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CONTENT
S.NO
Chapter 1
Chapter 2
Chapter 3

Chapter 4

Chapter 5

TITLE
Abstract
Introduction
Literature Survey
Theoretical background
3.1 EXISTING SYSTEM
3.2 PROPOSEED SYSTEM
3.3 MODULES
Result of analytical
4.1 System architecture
4.2 Flow Diagram
4.3 Use case Diagram
4.4 Class Diagram
4.5 Sequence Diagram
4.6 Testing Of Product
4.7 System Requirements
Conclusion & Future Work
5.1 Conclusion
5.2 Future work
5.3 Screen shots
5.5 Reference

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Vessels Classification in Retinal Images by Graph-Based Approach

ABSRACT
The classification of retinal vessels into artery/vein (A/V)
is an important phase for automating the detection of vascular changes, and for the
calculation of characteristic signs associated with several systemic diseases such as
diabetes, hypertension, and other cardiovascular conditions. This paper presents an
automatic approach for A/V classification based on the analysis of a graph
extracted from the retinal vasculature. The proposed method classifies the entire
vascular tree deciding on the type of each intersection point (graph nodes) and
assigning one of two labels to each vessel segment (graph links). Final
classification of a vessel segment as A/V is performed through the combination of
the graph-based labeling results with a set of intensity features. Our method
outperforms recent approaches for A/V classification . Normal retinal images
vessels are segment using the morphological operations and then using graph trace
algorithm for identification the center line of the vessels and trace the pixel values
as a feature and use the KNN classifier to classify the feature and assign which is
the artery and which is the vein in retinal image. In feature we extract the thickness
of the vessels to identify the disease details.

Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION
Automated detection of retinopathy in eye fundus images using
digital image analysis methods has huge potential benefits, allowing the
examination of a large number of images in less time, with lower cost and reduced
subjectivity than current observer-based techniques. Another advantage is the
possibility to perform automated screening for pathological conditions, such as
diabetic retinopathy, in order to reduce the workload required of trained manual
graders. Retinal vessels are affected by several systemic diseases, namely diabetes,
hypertension, and vascular disorders. In diabetic retinopathy, the blood vessels
often show abnormalities at early stages as well as vessel diameter alterations.
Changes in retinal blood vessels, such as significant dilatation and elongation of
main arteries, veins, and their branches, are also frequently associated with
hypertension and other cardiovascular pathologies.
Several automated techniques have been reported to
quantify the changes in morphology of retinal vessels (width, tortuosity) indicative
of retinal or cardiovascular diseases. Some of the techniques measure the vessel
morphology as an average value representing the entire vessel network, e.g.,
average tortuosity. However recently, vessel morphology measurement specific to
arteries or veins was found to be associated with disease. For example, plus
disease in retinopathy of prematurity (ROP) may result in increase in arterial
tortuosity relative to that of veins indicating the need for preventative treatment.
Arterial narrowing, venous dilatation, and resulting decrease in artery-to-venous
width ratio (AVR) may predict the future occurrence of a stroke event or a
myocardial infarct. Unfortunately, the detection of minute changes in vessel width
or tortuosity specific to arteries or veins may be difficult in a visual evaluation by
an ophthalmologist or by a semi-automated method, which is laborious in clinical

practice. Therefore, an automated identification and separation of individual vessel

trees and the subsequent classification into arteries and veins is required for vessel
specific morphology analysis. Several characteristic signs associated with vascular
changes are measured, aiming at assessing the stage and severity of some retinal
conditions. Generalized arteriolar narrowing, which is inversely related to higher
blood pressure levels, is usually expressed by the Arteriolar-to-Venular diameter
Ratio (AVR). The Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities (ARIC) study previously
showed that a smaller retinal AVR might be an independent predictor of incident
stroke in middle aged individuals. The AVR value can also be an indicator of other
diseases, like diabetic retinopathy and retinopathy of prematurity. Among other
image processing operations, the estimation of AVR requires vessel segmentation,
accurate vessel width measurement, and artery/vein (A/V) classification.
Therefore, any automatic AVR measurement system must accurately identify
which vessels are arteries and which are veins, since slight classification errors can
have a large influence on the final value. Several works on vessel classification
have been proposed, but automated classification of retinal vessels into arteries and
veins has received limited attention, and is still an open task in the retinal image
analysis field. In recent years, graphs have emerged as a unified representation for
image analysis, and graph-based methods have been used for retinal vessel
segmentation, retinal image registration, and retinal vessel classification. In this
paper we propose a graph-based method for automatic A/V classification. The
graph extracted from the segmented retinal vasculature is analyzed to decide on the
type of intersection points (graph nodes), and afterwards one of two labels is
assigned to each vessel segment (graph links). Finally, intensity features of the
vessel segments are measured for assigning the final artery/vein class.

