Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Pharmacognosy
For the students of
Pharmacy Technicians
(Category-B)
Compiled By
Syed Bilal Hussain
Lecturer
Lahore College of Pharmaceutical Sciences
Under Supervision of
Dr. Shehla Akbar
M.Phil (Pharmacognosy)
Assistant Professor
Lahore College of Pharmaceutical Sciences
-1-
PHARMACOGNOSY
Dedication
To
Prof. Dr. Naim Anwar Muzaffar The Father of Pharmacy
Whose Dedications Toward Pharmacy Education Are Priceless.
-2-
PHARMACOGNOSY
Acknowledgement
I am very grateful to Ch. Muhammad Shamoon, Secretary, Punjab Pharmacy Council, Lahore, who give
me honor to compile PHARMACOGNOSY Book for the students of Pharmacy Technician.
I am very thankful to my teachers Dr. Shehla Akbar who generously contributed their time and efforts to
help me make this book as accurate and useful as possible.
Special thanks to Hafiz Muhammad Zubair & Haroon Shahzad and Dr. Sara for providing help in
composing and proof reading of the text.
Lecturer
Lahore College of Pharmaceutical Sciences
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PHARMACOGNOSY
Contents
PHARMACOGNOSY
INTRODUCTION OF PHARMACOGNOSY
SCOPE OF PHARMACOGNOSY
CRUDE DRUGS
11
11
Alphabetical Method
11
Morphological Method
11
Taxonomical Method
11
Pharmacological Method
12
Chemical Method
12
12
Leaves
12
Leaflets
13
Stems
13
Flowers
13
Fruit
14
Pulp
14
Seeds
14
Roots
15
Bark
15
Wood
15
Bulb
16
Rhizomes
16
Herb
16
Medicinal Herb
16
17
17
Gum
17
Resins
17
18
18
Microscopic Evaluation
18
Chemical Evaluation
19
Physical Evaluation
19
Biological Evaluation
19
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PHARMACOGNOSY
20
ALLERGY
20
Definition
20
Allergen
21
Types of Allergen
21
Inhalants
21
Contactants
21
Ingestants
21
Injectants
21
22
TYPES OF ALLERGY
22
Environmental Allergy
22
Airborne particles
22
Pollen Allergy
23
23
23
23
Cytotoxic Allergy
23
23
23
23
Vital Signs
24
24
Investigation
24
24
25
25
Intradermal Test
25
25
25
26
Avoidance
26
Vaccinations
27
27
28
Definitions
28
28
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PHARMACOGNOSY
PROPERTIES OF ENZYMES
28
Catalytic Property
29
Enzymatic Property
29
Solubility
29
pH
29
Temperature
29
Specificity
29
Protein Nature
30
CLASSIFICATION OF ENZYMES
30
Oxidoreductases
30
Transferases
30
Hydrolases
31
Lyases
31
Isomerases
31
Ligases
31
FUNCTIONS OF ENZYMES
31
BROMELAIN
33
PAPAIN
34
35
35
CHROMATOGRAPHY
35
Applications of Chromatography
35
Stationary phase
36
Mobile Phase
36
Rf value
36
36
Ascending Chromatography
37
Descending Chromatography
37
37
TYPES OF CHROMATOGRAPHY
37
PAPER CHROMATOGRAPHY
37
37
37
37
38
38
38
38
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PHARMACOGNOSY
38
39
39
39
COLUMN CHROMATOGRAPHY
40
40
40
40
40
EXTRACTION
41
Extraction Definition
41
Theory of Extraction
41
Manstrum
41
Marc
41
42
Infusion
42
42
42
43
43
43
Multiple Maceration
43
43
Percolation
Procedure for Percolation Extraction
44
44
44
POISONOUS PLANTS
45
45
45
46
47
49
50
51
CYANOGENETIC PLANTS
53
54
54
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PHARMACOGNOSY
Alkaloids
54
54
54
Carbohydrates
54
Tannins
54
54
GLYCOSIDES
54
55
ALKALOIDS
56
56
57
57
RESINS
58
58
CARBOHYDRATES
59
59
TANNINS
59
60
FIXED OILS
60
60
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PHARMACOGNOSY
PHARMACOGNOSY
Pharmacognosy is the study of medicines derived from natural
sources.
The
American
Society
of
Pharmacognosy
defines
of
various
departments
of
the
science.
PHARMACOGNOSY
- 10 -
PHARMACOGNOSY
CRUDE DRUGS
A crude drug is any naturally, occurring, unrefined substance derived from organic or inorganic
sources such as plant, animal, bacteria, organs or whole organisms intended for use in the
diagnosis, cure treatment or prevention of disease in man or other animals. Or
Crude drugs are vegetable or animal drugs that consist of natural substances that have
undergone only the process of collection & drying.
