Hence {xn } decreases monotonically. Also, {xn } is bounded
by 0; thus {xn } converges. Let lim xn = x. Hence lim xn+1 = lim 12 (xn + xn )
lim xn = .
For (b).
1
xn+1 =
xn +
2
x
n
xn +
xn+1 =
2
xn
1 x2n 2xn +
xn+1 =
2
x
n2
(xn )
xn+1 =
2xn
2n
2n
n+1 =
< .
2xn
2
n
Hence n+1 < ( 1 )2 where = 2 by induction.
For (c).
1
2 3
1
1
1
=
< .
= =
10
2 3
2 3(2 + 3)
6+4 3
Thus
1 4
5 < ( )2 < 2 3 1016 < 4 1016 ,
1 25
6 < ( ) < 2 3 1032 < 4 1032 .
31
Note. It is an application of Newtons method. Let f (x) = x2 in
Exercise 5.25.
for each n. With the relation En En+1 and Page 53, we know that {pn }
is a Cauchy sequence in X. Since X is complete, pn converges to a point
p X. Since En is closed and En En+1 , the limit point p lies in each En .
So
p
If there is q
n=1 En
En .
n=1
T
such that p 6= q, then diam(
n=1 En ) d(p, q) > 0,
n=1
En Ek
\
diam
En diamEk
n=1
for all k. Take limit and limn diamEn d(p, q), where d(p, q) is a fixed
T
positive number, contradicts with limn diamEn = 0. Hence
n=1 En consists of exactly one point.
32
Exercise 3.23. For any > 0, there exists N such that d(pn , pm ) < and
d(qm , qn ) < whenever m, n N. Note that
d(pn , qn ) d(pn , pm ) + d(pm , qm ) + d(qm , qn ).
It follows that
|d(pn , qn ) d(pm , qm )| d(pn , pm ) + d(qm , qn ) < 2.
Thus {d(pn , qn )} is a Cauchy sequence in X. Hence {d(pn , qn )} converges.
Exercise 3.24. For (a). Suppose there are three Cauchy sequences {pn },
(*)
Since {Pn } is a Cauchy sequence, given > 0, there is an N > 0 such that
(Pn , Pm ) < for m, n > N. We choose m and n so large that m < ,
n < . Thus the inequality (*) shows that {Qn } is a Cauchy sequence in X.
Let P be the corresponding equivalence class in S. Since
n m
Now we show that f (E) can be a proper subset of f (E). Define a function
f (x) from X = (0, +) to Y = R1 by
f (x) =
1
.
x
Let E = Z+ . Thus
Exercise 4.3. To prove Z(f ) is closed, it suffice to show that every limit
point of Z(f ) is contained in Z(f ) itself. Let x X be a limit point of Z(f ).
Thus, there is a convergent sequence {xn } in Z(f ) converging to x. Since f
is continuous, limn f (xn ) = f (limn xn ). It follows that 0 = f (x) and
thus x Z(f ) exactly.
Exercise 4.4. First we need to show f (E) is dense in f (X), that is, every
point of f (X) is a limit point of f (E), or a point of f (E) (or both).
Take any y f (X), and then there exists a point p X such that
y = f (p). Since E is dense in X, thus p is a limit point of E or p E. If
35
there exists > 0 such that dY (f (x), f (p)) < for all points x X for which
dX (x, p) < . Since p is a limit point of E, there exists q N (p) such that
q 6= p and q E. Hence
Exercise 4.5. Note that the following fact: Every open set of real numbers
is the union of a countable collection of disjoint open intervals.
S
Thus, consider E c = (ai , bi ), where i Z, and ai < bi < ai+1 < bi+1 .
We extend g on (ai , bi ) as following:
g(x) = f (ai ) + (x ai )
f (bi ) f (ai )
bi ai
mapping of a compact set E into f (E), by Theorem 4.14 f (E) is also compact. We claim that the product of finitely many compact sets is compact.
Thus G = E f (E) is also compact.
() Define
g(x) = (x, f (x))
from E to G for x E. We claim that g(x) is continuous on E. Consider
h(x, f (x)) = x from G to E. Thus h is injective, continuous on a compact set
G. Hence its inverse function g(x) is injective and continuous on a compact
set E.
Since g(x) is continuous on E, the component of g(x), say f (x), is continuous on a compact E.
Proof of claim: We prove that the product of two compact spaces is
compact; the claim follows by induction for any finite product.
Step 1. Suppose that we are given sets X and Y , with Y is compact.
Suppose that x0 X, and N is an open set of X Y containing the slice
x0 Y of X Y . We prove the following: There is a neighborhood W of x0
Un .
Since all the sets Ui Vi N, and since they cover W Y , the tube
W Y N also.
Step 2. Now we prove the claim. Let X and Y be compact sets. Let A
38
Exercise 4.7. Since x2 + y 4 2xy 2 , f (x, y) 2 for all (x, y) R2 . That is,
f is bounded (by 2). Next, select
1 1
(xn , yn ) =
,
.
n3 n
(xn , yn ) (0, 0) as n , and g(xn , yn ) = n/2 as n , that
is, g(x, y) is unbounded in every neighborhood of (0, 0) by choosing large
enough n.
Next, select
(xn , yn ) =
1 1
,
.
n2 n
1
6= 0 = f (0, 0)
2
|f (x)| |f (xn )|
T
for all x E [n, (n + 1)). If there are more than two or equal to two
element satisfying that condition, then take some one as xn . Since |xxn | <
T
for all x E [n, (n + 1)),
|f (x) f (xn )| < 1
for all x E
So
|f (x)| < max (1 + f (xn )).
nS
,
2
dY (f (qkn ), f (x))
2
dY (f (pkn ), f (x))
+ = .
<
2 2
The last inequality contradicts our hypotheses, and the result is established.
Exercise 4.11. Let {xn } be a Cauchy sequence in X. > 0, N such
{x1 , x1 , x2 , x2 , , xn , xn , }
42
n large enough (d(xn , x) < /3, d(yn , y) < /3 whenever n N for some
integer N.) and d(x, y) small enough (d(x, y) < /3), we have
d(xn , yn ) d(xn , x) + d(x, y) + d(y, yn) < .
So
|f (xn ) f (yn )| < .
Also, g(x) = lim f (xn ), g(y) = lim f (yn ), there is an integer N such that
n
P
3
67
k
where am = m
k=0 10 . For example, 11 , 111 , S. Hence S is dense in
Q [0, 1]. Define f on S by
(
1 if 2n am
n
f
=
am
0 if 2n < am .
