Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Marine Design
Mr D. L. Smith
2006
Marine Design
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WEIGHT ESTIMATION........................................................................................................................... 42
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
6.7
6.8
INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................................................... 25
THE OWNER'S REQUIREMENTS............................................................................................................... 25
SHIP TYPE .............................................................................................................................................. 27
DEADWEIGHT OR VOLUME?................................................................................................................... 27
GENERAL ............................................................................................................................................... 14
SHIPS ..................................................................................................................................................... 14
SHIP SIZE AND DIMENSIONS ................................................................................................................... 17
CARGO CONSIDERATIONS ...................................................................................................................... 17
SIZE AND SPEED ..................................................................................................................................... 18
STRUCTURAL ARRANGEMENTS .............................................................................................................. 18
WORKED EXAMPLE - DEADWEIGHT CARRIER ....................................................................................... 21
SECOND WORKED EXAMPLE - DEADWEIGHT CARRIER.......................................................................... 22
WHAT IS DESIGN?.................................................................................................................................... 6
THE DESIGN TEAM................................................................................................................................... 6
WHAT IS A DESIGN PHILOSOPHY?............................................................................................................ 7
GENERAL ............................................................................................................................................... 56
DEFINITIONS OF POWER ......................................................................................................................... 56
STANDARD SERIES ................................................................................................................................. 57
COMPONENTS OF RESISTANCE ............................................................................................................... 57
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7.5
7.6
7.7
7.8
7.9
8
FRICTIONAL RESISTANCE....................................................................................................................... 59
RESIDUARY RESISTANCE ....................................................................................................................... 60
RAPID POWER ESTIMATES FOR NEW SHIP DESIGNS ............................................................................... 61
TRIAL AND SERVICE MARGINS .............................................................................................................. 61
SPEED MARGINS .................................................................................................................................... 62
10
10.1
10.2
10.3
10.4
10.5
10.6
10.7
10.8
10.9
10.9
11
12
12.1
12.2
12.3
13
13.1
13.2
13.3
14
14.1
14.2
14.3
14.4
14.5
14.6
15
15.1
15.2
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Topic Outlines
Examinable Material
1
Philosophy of Design
Owners Requirements
Weight Estimation
Powering Calculations
Machinery Selection
Approximate Hydrostatics
10
General Arrangement
11
Capacity Calculations
12
13
Tonnage
14
Introduction to Freeboard
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1.
Philosophy of Design
1.1
What is Design?
Design and Designer tend to be overused words for which there are many definitions.
However it is not always easy to agree on the right definition. Here are some candidates for
the position:a) Design is the visualisation and depiction of form.
b) Design is the mental process which must intervene between the conception of a
specific engineering intention and the issue of drawings to the workshop.
c) Design is the optimum solution to the sum of the true needs of a particular set of
circumstances.
d) Design is a creative, iterative process serving a bounded objective.
e) Mechanical Engineering Design is the use of scientific principles, technical
information and imagination in the definition of a mechanical structure, machine or
system to perform pre-specified functions with the maximum economy and efficiency.
The Designer is clearly the paragon who carries out such tasks. His/her work can be
split into three areas of activity:a) Decision-making regarding the physical form and dimensions of the product.
b) Communication to the builder, mainly in the form of drawings and
specifications (Graphics, Text and Computer Files).
c) Responsibility for the achievement of the original requirements.
Often the designer must guide the original requirements to limit them to the possible.
1.2
In this class we are concerned with ships and other marine structures which are
sufficiently large that they are unlikely to be designed by one person acting alone. The work
must be shared by a team, many of whose members will be specialists in one sub-section of
the work. The main duty of the chief designer is then to ensure proper co-ordination of the
team members and to maintain a balanced overall view of the design. This may involve taking
all important decisions and examining the associated plans. For peace of mind the successful
chief designer must have an almost instinctive ability to notice errors and query impossible
assumptions.
In this Class and the associated Design Projects Classes you will be largely working as
individual designers practising the basic technical skills. In later years of the course you can
expect to work as Design Teams where some of the wider skills will be developed and tested.
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It is important always to be aware of these wider skills and to remember that when you
make a decision you should record it and, what is often more important, why you made it, so
that you can communicate it to someone else or accept responsibility for it at a later time and
be able to justify it.
1.3
Philosophy might seem a somewhat grand word to use in the context of design but, in
the sense of a body of broad principles, concepts and methods which underpin a given branch
of learning, it is a meaningful one to use. A philosophy does not determine the detailed action
to be taken in particular applications, but it does lead to the development of theories, rules and
laws and to detailed methods of applying them. These form the discipline of design.