CLASSIFICATION OF CRUDE DRUGS
Crude Drugs can be classified in following ways.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Alphabetical Method
Morphological Method
Taxonomical Method
Pharmacological Method
Chemical Method
ALPHABETICAL METHOD
In this method drugs are classified according to initial letter of their names e.g.
Acacia
Belladonna
Camphor
Datura
Ephedra
Fennel
MORPHOLOGICAL METHOD
In this method drugs are classified according to their part used e.g.
Roots Drugs
Leaf Drugs
Bark Drugs
Seeds Drugs
Glycyrriza
Senna
Cinchona
Coffee Beens
Pharmacognosy by Wallis
TAXONOMICAL METHOD
In this method, drugs are classified according to their distinguishing characteristics (i.e.
Families) e.g.
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PHARMACOGNOSY
Pharmacology by Lippincott
CHEMICAL METHOD
In this method drugs are classified according to their principle constituents e.g.
Members of Family Umbelliferae contain Volatile Oils
Members of Family Solanaceae contain Alkaloids
Books follow this method
Pharmacognosy by Tyler
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PHARMACOGNOSY
LEAFLETS
One segment of a compound leaf is called leaflet
STEMS
Stems do many things. Support the upper parts of plants, They act like the plant's plumbing
system, conducting water and nutrients from the roots and food in the form of glucose from the
leaves to other plant parts. All plants have stems. Stems grow up into the air and towards the
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PHARMACOGNOSY
FRUIT
A "fruit" is the seed-bearing part of a plant; Fruits have been heavily used for medicinal
purposes. Dried whole fruits or portions of fruits can be used. Many members of the carrot family
have fruits that are used in medicine including fennel fruit and anise.
PULP
The soft, juicy, edible part of a fruit is called pulp.
SEEDS
A seed is a small embryonic plant enclosed in a covering called the seed coat, usually with
some stored food. The seeds of many plants are used for their medicinal properties. Seeds may
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PHARMACOGNOSY
ROOTS
The part of a plant which attaches it to the ground or to a support, typically underground,
conveying water and nourishment to the rest of the plant via numerous branches and fibers. The
fleshy or woody roots are used for medicinal purposes. Roots may be solid (ginseng), fibrous
BARK
The protective outer layer of a tree trunk that is formed by layers of living cells above the wood.
Active ingredients are often found in higher concentrations in the bark. Examples of bark used
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PHARMACOGNOSY
BULB
A bulb is defined as a fleshy structure comprised of numerous layers of leaf bases otherwise
known as bulb scales. Onion species and garlic bulbs are popular for medicinal uses.
RHIZOMES
A rhizome is defined as a fleshy or woody elongated stem that usually grows horizontally below
the ground. Rhizomes often produce leaves above the ground and roots into the ground.
Several medicinal plants are used primarily for their rhizomes including: ginger, wild columbine,
and bloodroot.
HERB
Herb, in botany, is a plant that does not form a woody stem, and in temperate climates usually
dies, either completely (annual herb) or back to the roots (perennial herb) by the end of the
growing season.
MEDICINAL HERB
A medicinal herb is different from botanic term herb. It refers to any plants used for medicinal
purposes.
For example, a medicinal herb can be a real herbal plant, a shrub (bush), other woody plant, or
a fungus. The used part may be the seeds, berries, leaves, barks, roots, fruits, or other parts of
a plants, or mushroom, which may be considered "herbs" in medicinal use.
ESSENTIAL OIL (VOLATILE OILS)
These are defined as volatile oils that are generally extracted from plants using a steam
distillation process and have essence (smell). Examples include camphor and peppermint oil.
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PHARMACOGNOSY
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PHARMACOGNOSY
(sour), saline (salt like), saccharin (sweetish), bitter or tasteless (possessing no taste).
Aromatic odor of umbelliferous fruits and sweet taste of liquorices are the examples of
MICROSCOPIC EVALUATION
It involves detailed examination of the drug and it can be used to identify
the organized drugs by their known histological characters. It is mostly used
for qualitative evaluation of organized crude drugs in entire and powder
forms with help of microscope.
Using microscope detecting various cellular tissues, trichomes, stomata,
starch granules, calcium oxalate crystals and aleurone grains are some of important parameters
which play important role in identification of certain crude drug.
