Professional Documents
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CHROMATOGRAPHY
Ion Exchange
Chromatography
Structure
9.1
Introduction
Objectives
9.2
9.3
9.4
9.5
9.6
9.7
Operating Methods
Batch Operation
Column Operation
Moving Bed Operation
9.11 Applications
Separation of Metal Ions and Anions
Separation of Organics
Separation of Ionized from Nonionized
Separation of Actinide Elements
Miscellaneous Applications
9.12 Summary
9.13 Terminal Questions
9.14 Answers
9.1
INTRODUCTION
Amongst various separation techniques, ion exchange is the most popular name
because of its use for water softening. It is also unique in terms of its versatility and
historical developments. Besides the well-known use of ion exchangers in water
treatment, they find use in industry, nuclear fuel processing, hydrometallurgy,
agriculture and biology. The treatment of water by solid adsorbents is as old as
civilization. There are records available that in the time of Aristotle, sand filters were
used for purification of sea water. Moses used a tree branch for making bitter water
sweet. But the credit of recognizing the ion exchange phenomenon goes to two
agricultural chemists-Thompson and Way. They observed the exchange of ammonium
ions with calcium ions in soils. The realization of the fact that certain clay minerals
were responsible for the exchange, led to the attempts to use such materials for water
softening. It also prompted scientists to synthesize materials with similar properties.
5
Chromatographic
Methods-III
The first synthetic ion exchanger was prepared in 1903 by two German
chemists-Harm and Rumpler. Another German, Gans, worked on several pioneering
applications of permutits. But the permutits could not stand in the market because of
their poor reproducibility and chemical stability.
A real breakthrough in the subject came in 1935 when two English chemists, Adams,
and Holmes, observed that crushed phonograph record exhibited ion exchange
properties. This observation led to the synthesis of several organic ion exchangers
which had better properties. It was illustrated that stable and high capacity cation
exchangers could be prepared as sulphonic acid resins and polyamine type resins
exhibited anion exchange properties. The area of ion exchange blossomed at a very
fast rate. The versatility of ion exchange resins was readily recognized. Many attempts
have been made to modify and improve the existing materials. It is possible to tailor
make ion exchange resins for specific applications.
Ion exchange is firmly established as a unit operation. All over the world, numerous
plants are in operation accomplishing the tasks that range from the recovery of metals
from industrial wastes to the separation of rare earths and from catalysis of organic
reactions to the decontamination of cooling water of nuclear reactors. In the
laboratory, ion exchangers prove themselves as useful materials for accomplishing
analytical separations. The ion exchange membranes find quite a good use in
physiological chemistry and biophysics. Ion exchange separation played a major role
in the identification of trans-uranium elements by Glen T. Seaborg. The identify of
each element of 5f series was established beyond any doubt by the sequence of their
appearance a analogous to the appearance of the corresponding 4f elements
The above applications clearly indicate that a variety of ion exchangers are available
and these materials can be used for different applications. In view of this, it is
important to understand the basic ion exchange mechanism, and a broad classification
of ion exchangers. Ion exchange resins are synthesized by following different
chemical routes. An idea about it can be had by illustrating the synthesis of some wellknown ion exchange resins. The practical utility of an ion exchanger depends upon its
properties, both chemical and physical. Another point which is important in this
context is as to how the material is being operated. The discussion on ion exchangers
will not be complete if we do not talk about some special type of ion exchangers viz.
chelating resins and synthetic inorganic ion exchangers. Finally, a discussion on
various types of applications will be taken up. It may be noted that some of these uses
may not be directly based on separations.
Objectives
After studying this Unit, you should be able to
present a complete picture about the different types of synthetic inorganic ion
exchangers and their advantages alongwith applications, and
9.2
Ion Exchange
Chromatography
The term ion exchange generally means exchange of ions of like sign between a
solution and a solid highly insoluble in it. The solid known as ion exchanger carries
exchangeable cations and anions. When the exchanger is in contact with an electrolyte,
these ions can be exchanged for a stoichiometrically equivalent amount of other ions
of same sign. Carriers of exchangeable cations are known as cation exchangers and
carriers of exchangeable anions as anion exchangers. Certain materials are capable of
both cation and anion exchange. These are known as amphoteric exchangers.
A typical cation exchange reaction is shown below:
2 NaX + CaCl2(aq)
CaX2 + 2 NaCl(aq)
X2SO4 + 2 NaCl(aq)
ii)
It must contain sufficient number of accessible ion exchange groups and it must
be chemically stable.
iii)
iv)
SAQ 1
What is the basic difference between adsorption and ion exchange?
...
Chromatographic
Methods-III
SAQ 2
A sodium phosphate solution is passed through a column of an anion exchanger in the
chloride form. The PO43 ions are taken up by the ion exchanger. Write down the ion
exchange equilibria.
...
...
...
...
9.3
Many different natural and synthetic products show ion exchange properties. These
exchangers can be either cation or anion exchangers. Therefore, a simple broad
classification can be as
i)
Natural
ii)
Synthetic
Organic
ii)
Inorganic
For the purposes of simple presentation, we will select the first classification i.e.,
natural and synthetic.