There is no single philosophy which satisfies all situations so the aim must be to
develop a philosophy which leads to a consistent set of general principles on which the
discipline can be based. This pragmatic approach requires that the outcome of applying the
general principles in a particular situation must be evaluated against some appropriate criteria
of success so that the principles and the associated discipline can, if necessary, be modified
for future applications. The feed-back mechanism is an essential component of both the
philosophy and the discipline.
The following is a list of terms, aspects and concepts which reveal some of the general
principles arising in design:a) Morphology. There is a pattern of events and activities which, by and large, are
common to all projects.
b) Design Process. Iteration to solve problems followed by feedback of information
from a later stage to review decisions made earlier.
c) Stratification. As the solution to one problem emerges, a sub-stratum of lesser
problems is uncovered. Solutions to these must be found before the original problem
can be solved.
d) Convergence. Many possible solutions may be processed in search of the one
correct solution.
e) Decision-making. Choosing between alternatives.
f) Analysis. Used to establish the characteristics of the product which is the subject of
the design. This is a fundamental design tool because it forms the basis on which
decisions can be made but it is not the starting point for a design. A first shot must
have been made at what the whole product will be like.
g) Synthesis. This is the truly creative part of design - putting together separate
elements into a coherent whole. Probably this is the most characteristic part of
design.
h) Creativity. Inventiveness - obviously a highly desirable facility in a designer.
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2.1
The owner is most concerned with the second period but the Naval Architect is more
concerned with the first.
The first period can be further divided into two stages: Design
Build.
Naval Architects are concerned in both stages but the Designer is most involved in the
first stage.
The actual design process is not a single activity but for most ships consists of three or
four distinct phases: Basic Design
Contract Design
Detailed Design
(
(
Concept Design
Feasibility Design
Contract Design
Detailed Design
The three or four phases are conveniently illustrated in the Design Spiral as an
iterative process working from owner's requirements to a detailed design. Three sample
design spirals are shown (Buxton, Taggart and Rawson & Tupper). Taggart shows the process
starting at the outside of the spiral, where many concept designs may exist, and converging in
to the single, final, detailed design. Rawson & Tupper and Buxton show the process starting
at the centre of the spiral where very little information is known and proceeding outwards to
represent the ever increasing amount of information generated by the design process. In either
representation it is clear that a series of characteristics of the ship are guessed, estimated,
calculated, checked, revised etc. on a number of occasions throughout the design process in
the light of the increased knowledge the designer(s) have about the ship.
The analogy of the Design Spiral can be extended to demonstrate the passage of time
as the design progresses. If a time axis is constructed at the centre of one of the figures
perpendicular to the plane of the paper then as time passes between successive activities so
the spiral is traced out on the surface of a cone.
This class deals essentially with only the basic (or preliminary) design process which
is considered to be completed when the characteristics of the ship which will satisfy the
requirements given by the owner have been determined.
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2.2
Before looking at the specific features of preliminary design, it is expedient to reexamine the fundamental requirements for every ship. Every ship designer, no matter how
logical and realistic they may be, needs to get back to first principles every so often in the
search to make nature serve. It is not in the least beneath the designer's dignity or intelligence
to write down, in a few lines, as did the renowned W J M Rankine in the middle of the 19th
Century, the following simple requirements for every ship: i) To float on or in water
ii) To move itself or to be moved with handiness in any manner desired
iii) To transport passengers or cargo or any other useful load, from one place to
another
iv) To steer and to turn in all kinds of waters
v) To be safe, strong and comfortable in waves
vi) To travel or to be towed swiftly and economically, under control at all times
vii) To remain afloat and upright when not too severely damaged.
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2.3
Basic or preliminary design is the process of finding the set of principal characteristics
of a ship which satisfies the requirements in the ship owner's proposal document. Several
preliminary designs may be worked up, each satisfying the requirements but differing in
characteristics not specifically set out in the proposal such as type of propelling machinery
These alternative designs or some of them may be taken as far as the contract design stage to
ascertain the difference in cost and build time or the ability of particular shipbuilders to
supply ships of the given characteristics. Indeed contracts may be placed with different
designers for several different designs all satisfying the same commercial or military
requirements.
Thus basic design includes the selection of ship dimensions, hull form, power (amount
and type), preliminary arrangement of hull and machinery, and main structure. The correct
selection will ensure the attainment of the owner's requirements such as deadweight, cargo
capacity, speed and endurance as well as good stability (both intact and damaged), seakeeping
and manoeuvrability. In addition there must be checks of, and the opportunity to modify,
cargo handling capability, crew accommodation, hotel services, freeboard and tonnage
measurement. All of this must be done while remembering that the ship is but part of a
transportation, industrial or service system which is expected to be profitable.
Basic design includes both Concept design and Feasibility design
In Concept design the aim is to explore both a basic design and systematic variations
of it in order to find the effect of a small change in Length, Beam etc. with the objective of
finding the most effective or most economic solution. Much of the background data used will
be in the form of curves and formulae which allow simple methods to be used in the
evaluation of the effects of variation. A design variation which would not be economic in
service or would not be profitable to build would be discarded while further variations might
be applied to a design which survived this stage.