3
67
For example, f ( 11
) = 0 and f ( 111
) = 1. So f is a uniformly continuous
1
function. But f cannot
extend
to Q [0,
n
o
n 1]. Take
o 2 Q [0, 1], we have two
sequences {pn } = aann/2 and {qn } = aann/2 such that lim f (pn ) = 0 and
lim f (qn ) = 1.
f (x1 ) + f (x2 )
< f (x2 )
2
44
f (x2 ) + f (x3 )
< f (x2 )
2
x(x1 ,x3 )
x[y1 ,y2 ]
x(x1 ,x3 )
x[y1 ,y2 ]
Hence supx(x1 ,x3 ) f (x) = supx[y1 ,y2 ] f (x). Since (x1 , x3 ) is an open set,
f ((x1 , x3 )) is also open. Note that f (p) f ((x1 , x3 )) but f (p) is not an
interior point of f ((x1 , x3 )). (Otherwise f (p) + f ((x1 , x3 )) for some
> 0. That is, f (p) + > f (p) which is a contradiction with the maximum
of f (p).)
Exercise 4.16. Since [x] + (x) = x is a continuous function, [x] and (x) have
the same discontinuities.
For [x], its discontinuities are integers. So (x)s discontinuities are also
integers.
Exercise 4.17. Recall the definition of simple discontinities: both f (x+)
and f (x) exist. First, let E be the set on which f (x) < f (x+). With
each point x E, associate a rational triple (p, q, r) such that
(a) f (x) < p < f (x+),
(b) a < q < t < x implies f (t) < p,
(c) x < t < r < b implies f (t) > p.
45
1
n< ;
that is, there are finitely many rational numbers m/n such that
m
f
.
n
46
Thus we can take > 0 such that the neighborhood N (x0 ) of x0 contains
no such rational numbers. (If x0 Q, we may remove x0 .) Hence for all x
the following
|f (x)| <
holds whenever 0 < |x x0 | < . Thus we proved that
f (x0 +) = f (x0 ) = 0
for all x0 [0, 1].
If x0 is rational, then f (x0 ) = 0; that is, f (x) is continuous at x = x0 .
If x0 is not rational, then f (x0 ) 6= 0; that is, has a simple discontinuity at
x = x0 . Note. f is Riemann-integrable on [0, 1].
Exercise 4.19. Let S = {x|f (x) = r}. If xn x0 , but f (xn ) > r > f (x0 )
for some r and all n since Q is dense in R, then f (tn ) = r for some tn
between x0 and xn ; thus tn x0 . Hence x0 is a limit point of S. Since S is
closed, f (x0 ) = r, a contradiction. Hence, lim sup f (xn ) f (x0 ). Similarly,
lim inf f (xn ) f (x0 ). Hence, lim f (xn ) = f (x0 ), and f is continuous at x0 .
Note: Original problem is stated as follows: Let f be a function from the
reals to the reals, differentiable at every point. Suppose that, for every r, the
set of points x, where f (x) = r, is closed. Prove that f is continuous. If
we replace Q into any dense subsets of R, the conclusion also holds.
Exercise 4.20. We prove (a). () If x E E, then
inf d(x, z) d(x, x) = 0
zE
then by inf zE d(x, z) = 0, for any > 0 there exists z E such that
d(x, z) < ,
that is,
z N (x).
Since is arbitrary and z E, x is a limit point of E. Thus x E E.
We prove (b). For all x X, y X, z E,
x
48
However,
d(x, y) =
1
1
<
= ,
x
1/
a contradiction.
Exercise 4.22. Note that A (p) and B (p) are (uniformly) continuous on
X, and A (p) + B (p) > 0. (Clearly, A (p) + B (p) 0 by the definition. If
T
A (p) + B (p) = 0, then p A B by Exercise 20, a contradiction). Thus
f (p) = A (p)/(A (p) + B (p)) is continuous on X. Next, f (p) 0, and
f (p) 1 since A (p) A (p) + B (p). Thus f (X) lies in [0, 1].
Next, f (p) = 0 A (p) = 0 p A, and f (p) = 1 B (p) = 0 p
B by Exercise 20.
Now we prove a converse of Exercise 3: Every closed set A X is Z(f )
for some continuous real f on X. If Z(f ) = , then f (x) = 1 for all x X
Z(f ) (x)
.
Z(f ) (x) + {p} (x)
By the previous result, we know that f (x) satisfies our requirement. Hence
we complete the whole proof.
Note that [0, 1/2) and (1/2, 1] are two open sets of f (X). Since f is
continuous, V = f 1 ([0, 1/2)) and W = f 1 ((1/2, 1]) are two open sets.
f 1 ({0}) f 1 ([0, 1/2)), and f 1 ({1}) f 1 ((1/2, 1]). Thus, A V and
B W . Thus a metric space X is normal.
Exercise 4.23. First, we prove that if f is convex in (a, b) and if a < s <
t < u < b, then
f (t) f (s)
f (u) f (s)
f (u) f (t)
.
ts
us
ut
Since s < t < u, > 0 such that t = s + (1 )u. Since f is convex in
(a, b),
Let
f (u) f (s)
(t s) + f (s)
us
= (f (u) f (s))(1 ) + f (s)
m =
= f (s) + (1 )f (u).
Thus
m f (s)
f (u) f (s)
=
.
ts
us
Hence
ts
ts
m f (s)
f (u) f (s)
=
=
.
ts
us
Similarly,
f (u)f (s)
us
f (u)f (t)
.
ut
.
yx
y x
The above lemma is very easy by our previous result. Now we turn to
show that f is continuous on (a, b). Choose p (a, b). Since p is an interior
point of (a, b), there exists > 0 such that (p , p + ) (a, b). Hence
ca
yx
bd
for x, y [c, d]. Thus |f (y)f (x)| M|xy| in [c, d]. Hence f is continuous
at x = p.
Finally, we show that every increasing convex function of a convex function is convex. Let f (x) be a convex function on (a, b), g(x) be an increasing
convex function on f ((a, b)). For any x, y (a, b), 0 < < 1,
g(f (x + (1 )y)) g(f (x) + (1 )f (y))
g(f (x)) + (1 )g(f (y))
50
.
2n
2n
for all n.
Induction on n. When n = 1, it is OK. Assume n = k the conclusion
holds, then as n = k + 1,
x1 + + x2k+1
f
2k+1
1 x1 + + x2k
x2k +1 + + x2k+1
=f
(
+
)
2
2k
2k
1
x1 + + x2k
x2k +1 + + x2k+1
f
+f
2
2k
2k
1 f (x1 ) + + f (x2k ) f (x2k +1 ) + + f (x2k+1 )
+
2
2k
2k
f (x1 ) + + f (x2k+1 )
.
=
2k+1
by induction hypothesis. Hence by the induction, claim 1 holds.