Another lesser known variety of natural ion exchangers is some types of coals. They
contain carboxylic and possibly other weak acid groups. They, thus, can be used as
cation exchangers. Most of these materials swell excessively and are decomposed by
alkali. They are, therefore, stabilized before use. Soft and hard coals are stabilized by
metal ion solutions. Most lignites and bituminous coals and anthracites can be
converted into strong cation exchangers by sulphonation with fuming strong sulphuric
acid. These coals have very limited applications.
Ion Exchange
Chromatography
Chromatographic
Methods-III
SAQ 3
What are the two distinct classes of aluminosilicates based on their structure?
...
...
...
...
SAQ 4
Under what conditions the organic resinous ion exchangers deteriorate fast?
...
...
...
...
SAQ 5
Is there any justification of including liquid ion exchangers as a distinct category of
ion exchangers?
...
...
...
9.4
It has been made clear earlier that we will mainly focus on synthesis and properties of
organic resins. If we take synthesis, there are too many types of resins and different
chemical routes are followed to prepare them. Therefore, it may be difficult to cite
10
here even the few important ones. Hence, to highlight the synthetic chemistry of ion
exchange resins, some discussion will be taken up on general terms and that will be
accompanied by a few examples of synthesis. One point which is very clear about
synthesis of ion exchange resin is that it must yield a three dimensional cross-linked
matrix of hydrocarbon chains carrying fixed ionic groups. This can be achieved in the
following ways:
i)
ii)
The matrix can be built from non- ionic monomers and the fixed ionic groups
are then introduced into the completed network.
iii)
The fixed ionic groups are introduced while the polymerization is still in
progress.
Ion Exchange
Chromatography
a)
Condensation polymers
The earliest known cation exchange resin was a condensation product of phenol
and formaldehyde. The list became broader and more extensive. Other
monovalent or polyvalent phenols like resorcinol and naphthol instead of phenol
and other aldehydes instead of formaldehyde can be used. Phenolic group can
act as a fixed ionic group but the resins have a very low acid strength. Groups
with higher acid strength can be introduced by various methods. The easiest
course is sulphonation of phenol prior to polymerization.
b)
Addition polymers
The area of synthesis of ion exchange resins is now dominated by addition
copolymers prepared from vinyl monomers. They are more chemically and
thermally stable than the condensation polymers. Moreover, in addition
polymerization, the degree of cross-linking and particle size are easy to control.
A well known cation exchange resin is obtained by the copolymerization of
11
Chromatographic
Methods-III
12
Ion Exchange
Chromatography
Like cation exchangers, the earlier known anion exchangers were condensation
polymers and they are replaced by addition polymers.
a)
Condensation polymers
The earliest known anion exchange resins were prepared from aromatic amines
like m- phenylenediamine by condensation with formaldehyde.
The aldehyde reacts with amino groups. In the process, the secondary and
tertiary amino groups are formed. Thus, the resins are polyfunctional. Aliphatic
polyamines which are not as weakly basic can also be condensed with
aldehydes.
b)
Addition polymers
Like cation exchangers, a commonly used anion exchange resin is prepared by
copolymerization of styrene and divinylbenzene followed by chloromethylation
(introduction CH2Cl grouping) say, in the para position and interaction with a
base such as trimethylamine. The polymers containing quaternary ammonium
groups are strong bases and those with amino or substituted amino groups show
weakly basic properties.
13
Chromatographic
Methods-III
Among the amphoteric resins, the most important are the ones known as snake- cage
polyelectrolytes. They are conventional cation or anion exchangers within which
polycation or polyanions, respectively have been formed by polymerization. A typical
example is that a snake- cage polyelectrolyte can be prepared by converting a strong
base anion exchanger to acrylate form and then acrylate anion is polymerized in the
resin. The linear chains of the poly-counter ions are so intricately interwined with the
crosslinked matrix that they cannot be displaced by other counter ions. The situation is
something like a snake trapped in a cage. One significant difference these snake cage
polyelectrolytes show from other amphoteric exchangers is that the poly-counter ions
are not attached to the matrix. Therefore, the charges of poly-counter ions of the
matrix have more freedom to move. As a result, it is not necessary for the resin to have
mobile counter ions (counter ions to the poly-counter ions) to remain electrically
neutral provided the charges of fixed ionic groups and poly-counter ions are balanced.
These exchangers are excellent reversible sorbents for electrolytes. This will be
discussed later when the applications of ion exchangers are being cited.
At the end of this section on the synthesis of ion exchange resins, it may be important
to point out that the chemical structures of the polymers shown are hypothetical. It is
difficult to establish the resin structure exactly. Furthermore, the structures of the
polymers do not represent repeating identical units since the sequence of the
monomeric component is essentially random.
SAQ 6
What are the advantages of addition polymeric resins over their condensation
counterparts?
...
...
SAQ 7
What is the role of divinylbenzene in the synthesis of styrene-divinylbenzene
polymeric resin?
...
...
9.5
A number of manufacturers of ion exchange resins sell their products with different
trade names. Some of these are given in Table 9.1.