DOMAIN EXPLAIN

Image processing is a method to convert an image into digital form

and perform some operations on it, in order to get an enhanced image or to extract
some useful information from it. It is a type of signal dispensation in which input is
image, like video frame or photograph and output may be image or characteristics
associated with that image. Usually Image Processing system includes treating
images as two dimensional signals while applying already set signal processing
methods to them. It is among rapidly growing technologies today, with its
applications in various aspects of a business. Image Processing forms core research
area within engineering and computer science disciplines too.
Image processing basically includes the following three steps.
Importing the image with optical scanner or by digital photography.
Analyzing and manipulating the image which includes data compression and
image enhancement and spotting patterns that are not to human eyes like
satellite photographs.
Output is the last stage in which result can be altered image or report that is
based on image analysis.

Purpose of Image processing

The purpose of image processing is divided into 5 groups. They are:

Visualization - Observe the objects that are not visible.
Image sharpening and restoration - To create a better image.
Image retrieval - Seek for the image of interest.
Measurement of pattern Measures various objects in an image.
Image Recognition Distinguish the objects in an image.

Chapter 2

LITERATURE SURVEY

TITTLE: Exploratory dijkstra forest based automatic vessel

segmentation (2012)
AUTHOR NAME: R. Estrada, C. Tomasi, M. T. Cabrera, D. K.
Wallace, S. F. Freedman, and S. Farsiu,
We present a methodology for extracting the vascular network
in the human retina using Dijkstras shortest-path algorithm. Our method preserves
vessel thickness, requires no manual intervention, and follows vessel branching
naturally and efficiently. To test our method, we constructed a retinal video indirect
ophthalmoscopy (VIO) image database from pediatric patients and compared the
segmentations achieved by our method and state-of-the-art approaches to a humandrawn gold standard. Our experimental results show that our algorithm
outperforms prior state-of-the-art methods, for both single VIO frames and
automatically generated, large field-of-view enhanced mosaics. We have made the
corresponding dataset and source code freely available online. Accurate
segmentation and evaluation of the anatomical and pathological features of retinal
vessels are critical for the diagnosis and study of many ocular diseases. These
include retinopathy of prematurity (ROP). ROP is a disorder of the retinal blood
vessels that is a major cause of vision loss in premature neonates. Important
features of the disease include increased diameter (dilation) as well as increased
tortuosity (wiggliness) of the retinal blood vessels in the portion of the retina
centered on the optic nerve (the posterior pole). Increased dilation and tortuosity of
the blood vessels in the posterior pole (called pre-plus in intermediate, and plus in
severe circumstances) is an important indicator of ROP severity.

ADVANTAGE

This exploratory strategy has two advantages: it eliminates the need for
selecting a destination point manually, and it finds vessels as tree-like image
regions, thereby accounting for vessel branching naturally and efficiently
Existing methods in both categories have been developed primarily for use
on high quality retinal fundus images, such as those obtained with the Ret
Cam imaging system (Clarity Medical Systems, Inc., Pleasanton.

DISADVANTAGE
This lower sensitivity reduces both the problem of leakage, in which a
segmentation goes beyond the correct vessel boundary and the problem of
stopping too soon. For our experiments.
Both versions of Dijkstras algorithm have the same computational
complexity of

where indicates the cardinality or size of a set. This

complexity is achievable with a heap-based priority queue implementation.

TITLE: Automatic classification of retinal vessels into arteries and

veins (2009)
AUTHOR NAME: M. Niemeijer, B. van Ginneken, and M. D.
Abramoff
Abnormalities of retinal vasculatures can indicate health
conditions in the body, such as the high blood pressure and diabetes. Providing
automatically determined width ratio of arteries and veins (A/V ratio) on retinal
fundus images may help physicians in the diagnosis of hypertensive retinopathy,
which may cause blindness. The purpose of this study was to detect major retinal
vessels and classify them into arteries and veins for the determination of A/V ratio.
Images used in this study were obtained from DRIVE database, which consists of

20 cases each for training and testing vessel detection algorithms. Starting with the
reference standard of vasculature e segmentation provided in the database, major
arteries and veins each in the upper and lower temporal regions were manually
selected for establishing the gold standard. We applied the black top-hat
transformation and double-ring filter to detect retinal blood vessels. From the
extracted vessels, large vessels extending from the optic disc to temporal regions
were selected as target vessels for calculation of A/V ratio. Image features were
extracted from the vessel segments from quarter-disc to one disc diameter from the
edge of optic discs. The target segments in the training cases were classified into
arteries and veins by using the linear discriminant analysis, and the selected
parameters were applied to those in the test cases. Out of 40 pairs, 30 pairs (75%)
of arteries and veins in the 20 test cases were correctly classified. The result can be
used for the automated calculation of A/V ratio.

ADVANTAGE
The true positive fraction is defined as the ratio of the number of pixels that
were segmented correctly to the number of pixels in the gold standard
vessels.
For extracting the blood vessel regions, the methods using the black top-hat
transformation and double ring filter have advantages.