Claim 2.
for all n.
x1 + + xn
f
n
f (x1 ) + + f (xn )
.
n
x1 + + xn1
.
n1
Then
x1 + + xn1 xn
f (xn ) = f
+
n
n
x1 + + xn
= f
n
f (x1 ) + + f (xn )
.
n
51
So
x1 + + xn1
f
n1
f (x1 ) + + f (xn1 )
.
n1
Back to the proof. Given x, y (a, b), (0, 1). irst suppose = p/q
(0, 1) is rational, where p, q N. Let xi = x for 1 i p, and xj = y for
p + 1 j q. Hence
p
qp
p
p
f
x+
y f (x) + 1
f (y).
q
q
q
q
Finally we take (0, 1) and choose a rational sequence n . Since
f is continuous,
f (x + (1 )y) f (x) + (1 )f (y).
Exercise 4.25. We prove (a). Take z
/ K + C. (If we cannot take such z,
are all in [0, 1), there exist two different integer k, l with 0 k, l n such
that k [k] and l [l] in the same subinterval. If the front number is
larger, then
1
< .
n
0 < u + v < b a.
Since
b
u+v
a
u+v
is continuous if h is continuous.
For a counterexample, let X = Z = [0, 1], Y = [0, 1/2) [1, 3/2],
(
x
if x [0, 1/2),
f (x) =
x + 1/2 if x [1/2, 1],
g(x) =
x
if x [0, 1/2),
x 1/2 if x [1, 3/2].
f (x) f (y)
lim |x y| = 0.
xy
xy
xy
0 lim
Note that f (g(x)) > 0 for all x (a, b) and (g) 0 as h 0, thus,
lim g/h = lim
h0 f (g)
h0
Thus g (x) =
1
,
f (g(x))
g (f (x)) =
1
.
f (x)
1
1
=
.
+ (g)
f (g(x))
Exercise 5.3. For every x < y with x, y R, we will show that f (x) 6= f (y).
By Mean Value Theorem, g(x) g(y) = g (c)(x y) for some x < c < y.
(x y) + ((x) g(y)) = (g (c) + 1)(x y),
that is,
f (x) f (y) = (g (c) + 1)(x y).
(*)
Cn n+1
Exercise 5.4. Let f (x) = C0 x + + n+1
x . f is differentiable in R and
f (0) = f (1) = 0. Thus, f (1) f (0) = f (c) for some c (0, 1) by Mean
x+
x+
c+
Exercise 5.6. Our goal is to show g (x) > 0 for all x > 0 g (x) =
xf (x)f (x)
x2
f (x)
.
x
g (t)
limtx g(t) tx g(t)
limtx tx
f (t) f (x)
f (x)| <
tx
It does not hold for vector-valued functions. Consider f (x) = (cos x, sin x),
[a, b] = [0, 2], and x = 0. Hence f (x) = ( sin x, cos x). Take any 1 > > 0,
there exists > 0 such that
f (t) f (0)
f (0) <
t0
(0,
1)
t
t
cos t 1 sin t
< ,
,
1
t
t
2
cos t 1 2
sin t
) +(
1 < 2 < ,
t
t
56
2
2(cos t + sin t)
+
1
<
t2
t
since 1 > > 0. Note that
4
2
2(cos t + sin t)
2
+1 < 2 +1
2
t
t
t
t
But
2
t2
+1
4
t
+ as t 0. It is absurd.
f (x0 + h) f (x0 )
= lim f (x0 + h)
h0
h0
h
lim
f1 (x)
x
and
f2 (x)
,
x
we have
f1 (x)
f2 (x)
= lim f1 (x) and lim
= lim f2 (x)
x0
x0
x0
x0
x
x
lim
or
f1 (x)
f2 (x)
+ i lim
= lim f1 (x) + i lim f2 (x) = lim f (x)
x0
x0
x0
x0
x0
x
x
lim
57
g(x) = x + x2 e x2 ).
Note that
1
(f (x) + f (x))
2
1
f (x + h) f (x)
f (x h) f (x)
=
(lim
+ lim
)
h0
2 h0
h
h
1
f (x + h) f (x h)
=
lim
2 h0
h
f (x + h) f (x h)
.
= lim
h0
2h
f (x) =
Thus,
f (x + h) + f (x h) 2f (x)
f (x)
2
h
as h 0.
f (0) = lim
58
Since
f (h) f (0)
|h|
=6
h
h
|h|
h
Exercise 5.13. For (a). () f is continuous iff for any sequence {xn } 0
with xn 6= 0, xan sin xc
n 0 as n . In particular, we take
xn =
1
2n + /2
1c
>0
is continuous.
For (b). f (0) exists iff xa1 sin (xc ) 0 as x 0. In the previous proof
h2
|f ()|,
2
h2
M2 ,
2
or
(*)
Since equation (*) holds for all h > 0, its determinant must be non-positive.
Thus 4|f (x)|2 4M2 (4M0 ) 0, |f (x)|2 4M0 M2 , or
(M1 )2 2M0 M2
59
Note: There is a similar exercise. Suppose f (x) defined on R is a twicedifferentiable real-valued function, and
Mk =
sup
<x<+
f (1 ) 2
h
2
(*)
f (2 ) 2
h
2
(**)
for x h < 2 < x or x h > 2 > x. (*) minus (**) implies that f (x + h)
2
per bounds of |f (x)|, |f (x)|, |f (x)| on (a, ). Hence, M12 4M0 M2 . Let
a , M0 = sup |f (x)| 0. Since M2 is bounded, therefore M12 0 as
2
6
(*)
(**)
any
<
and
f (n ) f (0) n
n
n
(L ) <
<
(L + ),
n n
n
n n
n n
n
f (n ) f (0) n
n
(L ) <
<
(L + ).
n n
n
n n
n n
Combine two inequations, and we get L < Dn < L + . Hence, lim Dn =
L = f (0).
For (b). We process as above prove. Note that n /(n n ) < 0 only
implies the following two inequations
n
f (n ) f (0) n
n
(L ) <
<
(L + ),
n n
n
n n
n n
61
n
f (n ) f (0) n
n
(L + ) <
<
(L ).
n n
n
n n
n n
Combine them, and we have
n + n
n + n
< Dn < L +
.
n n
n n
n
Note that {n /(n n )} is bounded, ie, n n M for some constant M.
Thus
n + n 2n
=
2M + 1.
1
n n n n
L
1
/2+2n
4n
2
(/2 + 2n)
1(1 + et ) = 1 + et > et > 0 for all real t. Thus 1 > (1 + et )2 et > 0 for all
real t. Hence 0 < f (t) < 1 for all real t.
Next, since f (t) t = (1 et )1 > 0 for all real t, f (t) has no fixed point.
For (c). Suppose xn+1 6= xn for all n. (If xn+1 = xn , then xn = xn+1 =
Note that |f (tn )| is bounded by A < 1, f (xn ) = xn+1 , and f (xn+1 ) = xn+2 .