14
Trade name
Dowex
Amberlite
Permutit Co., UK
Duolite
Bayer-Farben, Germany
Lewalit
Wolfen-Farben, Germany
Wolfatit
Sicso, India
Seralite
Ion Exchange
Chromatography
Nomenclature
The trade names of resins are generally so named that the basic structure is readily
apparent. Taking the example of Dowex resin, it will include
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
9.6
Type
% DVB
Mesh size
Ionic form
50
X8
20- 50
Na
RESIN PROPERTIES
As a matter of fact, the resin is a very complex material and there are several
properties which are to be known and clearly understood before putting it to any
particular application. Some of the important properties are
i)
Moisture content
ii)
Particle size
iii)
Crosslinkage
iv)
Capacity
v)
Distribution coefficient
vi)
Equivalency of exchange
vii)
Resin selectivity
Chromatographic
Methods-III
16
exchange resin. In the same light, we can say that if the cross linking is decreased, the
permeable selectivity difference is also decreased.
Ion Exchange
Chromatography
Cross linkage affects the physical properties also. Highly crosslinked resin is brittle.
On the other hand, low cross linked resins are highly swollen; therefore, soft and
easily deformed.
9.6.4 Capacity
If we consider an ion exchanger, it can be taken as a reservoir of exchangeable ions. In
the ion exchange operation, it is the counter ions which are put to use. The counter
ions content of a given amount of material is equal to the fixed charges which must be
balanced by the counter ions and thus, is essentially constant. This amounts to the fact
that it is independent of particle size and shape and of the nature of counter ions.
Ion exchangers are characterized in a quantitative manner by their capacity. In the
common usage, it is defined as the number of ion equivalents in a specified amount of
the material. But this simple definition is not sufficient and will have to be qualified.
The definition becomes acceptable when the conditions are given. Capacity and
related data are primarily used for two purposes, for characterizing ion exchange
materials and for use in numerical calculations of ion exchange operations. In the
second case, it is more practical to use other definitions or quantitatives which reflect
the effect of operating conditions. The different types of capacity are given as under.
The total capacity of an ion exchange resin is the number of ionic (or potentially
ionic) sites per unit weight or volume of resin. The dry weight total capacity is usually
expressed in milliequivalents per gram of anhydrous resin. Scientifically, it is usually
expressed as meq/ g dry H+ or Cl form. The wet volume capacity is the number of
sites per unit volume of the water swollen resin. The performance of an ion exchange
resin is generally based on volume and the wet volume total capacity is the theoretical
or maximum capacity which the resin can show in any aqueous ion exchange
application. It may be expressed in milliequivalents per milliliter.
The net number of sites which are utilized in a given volume of resin in a given cycle
in known as the operating capacity of the resin in that particular cycle. It may be
expressed in the same terms as total capacity or as a percent of total capacity.
There is another term which is known as useful capacity which is the capacity when
equilibrium is not attained. It depends on experimental conditions viz. ion exchange
rates etc. There is another capacity which is known as breakthrough (dynamic)
capacity which is utilized in column operation. It depends on operating conditions.
There is also a capacity known as sorption capacity which is the amount of solute
taken up by sorption rather than ion exchange per specified amount of the exchanger.
17
Chromatographic
Methods-III
The amount term, in milligram, moles or whatever may be is proper since the units
cancel in calculating the D ratio.
The D values are generally determined by batch method. A known amount of resin is
brought in contact with a known amount of metal ion in solution until equilibrium is
attained. Because isotherms are non-linear, the D values are taken to be limiting slopes
at very low values (Fig. 9.1). The best solution for this is to determine D values at low
concentrations by taking labeled solutions using radioisotopes. The D value is
determined by simply counting the solution before and after equilibrium with the
resin.
The conversion factor of D to Dv is the bed density, , where is in kg of dry resin per
L of resin bed.
For any ion exchange, the importance is its use for the separation that means
selectivity. For selectivity, the Dvalues should be different for the ions to be separated. It
should be kept in mind that the Dvalues is conditional. It depends upon the nature of
resin and the composition of the solution in contact with it. Composition will include
pH, ionic strength, type and molarity of acid and the presence of water miscible
organic solvents and other ions.
18
Distribution Coefficient
There is a term synonymous to distribution ratio which is known as distribution
coefficient (Kd). This is also used to express the distribution of the ion between the
solution and the ion exchange resin. It is more or less the same as distribution ratio.
This weight distribution coefficient of ion is given by
Kd =
Ion Exchange
Chromatography
( K ) BA
Ar + B
(9.1)
[ A] r [B]
[A][B] r
(9.2)
Here, r in the subscript represents the resin phase. This definition ignores the activity
coefficient of the ions in the two phases. There is no fully satisfactory method for
determining the activity coefficient of ions in the resin phase and are thus omitted. The
activity coefficient of ions in solutions can be obtained from the literature and can be
applied in the above expressions for accurate results when working with other than
19
Chromatographic
Methods-III
dilute solutions. In the case of concentrated solutions when the activity coefficient is
significantly altered, the selectivity coefficients values should be applied with caution.