DISADVANTAGE
The major vessels used for the A/V ratio measurement usually run from an
optic disc to the upper and lower temporal regions. In order to select such

vessels, a vessel-range mask was superimposed to the images for including

vessels that were inside this mask.
Starting with the reference standard of vasculature segmentation provided in
the database, major arteries and veins each in the upper and lower temporal
regions were manually selected for establishing the gold standard. We
applied the black top-hat transformation and double-ring filter to detect
retinal blood vessels

TITTLE: Retinal microvascular abnormalities and cognitive decline

(2009)
AUTHOR NAME: S. R. Lesage, T. H. Mosley, T. Y. Wong, M. Szklo,
D. Knopman, D. J. Catellier, S. R. Cole, R. Klein, J. Coresh, L. H.
Coker, and A. R. Sharrett
A substantial proportion of elderly persons do not experience
normal cognitive aging and develop cognitive impairment or dementia (estimated
prevalence in US adults >65 years 17% and 10%, respectively).1 Cardiovascular
disease (CVD) is known to impact cognitive function in later years,2 and vascular
and metabolic risk factors including high blood pressure, overweight and obesity,
diabetes and stroke have been shown to be inversely associated with cognitive
function among middle-aged and older adults. Some studies have found an
association between atherosclerosis (ie large vessel disease) and reduced cognitive
function, while others have reported weak or null associations. The vast majority of
brain blood vessels are small blood vessels, ie arterioles <200m in diameter.
While assessment of the cerebral microvasculature may provide the strongest test

10

of the influence of vascular disease on cognition, it is difficult to assess in vivo and

other approaches are required. Given similarities in anatomy and physiology1012
retinal vessels may provide an alternative to non-invasively study brain small
vessels. Abnormalities in the retinal vasculature10, 11, and 13 may be markers of
concomitant cerebral microvascular disease, and are closely related to
hypertension, stroke, MRI-detected subclinical infarcts and white matter lesions,
cerebral atrophy and stroke-related death.

ADVANTAGE
Results did not appreciably differ if an indicator of depression or any selfreported vascular condition was individually included in models, or if
subjects with poor quality retinal images were excluded from analyses.
Alternatively, it is possible that microvascular disease alters the disposition
of beta-amyloid and leads to higher levels of brain beta-amyloid, thereby
facilitating the appearance of clinical symptom.

DISADVANTAGE
We used data from 809 elderly Latino participants in the Los Angeles Latino
Eye Study to assess whether retinal vessel caliber and microvascular
abnormalities are cross-section ally associated with lower cognitive
function.
(Self-reported feelings of being downhearted and blue), as well as excluding
participants with retinal images of lower grading quality.

TITTLE: Revised formulas for summarizing retinal vessel

diameters (2003)

11

AUTHOR NAME: M. D. Knudtson, K. E. Lee, L. D. Hubbard, T. Y.

Wong, R. Klein, and B. E. K. Klein,
Background/Purpose. Recent findings suggest that an
objective assessment of retinal vessel caliber from fundus photographs provide
information about the association of microvascular characteristics with macro
vascular disease. Current methods used to quantify retinal vessel caliber,
introduced by Parr and Hubbard, are not independent of scale and are affected by
the number of vessels. To improve upon these methods we introduce revised
formulas for quantifying vessel caliber. Revised formulas were estimated using
retinal vessel measurements from 44 young adults free of hypertension and
diabetes. Comparisons between the two methods were done using digitized
photographs from 4926 participants at the baseline examination of the Beaver Dam
Eye Study (BDES), an ongoing population-based cohort study initiated in 1987.
Individual arterioles and venules were measured using semi-automated computer
software from which summary measures were calculated. Correlation coefficients
between the Parr-Hubbard and revised formulas were high (Pearson correlation
coefficients ranging from 0.94 to 0.98). Both arteriolar and venular caliber
significantly increased with an increasing number of vessels measured using the
Parr-Hubbard formulas, which in turn affected the relationship to mean arterial
blood pressure. To the contrary, the revised formulas were not affected by the
number of measured vessels.

12

ADVANTAGE
A technical advantage of using larger vessels is that they are easier to
measure. 26 The color of the blood column is more obvious, making it easier
to type a vessel as an arteriole or venule, and the vessel walls are better
defined, making it easier to gauge the diameter accurately.
The advantages of being robust to variability in the number of vessels
observed, being independent of image scale, and being easier to implement.

DISADVANTAGE
We have discovered several methodological issues with the standard ParrHubbard formulas used in previous studies.
To address these issues, we developed revised formulas that summarize the
retinal vessel diameters using the six largest arterioles and venules measured
from photographs.