Thus |xn+2 xn+1 | A|xn+1 xn | or
|xn+1 xn | CAn1
where C = |x2 x1 |. For two positive integers p > q, |xp xq | |xp xp1 | +
q1
+ |xq+1 xq | = C(Aq1 + Aq + + Ap2 ) CA
. Hence
1A
|xp xq |
CAq1
.
1A
f (xn )
xn
= f (cn ) f (xn ) =
f (xn )
,
xn xn+1
or
Note that f (xn ) > 0 and f (xn ) > 0. Thus xn+1 < xn . Hence, xn >
xn+1 . Thus, {xn } converges to a real number . Suppose 6= , then
xn+1 = xn
Note that
f (xn )
f (xn )
>
f ()
.
Let =
f ()
f (xn )
.
f (xn )
xn+1 < xn
for all n. Thus, xn < x1 (n 1), that is, xn as n . It
contradicts. Thus, {xn } converges to .
f (tn )
For (c). By Taylors theorem, f () = f (xn ) + f (xn )( xn ) + 2(x
2 , or
n )
f (xn )
f (tn )
f (tn )
2
0 = f (xn ) + f (xn )( xn ) + 2(x
2 , or 0 = f (x ) xn + + 2f (x ) (xn ) .
n )
n
n
Thus
f (tn )
xn+1 =
(xn )2
2f (xn )
where tn (, xn ).
For (d). By (b) we know that 0 xn+1 for all n. Again by (c) we
f (tn )
2
0 xn+1
1
n
[A(x1 )]2 .
A
0)
For (e). If x0 is a fixed point of g(x), then g(x0 ) = x0 , that is, x0 ff(x
=
(x0 )
f (x)f (x)
,
f (x)2
n)
For (f). xn+1 = xn ff(x
= 2xn by calculating. Thus, xn = (2)n1 x1
(xn )
for all n, thus {xn } does not converges for any choice of x1 , and we cannot
find such that f () = 0 in this case.
64
Exercise 5.26. Suppose A > 0. (If not, then f = 0 on [a, b] clearly.) Fix
x0 [a, b], let M0 = sup |f (x)|, M1 = sup |f (x)| for a x x0 . For any such
x, f (x)f (a) = f (c)(xa) where c is between x and a by using Mean Value
Theorem. Thus |f (x)| M1 (x a) M1 (x0 a) A(x0 a)M0 . Hence
1
M0 = 0 if A(x0 a) < 1. That is, f = 0 on [a, x0 ] by taking x0 = a + 2A
.
1
Repeat the above argument by replacing a with x0 , and note that 2A is a
constant. Hence, f = 0 on [a, b].
Why the uniqueness theorem does not hold for this problem? One reason is
that there does not exist a constant A satisfying
|y1 y2 | A|y1 y2 |
if y1 and y2 are solutions of that problem. (since 2/x as x 0 and
thus A does not exist.)
Theorem. Let j (j = 1, , k) be real functions defined on a rectangle Rj
in the plane given by a x b, j yj j .
A solution of the initial-value problem
yj = (x, yj ), yj (a) = cj (j cj j )
is, by definition, a differentiable function fj on [a, b] such that fj (a) = cj ,
j fj (x) j , and
fj (x) = j (x, fj (x)). (a x b)
65
Then this problem has at most one solution if there is a constant A such that
|j (x, yj2 ) j (x, yj1 )| A|yj2 yj1 |
whenever (x, yj1 ) Rj and (x, yj2 ) Rj .
Proof. Suppose y1 and y2 are solutions of that problem. For each components of y1 and y2 , say y1j and y2j respectively, y1j = y2j by using Exercise
26. Thus, y1 = y2
Exercise 5.29. Theorem. Let Rj be a rectangle in the plain, given by
a x b, min yj yj max yj . (since yj is continuous on the compact
set, say [a, b], we know that yj attains minimal and maximal.) If there is a
constant A such that
(
|yj+1,1 yj+1,2| A|yj,1 yj,2|
(j < k)
Pk
| j=1 gj (x)(yj,1 yj,2 )| A|yk,1 yk,2|
whenever (x, yj,1) Rj and (x, yj,2) Rj .
n
X
i=1
Mi i
66
2(b a)
n
2(b a)
n
Ra
b
f d = 0; thus,
Exercise 6.2. If not, then there is p [a, b] such that f (p) > 0. Since
f is continuous at x = p, for = f (p)/2, there exist > 0 such that
T
|f (x) f (p)| < whenever x (x , x + ) [a, b], that is,
1
3
0 < f (p) < f (x) < f (p)
2
2
a = x0 x1 xn1 xn = b.
By P we can construct the new partition P without repeated points, and
U(P, f ) = U(P f ), L(P, f ) = L(P , f ). Say P
a = y0 < y1 < < ym1 < ym = b.
67
sup
f (x) = 1,
yi1 xyi
inf
yi1 xyi
f (x) = 0.
Hence,
U(P, f ) = U(P , f ) =
L(P, f ) = L(P , f ) =
m
X
i=1
m
X
Mi yi = b a,
mi yi = 0.
i=1
b
a
b
f dx = inf U(P, f ) = b a,
f dx = sup L(P, f ) = 0.
Thus, f
/ R on [a, b].
Exercise 6.5. The first answer is NO. Define f (x) = 1 for all irrational
x [a, b], f (x) = 1 for all rational x [a, b]. Similarly, f
/ R by Exercise
6.4.
68
R1
R1
R1
Letting c 0 and thus c f (x)dx 0 f (x)dx 0, that is, c f (x)dx
R1
f (x)dx as c 0. Thus this definition of the integral agrees with the old
0
one.
(b) Define
1
1
<x
n+1
n
sin(1/x)
.
x
Exercise 6.8. Since f is nonnegative and decreases monotonically on [1, ),
we have for n 2,
k
X
n=2
f (n)
k
1
We define
g(x) =
f (x)dx
Z
k1
X
f (n).
n=1
f (t)dt.
1
converges if n=1 f (n). Thus, 1 f (x)dx converges if and only if n=1 f (n)
converges.
69
sin x
dx
(1+x)2
does.
Exercise 6.10. We prove (a). Claim: if a and b are positive and 0 < < 1,
then
a b1 a + (1 )b
and that the equality holds if and only if a = b. To prove it, we let f (x) =
x + (1 ) x , where x = a/b. Thus
f (x) = x1 = (1 x1 ).
Hence f (x) attains its minimum at x = 1 (, a = b,) and f (1) = 0. Hence
f (x) = x + (1 ) x 0. Put x = a/b,
a
a
(1 )
0
b
b
or
a b1 a + (1 )b.