It should be kept in mind that selectivity is dependent upon many factors. It varies
with temperature and pressure. The effect of pressure has not been investigated due to
the nature of the ion exchange technique. However, there are several factors which are
of more concern and these are discussed below:
i)
Dowex-2 differs only in that one of the methyl groups is replaced by an ethanol
group. This substitution of methyl group changes the selectivity to give a resin
which can be converted to the free base form much more efficiently.
ii)
b)
Under similar conditions and constant valence, for univalent ions the
extent of exchange decreases with the size of hydrated cation. Thus,
Li+< H+ < Na+ <NH +4 < K+ <Rb+ <Cs+ < Tl+ < Ag+
c)
In the case of divalent ions, the ionic size is an important factor but the
incomplete dissociation of salts plays an important part.
Cd2+ < Be2+ < Mn2+ < Mg2+ Zn2+ < Cu2+ Ni2+ < Ca2+ < Sr2+ < Pb2+ <
Ba2+
d)
With strongly basic anion exchange resins ( Dowex 1 and 21 K), univalent
anions appear to behave similarly to univalent cations.
F < OH< CH3COO< HCO 3 < Cl< HSO 3 HSO 4 < CN< Br< NO 3 <
I
For Dowex-2, OH falls between HCO 3 and Cl.
iii)
20
of ferric ion in concentrated solution of chloride ions. In this case, ferric ion has
a tendency to exist as FeCl 4 (a complex ion) which is strongly held by a
quaternary ammonium anion exchange resin. The iron can be removed from the
resin by rinsing with water or dilute acid since the complex breaks down when
chloride ions are not present in high concentration. Such examples are numerous
in the literature and are successfully exploited for various metal ion separations.
iv)
Ion Exchange
Chromatography
v)
NaCl + RSO3H
+
(K HNa+ ) =
[ Na + ] r [H + ]
[ Na + ][H + ]r
... (9.3)
... (9.4)
(9.5)
(9.6)
= K HNa+
X Na +
1 X Na +
( 9.7)
This equation gives the equivalent fraction of Na+ in the resin as a function of
the solution with which the resin is in equilibrium. It may be noticed that the
terms C r and C do not figure in the Eq. 9.7.
Now consider the exchange of monovalent ion with divalent ion.
CaCl2 + 2 RSO3Na
++
K Ca
=
Na +
[Ca + + ]r [ Na + ] 2
[Ca + + ][ Na + ]2r
2 NaCl + (RSO3)2Ca
... (9.8)
(9.9)
When Eq. 9.9 is expressed in terms of the equivalent fraction of Ca++ in the
resin as a function of the solution, it becomes
21
Chromatographic
Methods-III
r
X Ca
++
r
2
(1 X Ca
++ )
++
= K Ca
Na +
X Ca + +
Cr
C (1 X Ca + + )2
(9.10)
++
Cr
).
C
C r is the total capacity of the resin per unit volume and, therefore, is fixed for
particular resin, the selectivity of the divalent ion in this exchange is inversely
related to the total concentration of the solution. It can be concluded that the
more dilute the solution, the more selective the resin becomes for the divalent
ions. The normality of the resin phase (C r) will depend upon the swollen
volume of the resin and thus, is a function of cross linkage. Similarly, the
apparent selectivity coefficient has this same form for exchanges between
divalent and trivalent ions. However, in the case of exchange between
+++
monovalent and trivalent ion, the expression takes the form (K) AB+ (
Cr 2
) .
C
This means that the selectivity of the resin for the trivalent ions is inversely
related to the square of total solution concentration.
It can be concluded that this polyvalent ion effect makes efficient water
softening possible. The divalent cations ( Ca++ and Mg2+) are easily picked up
from hard water ( a very dilute solution) and yet are easily displaced by Na+ ions
of a relatively concentrated (10 15%) salt solution. For the same reason,
rehardening of water i.e., replacement of Ca++ / Mg++ ions by Na+ is difficult by
ion exchange. This polyvalent ion effect holds good for both cation and anion
exchange.
SAQ 8
What are the main factors on which the swelling of the resin bead will depend when
immersed in water?
...
SAQ 9
What is the main advantage if the degree of cross linkage of the resin is decreased?
...
SAQ 10
Name the important variables of the solution on which D/Kd value of an ion for a
particular resin will depend?
...
SAQ 11
State whether the following statements with regard to the extent of exchange are
TRUE/ FALSE.
i)
ii)
Under similar conditions, the extent of exchange for Na+ is more than for Li+.
iii)
For divalent cations the uptake of ion is only determined by the ionic size of the
cation.
22
9.7
OPERATING METHODS
Ion Exchange
Chromatography
So far you have learnt about different properties of the resins and their effect on the
resin behaviour particularly with regard to their utility for separations. In the context
of utility of resins, a question arises as to how are the resins operated or brought in
contact with the solution. There are two main techniques for this. They are batch and
column methods. The column method may be further sub-divided as to whether the
resin bed is fixed or moving and whether the feed solution and regenerant solution
flow past the resin in the same relative direction or in opposite direction.
Generally, fixed bed units are used with down flow operation. It gives a maximum of
resin solution contact and a minimum of mechanical problems. A fixed bed ion
exchange column may be operated with counter-current flows. In such a system, the
feed is put through the column down flow and the regenerant is put through up-flow
and vice-versa. A large number of column arrangements have been designed in which
multiple column are piped together to give semi-continuous operations, maximum
resin utilization, regenerant recovery or some other improvements.