TITTLE: Retinal vessel analysis reproducibility in assessing

cardiovascular disease (2008)
AUTHOR NAME: A. S. Neubauer, M. Ludtke, C. Haritoglou, S.
Priglinger, and A. Kampik
Purpose. To investigate the clinical accuracy and determine the
reproducibility of static, semi-automated retinal vessel analysis to supplement
established vascular risk factors.
Methods. Manual blood pressure measurements and calibrated retinal photographs
were obtained, after informed consent, on subjects without any eye disease aged
>50 years. A total of 48 subjects without systemic hypertension or any other
vascular disease and 54 subjects with confirmed hypertension were enrolled.

13

Analysis was performed on retinal photographs taken by a retinal thickness

analyzer (Talia Technology, Israel). The arteriovenous ratio (AVR) was calculated
by a semi-automated vessel tracking VSL software (Talia Technology).
Reproducibility was determined for software tracking, intra-, and intergrade
selection as well as intra- and internist for 20 subjects. The effects of image quality
degradation and decent ration were investigated.
Results. Validation showed an excellent agreement between semi-automated
software and manual vessel measurements. In the 102 subjects analyzed, retinal
AVR was only correlated with established systemic hypertension (p = 0.01) and
gender (p = 0.01). There was no effect of age on AVR. Other risk factors such as
diabetes, smoking, body mass index, and current blood pressure showed some
trends on multifactorial analysis. When limiting the number of vessels selected,
software tracking induced no variability.

ADVANTAGE
Overall, the reproducibility obtained for semi-automated vessel tracking and
AVR is good and exceeds the one reported for the original ARIC study
method (intergrade correlation 0.84, intergrade correlation
That reduced image resolutions still yielded good ICC of, whereas
significant noise, especially blurring, caused a marked reduction of ICC and
respectively.

DISADVANTAGE
Such large variability in AVR imposes problems when making longitudinal
individual comparisons.

14

The vessel trunk was measured, thus avoiding the more complex
calculations for branching.

Chapter 3
THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

15

3.1 EXISTING SYSTEM

This method uses existing vessel segmentation results, and
some manually labeled Starting vessel segments. Grison et al. developed a tracking
A/V classification technique that classifies the vessels only in a well-defined
concentric zone around the optic disc. Then, by using the vessel structure
reconstructed by tracking, the classification is propagated outside this zone, where
little or no information is available to discriminate arteries from veins. Vazquez et
al. Described a method which combines a color-based clustering algorithm with a
vessel tracking method. First the clustering approach divides the retinal image into
four quadrants, then it classifies separately the vessels detected in each quadrant,
and finally it combines the results. Then, a tracking strategy based on a minimal
path approach is applied to join the vessel segments located at different radii in
order to support the classification by voting. Kondermann et al. described two
feature extraction methods and two classification methods, based on support vector
machines and neural networks, to classify retinal vessels. One of the feature
extraction methods is profile-based, while the other is based on the definition of a
region of interest (ROI) around each centerline point. To reduce the dimensionality
of the feature vectors, they used a multiclass principal component analysis (PCA).
Niemeijer et al. proposed an automatic method for classifying retinal vessels into
arteries and veins using image features and a classifier. A set of centerline features
is extracted and a soft label is assigned to each centerline, indicating the likelihood
of its being a vein pixel. Then the average of the soft labels of connected centerline
pixels is assigned to each centerline pixel. They tested different classifiers and
found that the k-nearest neighbor (kNN) classifier provides the best overall
performance. In, the classification method was enhanced as a step in calculating
the AVR value.

16

DISADVANTAGE
For addressing this problem we define an adaptive parameter, the threshold
Tns, which is used as the criterion for merging two neighborhood nodes.
Automated classification of retinal vessels into arteries and veins has
received limited attention, and is still an open task in the retinal image
analysis field.
In order to reduce the complexity of the subsequent graph analysis, all

endpoints with very short links are removed.

The propagation of AV classification inside of ROI to the periphery may be
complex due to the factors such as the AV crossings where artery and vein

may run parallel to each other.

Discuss variety of such vascular interactions due to which the propagation of
AV classification to the outside of the ROI becomes complex and requires a
rule-based approach.
The proposed method provides the separation of vessel trees into arteries and
veins as well as into primary vessels, and their branches, which may reduce
the intertwining complexity of the retinal vessel structure that normally
prevents the accurate measurement of individual vessel properties.