Next, let = 1/p, a = u1/ , and b = v 1/(1) . Hence
uv
up v q
+ .
p
q
We prove (c). If f and g are complex-valued in R() then |f | and |g| are
nonnegative elements of R() and f g R(). Moreover
Z b
Z b
f gd
|f ||g|d.
a
70
If I =
Rb
a
|f |p 6= 0 and J =
Rb
a
Z b
Z b
1/p Z b
1/q
p
q
f gd cd =
|f | d
|g| d
a
|f |(c|g|)d c
q1
b
a
|g|q d
(*)
Hence,
ku +
vk22
|u + v|2d
a
Z b
Z b
Z b
2
=
|u| d +
(uv + vu)d +
|v|2d
a
a
a
Z b
Z b
Z b
=
|u|2 d +
|uv + vu|d +
|v|2d
a
a
a
Z b
Z b
Z b
|u|2d + 2
|uv|d +
|v|2 d
=
Z
|u| d
a
1/2
= (kuk2 + kvk2 )2 .
(by (*))
Z
|v| d
1/2 2
Exercise 6.13. (a) Put t2 = u,
Z x+1
f (x) =
sin(t2 )dt
x
(x+1)2
sin u
du
2u1/2
x2
u=(x+1)2 Z
cos u
=
2u1/2 2
=
(x+1)2
cos u
du
4u3/2
x2
u=x
Z (x+1)2
cos(x2 ) cos[(x + 1)2 ]
cos u
=
du.
2x
2(x + 1)
4u3/2
x2
To get a bound of
Z
R (x+1)2
x2
(x+1)2
x2
cos u
du,
4u3/2
we replace cos u by 1:
Z
2
cos u (x+1) 1
1
du <
du =
3/2
3/2
4u
4u
2x(x + 1)
x2
f (x) =
2x
2(x + 1)
(x+1)2
x2
cos u
du,
4u3/2
1
2xf (x) = cos(x2 ) cos[(x + 1)2 ] +
cos[(x + 1)2 ]
x+1
Z (x+1)2
cos u
2x
du.
4u3/2
x2
Let
1
r(x) =
cos[(x + 1)2 ] 2x
x+1
Note that
(x+1)2
x2
cos u
du.
4u3/2
1
1
1
2
x + 1 cos[(x + 1) ] x + 1 < x ,
72
2x
(x+1)2
x2
cos u
1
1
du < 2x
<
3/2
4u
2x(x + 1)
x
if x > 0. Thus |r(x)| < 1/x + 1/x = c/x and c = 2 is a constant if x > 0.
Exercise 7.1. Prove that every uniformly convergent sequence of bounded
functions is uniformly bounded.
Proof. Let fn f uniformly on S in a metric space. fn is bounded for all
n. Given = 1, there is an integer N such that |fn (x) fm (x)| < 1 whenever
n, m N and x S. Put m = N, and we have
|fn (x)| |fN (x)| + 1
whenever n N and x S. Let
M = max sup |f1 (x)|, , sup |fN 1 (x)|, sup |fN (x)| + 1 .
xS
xS
xS
(fn is bounded the existence of supxS |fn (x)|.) Therefore |fn (x)| M
for all n and x S. Hence {fn } is uniformly bounded on S.
Exercise 7.2. If {fn } and {gn } converge uniformly on a set E, prove that
converges uniformly on E, given > 0, there exists N such that |fn (x)
fm (x)| < /2 (resp. |gn (x) gm (x)| < /2) for all x E whenever n, m N.
Thus |hn (x) hm (x)| |fn (x) fm (x)| + |gn (x) gm (x)| < for all x E,
i.e., {fn + gn } converges uniformly on E.
By exercise 7.1, {fn } and {gn } are uniformly bounded on E. Let M be the
bound of them, i.e., |fn (x)| M and |gn (x)| M for all x and all n. Again
we let hn (x) = fn (x)gn (x) for each n. Since {fn } (resp. {gn }) converges
uniformly on E, given > 0, there exists N such that |fn (x) fm (x)| <
/(4M) (resp. |gn (x) gm (x)| < /(4M)) for all x E whenever n, m N.
73
Thus,
|hn (x) hm (x)| = |fn (x)(gn (x) gm (x)) + gm (x)(fn (x) fm (x))|
|fn (x)||gn (x) gm (x)| + |gm (x)||fn (x) fm (x)|
<
whenever n, m N and x E, i.e, {fn gn } converges uniformly on E.
Exercise 7.3. Construct sequences {fn }, {gn } which converge uniformly on
some set E, but such that {fn gn } does not converge uniformly on E. (of
course, {fn gn } must converge on E).
Proof. Let E = [1, 2] R. Let
1
fn (x) = x(1 + ),
n
(
gn (x) =
1
n
b+
1
n
if x R \ Q
if x =
a
b
0
b
if x R \ Q
if x =
a
b
Given > 0, there exists N = [ 2 ] + 1 > 2 such that |fn (x) f (x)| =
| nx | n2 N2 < whenever n N, x E. Therefore, fn f uniformly on
E. Next, given > 0, there exists N = [ 1 ] + 1 > 1 such that |gn (x) g(x)|
1
N1 < whenever n N, x E. Hence, gn g uniformly on E.
n
Claim 2. {fn gn } does not converge uniformly on E.
lim fn (x)gn (x) = f (x)g(x)
(
0 if x R \ Q
=
a if x = ab Q with (a, b) = 1 and b > 0.
N +1
N
F,
X
n=1
1
.
1 + n2 x
For what values of x does the series converge absolutely? On what intervals does it converge uniformly? On what intervals does it fail to converge
uniformly? Is f continuous whenever the series converges? Is f bounded?
Pn=m 1
Proof. Let sm (x) = n=1
be the partial sum of f .
1+n2 x
First, we will find values of x such that the series converge absoP
lutely. x
/ { k12 | k N} clearly. When x = 0, the series
1 diverges.
P
P 1
P 2
2 1
1
1
When x > 0, the series (1+n x) = x
<x
n converges
x1 +n2
n=N
X
1
1
1
=x
2
1
1+n x
x + n2
n=N
Second, we will find intervals such that the series converge uniformly or does not converge uniformly. By the above deduction and
75
n=m
X
n=1
n=m
X
1
<
1=m
1 + n2 x
n=1
is bounded (by m) for all x (0, +). By exercise 7.1, f (x) is uniformly
bounded. Since
3
sm (m ) =
n=m
X
n=1
1
1 + n2 m3
>
n=m
X
n=1
2
1
1 + m2 m3
m
m
=
>m1
2
3
1+m m
1+m
X
1 X
1
0
1 + n2 x <
1 n2 .
n=2
n=2
P
By Weierstrass M-test, n=2 (1 + n2 x)1 (and so f ) converges uniformly on
(, 1).