23
Chromatographic
Methods-III
9.8
Up to this point, you may be carrying an impression that ion exchange takes only
when the aqueous solution is brought in contact with the solid exchanger. There must
be ions in both the solution and the solid. The ions must be free to move and the
exchange takes place. With water as a solvent and with solids which qualify as an ion
exchangers, these conditions are usually met. Water, because of its high dielectric
constant, is an excellent solvent for most inorganics and quite a number of organic
acids, bases and salts. This is what justifies the choice of water as a phase for ion
exchange. Water, however, is by no means the only solvent which allows ion
exchange to take place. There are other solvents with high dielectric constant ( ) in
which electrolytes can dissolve and dissociate and in which most of the ion exchangers
are stable. These are ethylene glycol ( = 41), methanol ( =32), ethanol ( = 26) and
acetone ( = 27). The last three solvents, in particular, have importance in ion
exchange. They can be used with or without addition of water.
This particular section is devoted to ion exchange in mixed aqueous organic media. It
has been observed that some irregular trends in the distribution of metal ions between
mixed aqueous- organic media and the ion exchanger are exhibited when the
percentage of the organic content is varied. The organic solvents used are water
miscible oxygenated compounds like tetrahydrofuran, methanol, ethanol and acetone.
The behaviour of the metal ions with varying organic content has been usefully
exploited for achieving some difficult separations. Korkisch pioneered this technique
and named it as combined ion exchange solvent extraction and coined the abbreviation
CIESE for it. In order to explain the behaviour, in chromatography using these
solution two processes are operative: ion exchange and liquid-liquid extraction. The
mechanism can be explained on the following lines.
24
i)
The addition of organic content reduces the dielectric constant of the solution
promoting thereby ion pair formation between the ionic species and fixed ions
of the ion exchanger. Consequently, with increasing organic content, the uptake
of ionic species on the ion exchanger may increase.
ii)
Ion Exchange
Chromatography
In some rare cases, the organic solvent may form complexes with the metal ions
bringing a change in their distribution coefficient values.
The ion exchange and solvent extraction may operate simultaneously in a
particular system and compete with each other resulting in to some irregular
trends. Sometimes, the irregularity of these trends is difficult to explain.
Nevertheless, it does not reduce the potentiality of the technique for separation
purposes. In order to highlight the utility of the technique, the distribution
coefficient of Au (III) and Hg(II) for Amberlite IR 400 (anion exchanger) at
0.6 M HCl with changing percentage of tetrahydrofuran (THF) are given below
in Table 9.2.
90
20
40
60
80
5232
4308
241
2.6
2.0
0.1
>104
370
368
282
201
200
SAQ 12
From the data given in Table 9.2, comment on the mechanism operating leading to
decrease in the values of distribution coefficients of the two metal ions.
...
...
9.9
In the beginning of this Unit, it was mentioned that there have been so much
developments in the field of ion exchange that you can more or less have ion
exchangers tailor made for a specific job. Attempts in this direction led to what are
known as specific cation exchangers. This means these ion exchangers show unusual
selectivity towards a cation or a group of cations. If we look at the common general
purpose cation exchangers,s they prefer certain counter ions. There is some sort of
specificity. But here we mean the ion exchanger to be exclusively specific. The basic
idea to synthesize such resins come from the fact that a reagent which either
precipitates a cation or forms a strong complex may be introduced in the matrix of the
25
Chromatographic
Methods-III
resin. The first attempt in this direction was made by Skogseid who synthesized a resin
containing group with a configuration similar to that of dipicrylamine.
Dipicrylamine
Dipicylamine is a known specific precipitating agent for K+ ions. The resin is
synthesized from polystyrene by nitration, reduction, condensation with picrylchloride
and again nitration.
Many compounds which form chelates with metal ions have been incorporated into
resins while polycondensation with phenols and aldehydes. To cite an example, there
is one with anthranilic acid. It is selective for zinc and other transition metal ions.
Other compounds which have been used are o- aminophenol, anthranilic aciddiacetic acid, m-phenylenediglycine.
There are chelating resins containing groupings similar to those of the more
conventional chelating compounds, e.g., EDTA (ethylenediamine tetracetic acid) but
attached to a cross linked matrix for gross insolubility. These compounds tightly bond
certain metal species which tend to form highly stable structures. Dowex A- 1,
chelating resin, contains iminodiacetate groups attached to a cross linked polystyrene
matrix.
The resin has a very greater affinity for chelate forming di- and trivalent cations than
for cations like Na+ or K+. This resin is particularly useful where one wishes to
overcome the competing effect of high concentration of one or ions. Thus, it will
effectively remove traces of heavy metal ions such as Fe3+, Cu2+ and Zn2+ from
concentrated solutions of alkali and alkaline earth cations can be removed. Metals can
be eluted from the resins with mineral acids. Selectivity among transition metal ions
can be attained by adjustment of pH.
There is one unattractive feature which is common to all specific ion exchangers. As a
matter of fact, the desired selectivity for certain ions is attained by introducing certain
26
groups for which the counter ion has the affinity. As a result of this, the mobility of
counter ions is greatly reduced. Thus, the gain in selectivity is at the cost of rate of ion
exchange. There is another problem which arises due to extreme specificity. It is
difficult to replace the preferred counter ion except when it is replaced by H+ ions.