3.2 PROPOSEED SYSTEM

The proposed method classifies the entire vascular tree deciding
on the type of each intersection point (graph nodes) and assigning one of two
labels to each vessel segment (graph links). The link labeling process starts by
locating the optic disc center (ODC) using the automatic method based on the

17

entropy of vascular directions, proposed by Mendona et al. In order to make the

classifier more robust, each image is processed using the method proposed by M.
Foracchia et al. The following subsections present the results of applying the
proposed A/V classification method on the images of these data bases. For
evaluating the proposed method, which is the combination of graph-based
classification with LDA, we have calculated the accuracy both for centerline pixel
classification and for vessel pixel classification. Table VI shows the accuracy
values for centerline and vessel pixels and accuracy value of 98.0% was obtained,
thus demonstrating that the proposed methodology for A/V classification is reliable
for use in an automated procedure for AVR calculation. Furthermore, we compared
the performance of our approach with other recently proposed methods, and we
con The promising results of the proposed A/V classification method on the images
of three different databases demonstrate the independence of this method in A/V
classification of retinal images with different properties, such as differences in
size, quality, and camera angle. On the other hand, the high accuracy achieved by
our method, especially for the largest arteries and veins, confirm that this A/V
classification methodology is reliable for the calculation of several characteristic
signs associated with vascular alterations. Clued that we are achieving better
results.

ADVANTAGE
Another advantage is the possibility to perform automated screening for
pathological conditions, such as diabetic retinopathy, in order to reduce the
workload required of trained manual graders.

18

The high accuracy of the semiautomatic approach is a good indication that

the structural information embedded in the graph-based method is important
per se for link labeling.
Such as differences in size, quality, and camera angle. On the other hand, the
high accuracy achieved by our method, especially for the largest arteries and
veins.
Inversely related to higher blood pressure levels, is usually expressed by the
Arteriolar-to-Venular diameter Ratio (AVR).
The method proposed by Mendona et al. Was used for segmenting the
retinal vasculature, after being adapted for the segmentation of high
resolution images.
As a vein. For each pair of labels in each sub graph, the label with higher
artery probability will be assigned as an artery class, and the other as a vein
class.

3.3 MODULES

Input image
Convert to gray
Morphological operation
Center line Pixel Extraction
Extract the Features
Classify the features

19

Output image

MODULES DESCRIPTION
INPUT IMAGE
RETINAL COLOR IMAGE
The health of the retina deteriorates with age in some
people due to the appearance of drusens. Drusens are accumulation of lipid and
other waste material from different layers of the retina. These are markers of agerelated macular de Generation (ARMD) as their increasing number generally
indicates risk for RMD, a leading cause of blindness in people above the age of 50.
Morphological information of drusens is also crucial in determining the risk factor
for ARMD. Color retinal images are used presently to visually identify the
presence of druses. Automated detection and analysis can provide vital information
about the quantity and quality of the drusens. In this paper, we report on two
methods that we have developed to reliably detect and count drusens. The methods
exploit the morphological characteristics of the drusens such as texture and their
3D profiles. We compare the results of using these two methods and make
recommendations for automated drusen analysis.

CONVERT TO GRAY
1. The process of retinal image is convert to gray for done the further
implementation in images
2. In the convert process the RGB was remove in color image.
3. In proposed the RGB in not completely removed but any one color like Red,
Green or blue will remove.
4. So the other colors are there in retinal color image, so easy to segment the
vessels in that gray image.

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MORPHOLOGICAL OPERATION
Morphological operations are affecting the form, structure or shape of an object.
Applied on binary images (black & white images Images with only 2 colors black
And white). They are used in preorpost processing (filtering, thinning, and runing)
or for getting a representation or description of the shape of objects/regions
(boundaries, skeletons convex hulls.

The two principal morphological operations are:

Dilation and operation. Dilation allows objects to expand,
thus potentially filling in small holes and connecting disjoint objects. Erosion
shrinks objects by etching away (eroding) their boundaries. These operations can
be customized for an application by the proper selection of the structuring element,
which determines exactly how the objects will be dilated or eroded.

EXTRACT THE FEATURE

The feature extraction process is important for classification the feature extraction
process the image pixel information is stored as vector that values will help to
identify the vein and artery. That image quality features was
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.

Intensity of the Red, Green and Blue of center pixels,

Hue, Saturation and Intensity of center pixels,
Mean of Red, Green, Blue of center line pixels,
Mean of Hue, Saturation, and Intensity in the vessel ,
Stranded Deviation of Red, Green, and Blue intensities in the

vi.

vessels,
Stranded Deviation of Hue, Saturation, and Intensity intensities in

vii.

the vessels,
Maximum and minimum of Red and Green intensities in the vessel.

21

Intensity of pixels
Pretty pictures are nice, but many times we need to
turn our images into quantifiable data. Image is useful for getting information from
images, including pixel intensity. There are a number of different ways to get
intensity information from images using the base package of Image (no plugins
required.
You can simply hover the cursor over a given area in the image and read out the
pixel intensity at that pixel on the toolbar. For RGB images, there will be three
numbers, red, green and blue.
HUE
The first step in many techniques for processing intensity
and saturation in color images keeping hue unaltered is the transformation of the
image data from RGB space to other color spaces such as LHS, HSI, YIQ, HSV,
etc. Transforming from one space to another and processing in these spaces usually
generate gamut problem, i.e., the values of the variables may not be in their
respective intervals. Enhancement techniques for color images are studied here
theoretically in a generalized setup. A principle is suggested to make the
transformations gamut problem free in this regard. Using the same principle a
class of hue preserving contrast enhancement transformations are proposed, which
generalize the existing grey scale contrast intensification techniques to color
images. These transformations are also seen to bypass the above mentioned color
coordinate transformations for image enhancement. The developed principle is
used to generalize the histogram equalization scheme for grey scale images to
color images.