Case (ii). If x Ek (or k 2 < x < (k + 1)2 ), then
1
1
<
1 + n2 x 1 n2 /k 2
P
2 1
for n k + 2. Anain by Weierstrass M-test,
(and so
n=k+1 (1 + n x)
f ) converges uniformly on Ek . In sum, f converges uniformly on all real
numbers except (0, A) {k 2 | k N}), and does not converges uniformly
on (0, A) where A > 0.
Third, we will show that f is continuous whenever f converges. It
76
0
fn (x) =
sin2
x<
1
n+1
1
x
n+1
1
<x .
n
1
n
Show that {fn } converges to a continuous function, but not uniformly. Use
P
the series
fn to show that absolute convergence, even for all x, does not
imply uniform convergence.
Proof. By the definition of fn (x), it suffices to consider that fn (x) lie on
(0, 1) only. We will show that the limit function
lim fn (x) = 0
absurd.
P
Pn=m
Let s(x) =
fn (x) and sm (x) =
n=1 fn (x) be the partial sums of
P
P
fn (x). To show the absolute absolute convergence of s(x) =
fn (x), we
fix x (0, 1) first. Thus, there exists an unique N such that N 1+1 < x N1 .
Hence,
,
x
and consequently s(x) converges absolutely on (0, 1) (and on R).
X
To show that {sn } is not uniformly convergent, we suppose {sn } is uniformly convergent and get a contradiction. By our assumption, sn s
uniformly on R. Given = 1 > 0, there is N such that |sn (x) s(x)| < 1
whenever n N and x R. Hence, for n = N and x =
sN
1
2N +
1
2
1
s
2N +
which is absurd.
77
1
,
2N + 12
1 = |0 1| = 1,
2
(1)n
n=1
x2 + n
n2
converges uniformly in every bounded interval, but does not converge absolutely for any value of x.
Proof. Let
x2 + n
fn (x) = (1)n , gn (x) =
.
n2
P
Fixed a bounded interval [a, b]. Note: (i)
fn (x) is uniformly bouned, (ii)
gn (x) 0 uniformly on [a, b], and (iii) gn+1(x) gn (x) on [a, b]. Hence,
P
2
by Dirichlet test for uniform convergences, the series (1)n x n+n
converges
2
uniformly on every bounded interval [a, b].
Next, notice that
X
n=1
|(1)
X x2 + n X 1
+n
|=
>
n2
n2
n
n=1
n=1
2
nx
P
2
(1)n x n+n
does not converge absolutely
2
x
.
1 + nx2
Show that {fn } converges uniformly to a function f , and that the equation
f (x) = lim fn (x)
n
for all x R. The last inequality is due to the inequality for arithmetic and
geometric means. Thus, fn f uniformly on R.
78
1nx
nx2 + 1
= 0,
n n2 x4 + 2nx2 + 1
0 (x 0),
1 (x > 0),
X
f (x) =
cn I(x xn )
n=1
n=m
X
n=1
for each m.
+ = ,
2 2
i.e.,
lim fn (xn ) = f (x).
(*)
for all n whenever d(x, y) < with x, y K. For such > 0, we form an
open covering {Ui } of K where Ui = {x K | d(x, xi ) < } for each xi K.
By the compactness of K, there are finitely many indices 1, , r such that
80
(**)
Back to the proof. Now we fix any x K. there exists Ui such that
x Ui , i.e., d(x, xi ) < . Hence,
+ + =
3 3 3
e1/x
0
(x 6= 0),
(x = 0).
Prove that f has derivatives of all orders at x = 0, and that f (n) (0) = 0 for
n = 1, 2, 3, .
Proof. Induction.
2
e1/x 0
1/x
y
f (0) = lim
= lim 1/x2 = lim y2 = 0
x0
x0 e
y e
x0
(n)
Pn1 (1/x)e1/x 0
yPn1(y)
(0) = lim
= lim
=0
x0
y
x0
ey2
where y = 1/x.
81
j<i
j=i
ji
j<i
j>i
1 = (1 21i ) 1 = 21i .
For a fixed j,
X
aij =
Hence
P P
i
aij =
aij +
i<j
1i
aij +
i=j
= 1 +
i (2
) = 2 and
aij
i>j
ji
i>j
= 1 + 1 = 0.
P P
j
aij =
0 = 0.
if b > 0.
(b) By LHospitals rule,
log(1 + x)
(1 + x)1
= lim
= 1.
x0
x0
x
1
lim
sin x
x
x cos xsin x
.
x2
Let
g(x) = x cos x sin x for all real x. Thus g (x) = x sin x. g (x) < 0 on
(0, /2), and g(x) is decreasing strictly on (0, /2). Also, g(/2) = 1 < 0,
82
and g(x) < 0 for all 0 < x < /2. f (x) < 1 on (0, /2), and thus f (x) is
decreasing strictly on (0, /2).
Note that limx0 sinx x = 1 and f (/2) = 2/. Hence
is,
sin x
2
<
< 1.
Exercise 8.8. For n = 0, 1, we have | sin 0x| 0| sin x| and | sin x| | sin x|.
Assume that | sin kx| k| sin x|. We have
| sin(k + 1)x| = | sin(kx + x)| = | sin kx cos x + sin x cos kx|
| sin kx|| cos x| + | sin x|| cos kx| k| sin x| + | sin x|
= (k + 1)| sin x|.
Exercise 8.9. (a) Let n = sn log n = 1 + 21 + +
1
n
log n. Thus
1
log(n + 1) + log n
n+1
Z n+1
1
1
dx
=
n+1
x
n
Z n+1
1
1
=
dx
n+1 x
n
0
n+1 n =
n
X
1
k=1
1
=
+
n
0,
n1 Z
X
k=1
n1 Z
X
k=1
k+1
k+1
1
dx
x
1 1
dx
k x
(b) Note that sN log N 0 for all N, and thus we can choose m >
100/ log 10.
Exercise 8.10. Given N, let p1 , , pk be those primes that divide at least
Y
1
X
N
k
k
k
X
1 Y
1
1
1
2
1+ + 2 + =
1
exp
.
n j=1
pj pj
pj
p
n=1
j=1
j=1 j
The last inequality holds because (1 x)1 e2x for 0 x 12 . Now letting
P
P 2
P 1
1
N , and thus
exp
n=1 n
p p . Since the left hand side,
n=1 n ,
P
diverges, p 1/p is divergent.
Exercise 8.11. Given > 0. Let
Z
Z
tx
g(t) = t
e f (x)dx 1 = t
0
t
etx Ldx + t
etx dx
2
0
M
Z M
t
Ldx + etM
2
0
tML +
2
where L > 0 is a bound of |f (x) 1| on [0, M]. (f R([0, M]) and thus f
is bounded.) Choose t = min(1, 2M L ) and thus |g(t)| < , i.e.,
Z
lim t
etx f (x)dx = 1.
t0+
84
=
.