This will mean that it may be difficult to regenerate the resin. In light of the above,
one should choose a resin keeping in mind a compromise between selectivity, rate of
ion exchange and ease of regeneration.
Ion Exchange
Chromatography
SAQ 13
What are the two main limitations of chelating resins?
...
...
ii)
iii)
Salts of heteropolyacids.
iv)
Insoluble ferrocyanides.
v)
Synthetic aluminosilicates.
vi)
i)
27
Chromatographic
Methods-III
the commonly used reagents. The hydrous oxides are useful for column
operations and can be easily regenerated for use. Apart from enabling routine
separations of various cations and anions, hydrous oxides have been used for the
purification and isolation of transuranium elements from highly radioactive
fission products. Titanium oxides columns have been used for the recovery of
uranium and plutonium from the spent nuclear fuels.
ii)
iii)
iv)
Insoluble ferrocyanides
The ion exchange properties of a large number of insoluble ferrocyanides of
various metals e.g., Ag(I), Zn(II), Cd(II), Cu(II), Ni(II), Co(II), Pb(II), Mn(II),
Fe(III), Ti(IV), Zr(IV), V(V), Mo(VI), W(VI), U(VI), have been studied. The
ferrocyanides act as cation exchangers with a high affinity for heavy alkali metal
ions, specially for Cs+. The ion exchange mechanism in ferrocyanide is rather
complicated and not yet clear. In order to improve the mechanical properties of
ferrocyanides for use in column operations, the exchanger has been prepared by
precipitation on solid inert supports e.g., bentonite, silica gel, etc., freezing the
28
v)
Ion Exchange
Chromatography
Synthetic aluminosilicates
These compounds represent a great family of inorganic ion exchangers and
depending upon their structure they may be divided into the following three
main groups:
Amorphous
vi)
i)
29
Chromatographic
Methods-III
By now a fairly good amount of data is available that the thermal stability of
inorganic ion exchangers particularly of those amorphous in nature has been
over emphasized. A number of amorphous materials start losing their ion
exchange capacity on heating. However, some of them are quite resistant to
heat. Hydrous Ta2O5 is quite heat resistant upto 300C and is used for
decontaminating nuclear reactor cooling waters. A promising use of these
exchangers could be in fuel cells at high temperatures or for concentrating the
nuclear waste. Thermally stable ion exchanger in the transition metal forms are
used as high temperature catalysts. Layered zirconium phosphate as such or in
other metal form has been used for catalyzing different organic reactions.
ii)
Unusual selectivity
Many of these inorganic ion exchangers show high selectivity for particular ions
and therefore, the separation of these ions can be more conveniently carried out
than on typical organic resins. Such examples are numerous in literature.
Zirconium antimonate exchanger has been used for the separation of Rb+ and
Cs+. Cerric antimonate is more or less specific for Hg2+ and is used for the
separation of Hg2+ from Cd2+/ Pb2+. Zirconium phosphate like ferrocyanides and
heteropoly acid salts shows unusual selectivity for Cs+ and is used for the
removal of Cs+ from the nuclear reprocessing solution. Because of high capacity
of zirconium phosphate for NH +4 , it is used in artificial kidney machine. The
selectivity features are not only confined to column separations but they have
been extended to paper chromatography in which the papers are impregnated
with the inorganic ion exchangers.
The unusual selectivity and stability of synthetic inorganic ion exchangers make
them suitable for use in ion selective electrodes. They have been investigated for
use as materials for membranes.
Apart from the uses mentioned above, the studies on inorganic ion exchangers
throw light on problems such as sorption of ions by precipitates, electrophoretic
behaviour of suspensions, isotopic exchange in heterogenous systems and many
other areas of solid state chemistry.
Towards the concluding stage of discussion on synthetic ion exchangers, it is
important to point out that very few inorganic exchangers have been used on
commercial scale. The main reason seems to be that among the useful ones, the
majority are based on metals which are costly. The other deterent seems to be
that their regeneration power is not as good as that of their organic counterparts.
SAQ 14
What are the main advantages of majority of inorganic ion exchangers over their
organic counterparts?
...
...
SAQ 15
Which is the most thoroughly studied class of inorganic ion exchangers? Which
particular compound has received the maximum attention?
...
...
30
9.11 APPLICATIONS
Ion Exchange
Chromatography
Ion exchange is one of the very powerful tools for separations. It has a very broad
spectrum of applications and the simple property of exchanging the ions has been very
intelligently exploited for various purposes of separation, enrichment, recovery and
decontamination in various areas of science and technology. In the limited space of
discussion available here, it may not be possible even to simply list the applications
and therefore, it is difficult to accommodate a detailed explanation about them. But for
the purposes of clarity in presentation in a concise form, the entire range of
applications is being subdivided into the following heads:
i)
ii)
Separation of organics
iii)
iv)
v)
Miscellaneous applications.
Chromatographic
Methods-III
such as citric, glycolic and tartartic, adjusted to appropriate pH, as eluting agents
markedly enhances the separation. Among the other useful ligands employed as
eluting agents are -hydroxyisobutyric acid, EDTA, and 2-hydroxy-EDTA.