22

INTENSITIES
The quality or condition of being intense.
Great energy, strength, concentration, vehemence, etc., as of
activity, thought, or feeling: He went at the job with great intensity.
A high or extreme degree, as of cold or heat.
The degree or extent to which something is intense.
A high degree of emotional excitement; depth of feeling: The poem
lacked intensity and left me unmoved.

STANDARED DEVIATION
To further describe data sets, measures of spread or dispersion are used. One of the
most commonly used measures is standard deviation. This value gives information
on how the values of the data set are varying, or deviating, from the mean of the
data set. Deviations are calculated by subtracting the mean,
X, from each of the sample values,
X, i.e. deviation.
As some values are less than the mean, negative deviations will result, and for
values greater than the mean positive deviations will be obtained. By simply
adding the values of the deviations from the mean, the positive and negative values
will cancel to result in a value of zero. By squaring each of the deviations, the
problem of positive and negative values is avoided. To calculate the standard
deviation, the deviations are squared. These values are summed, divided by the
appropriate number of values and then finally the square root is taken of this result,
to counteract the initial squaring of the deviation.

23

The property of the each center line pixels are called features, that is 30 features
are extracted.

CLASSIFICATIONS
1. Use that feature will help to set some thresh hold for identify the retinal
vessels in which type (Artery or Vein)
2. That classification done by using KNN classifier
The k- Nearest-Neighbors (kNN) is a non-parametric
classification method, which is simple but effective in many cases. For a data
record t to be classified, its nearest neighbors are retrieved, and this forms a
neighborhood of t. Majority voting among the data records in the neighborhood is
usually used to decide the classification for t with or without consideration of
distance-based weighting. However, to apply KNN we need to choose an
appropriable value for k, and the success of classification is very much dependent
on this value. In a sense, the kNN method is biased by k. There are many ways of
choosing the k value, but a simple one is to run the algorithm many times with
different k values and choose the one with the best performance.

OUTPUT IMAGE
The output image is only show the vessels in two types like Artery and vein and
the performance graph will draw and shows in proposed what is accuracy of
segmentation result.

GRAPH BASED APPROACH

This paper proposes an algorithm to measure the width
of retinal vessels in fundus photographs using graph-based algorithm to segment

24

both vessel edges simultaneously. First, the simultaneous two-boundary

segmentation problem is modeled as a two-slice, 3-D surface segmentation
problem, which is further converted into the problem of computing a minimum
closed set in a node-weighted graph. An initial segmentation is generated from a
vessel probability image. We use the REVIEW database to evaluate diameter
measurement performance. The algorithm is robust and estimates the vessel width
with sub pixel accuracy.
Next, matching moles across images is modeled as a
graph matching problem and algebraic relations between nodes and edges in the
graphs are induced in the matching cost function, which contains terms reflecting
proximity regularization, angular agreement between mole pairs, and agreement
between the moles normalized coordinates calculated in the un warped back
template. We propose and discuss alternative approaches for evaluating the
goodness of matching. We evaluate our method on a large set of synthetic data
(hundreds of pairs) as well as 56 pairs of real dermatological images. Our proposed
method compares favorably with the state-of-the-art. To the best of our knowledge,
there exists limited previous work on skin mole or lesion matching. In [9], Huang
and Bergstresser proposed to utilize the area of the voronoi cells surrounding moles
in the similarity term for mole matching. Then, a dynamic programming approach
was used to find corresponding moles.

25

Chapter 4
Result of analytical

4.1 SYSTEM DESIGN

SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE

26

Classification
Result

4.2 FLOW DIAGRAM

Extract the feature

27

4.3 UML DIAGRAM

USE CASE DIAGRAM

28

4.4 CLASS DIAGRAM

29

4.5 SEQUENTAL DIAGRM

30

4.6 TESTING OF PRODUCT

31

SYSTEM TESTING
The purpose of testing is to discover errors. Testing is the process of trying
to discover every conceivable fault or weakness in a work product. It provides a
way to check the functionality of components, sub-assemblies, assemblies and/or a
finished product. It is the process of exercising software with the intent of ensuring
that the Software system meets its requirements and user expectations and does not
fail in an unacceptable manner. There are various types of test. Each test type
addresses a specific testing requirement.