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PHARMACOGNOSY
CHEMICAL EVALUATION
Most of drugs have definite chemical constituents to which their biological or pharmacological
activity is attributed. Qualitative chemical test are used to identify certain
drug or to test their purity.
The isolation, purification, identification of active constituents is based on
chemical methods of evaluation. These qualitative chemical tests are useful in identification of
chemical constituents and detection of adulteration.
PHYSICAL EVALUATION
Physical constants are sometimes taken into consideration to evaluate certain drugs. These
include moisture content, specific gravity, optical rotation, refractive, melting point, viscosity and
solubility in different solvents. All these physical properties are useful in identification and
detection of constituents present in plant.
BIOLOGICAL EVALUATION
Some drugs have specific biological and pharmacological activity which is utilized for their
evaluation. Actually this activity is due to specific type of constituents present in the plant extract.
For evaluation the experiments were carried out on both intact and isolated organs of living
animals. With the help of bioassays (testing the drugs on living animals), strength of drug in its
preparation can also be evaluated.
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PHARMACOGNOSY
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PHARMACOGNOSY
ALLERGEN
An allergen is any substance (antigen) that is recognized harmful
by the immune system and causes an allergic reaction. The
allergen can be a food, dust particles, drug, insect venom, or mold
spores, as well as pollen. Allergic people often have sensitivity to
more than one substance.
TYPES OF ALLERGEN
1. Inhalants
2. Contactants
3. Ingestants
4. Injectants
INHALANTS
These allergens affect the body when they come in contact with the lungs or membranes of the
nostrils. Pollen is the most common inhaled allergen, including such substances as dust, pollen,
feathers, and animal dander.
CONTACTANTS
Allergens that come in contact with your skin and produce a reaction, such as the rash and
itching are called contactant allergens e.g. cosmetics, detergents, fabrics, and dyes.
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PHARMACOGNOSY
INGESTANTS
Ingestant allergens are those that are swallowed. A variety of foods and medications can act as
ingestant allergens. Common ingestant allergens are milk, eggs, peanuts, chocolate etc.
INJECTANTS
Injectant allergens are substances that penetrate the skin, such as insect venom and drugs that
are injected.
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PHARMACOGNOSY
Ears
Skin
Gastrointestinal
tract
TYPES OF ALLERGY
Environmental Allergy
Physical & Psychometric Allergy
Anaphylactic Allergy (Anaphylaxis)
Cytotoxic Allergy
Delayed Hypersensitivity Reaction
ENVIRONMENTAL ALLERGY
Environmental allergy refers to any allergy to pollen, dust, animal dander, smoke etc. Allergic
rhinitis, asthma are common types of reactions to these allergens.
Environmental allergies happen when your body's immune system overreacts to a substance in
the environment. Antibodies in your immune system identify the substance as dangerous even
though it's often not.
AIRBORNE PARTICLES
These are the most common allergens. Examples of airborne particles that can cause allergies
are dust, animal dander and pollen from grass, ragweed, and trees.
POLLEN ALLERGY
Pollen (male sex cells of the plant) is small, light, dry protein particles produced by trees,
grasses, flowers etc that may be spread by the wind. Pollen is a potent stimulator of allergic
responses. It enters into the nose and in other parts of the respiratory tract causing irritation and
histamine reactions.
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PHARMACOGNOSY
Place
Time
Mode of onset
Seasonal Variation
Duration
- 24 -
PHARMACOGNOSY
VITAL SIGNS
Some scientific tools are applied to prove the disease. By using following tools the severity of
allergy can be diagnose.
B.P
Temperature
Breathing Rate
Pulse Rate
Cardiac output
Heart Rate
Urinary Tract
Reproductive Systems
Respiratory tract
Cardiovascular System
GIT
INVESTIGATION
Investigational tests includes scratch test, patch test, intradermal test etc
SKIN TEST FOR ALLERGY
Skin testing for allergies is used to identify the substances that are causing your allergy
symptoms. It is often performed by applying an extract of an allergen to your skin, scratching or
pricking the skin to allow exposure, and then evaluating the skin's reaction. It may also be done
by injecting the allergen under the skin, or by applying it to a patch that is worn on the skin for a
specified period of time.
Types of skin tests for allergy
The procedure varies depending on what type of allergy skin test you are having. The three
main types of skin tests are
1. Scratch Test
2. Intradermal Test
3. Patch Test
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PHARMACOGNOSY
- 26 -
PHARMACOGNOSY
- 27 -
PHARMACOGNOSY
Avoidance can help protect people against non-food or chemical allergens, too. In fact, for some
people, eliminating exposure to an allergen is enough to prevent allergy symptoms and they
don't need to take medicines or go through other allergy treatments.