The rich deposits of the metals are exhausting and the metallurgists have to depend
upon low grade reserves and other leaner sources like the metal wastes. For the
recovery of metal from low grade ores or the metal wastes, the matrices are first
leached with various reagents. The resulting leach liquors besides the metal of interest
contain several ionic impurities. The ion exchange technique has proved to be very
useful in increasing the metal values of the leached liquors. Besides this, the resins are
used to recover metal values in the tailings of other hydrometallurgical operations. Ion
exchange resins have also been employed for the upgrading of impure concentrates. In
the metallurgy of uranium, it is quantitatively recovered from the leach liquor by
means of anion exchange. Ion exchange has been used for the recovery of gold.
Another example of the successful use of ion exchange is in the recovery of chromium
from electroplating waste.
The separations like molybdenum from rhenium, zirconium from hafnium and
niobium from tantalum have been achieved using ion exchange chromatography and
the conditions developed are used in metallurgical operations.Several anions interfere
in the estimation of various cations and vice-versa. In such situations, ion exchange
chromatography is confined to inorganics.
32
Ion Exchange
Chromatography
The elution is accomplished by the use of another metal ion (i.e. M3+) which shifts the
equilibrium of the exchange reaction through competition with M+ for position in the
resin. Alternatively, it is also achieved by adding a complexing anion to the solution
which, by reducing the concentration of free metal ions, also shifts the equilibrium to
the left. In Fig. 9.2 is shown the elution sequence for the separation of the lanthanide
and actinide cations from a column of cation exchange resin using a complexing agent.
It was considered as the big triumph for ion exchange chromatography for the
separation of various actinides which was otherwise considered as impossible.
33
Chromatographic
Methods-III
mentioned here. Ion exchange resins are polymeric materials that may be considered
insoluble acids and bases. They can be used to promote reactions which can be
catalysed by conventional acids and bases. Some advantages of solid substantially
insoluble ion exchange catalysts are as follows:
i)
ii)
reduction of cost because the catalyst can be used repeatedly usually without
regeneration,
iii)
iv)
The major disadvantage of using ion exchange resins as catalyst appear to be thermal
and chemical stability limitations. In some cases, this particular problem is resolved by
use of inorganic ion exchangers. Some of the examples of ion exchange catalyzed
reactions are acetal formation, alcohol dehydration, aldol condensation, esterification
and ester hydrolysis.
The utilization of ion exchange in food processing has been quite successful in both
beverage and canning industries. In the bottling of carbonated beverages, the presence
of carbonate and bicarbonate in water supplies has to be removed. They neutralize the
citric and phosphoric acids added to carbonated beverages. The treatment of raw wines
and whiskeys with ion exchange resins is of considerable interest. The anion exchange
resins remove aldehyde and catalyze several esterification reactions thereby improving
the taste and bouquet of the product.
Ion exchange resins have been scanned as therapeutic agent or additives in host of
medical disorders or ailments. A purified highly subdivided weak base anion
exchanger has been quite successfully used as antacid in peptic ulcer therapy and other
gastrointestinal disorders. The use of cation exchangers as means of removing sodium
from the body in the treatment of edemas and hypertension has been very encouraging.
Ion exchange finds a very useful application in agricultural science in the form of
formulations for plant nutrients. Ion exchange formulations containing nitrogen,
phosphorus and potassium in addition to the minor nutrients that may be deficient
have been found useful in fortifying a wide variety of potting soils. Such a fortified
soil may retain a large supply of nutrient without injury to plant. The need for frequent
fertilization is eliminated, nutrition is continuous and self-regulatory.
Before we conclude this section, it may be mentioned that preceding text simply acts
as pointer to the great scope of ion exchangers in different areas of science and
technology.
SAQ 16
Give two important examples of use of ion exchange from organic chemical
technology.
...
...
SAQ 17
How does ion exchange help in improving the quality of alcoholic drinks?
...
...
34
9.12 SUMMARY
Ion Exchange
Chromatography
The unit begins with a historical background of the process of ion exchange and
focuses on the point that the most important breakthrough in the field was the
discovery of ion exchange resins. The cation, anion and amphoteric exchangers are
known. The basic features of ion exchange mechanism are discussed. There are
organic and inorganic ion exchangers but the former dominate the field. Some
important features of synthesis of ion exchange resins are discussed.
There are two main routes of synthesis-condensation polymerization, and addition
polymerization. Because of certain advantages, the addition polymerization has taken
an edge over the condensation polymerization route. An idea is given about the trade
names of different types of ion exchangers assigned by the manufacturers and the
information generally provided on the labels.
The ion exchange polymers are very complex materials and some of their
characteristics have to be properly understood before they are put to use. The different
properties discussed in detail are moisture content, particle size, cross-linkage,
capacity, distribution ratio, equivalency of exchange and resin selectivity.
The different methods used for operating ion exchangers are elaborated. The
mechanism operating during the uptake of cations in mixed aqueous organic media is
explained. This is followed by discussion on chelating resin and synthetic inorganic
ion exchangers. The important features, classes, advantages and drawbacks of these
types of exchangers are discussed.
The unit concludes with a discussion on applications. There are too many applications.
But for the purposes of clarity of presentation, only a few representative ones are cited
and they are discussed under different groups.
2.
What are the broad parameters on which the chemical, thermal, and mechanical
stability and ion exchange behaviour of the resins depend?