In Feasibility design (Preliminary design for Taggart) the most successful concept
design is developed further to ensure that it can be turned into a real ship. The effect of
choosing "real" engines, "real" plate thicknesses will inevitably induce minor but significant
changes to layout, weights and dimensions. The completion of this phase should provide a
precise definition of a vessel that will meet the owner's requirements and hence the basis for
the development of the plans and specifications necessary for the agreement of a contract.
2.4
Contract Design
This involves one or more subsequent loops around the design spiral to further refine
the basic design. The work has expanded to the extent that it can no longer be progressed by
one person or a handful of people. It now involves large teams representing all the main
disciplines - Naval Architecture, Ship Structures, Marine Engineering, Electrical Engineering
and Systems Engineering - all hopefully under the control of a Naval Architect. The hull form
can be based on a faired lines plan, and powering, seakeeping and manoeuvring may be based
on model test results. The structural design will have taken account of structural details, the
use of different types of steel and the spacing and type of framing.
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A firm and reliable estimate of the weight and position of the centre of gravity of the
Lightship, taking account of major items in the ship is a clear requirement at this stage. The
final General Arrangement is also developed now. It fixes the volumes given over to cargo,
fuel, water and store spaces and the areas devoted to crew accommodation, machinery and
cargo handling equipment.
The specification of the performance of every aspect of the ship, its outfit, machinery
and equipment is determined along with the necessary quality standards and the tests and
trials needed to demonstrate the successful build of the ship.
It is only at this stage that the prudent owner will become committed to buying the
ship by the act of signing the contract
2.5
Detailed Design
The final stage of ship design is the development of detailed working drawings. These
form the detailed instructions for construction and installation that will be issued to
shipwrights, platers, welders, fitters, turners, plumbers, coppersmiths, electricians and all the
other trades without whom the ship could not be built. This work is not really the province of
the Naval Architect although a Naval Architect may well control the work of those who
produce the drawings and instructions.
There is of course a clear role for the Naval Architect in assuring the quality of the
detailed definition of the ship and in ensuring that the design intent of the concept has been
carried through to the final stage. This means for example, checking that the routes for critical
piping systems do not clash or that high power electric cables do run alongside sensitive
circuits carrying digital electronic control signals. Other checks would include ensuring that
the correct structural detailing of cut outs, brackets and compensation have always been
employed, that continuity of structure has been maintained and that doorways to
accommodation do not have pillars or similar obstructions directly in front of them.
In traditional shipbuilding no thought was given as to how best to build the ship until
all the drawings were complete by which time it was too late to make any changes. In modern
shipbuilding, partly but not exclusively, assisted by computer it is practical to consider
planning the build process alongside the design process to ensure that the detailed design
information is made available to match the production process both in timescale and in
method. This gives rise to the Transition Design phase of Detailed Design where the
manufacturing information for all the systems in a single constructional block or zone is
extracted from the design information prepared or being prepared on a ship-wide basis for
each individual system. With functional requirements and component positions defined by the
preceding design processes, Work Instruction Design finalises details and material
requirements on work instruction plans. These are organised to suit the production process by
providing manufacturing (part fabrication) and fitting (assembly) instructions which match
the way the work is to be carried out.
This concept and the benefits it brings were more fully developed in the class Marine
Manufacturing.
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3.1
General
Ships are a sub-set of the set of transport vehicles which have the feature that they
carry their cargo over water. The different characteristics of the various types of transport
vehicle can be illustrated in many ways. One, rather elderly, figure Specific Resistance of
Single Vehicles shows one such illustration - the domain of each vehicle is shown, as are the
gaps between vehicles. The gaps may be caused by economic factors as well as technical ones
but developments tend to remove them, either by adjustments to existing vehicles, or by
producing new ones. For a new type of vehicle to prosper it must either fill a gap on such a
diagram or have an economic advantage over the existing vehicle.
3.2
Ships
Ships are the main type of sea transport vehicle. The figure World Fleet of Marine
Vehicles shows a breakdown of all seagoing self-propelled marine vehicles into a variety of
categories. Ships for transport make up just under half of the world fleet by number but nearly
90% by gross tonnage. The contribution of sea transport to the world economy is clearly vast
when we take gross tonnage as a measure of the relative size of ships. Care does have to be
taken over what is meant by the size of a ship and some key definitions are also given.
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Most ships for transport are displacement craft and support the weight of their
structure and contents by displacing a volume of water of equal weight. Thus the weight
carried is not a function of the speed of the ship, but none the less displacement and speed are
the basic characteristics of any ship. They complement one another to produce the tonnemiles which can be moved in a given time. Speed may also be interpreted as the rapidity of
turn round in port as well as the more obvious rate of crossing the sea. A Table of Particulars
of Some Sea Transport Vehicles is included to indicate the size and range of size of merchant
ships.