Here are some things that can help you avoid airborne allergens:
Keep family pets out of certain rooms, like your bedroom, and bathe them if necessary.
Remove carpets from your room (hard floor surfaces don't collect dust as much as
carpets do).
Clean frequently
- 28 -
PHARMACOGNOSY
Use special covers to seal pillows and mattresses if you're allergic to dust mites.
If you're allergic to pollen, keep windows closed when pollen season's at its peak,
change your clothing after being outdoors and don't mow (plant cutting or grass cutting)
lawns.
If you're allergic to mold, avoid damp areas, such as basements, and keep bathrooms
and other mold-prone areas clean and dry.
VACCINATIONS
After the confirmation of specific Allergy type & kind of allergen a specific vaccine is injested to
the patient & he/she remain save from the attack of this particular allergy for specific period of
time.
PHARMACOLOGICAL METHODS OF TREATMENT IN ALLERGY
In pharmacological interventions usually Histamine blocking agents e.g. cetrizine Levocetrizine
etc are used. If the Allergy is infectious than suitable antibiotic can be added.
- 29 -
PHARMACOGNOSY
Enzymes
Catalysts
substances
Enzymes mostly destroyed
substances
Catalysts are not destroyed in the
chemical reaction
Catalysts are non-specific in
Nature
Enzymes are very complex in
Nature
Catalysts are very simple
Nature
Speed of the enzyme reaction
compounds or substances
Speed of catalyst reaction will
concentration
of catalyst
PROPERTIES OF ENZYMES
Catalytic property
Enzymatic property
Solubility
pH
Temperature
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PHARMACOGNOSY
Specificity
Protein nature
CATALYTIC PROPERTY
Small amount of enzyme can catalyzed the large amount of substrate in biological reactions.
ENZYMATIC PROPERTY
The velocity of the enzymatic reaction increase as the concentration of the substrate increases
up to certain maximum. But after certain period of time it decreases.
SOLUBILITY
Enzymes are mostly soluble in water and diluted alcohol solution. The enzymes ca precipitate in
concentrated Alcohol, Ammonium Sulphate, Tricholoro Acitic Acid.
PH
Acid:
Acid deactivates those enzymes that act at alkaline pH, e.g Trypsin. At acidic pH, it will destroy,
(Trypsin is very important enzyme that secreted by Pancreas and very important for proper
digestion of food).
Base:
Base deactivates the enzymes that act at acidic pH, e.g. Pepsin, at alkaline pH, it will destroy.
TEMPERATURE
Optimum temperature for enzymatic activity is 35 o C to 40o C.
At 0 o C
o
inactive
o
At 10 C to 20 C
At 35 o C to 40 o C
max. Active
At 50 o C
inactive
At 60 o C
destroy
- 31 -
PHARMACOGNOSY
PROTEIN NATURE
In general with the exception of Riboizymes, which are few RNA molecules with enzymatic
activities all enzymes are protein in nature with large molecular weight.
CLASSIFICATION OF ENZYMES
Enzymes are generally named after adding the suffix ase to the name of the substrate, e.g.
enzymes acting on nucleic acid are known as nuclease. Even-though few exceptions such as
Trypsin, Pepsin, and Chymotrypsin are still in use. Further, few enzymes exist in their inactive
forms and called as Proenzymes or Zymogens e.g. Pepsin has Pepsinogen as its zymogen.
There are six main classes of enzymes
1. Oxidoreductases
2. Transferases
3. Hydrolases
4. Lyases
5. Isomerases
6. Ligases
(Catch word to remember the classes of enzymes: OTH-LIL)
OXIDOREDUCTASES
These enzymes catalyze oxidation-reduction reactions, e.g. Alcohol dehydrogenase, Lactate
dehydrogenase.
Examples
Oxidases
Reductases
TRANSFERASES
Enzymes that catalyze the transfer of a functional group (e.g., a methyl or phosphate group)
from one molecule (called the donor) to another (called the acceptor).
For example, an enzyme that catalyzed this reaction would be a transferase.
AX + B A + BX
In this example, A would be the donor, and B would be the acceptor. The donor is often a
coenzyme.
There are many types of transferases, some important are
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PHARMACOGNOSY
Transaminases
Phosphotransferases
Transmethylases
Transpeptideases
HYDROLASES
These enzymes catalyze hydrolysis, e.g Pepsin, Trypsin
They have many subgroups some important are
Carbohydrases
Aminohydrolases
LYASES
Enzymes that facilitate removal of small molecules from a large substrate, e.g. Histidine
Decarboxylase, Carbonic Anhydrase.