3.
What are the advantages if the particle size of the ion exchange resin bead is
decreased? Is there any serious drawback in decreasing the particle size?
4.
Name the factors on which the selectivity of an ion exchanger for an ion
depends.
5.
What are the apparent selectivity coefficients for a mono-divalent and monotrivalent exchange? What are the implications of the term?
6.
Suggest the best possible ion- exchange based method for the following:
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
35
Chromatographic
Methods-III
7.
What are the broad categories of synthetic inorganic ion exchangers? Which one
of these shows anion exchange properties?
8.
9.
10.
9.14 ANSWERS
Self Assessment Questions
1.
The characteristic difference between adsorption and ion exchange is that the
later is a stoichiometric process. Every ion removed from the solution is
replaced by an equivalent amount of another ionic species of same sign.
However, in adsorption solute may be taken up without any species being
replaced.
2.
3 XCl + Na3PO4(aq)
X3PO4 + 3 NaCl(aq)
Here, X represents the structural unit of the ion exchanger and PO 34 is present in
the solution.
36
3.
4.
The organic resinous exchangers deteriorate fast at high temperature, under high
dose of ionizing radiations and in highly oxidizing media.
5.
ii)
6.
The addition polymeric resins are chemically and thermally more stable than the
condensation polymers. Moreover, in addition polymerization, the degree of
cross linking and particle size is easy to control.
7.
8.
The size of the swollen bead will depend on the type of functional group and the
degree of cross linking of the polymer.
9.
If the degree of cross-linking is decreased, the resin swells more and thus, the
diffusion of ions within the resin becomes faster. This, in turn, gives faster
equilibrium rate particularly for large ions.
10.
The D/Kd value depends on the composition of the solution. This includes pH,
ionic strength, type and molarity acid and presence of water miscible organic
solvents and other ions.
11.
12.
i)
FALSE
ii)
TRUE
iii)
FALSE
Ion Exchange
Chromatography
From the decreasing trend in the Kd value data with increasing THF content, it
can be proposed that the anionic chlorocomplexes of both the metal ions are not
being available to the solid anion exchanger. They are being held as ion
association complex by the protonated organic solvent. The prominent
mechanism is
(Organic solvent) + H+
( Protonated organic solvent)
(Protonated organic solvent) + ( Anionic complex of the metal)
14.
ii)
The main advantages of synthetic inorganic ion exchanger over their organic
counterparts are
i)
ii)
iii)
15.
The most studied class of inorganic ion exchanger is acidic salts of polyvalent
metal ions and zirconium phosphate has received maximum attention.
16.
17.
i)
ii)
Terminal Questions
1.
ii)
iii)
iv)
37
Chromatographic
Methods-III
2.
The different types of stability and the exchange behaviour of the resin depend
chiefly on structure and the degree of cross-linking of the matrix and on the
nature and number of fixed ionic groups.
3.
By decreasing the size of the bead, the time required for the equilibrium to be
attained with the contacting solution materially decreases. Since the time
required for the equilibrium is decreased, the efficiency of a given volume of
resin increases. In other words, the volume of resin required to perform a
specific operation decreases. It may be pointed out that by decreasing the
particle size, the pressure drop in a column increases.
4.
The factors on which the selectivity of an ion exchanger for an ion depends are
as follows:
5.
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
v)
The apparent selectivity coefficient for the exchange of a divalent ion with a
Cr
) and for the exchange of a trivalent ion with a
C
3+
Cr 2
monovalent ion it is K AB+ (
) . This means the concentration term of the
C
2+
For the separation of K+ ion from Na+ ion is the use of dipicrylamine
based specific cation exchanger. It is highly selective for K+ ion.
ii)
The best alternative for the separation of Co2+ from Mg2+ is the use of a
strong anion exchanger with HCl as the medium. From conc. HCl (more
than 6M) Co2+ will be retained as anionic metal complex on the resin
column and Mg2+ will pass as it does not form anionic metal
chlorocomplex. Co2+ can be eluted by use of water.
iii)
Since the solution is highly radioactive, the use of inorganic ion exchanger
will be recommended. The ferrocyanide exchangers and zirconium
phosphate are selective for Cs+ ion and therefore, either of them can be
used for its recovery from fission products waste.
iv)
7.
38
ii)
iii)
8.
iv)
Insoluble ferrocyanides.
v)
Synthetic aluminosilicates.
vi)
Ion Exchange
Chromatography
9.
For understanding the principle of ion exclusion, we will have to visualize that a
column of ion exchange contains three phases; the solid network of resin beads,
the liquid inside the bead ( resin liquid) and the liquid surrounding the bead
(interstitial liquid). Most low molecular weight solutes diffuse in and out of the
liquid phase inside the bead (resin liquid). However, the organic nonionic
solutes tend to exist at the same concentration in both the resin liquid and
interstitial liquid phases. The ionic materials, because of Donnan membrane
effect, exist at a considerably lower concentration in the resin liquid than in the
interstitial liquid phase. Therefore a solution containing an ionic and nonionic
component is placed on the top of column and washed with water the ionic
material will reach the bottom first followed by elution of nonionic component.
10.
ii)
iii)
iv)
Further Reading
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
39