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The displacement of a ship reflects its size for all ship types but a simple visual
comparison of size between different types is often misleading. The Oil Tanker and
Submarine, like the iceberg, when laden are mainly below the water surface; the Ferry and the
Warship, in contrast, are mainly above the water surface. All cargoes (including passengers)
have a certain density as does the seawater in which the ship floats. When the cargo is dense
then it demands a considerable displacement for its support and most of the ship is below
water. Passengers, on the other hand, like weapons on a warship, demand a lot of space and
do not like it to be below the waterline.
Oil Tanker
Cruise Ship
Cargo is usually assessed by its Stowage Rate - the inverse of density - in units of
m3/tonne. Ore represents a dense cargo with a stowage rate of about 0.5 m3/tonne. The
stowage rate for passengers is much more variable, depending as it does on the nature of the
voyage, its length, its cost and so on. Typical values range between 6 and 30 m3/tonne. Thus a
great deal of a passenger ship is above water.
Outline General Arrangement drawings of a number of ship types are shown to
illustrate the relative distribution of volume above and below the design waterline.
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Safety demands that some part of the ship shall project above the water. The amount
that does project must fulfil at least the minimum international standards for reserve of
buoyancy. However it cannot be assumed that the more of a ship that projects above the water
the safer it is because not all of the superstructure may be strong enough or well enough
subdivided to provide such buoyancy. For many years a class of cargo ship the Open Shelter
Decker deliberately avoided such subdivision to minimise its tonnage used as a measure
of its earning capacity and this philosophy was also applied to Ro-Ro ships with the serious
consequences which are now familiar to all.
3.3
The principal dimensions of a ship are Length, Breadth, Draught and Depth (L, B, T
and D). Long experience, together with scientific effort and a good deal of experimental work,
shows that these dimensions must bear appropriate relationships to each other if a successful
ship is to emerge. Among the factors which influence the relationships are Propulsion,
Stability, Seaworthiness, Cargo Considerations and Geography, including Port Development.
A set of relationships between the principal dimensions for the main types of merchant
ships have been derived and show significant differences between ship types - especially
between Deadweight carriers and Capacity carriers
Physical restrictions are important and may affect any dimension but in merchant
ships draught is usually the one first affected. Older port restrictions may affect draught at
about 10 metres or 15000 tonnes deadweight. Breadth and length may not indicate a
significantly larger vessel before restriction is imposed on them too. No port limitation is
permanent - they alter as time passes or the port goes out of business.
Restrictions imposed by the Suez and Panama Canals and perhaps by such secondary
channels as the St Lawrence Seaway come into effect next. At present the "Suezmax" limit is
about 180,000 tonnes deadweight and the "Panamax" limit is about 75,000 tonnes
deadweight.
Changes to the Panama Canal would be almost prohibitively expensive and so the
ships must remain within the canal limits or accept that the only way of getting from the East
Coast of the American Continent to the West Coast is the long way round by Cape Horn.
The ultimate limits are set by the main sea-lanes of the world. In some of them, such
as the English Channel, draught restrictions begin at about 25 metres corresponding to
350,000 tonnes deadweight. These limits are hard to overcome but dredging and blasting can
be used. At present this is the largest economic size of vessel built and it may be that the costs
of developing all the facilities for even larger vessels, - say up to 1,000,000 tonnes
deadweight - are not outweighed by the improved operating costs.
3.4
Cargo Considerations
Cargo has an important bearing on ship design, especially on the size of ships. The
size of the ship must match the size of the consignment in which the cargo can be produced,
collected, stored, marketed and distributed. Part loads are now seen as uneconomic.
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3.5
3.6
Structural Arrangements
It is clear that in much of ship design form follows Function. Low value, nonperishable cargoes travel slowly, in large quantities in simple, almost box shaped vessels,
while high value or time dependent cargoes travel much faster, in small quantities in much
more complex vessels.
Similar considerations apply to the structure of ships, typified by their midship
sections. Representations of the most common types General Cargo, Bulk Carrier, Oil
Tanker and Container ship are given.
The General Cargo ship and the Container ship both need large hatch openings in the
upper deck to load/unload their cargo and also require holds of reasonably rectangular cross
section to stow the cargo. Bulk carriers have similarly large hatch openings but a different
hold cross section to restrain their cargoes from movement in a seaway and to ensure that
most of it can be removed by grab descending through the hatchway.
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The Oil Tanker needs no significant hatch opening since its cargo is pumped in and
out. Shown here is a traditional single skin tanker. Most newly built Tankers now have a
double skin (and the cross section looks like a container ship with the deck entirely plated
over) to protect the environment in case of collision or grounding.