ISOMERASES
Enzymes involved in isomerization of substrate, e.g. Retinal Isomerase.
LIGASES
Enzymes involved in joining together two substrates, e.g. RNA synthetase, Glutamine
Synthetase.
FUNCTIONS OF ENZYMES
Enzyme plays a vital role in our daily life. They perform following important functions.
Digestion
Curing of diseases
Cheese making
Blood clotting
Sweetener
Alcoholic beverages
As detergent
Meat tenderizing
As drug
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PHARMACOGNOSY
Digestion
Enzymes play important role in digestion for the conversion of large complex and non-
diffusible molecules into smaller, simple and diffusible molecules, e.g. Trypsin, Lipase,
Amylase.
Cheese Making
Sweetener
As Detergent
Carbohydrate and protein breaking enzymes are heat stabilizer and are used as detergent,
e.g. Proteases
As Drug
Some enzymes are used as drugs if there is any disturbance in the digestive system.
Curing of Diseases
Enzymes are also play important role in curing of diseases such as rickets and jaundice,
for heart problem Lactate Dehydrogenase, and for liver problem certain Kinases are used.
Blood Clotting
Alcoholic Beverages
Meat Tenderizing
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PHARMACOGNOSY
Trypsin, Pepsin and Papain are meat tenderizing to facilitate the process of digestion.
- 35 -
PHARMACOGNOSY
BROMELAIN
Sources of Bromelain
Color
Solubility
Readily soluble in water, insoluble in most organic solvents such as acetone, ether, ethanol
and methanol.
Molecular Weight
Approximately 33,000
Uses
tenderizing.
Bromelain can prevent aggregation of human blood platelets in vivo and in vitro.
- 36 -
PHARMACOGNOSY
PAPAIN
Source
It is obtained from the leaves, roots, and fruit of the papaya plant
Color
Solubility
Molecular Weight
Uses
- 37 -
PHARMACOGNOSY
different parts of it. The plants are also very complex in nature and method for separation and
isolation depending on it. Various steps are involved in the isolation of chemical constituents.
Extraction is the most important first step for isolation of any compound. The solvent used
for the extraction is based on the polarity of the active constituent. Different solvent systems
are available to extract the bioactive compound from natural products.
Once extract is prepared, separation techniques e.g. chromatography is used for further
Chromatography and extraction are two most common processes used to isolate or
separate the plant constituents; we will discuss these two processes in detail.
Extraction
Chromatography
CHROMATOGRAPHY
APPLICATIONS OF CHROMATOGRAPHY
PHARMACOGNOSY
STATIONARY PHASE
For example
Chromatography paper
Tale
Mg-oxide
Al-oxide
Activated charcoal
MOBILE PHASE
This is the phase or components of Chromatography procedure which has ability to move
Petroleum ether
Propanol
Ethanol
Acetone
RF VALUE
The retention factor, Rf, is a quantitative indication of how far a particular compound travels
in a particular solvent. If the Rf value for the unknown compound is close or the same as the Rf
value for the known compound then the two compounds are most likely similar or identical.
We can say that, Rf value is the ratio between the distance covered by any substances to
1. Ascending Chromatography
2. Descending Chromatography
3. Circular or Radial Chromatography
- 39 -
PHARMACOGNOSY
ASCENDING CHROMATOGRAPHY
In ascending Chromatography the solvent are tends to move upward and the components
DESCENDING CHROMATOGRAPHY
In circular Chromatography the solvent tends to move in circular form and the different
TYPES OF CHROMATOGRAPHY
1. Paper Chromatography
2. Thin Layer Chromatography
3. Column Chromatography
PAPER CHROMATOGRAPHY
Chromatography.
1. First of all we will take Chromatographic paper and cut it down according to the style of
Chromatography e.g. redial , ascending, or descending
2. In case of ascending a line has been drawn on the bottom sides in case of descending
the line is drown on upper of Chromatographic paper. The line is called baseline. The
distance of this baseline from the final edge is 1.5 cm.
- 40 -
PHARMACOGNOSY
3. The sample is applied in the center of baseline and the paper is applied into mobile
phase in a Chromatographic tank. After the appropriate time the components of sample
will separate and finally Rf value of each component is calculated.
4. In case of radial Chromatography the sample is applied in the center and thread has
been passed in through the center the mobile phase will move under the papillary action
and components of sample will separate in the form or rings finally Rf value of all the
components is calculated.
Ascending Chromatography
Descending Chromatography
Redial Chromatography
Thin-layer
Chromatography
uses
an
absorbent
phase.