2 im
m
x=
(b) Thus,
X
sin(n)
f (x) + 2
cos(nx).
n
n=1
X
sin(n)
f (0) = + 2
,
n
n=1
that is,
X
sin(n)
n=1
.
2
X
X
1
2
sin2 (n)
2
2
|cn | = 2 + 2
.
|f (x)| dx =
2
n2 2
n=1
1
2
Hence
1
|f (x)| dx =
2
X
sin2 (n)
n=1
(d)
Z
sin x
x
2
12 dx =
.
2
2
X
sin2 Nn
1 X sin Nn
dx = lim
= lim
n
n2
N N
N
N
N
n=1
n=1
= lim
(e) Put =
n2
X
sin2 (n)
n2
n=1
= .
0
2
2
= lim
in (c), we have
X
sin2 ( n )
2
n=1
n2
2
85
2
.
2
that is,
2 X sin2 ( n
2X
1
2
=
=
,
2
4
n=1
n
n=1 (2n 1)2
X
n=1
Exercise 8.13. c0 =
1
2
R 2
0
1
2
=
.
(2n 1)2
8
xdx = . For m 6= 0,
2
1
xeimx dx
2 0
x=2
1
1
1
1 imx
imx
=
xe
+
e
2 im
2 m2
x=0
1
=
.
im
By Parsevals theorem,
Z 2
X
1
2
|f (x)| dx =
|cn |2 .
2 0
cm =
Thus,
or
X
1
4 2
= 2 + 2
3
n2
n=1
X
1
2
=
.
n2
6
n=1
R
R 2 imx
1
1
imx
Exercise 8.14. We deduce 2
|x|e
dx
and
xe
dx with
2
m 6= 0 for further computing.
Z
Z
1
1 imx
imx
imx
xe
dx =
xe
e
dx
im
im
1
1
xeimx + 2 eimx + constant;
=
im
m
Z
Z
1
2
2 imx
2 imx
xe
dx =
xe
xeimx dx
im
im
Z
1 2 imx
2
=
xe
xeimx dx.
im
im
86
Thus
Z
imx
|x|e
dx =
0
imx
xe
dx +
xeimx dx
imx
0
imx
xe
eimx
xe
eimx
=
+
+
+
im
m2
im
m2 0
(
+ im
if m is even
im
=
( m22 im
) + ( m22 + im
) if m is odd
(
0
if m is even
=
m42 if m is odd;
(
Z
+ im
if m is even
im
xeimx dx =
( 22 + im
) + ( m22 + im
) if m is odd
( m
2
im
if m is even
=
2
if m is odd
im
2
= (1)m+1 ,
im
and
Z
2 imx
xe
Z
1 2 imx
2
dx =
xe
xeimx dx
im
im
4
= (1)m 2 .
m
Hence,
Z
1
2
c0 =
( |x|)2 dx = ,
2
3
Z
1
cm =
( |x|)2 eimx dx
2
Z
1
=
( 2 2|x| + x2 )eimx dx
2
Z
Z
1
imx
=
|x|e
dx +
x2 eimx dx
2
(
0 + m22
if m is even
=
4
2
+ m2 if m is odd
m2
2
= 2.
m
87
Therefore,
2 X 4
f (x) = ( |x|)
+
cos nx.
3
n2
n=1
2
|f (x + t) f (x)| = ( |x + t|)2 ( |x|)2
= 2 |x + t| |x| |x + t| |x|
(2 + 1)|t|
2 X 4
f (x) = ( |x|) =
+
cos nx
3
n2
n=1
2
on [, ]. Let x = 0, 2 =
2
3
4
n=1 n2 ,
i.e.,
1
n=1 n2
2
.
6
By Parsevals theorem,
1
2
1
2
|f (x)|2 dx =
4 X 8
+
.
4
9
n
n=1
Z
1
|f (x)| dx =
( |x|)4 dx
2
Z 0
Z
1
1
4
=
( + x) dx +
( x)4 dx
2
2 0
0
1 ( + x)5
1 ( x)5
=
+ 2
2
5
5
4
= .
5
Hence
|cn |2 =
1
n=1 n4
4
.
90
1
N +1
1cos(N +1)x
.
1cos x
Recall
sin(n + 12 )x
Dn (x) =
,
sin x2
88
or
x
1
sin Dn (x) = sin(n + )x.
2
2
Hence
sin
X
xX
1
Dn (x) =
sin(n + )x.
2 n=0
2
n=0
N
N
X
x 2X
1
x
(sin )
Dn (x) =
sin(n + )x sin
2 n=0
2
2
n=0
N
1X
=
(cos nx cos(n + 1)x)
2 n=0
=
1
(1 cos(N + 1)x).
2
KN (x) =
1 X
1
1 cos(N + 1)x
Dn (x) =
.
N + 1 n=0
N +1
1 cos x
+1)x
(a) By KN (x) = N 1+1 1cos(N
, and | cos x| 1, KN (x) 0.
1cos x
(b) In Theorem 8.14, we know
Z
1
Dn (x)dx = 1.
2
1
KN (x)dx =
2
1 X
Dn (x)dx
N + 1 n=0
Z
N
1 X 1
=
Dn (x)dx
N + 1 n=0 2
=
1
(N + 1) = 1.
N +1
1 cos(N + 1)x
2
.
(N + 1)(1 cos x)
(N + 1)(1 cos )
89
Hence
1
sN (f ; x) =
2
1
N (f ; x) =
2
f (x t)DN (t)dt.
f (x t)KN (t)dt.
|f (x t) f (x)|KN (t)dt.
2
Given > 0, we choose > > 0 such that |yx| < implies |f (y)f (x)| <
/2. Let M = sup |f (x)|. Hence,
Z
Z
1
1
2
|f (x t) f (x)|KN (t)dt
2M
dt
2
2
(N + 1)(1 cos )
4M( )
=
2(N + 1)(1 cos )
2M
<
,
(N + 1)(1 cos )
Z
1
2M
,
|f (x t) f (x)|KN (t)dt <
2
(N + 1)(1 cos )
and
1
2
|f (x t) f (x)|KN (t)dt
KN (t)dt
4
KN (t)dt = .
4
2
Therefore,
1
|N (f ; x) f (x)|
2
|f (x t) f (x)|KN (t)dt
4M
+
(N + 1)(1 cos ) 2
<
90
for all large enough N, which proves the conclusion that N (f ; x) f (x)
uniformly on [, ].