TYPES OF TESTS
Unit testing
Unit testing involves the design of test cases that validate that the internal
program logic is functioning properly, and that program inputs produce valid
outputs. All decision branches and internal code flow should be validated. It is the
testing of individual software units of the application .it is done after the
completion of an individual unit before integration. This is a structural testing, that
relies on knowledge of its construction and is invasive. Unit tests perform basic
tests at component level and test a specific business process, application, and/or
system configuration. Unit tests ensure that each unique path of a business process
performs accurately to the documented specifications and contains clearly defined
inputs and expected results.

Functional test

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Functional tests provide systematic demonstrations that functions tested are

available as specified by the business and technical requirements, system
documentation, and user manuals.
Functional testing is centered on the following items:
Valid Input

Identified classes of valid input must be

Accepted.

Invalid Input

Identified classes of invalid input must be

Rejected.

Functions

Identified functions must be exercised.

Output

Identified classes of application outputs.

Systems/Procedures: interfacing systems or procedures must be invoked.

Organization and preparation of functional tests is focused on requirements, key
functions, or special test cases. In addition, systematic coverage pertaining to
identify Business process flows; data fields, predefined processes, and successive
processes must be considered for testing. Before functional testing is complete,
additional tests are identified and the effective value of current tests is determined.

System Test
System testing ensures that the entire integrated software system meets
requirement. It tests a configuration to ensure known and predictable results. An
example of system testing is the configuration oriented system integration test.
System testing is based on process descriptions and flows, emphasizing pre-driven
process links and integration points.

White Box Testing

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White Box Testing is a testing in which in which the software tester has
knowledge of the inner workings, structure and language of the software, or at least
its purpose. It is purpose. It is used to test areas that cannot be reached from a black
box level.

Black Box Testing

Black Box Testing is testing the software without any knowledge of the
inner workings, structure or language of the module being tested. Black box tests,
as most other kinds of tests, must be written from a definitive source document,
such as specification or requirements document, such as specification or
requirements document.

Test objectives
All field entries must work properly.
Pages must be activated from the identified link.
The entry screen, messages and responses must not be delayed.

Integration Testing
Software integration testing is the incremental integration testing of two or
more integrated software components on a single platform to produce failures
caused by interface defects. The task of the integration test is to check that
components or software applications, e.g. components in a software system or
one step up software applications at the company level interact without error.

34

Acceptance Testing
User Acceptance Testing is a critical phase of any project and requires
significant participation by the end user. It also ensures that the system meets the
functional requirements.
Test Results: All the test cases mentioned above passed successfully. No defects
encountered.

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4.7 SYSTEM REQUIREMENTS

SOFTWARE REQUIREMENTS:
OS

: Windows

Software

: Mat lab

HARDWARE REQUIREMENTS:
Processor: Intel Pentium.
RAM: 2GB

SOFTWARE DESCRIPTION:
MATLAB is a high-level technical computing language and interactive
environment for algorithm development, data visualization, data analysis, and
numerical computation. Using MATLAB, you can solve technical computing
problems faster than with traditional programming languages, such as C, C++, and
FORTRAN.
Mat lab is a data analysis and visualization tool which has been designed with
powerful support for matrices and matrix operations. As well as this, Mat lab has
excellent graphics capabilities, and its own powerful programming language. One
of the reasons that Mat lab has become such an important tool is through the use of
sets of Mat lab programs designed to support a particular task. These sets of
programs are called toolboxes, and the particular toolbox of interest to us is the
image processing toolbox. Rather than give a description of all of Mat lab's
capabilities, we shall restrict ourselves to just those aspects concerned with

36

handling of images. We shall introduce functions, commands and techniques as

required. A Mat lab function is a keyword which accepts various parameters, and
produces some sort of output: for example a matrix, a string, a graph. Examples of
such functions are sin, imread, imclose. There are many functions in Mat lab, and
as we shall see, it is very easy (and sometimes necessary) to write our own.
Mat lab's standard data type is the matrix all data are considered to be matrices of
some sort. Images, of course, are matrices whose elements are the grey values (or
possibly the RGB values) of its pixels. Single values are considered by Mat lab to
be matrices, while a string is merely a matrix of characters; being the string's
length. In this chapter we will look at the more generic Mat lab commands, and
discuss images in further chapters.

When you start up Mat lab, you have a blank window called the Command
Window_ in which you enter commands. Given the vast number of Mat lab's
functions, and the different parameters they can take, a command line style
interface is in fact much more efficient than a complex sequence of pull-down
menus.
You can use MATLAB in a wide range of applications, including signal and image
processing, communications, control design, test and measurement financial
modeling and analysis. Add-on toolboxes (collections of special-purpose
MATLAB functions) extend the MATLAB environment to solve particular classes
of problems in these application areas.
MATLAB provides a number of features for documenting and sharing your work.
You can integrate your MATLAB code with other languages and applications, and
distribute your MATLAB algorithms and applications.