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3.7
Using the data in Figures 15.8, 15.9 and in Table 15.3 of this section, estimate the principal
dimensions of a general cargo ship of 14,500 tonnes deadweight and 14 knots service speed.
From Table A ,
Design Displacement
14500/0.675
Take CB =
From Figure A,
14 knots
Fn = v/(gL)
L =
Take L/B
Hence B
Similarly,
Hence T
21481 tonnes
7.2
Fn = 0.2
m/sec
v2/g*Fn2 = 7.22/9.81*0.202 =
132 m
L in m
6.2
132/6.2
Take B/T
0.675
0.5144 * 14
g in m/sec2;
v in m/sec;
From Figure C,
21.29/2.2
21.29 m
2.2
=
9.68 m
1.025*132*21.29*9.68*0.77
If you are not so fortunate with your first choice then select two further values of CB and
corresponding Fn from the figures; then find the dimensions and displacement of your two
additional trial ships as above. Then plot displacement against Length and pick off the Length
which gives the desired displacement.
Fn (design) =
v/ (gLdesign)
L3CB/(L/B)2(B/T)
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3.8
Estimate the dimensions of a dry cargo ship of 13,000 tonnes deadweight at a maximum
draught of 8 metres and with a service speed of 15 knots.
Assume Deadweight/Displacement Ratio (DWR)
and
B
=
6 + (L/9)
m
Displacement ()
= LBTCB =
13000/0.67
/(L(6 + (L/9)T)
Also, CB
Hence, L
19403 t
19403/(1.025*L*(6 + (L/9))*8)
(1)
1.08 - 1.68 Fn
(2)
L (m)
CB (from 1)
CB (from 2)
140
150
160
0.784
0.696
0.622
0.705
0.718
0.729
= 147.6 m
0.67
L(6 + (L/9))TCB
CB =
For
1.08 - 1.68v/(gL)
CB
22.4
19384 tonnes
and
6 + (L/9)
LBTCB
0.715
Sufficiently close!
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4.1
Introduction
4.2
The practice followed by owners in stating their requirements for a new ship varies
widely and statements of requirements can range between the briefest outline and the most
detailed specification (sometimes so restrictive as apparently leaving the ship designer little
scope to apply his/her skills). The most forward looking owners will have based their
requirements on a careful analysis of their needs or on market research but this cannot always
be taken for granted. Ideally, the requirements should lay down what the owner wants in the
following categories, namely, the performance, availability and utility of the ship; it would
also be helpful for an opinion to be included on the aspect of cost.
The Performance category includes such aspects as: Amount and type of cargo to be carried
How the cargo is to be handled
Turn-round times
Trade Routes and Trading Pattern
Ship Speed required at sea
Distance between fuelling and storing ports
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The Availability category includes such aspects as: Maintenance Policy - How much afloat? How much ashore?
Standard or Extended periods between Dockings?
What emphasis is to be placed on reliability - is any redundancy required in
machinery and systems?
The evaluation of availability is a recent development in the field of shipping and
requires access to a database of information on the performance of machinery, systems and
equipment already at sea in ships. Although few shipowners or shipbuilders have such
information, it is clear that improved reliability is an essential step in maintaining an
economic and competitive fleet.
The Utility category includes such aspects as: Flexibility - ability to change role as in the O.B.O. or Ro-Ro Ship
Ability to load/discharge cargo using on-board equipment
Ability to use canals or waterways without restriction
The Cost category includes the aspects of: Initial Cost
Running Costs
Maintenance Costs
Finance
Depreciation
All of these form part of the Life-cycle Cost and a common overall objective is to
reduce them to a minimum consistent with meeting the Performance, Availability and Utility
requirements.
The fundamental explicit requirements which should be addressed in preliminary
design are: Cargo Deadweight
Cargo Capacity
Speed at Sea
Endurance
The first two are related by the Cargo Stowage Factor = Cargo Capacity/Cargo Deadweight,
and together they fix the type of ship that must be used.
Stability and Safety are requirements which must also be addressed during preliminary
design. They are traditionally regarded as being implicit to the process - whatever choice the
owner makes about Deadweight or Speed he/she wants the ship to survive for a reasonable
length of economic life and no-one deliberately designs an unsafe ship. However, public
concern is leading to a greater pressure for these to become explicit requirements as well.
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4.3
Ship Type
The best known subdivision of Ship type is by its obvious function such as Bulk
Carrier, Tanker, General Cargo, Container Ship, Cruise Liner, Ferry and so on.
However in Design it can also refer to the more fundamental distinction between the
Deadweight Carrier and the Volume (or Capacity) Carrier.
Any given ship type aims to be best in its own trade. A widely accepted measure of
efficiency is that the ship should be "full and down". That means that the cargo capacity and
cargo deadweight are both at their limits when the ship is at its load draught. Depending on
the range of stowage factor of the cargo on offer this yardstick may be of some value but as
we shall see it cannot be applied sensibly in all cases.