- 41 -
PHARMACOGNOSY
First of all we will take special thin layer chromatographic paper coated with the
absorbent and cut it down according to the style of chromatography e.g. radial, circular
ascending descending
In case of ascending a line has been drawn on the bottom side which case of
descending the line is drawn on upper of chromatographic paper. The line is called
baseline. The distance of this baseline from the final edge is 1.5 cm.
After drying the plate, the sample is applied in the center of baseline and the plate
enclosed into mobile phase in a chromatographic tank. After the appropriate time, the
components of sample will separate and finally Rf value of each component is
calculated.
Ascending Chromatography
Descending Chromatography
Redial Chromatography
This is a simple and rapid method to check the purity of an organic compound
Thin-layer chromatography is also used in forensics to analyze the dye composition of
fibers.
Determination of the components a plant contains
Detection of pesticides or insecticides in food and water
Analyzing the dye composition of fibers in forensics sciences
Identifying compounds present in a given substance
Assaying the radiochemical purity of radiopharmaceuticals
- 42 -
PHARMACOGNOSY
COLUMN CHROMATOGRAPHY
CHROMATOGRAPHY
The stationary phase or adsorbent in column chromatography is a solid. The most common
stationary phase for column chromatography is silica gel, alumina, cellulose powder has often
been used.
The classical preparative chromatography column is a glass tube with a diameter from
50mm and a height of 50cm to 1m with a tap at the bottom. The stationary phase is a
powdered adsorbent which is placed in a vertical glass column. The mixture to be analyzed is
loaded on top of this column.
The mobile phase is a solvent poured on top of the leaded column. The solvent flows down
the column causing the components of the mixture to distribute between the powdered
adsorbent and the solvent thus separating the components of the mixture so that as the
solvent flows out of the bottom of the column some components elute with early collections
and other components elute with late fractions.
- 43 -
PHARMACOGNOSY
EXTRACTION
product. Plants contain a broad range of bioactive compounds such as lipids; Phytochemicals,
pharmaceutics, flavors, fragrances and pigments.
Extraction Techniques are used to obtain such valuable natural compounds from plants for
commercialization.
EXTRACTION DEFINITION
Separation of medicinally active portions of plant or animal tissues from the inactive or inert
It is the specialized type procedure that involves the separation of different compounds on
THEORY OF EXTRACTION
Any extraction procedure depends upon some fundamental principles and these are very
MANSTRUM
MARC
- 44 -
PHARMACOGNOSY
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Infusion
Decoction
Maceration
Percolation
Digestion
Continuous Hot Extraction
INFUSION
Infusion is the process of extracting chemical compounds or flavors from plant material in a
solvent such as water, oil or alcohol, by allowing the material to remain suspended in the
solvent over time.
This process or technique is usually used for soft nature of drug. The extracts that are
formulated through infusion process have shelf life of only 24 hours, so it is recommended to
use these kinds of extracts freshly.
A common example of an infusion is tea, and many tisanes (herbal tea) are prepared in the
same way. Herbal infusions in water and oil are both commonly used as herbal remedies.
Coffee can also be made through infusion, but is more often made through percolation.
requirement
Finally filter it and the extract is ready to use
DECOCTION
It is the techniques of extraction in which the drug is used in the form of powder or coarse
particles. Drugs are together boiled with water for certain are given period of time then cooled
and filtered. Decoction preparation always used freshly because their half life is about 24
hours.
- 45 -
PHARMACOGNOSY
Decoctions are suitable for roots, barks, large seeds & berries, and other dense material,
or for lighter materials where maximum extraction is required of constituents (such as tannins)
that are stable to heat.
down.
After the cooling phase filter the mixture.
The filter mixture is now ready to use as an extract.
MACERATION
This method requires prolong time. In this method drug is powdered and cover up in the
days.
The pouch is removed after the definite time
Finally adjust the volume of extraction as required.
MULTIPLE MACERATION
Multiple maceration is very important and effective procedure as far as its accuracy is
concern. The basic aim of this procedure is to remove the remaining (API) in to manstrum.
In multiple maceration, we prefer the alcohol as manstrum on other manstrum like wise
water.
PHARMACOGNOSY
PERCOLATION
known as percolator and manstrum is allowed to pass through the communicated drug. The
extract that we obtained from the percolation and procedure is called percolate. The
percolation procedure can be properly explained under following heading.
The drug should be of suitable size, it will enhance the surface area of drug and the
In continuous hot extraction the drug is enclosed in a drug chamber and Manstrum is
placed in lower flask. A reflex condenser is placed at the upper portion. When heat is applied to
the manstrum it converts itself into vapors. These vapors are condensed by reflux condenser.