37

When working with images in Mat lab, there are many things to keep in mind such
as loading an image, using the right format, saving the data as different data types,
how to display an image, conversion between different image formats.
Image Processing Toolbox provides a comprehensive set of reference-standard
algorithms and graphical tools for image processing, analysis, visualization, and
algorithm development. You can perform image enhancement, image deploring,
feature detection, noise reduction, image segmentation, spatial transformations,
and image registration. Many functions in the toolbox are multithreaded to take
advantage of multicore and multiprocessor computers.

MATLAB and images

The help in MATLAB is very good, use it!

An image in MATLAB is treated as a matrix

Every pixel is a matrix element

All the operators in MATLAB defined on

Matrices can be used on images: +, -, *, /, ^, sqrt, sin, cos etc.

MATLAB can import/export several image formats

BMP (Microsoft Windows Bitmap)

GIF (Graphics Interchange Files)

HDF (Hierarchical Data Format)

38

JPEG (Joint Photographic Experts Group)

PCX (Paintbrush)

PNG (Portable Network Graphics)

TIFF (Tagged Image File Format)

XWD (X Window Dump)

MATLAB can also load raw-data or other types of image data

Data types in MATLAB

Double (64-bit double-precision floating point)

Single (32-bit single-precision floating point)

Int32 (32-bit signed integer)

Int16 (16-bit signed integer)

Int8 (8-bit signed integer)

Uint32 (32-bit unsigned integer)

Uint16 (16-bit unsigned integer)

Uint8 (8-bit unsigned integer)

Images in MATLAB
Binary images: {0, 1}

39

Intensity images: [0, 1] or uint8, double etc.

RGB images: m-by-n-by-3
Indexed images: m-by-3 color map
Multidimensional images m-by-n-by-p (p is the number of layers)
IMAGE TYPES IN MATLAB
Outside Mat lab images may be of three types i.e. black & white, grey scale and
colored. In Mat lab, however, there are four types of images. Black & White
images are called binary images, containing 1 for white and 0 for black. Grey scale
images are called intensity images, containing numbers in the range of 0 to 255 or
0 to 1. Colored images may be represented as RGB Image or Indexed Image.
In RGB Images there exist three indexed images. First image contains all the red
portion of the image, second green and third contains the blue portion. So for a 640
x 480 sized image the matrix will be 640 x 480 x 3. An alternate method of colored
image representation is Indexed Image. It actually exist of two matrices namely
image matrix and map matrix. Each color in the image is given an index number
and in image matrix each color is represented as an index number. Map matrix
contains the database of which index number belongs to which color.

IMAGE TYPE CONVERSION

RGB Image to Intensity Image (rgb2gray)

RGB Image to Indexed Image (rgb2ind)

RGB Image to Binary Image (im2bw)

40

Indexed Image to RGB Image (ind2rgb)

Indexed Image to Intensity Image (ind2gray)

Indexed Image to Binary Image (im2bw)

Intensity Image to Indexed Image (gray2ind)

Intensity Image to Binary Image (im2bw)

Intensity Image to RGB Image (gray2ind, ind2rgb)

Key Features

High-level language for technical computing

Development environment for managing code, files, and data

Interactive tools for iterative exploration, design, and problem solving

Mathematical functions for linear algebra, statistics, Fourier analysis,

filtering, optimization, and numerical integration

2-D and 3-D graphics functions for visualizing data

Tools for building custom graphical user interfaces

Functions for integrating MATLAB based algorithms with external

applications and languages, such as C, C++, Fortran, Java, COM, and Microsoft
Excel.

41

Chapter 5

5.1 CONCLUSION
The classification of arteries and veins in retinal images is essential
for the automated assessment of vascular changes. In previous sections, we have
described a new automatic methodology to classify retinal vessels into arteries and
veins which is distinct from prior solutions. One major difference is the fact that
our method is able to classify the whole vascular tree and does not restrict the
classification to specific regions of interest, normally around the optic disc. While
most of the previous methods mainly use intensity features for discriminating
between arteries and veins, our method uses additional information extracted from
a graph which represents the vascular network. The information about node degree,
the orientation of each link, the angles between links, and the vessel caliber related
to each link are used for analyzing the graph, and then decisions on type of nodes
are made (bifurcation, crossing, or meeting points). Next, based on the node types,
the links that belong to a particular vessel are detected, and finally A/V classes are
assigned to each one of these vessels using a classifier supported by a set of
intensity features. The graph-based method with LDA outperforms the accuracy of
the LDA classifier using intensity features, which shows the relevance of using
structural information for A/V classification. Furthermore, we compared the
performance of our approach with other recently proposed methods, and we
conclude that we are achieving better results.

42

5.2 FUTURE ENHANCEMENT

The disease like Diabetes and some another disease affect the retinal vessels.
In feature we used that artery and vein feature to classify the retinal is
normal and up normal
We use some feature extraction method to train normal and up normal dates.
Use robust classifier to classify that feature to find the retinal is normal are
abnormal

43

5.3 Screen shots

44

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