A third fundamental ship type is the "Linear Dimension" ship where the design
process proceeds directly from the linear dimensions of the cargo, an item or items of
equipment, or from restrictions set by canals, ports etc. and for which the deadweight,
capacity and sometimes the speed are the outcome of the design instead of the main factors
which determine it. The Container Ship is an example of this kind of vessel as neither the
deadweight nor the capacity are directly related to the dimensions, nor are the dimensions
capable of continuous variation - rather the main dimensions must be close to discrete values
related to multiples of the dimensions of the containers which are to be carried. The vehiclecarrying Ferry is another example of this type.
4.4
Deadweight or Volume?
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amount of cargo they can carry is solely determined by their deadweight. As a consequence
they are box like single deck ships with a relatively simple structural arrangement.
In the case of the traditional general cargo ship or high speed cargo liner (now
obsolete) erections were added - typically in the form of Poop, Bridge and Forecastle - but
more commonly recently simply a shelter deck. The presence of this first tier of erections on
the freeboard deck allowed the carriage of additional deadweight but enclosed volume
(capacity) increased faster and the cargo stowage factor rose. The volume generated by
adopting a satisfactory height of tween deck tended to cause a jump in the stowage factor to
3
about 1.9 m /tonne although an intermediate value could be obtained by covering less than the
full length of the ship.
The cargo liner whose trade has been extensively taken over by the container ship
often carried cargoes of high value but low density (including passengers). This type of ship
was designed with several tween decks above each hold to ensure that adequate volume
(capacity) was available to protect from the weather all the cargo carried.
3
If the cargo stowage factor exceeds 2.3 m /tonne an additional tier of erections is
usually required. Such a cargo is rare but one example is Bananas with a factor of 4.0
3
m /tonne and another is the car - either on a ferry or on a "Bulk Car Carrier". Passengers too
have a high stowage factor as is made obvious by the extensive superstructures to be found on
cross-channel ferries and cruise liners.
An exact estimate of cargo stowage factor is hard to make, especially as it will vary
over the vessel's life due to alterations in trading patterns. However it is worth noting that
cargo deadweight can always be gained in the short term at the expense of carrying less fuel
and bunkering more frequently while additional covered capacity is expensive to provide.
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5.1
=
+
+
Steel Weight
Outfit Weight (Including Refrigeration & Insulation)
Machinery Weight
(Refrigeration & Insulation Weight may be taken with Outfit, as above, or may be
made a separate group)
Deadweight is the difference between the Displacement at any draught and the
Lightweight i.e. Deadweight is the variable part of the displacement.
Design Deadweight (Total Deadweight) is the difference between the Design
Displacement and the Lightweight
In general,
Displacement
Lightweight + Deadweight
Lightweight + Design Deadweight
=
Cargo Deadweight (Payload)
+
Fuel Oil
+
Diesel Oil
+
Lubricating Oil
+
Hydraulic Fluid
+
Boiler Feed Water
+
Fresh Water
+
Crew & Effects
+
Stores
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+
+
*
Spare Gear
Water Ballast *
5.2
Deadweight/Displacement Ratio
This ratio is a common starting point for a design although an immediate choice of
main dimensions based on past practice is sometimes taken as a short cut. The
Deadweight/Displacement Ratio is used to obtain the first approximation to Displacement for
a given Deadweight. It is often based on total deadweight rather than the more logical choice
of cargo deadweight because total deadweight is a more readily available figure being
independent of the amount of fuel etc. carried. If cargo deadweight is available then it may be
used but as the value will be taken from data on existing ships the designer must be sure of the
figures being used. The data would normally be recorded as a graph of Deadweight Ratio
against Deadweight. The Ratio will vary with the type of ship, its speed, endurance and
quality. Generally speaking, the larger, slower and more basic the ship the higher the value of
the ratio.
DWR = Deadweight/Displacement
Typical values of DWR for a range of ship types are as followReefer
General Cargo
Ore Carrier
Bulk Carrier
Tanker
0.58 - 0.60
0.62 - 0.72
0.72 - 0.77
0.78 - 0.84
0.80 - 0.86
In a preliminary design it is wise to consider how the ratio may vary from the chosen
type ship and be prepared to correct the resulting displacement at a later stage of the design
process if necessary.
The quoted figures indicate considerable variation in the value of DWR for similar
ships. Among the factors which account for this variation are: 1) Ship Speed and Block Coefficient. These factors partly account for the variation in
DWR between different ship types as well as within any one ship type. For a given set of
dimensions, an increase in speed will call for an increase in power. The increased power will
increase the machinery weight and so decrease the available deadweight. It may decrease the
Cargo Deadweight even further if there is, in addition, an increase required in the amount of
fuel to be carried. If, on the other hand, the Block Coefficient is reduced to allow a slight
increase in speed for no increase in power then the displacement is reduced but there is
scarcely any decrease in Lightweight and again the deadweight is reduced.