Exercise 8.17. (a) Suppose f increases monotonically on [, ]. By Exercise 17 of Chapter 6,
Z
1
ncn =
f (x)neinx dx
2
Z
iein
iein
1
=
f ()
f ()
ieinx df
2
2
2
for n 6= 0. Hence,
in
Z
ie
iein
1
inx
f ()
f ()
ie
df
|ncn | =
2
2
2
in
Z
in
ie
ie
1
inx
f () +
f () +
ie
df
2
2
2
1
1
z D the point g(z) T which lies on the ray that starts at f (z) and passes
through z. Then g maps D into T , g(z) = z if z T , and g is continuous,
because
(x + c)
=1
x xc (x)
lim
lim n
(1 x2 )n dx = .
n
Note that
R0
(1 x2 )n dx =
1
lim
R1
0
(1 x2 )n dx. Hence
1
(
n 2 )(n + 1)
1
2 n
n
(1 x ) dx =
=
=
.
2
(n + 32 )
1
Z
92
Exercise 9.3. To show A is 1-1, it suffices to show that Ax1 = Ax2 implies
x1 = x2 . Since A L(X, Y ), 0 = Ax1 Ax2 = A(x1 x2 ). By assumption,
x1 x2 = 0, that is, x1 = x2 .
Exercise 9.4. For all x, y N (A), and for all scalars c, we need to show
R(A) and cx R(A). x and y are all in R(A) implies that there exist
93
|x|1
|x|1
3x2 y+y 3
(x2 +y 2 )2
3xy 2 +x3
.
(x2 +y 2 )2
For (x, y) = (0, 0), (D1 f )(0, 0) = (D2 f )(0, 0) = 0. But f is not continuous at (0, 0). In fact, to calculate the limit lim(x,y)(0,0) f (x, y), we make
changes of variables by x = r cos and y = r sin . (x, y) (0, 0) if and only
if r = 0, and f (x, y) = cos sin = 21 sin(2). Hence lim(x,y)(0,0) f (x, y) =
limr0 12 sin(2) =
1
2
Exercise 9.7. Fix x E and > 0. Since E is open, there is an open ball
P
S E, with center at x and radius r. Suppose h =
hj ej , h < r, put
v0 = 0, and vk = h1 e1 + + hk ek , for 1 k n. Then
f (x + h) f (x) =
n
X
j=1
(f (x + vj ) f (x + vj1 )).
(*)
Since |vk | < r for all k and since S is convex, the segments with end points
x + vj1 and x + vj lie in S. Since vj = vj1 + hj ej , the mean value theorem
shows that the j-th summand in (*) is equal to
hj (Dj f )(x + vj1 + j hj ej )
for some j (0, 1). Since Dj f are bounded in E, there is M > 0 such that
94
|Dj f | M. Thus
|f (x + h) f (x)|
=
n
X
j=1
n
X
j=1
|f (x + vj ) f (x + vj1 ))|
|hj (Dj f )(x + vj1 + j hj ej )|
n
X
j=1
for all h E with |h| < . To show f (x) = 0, it suffices to show that
(Dj f )(x) = 0 for 1 j n. If < t < 0, then |tej | < and
f (x + tej ) f (x)
0.
t
Letting t 0, we see that (Dj f )(x) 0. If 0 < t < , then |tej | < and
f (x + tej ) f (x)
0,
t
which shows that (Dj f )(x) 0. Hence (Dj f )(x) = 0. (The idea of this
n
X
i=1
n
X
i=1
n
X
(Di (f g))(x)ei
(gDi (f ) + f Di (g))(x)ei
(gDi (f ))(x)ei +
i=1
n
X
(f Di (g)(x)ei
i=1
= (g f + f g)(x).
since (D1 g)(x, y, z) = 2x, (D2 g)(x, y, z) = 2y, and (D3 g)(x, y, z) = 2z. By
theorem 9.15,
F (t) = g (f(t))f (t) = 2f(t) f (t).
Since 1 = |f(t)|, 1 = f(t) f(t) = F (t) and thus 0 = f(t) f (t). We interpret
this result geometrically. Given a particle on the unit sphere with a smooth
movement f(t) by the time t. The result f(t)f (t) = 0 says that the direction
of velocity of this particle point at the center of this unit sphere.
Exercise 9.15. (a) (x4 + y 2)2 4x4 y 2 = (x4 y 2) 0 implies that 4x4 y 2
(x4 + y 2 )2 . To show f is continuous on R2 , it suffices to show f is continuous
at (0, 0). Note that
f (x, y) = x2 + y 2 2x2 y x2
4x4 y 2
(x4 + y 2 )2
For t 6= 0,
1
1
f (t) = 1 + 4t sin
cos
.
t
t
Hence, f (0) = 1 and f (t) is bounded (by 6). But f is not one-to-one in any
neighborhood of 0 since f is not monotonic in any neighborhood of 0.
R
Exercise 11.1. If f 0 and E f d = 0, prove that f (x) = 0 almost
everywhere on E. Hint: Let En be the subset of E on which f (x) > 1/n.
Write A = En . Then (A) = 0 if and only if (En ) = 0 for every n.
Proof. Let En be the subset of E on which f (x) > 1/n. Write A = En . In
fact, A = {x E | f (x) > 0}. Claim: (A) = 0 if and only if (En ) = 0 for
96
every n. One side is trivial. Conversely, if (En ) = 0 for all n, then we have
(En ) (A) by theorem 11.3, that is, (A) = 0. Therefore, for every n
Z
Z
1
(En )
f d
f d = 0
n
En
E
implies (En ) = 0. Since {x E | f (x) > 0} = A = En , we have (A) = 0.
R
Exercise 11.2. If A f d = 0 for every measurable subset A of a measurable
set E, then f (x) = 0 almost everywhere on E.
Proof. Let A = {x E | f (x) 0} be a measurable subset of E. Thus,
R
R
f d = A f + d = 0. By exercise 11.1, f + = 0 almost everywhere on
A
A and thus on E. Similarly, f = 0 almost everywhere on E. Hence,
f = f + f = 0 almost everywhere on E.
k=1 n=N
for some integer N = N(x, k). For simplicity, we define f (x) = 0 if x X \E.
Hence,
[
\
\
E=
{x X | |fn (x) f (x)| < 1/k}
k=1 m=1 n=m
97
0
1
(0 x 12 ),
( 21 < x 1),
(0 x 1),
g(x) =
(0 x 1).
Show that
(0 x 1),
but
1
fn (x)dx = .
2
f2k (x) =
0
1
f2k+1 (x) =
1
0
R1
0
(0 x 12 ),
( 21 < x 1),
(0 x < 12 ),
( 21 x 1),
fn (x)dx =
1
2
for all n.
1
n
(|x| n),
0 (|x| > n).
in place of
R1
98
1
.
n
99
1
n
0 as