The drops of manstrum tickle down in the drug chamber and purified extract is obtained from
collection point.
- 47 -
PHARMACOGNOSY
POISONOUS PLANTS
There are many plants available in northern areas & ground areas of Pakistan. Theses
plants have the ability to produce some harmful and long-term effects on the human body.
Family: Araceae
PHARMACOGNOSY
Toxicology
The fundamental compound due to which mouth or oral cavity toxicity occur is calcium
oxalate.
Symptoms
Blister on tongue
Increase salivation
Loss of voice is also reported
Colocasia esculenta
Arisaema triphyllum
Family: Amaryllidaceae
- 49 -
PHARMACOGNOSY
Toxicology
There are various alkaloids in these plants that cause multiple symptoms
Symptoms
of mouth
Gastritis
Headache
Increase salivation nasal secretion
Narcissus tazetta
Amaryllis
Family: Solanaceae
PHARMACOGNOSY
Toxicology
There are different compound present in Datura stramonium mainly hyoscine and
hyocyamine if any human ingested there raw plants they can cause toxicity
If leaves and flowers of this plant eaten by some animal and their meat is used by human
can caused toxicity
Symptoms
Dryness of mouth
Dyspnea
Fatigue
Datura stramonium
Family: Solanceae
Toxicology
Symptoms
Dryness of mouth
Muscular relaxation
Fever
Nausea
Vomiting
- 51 -
PHARMACOGNOSY
Atropa belladonna
Family: Umbelliferae
Toxicology
There are many alkaloids present in Conium maculatum that cause multiple symptoms
Symptoms
Respiratory Depression
Drowsiness
Conium maculatum
- 52 -
PHARMACOGNOSY
Family: Solanaceae
Toxicology
There are mainly alkaloids available in Nicotiana tobaccum. But the most effective is
nicotine.
Symptoms
Nicotiana tobaccum
1. Digitalis purpurea
2. Digitalis lanata
3. Nerium indicum
Family: Scrophulariaceae
Toxicology
These are two plants contain many glycosides. In which the most active are Digoxin,
Digitoxin and Gitoxin.
- 53 -
PHARMACOGNOSY
Symptoms
Ventricular tachycardia
Vomiting
Sinus arrhythmia
shortness of breath
Drowsiness
Fatigue
Digitalis purpurea
Family: Apocynaceae
Toxicology
Roots, barks and seeds contain toxins the most active are nerodine and karabin.
Symptoms
Hypertension
Cardiac arrhythmia
Ventricular tacky cardia
Increase impulse rate
Nausea
Vomiting
Chest pain
Nerium indicum
- 54 -
PHARMACOGNOSY
1. Cannabis sativa
2. Cicuta virosa
Toxicology
The glandular trichomes of Cannabis sativa is secreted a resin which usually a waste
material called as Narcotic resin.
Symptoms
Shrinkage of mouth
Dryness of mouth
Dry cough
Constipation
Depression
color of life
Vomiting
Headache
Hallucination
Cannabis sativa
Family: Umbelliferae
Toxicology
- 55 -
PHARMACOGNOSY
Symptoms
Depression
Tremor
Respiratory
depression
which
Increase salivation
Nausea
Vomiting
- 56 -
Cicuta virosa
CYANOGENETIC PLANTS
Family: Euphorbiaceae
Habitat
Toxicology
There is a toxic substances name cyanogenocyte which can produce harmful effect on
the living systems
Symptoms
Convulsion
Muscular weakness
Liver damage
Vomiting
Manihot esculenta
1. Cassia angustifolia
2. Cassia fistula
3. Aloe barbadensis
4. Urginea maritima
ALKALOIDS
1. Rauwolfia serpentina
2. Catharanthus roseus
3. Ephedra sinica
1. Foeniculum vulgare
2. Carum carvi
3. Curcuma longa
1. Citrullus colocynthis
2. Styrax benzoin
CARBOHYDRATES
1. Acacia senegal
2. Astragalus gummifer
TANNINS
1. Acacia catechu
2. Quercus infectoria
1. Prunus amygdalus
2. Aloe barbadensis
GLYCOSIDES
Glycosides are a class of molecules in which, a sugar molecule is bonded to a "nonsugar" molecule. Glycosides play important role in our lives. Many plants store
medicinally important chemicals in the form of inactive glycosides. The non-sugar portion
contains the biochemically active properties of medical interest. Once the glycoside is
split into its two components (sugar and non-sugar parts), the non-sugar component is
now free to exert its chemical effects on the body.