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2) Voluntary reduction of draught. The operating draught may be less than the
maximum allowed by freeboard rules or by the choice of scantlings. Thus the vessel, in
service, is carrying less deadweight than it might theoretically be able to
3) Variations in propulsion machinery. There can be a significant difference in
machinery weight between an installation using a slow speed diesel engine and one using
medium or high-speed engines.
4) Variations in construction method. For example the Ore Carrier requires to have a
much heavier bottom structure than a non-ore carrying Bulk Carrier because of the local
intensity of loading arising from the very dense ore.
5) Variations in Outfit Specification. A Refrigerated Cargo Ship (or Reefer) will have
a greater outfit weight than the equivalent General Cargo Ship and so carry less Deadweight
on a given Load Displacement. Similarly a Bulk Carrier with cargo handling gear is likely to
have reduced deadweight when compared with a gearless vessel (one without cargo handling
gear).
Once the displacement has been derived then each of the principal dimensions can be
considered in turn.
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5.3
Length
Length is probably the most expensive dimension to provide and is governed in part
by size and in part by speed. It is expensive in terms of steel weight and building costs and
were it not for hydrodynamic considerations the ideal length might well be taken to be the
cube root of the volume of displacement.
However that is not the case and ship size associated with desirable characteristics for
resistance and propulsion is used to fix a first approximation to the length. Adjustments are
then made above or below this value to account for the relative importance of frictional and
wavemaking resistance and to meet any physical restrictions imposed by canals, ports, docks
and ship handling.
The choice of Length and Block Coefficient (CB) are closely related and are dependent
on Speed and Froude Number. A number of formulae for the initial determination of Length
will be given later.
5.4
Given the Volume of Displacement, Length (L) and CB, then the value of the product
of Breadth (B) and Draught (T) is determined. Unless there are over-riding dimensional
constraints such as the width of a dock entrance or the water depth at a harbour mouth then
both B and T can be determined knowing a typical value of the ratio between them, B/T.
Alternatively B may be determined from a typical value of L/B and hence T can be found.
Depth (D) may be determined in a similar way if a requirement for total internal
volume is known and an estimate is made of CBD, the Block Coefficient of the ship up to the
upper deck. Depth is also constrained by the need for a minimum freeboard over the draught.
A good first approximation is to take T = 0.70 D.
The final choice of Breadth, Draught and Depth is also influenced by stability
considerations where increasing Breadth and/or reducing Depth will lead to an increase in
initial stability. On the other hand, increasing Breadth and reducing Draught may have an
adverse effect on the resistance and propulsion characteristics of the vessel.
5.5
For many ships the maximum dimensions are restricted by navigational features of the
routes they must use: Depth of Channels;
Size of Canals or Seaways and their associated Locks
Clear Height under Bridges
The limiting dimensions for some of the world's most significant canals are given in
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Length
(m)
222.5
235.0
289.5
No Limit
St Lawrence Seaway
Kiel Canal
Panama Canal
Suez Canal
5.6
Breadth
(m)
23.16
32.5
32.3
71.0 (Ballast)
50.0 (Loaded)
Draught
(m)
7.92
9.5
12.0
12.8
16.1
The following empirical formulae have been developed over the years to help in the
initial estimation of Length. They all come with "standard" values of their constants, but each
can (and should) be fine tuned to match modern design practice by using a particular
prototype or basis ship to derive a new value for the constant.
Posdunine
LBP
C ( Vt / (Vt+2) ) 2 V1/3
=
7.25 is applicable to cargo ships where 15.5 < Vt < 18.5
C can also be determined from a basis ship
Schneekluth
Professor Schneekluth of Aachen University of Technology derived the following
from economic considerations.
LBP
0.3 Vt0.3 C
LBP / V
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This relation must be solved iteratively. Assume a value for LBP and put it into the
RHS. Hence evaluate the LHS and arrive at a value for LBP say LBP'. Put this value into the
RHS and find a new value for LBP say LBP''. Compare LBP'' with LBP'. When the difference
between the two values is sufficiently small then take LBP = LBP''.
It must be said that it is not so easy to "fine tune" the Ayre formula to a particular
basis ship because it uses two numeric coefficients and it is not obvious whether one alone
should be adjusted, or both. However it appears to give initial estimates of length which are
consistent with modern practice despite its age. It is therefore still quite useful to the designer.