1. Cassia angustifolia
2. Cassia fistula
3. Aloe barbadensis
4. Urginea maritima
Drug: Senna, Senna is a natural medicine containing Sennosides that are derived from
the leaves of the Senna plant.
Family: Leguminosae
Medicinal Uses: Cathartic, Laxative, Senna is also used for weight loss.
Drug: Cassia
Family: Leguminosae
Drug: Aloe
Family: Liliaceae
Medicinal Uses: Cathartic, speed up the process of healing to burns and other wounds,
moisturizes and softens your skin
Drug: Squill
Family: Liliaceae
Medicinal Uses: Diuretic, Anti-emetic, Squill is a cardio tonic similar to digitalis. It also
has been used in hair tonics to treat dandruff
ALKALOIDS
Alkaloids are naturally occurring chemical compounds containing basic nitrogen atoms.
The name derives from the word alkaline and is used to describe any nitrogen-containing
base and organic compounds.
1. Rauwolfia serpentina
2. Catharanthus roseus
3. Ephedra sinica
Drug: Rauwolfia
Family: Apocynaceae
Medicinal Uses: Alkaloids present in this plant reduce blood pressure, depress activity
of the central nervous system and act as hypnotics and Sedative.
Drug: Catharanthus
Family: Apocynaceae
Medicinal Uses: Anti Cancer, the leaf juice or water decoction of Catharanthus roseus is
used for the treatment of diabetes.
Drug: Ephedra
Family: Ephedraceae
Essential oils are generally extracted by distillation, often by using steam. Essential oils
have been used medicinally in history. Medical applications proposed by those who sell
medicinal oils range from skin treatments to remedies for cancer.
1. Foeniculum vulgare
2. Carum carvi
3. Curcuma longa
Drug: Fennel
Family: Umbelliferae
Drug: Caraway
Family: Umbelliferae
Drug: Curcuma
Family: Zingiberaceae
RESINS
The resin produced by most plants is a viscous liquid, composed mainly of volatile fluid
terpenes, with lesser components of dissolved non-volatile solids which make resin thick
and sticky.
1. Citrullus colocynthis
2. Styrax benzoin
Drug: Colocynth
Family: Cucurbitaceae
Drug: Benzoin
Family: Styraceae
CARBOHYDRATES
1. Acacia senegal
2. Astragalus gummifer
Family: Leguminosae
Medicinal Uses: Acacia gum is used as a demulcent (a substance that relieves irritation
of the mucous membranes in the mouth by forming a protective film). It is used topically
for healing wounds and has been shown to inhibit the growth of some bacteria. It is also
used as a binding agent.
Drug: Tragacanth
Family: Leguminosae
Medicinal Uses: Tragacanth has been used for constipation; Modern pharmaceutical
uses include an adhesive agent for pills and tablets, and for emulsifying oil droplets in
lotions, creams and pastes. Its superior water absorbing qualities make it an excellent
thickening agent.
TANNINS
Any of a class of yellowish or brownish solid compounds found in many plants and used
as tanning agents, mordents, or medical astringents.
(An astringent substance is a chemical compound that tends to shrink or constrict body
tissues)
The tannin compounds are widely distributed in many species of plants, where they play
a role in protection from predation, and perhaps also as pesticides, and in plant growth
regulation.
1. Acacia catechu
2. Quercus infectoria
Drug: Catechu
Family: Leguminosae
Medicinal Uses: Catechu is used in traditional medicine for sore throats and diarrhea; it
is also used as anti-inflammatory, anti-diuretic. It enhance digestion and curing skin
disorders.
Family: Fagaceae
Medicinal Uses: Nut gall extracts are widely used in pharmaceuticals, food and feed
additives, dyes and inks manufacturing.
FIXED OILS
Non-volatile oils especially fatty oils of vegetable origin are called fixed oils. Fixed oils do
not evaporate like essential oil and are often called carrier oils.
1. Prunus amygdalus
2. Aloe barbadensis
Drug: Almond
Family: Rosaceae
Family: Asphodelaceae
Medicinal Uses: Used for moisturizing skin, it is used in creams & lotions, It is a well
known healing and soothing agent for damaged and dry skin, It is soothing and healing
for burns skin irritations.
Course Outlines
PHARMACOGNOSY (WRITTEN)
Paper 3
1.
2.
Part-1
(100) Marks
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Column chromatography
b)
Paper chromatography
c)
9.
10.
containing:
a)
Glycosides
b)
Alkaloids
c)
d)
e)
Carbohydrates
f)
Tannins
g)