5.7
Block Coefficient
The variation of Block Coefficient, CB, with Speed and Length is shown in a diagram
taken from Practical Ship Design by D. G. M. Watson (based on a Figure in the1977 RINA
Paper by Watson & Gilfillan). Over the years segments of the curve appropriate to particular
ship types have been presented as linear relationships known as "Alexander Formulae" of the
form: CB = K - 0.5 V/ Lf
or
CB = K - 1.68 Fn
The mean line shown in the diagram can be approximated by the equation:CB = 0.7 + 0.125 tan-1((23-100Fn)/4)
where the term in brackets is taken in radians.
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5.8
Length/Breadth Ratio
In another diagram taken from the same paper the variation of L/B ratio with length is
shown. Small craft (under 30 m in length) remain reasonably directionally stable and steerable
with L/B = 4.0, probably because they have little or no parallel body and generally low values
of CB. The typical value of L/B increases to about 6.5 at 130 m and maintains that value as
length increases further. For vessels with lengths between 30 m and 130 m the formula: L/B
4 + 0.025 ( L - 30 )
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Weight Estimation
6.1
Basic Approach
There are two basic approaches to estimating the weight of a ship. The first is to sum
the weights of all the items built into the ship. The second is to employ a system of scaling or
proportioning from the weights of a known basis ship to the new design based on the ratios
between principal characteristics of the two vessels.
The first approach will only give an answer when the ship is complete and so is too
late to be of value to the designer. The second approach is thus the one we will consider here.
Once the first choice of main dimensions has been made these are used to make weight
estimates for each group weight of the design displacement. Naturally the total must equal the
design displacement. If it does not the required cargo deadweight will not be obtained and
either a larger or a smaller ship is required. Iteration may be necessary to arrive at a set of
dimensions which ensure that the sum of the weights making up the ship (its design
displacement) exactly * equals the buoyancy offered by the hull at its design draught.
(* Exactly in preliminary design means Displacement = Buoyancy Error
where Error is approximately of the tonnes per cm immersion of the vessel at its design
waterline. This is because it is practically impossible to determine the draught of a ship to
better than 0.5 cm thus limiting the accuracy of any weight.)
Initially considering the Lightship: LIGHTSHIP =
+
+
+
Steel Weight
Outfit Weight
Machinery Weight
Margin
(Ws)
(Wo)
(Wm)
The Margin is an essential part of the weight make up as it allows for errors and
omissions in the remainder of the calculations. For a vessel whose Lightship is a relatively
small part of the full load displacement a value of about 2% of Lightship is likely to be
appropriate. Where the Lightship is a much greater proportion of the full load displacement
and a weight over-run would be seriously embarrassing then a greater percentage may be
chosen.
Let us look at each Weight Group in turn.
6.2
Steel Weight
Representing principally the hull structure: -
Plates and sections forming Shell, Outer Bottom, Inner Bottom, Girders, Upper Deck,
Tween Decks, Bulkheads, Superstructure(s), Seats for equipment & Appendages
together with Forgings/Castings for Stem, Sternframe, Rudder Stock(s) and Shaft
Brackets.
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We will consider two ways to calculate the Steel Weight just now: a)
Ws
L*B*D*
LBD
Correction Factors
b)
Form Correction
1 + CB*
1 + CB
L/D Correction
(L*/D*)
(L/D)
This is a slightly more refined system than the Cubic Number Method being able to
take account of the different effects of changes in the principal dimensions. Once again,
dimensional changes of up to 10% can be allowed for.
The basis of the method is that the effect on the Steel Weight of change in each of the
three principal dimensions can be weighted by different amounts.
An increase in Length will lead to an increase in the weight of all elements of the hull
- Bottom, Side Shell, Decks, Bulkheads etc. In addition the Hull Girder Bending Moment will
tend to increase at a faster rate than Length.
Bending Moment
L
= LBTCBL
2
Therefore there may be an increase in the thickness of the plating used in the Bottom
and the Upper Deck in order to increase the Hull Girder Section Modulus to resist the
increasing Bending Moment. Overall an increase in Length will produce a greater than
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b Ws/B,
c Ws/D
b = 0.95,
c = 0.65
For a new ship of dimensions L*, B*, D* the change in each dimension is given by: L = L* - L
B = B* - B
D = D* - D
Then Ws* = {a(Ws/L)L + b(Ws/B)B + c(Ws/D)D + Ws} x Form Correction
= Ws {a((L*/L) - 1) + b((B*/B) - 1) + c((D*/D) - 1) + 1} x Form Correction
Example
A basis ship has the following characteristics: L = 104.0 m, B = 15.71 m, D = 9.26 m, CB = 0.725 and Ws = 1521 tonnes.
A new ship has the following characteristics: L* = 114.5 m, B* = 16.86 m, D* = 10.08 m and CB = 0.735
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CB
Basis Ship
104.0
15.71
9.26
0.725
New Ship
114.5
16.86
10.08
0.735
1.073
1.088
(Ratio) - 1
0.101
0.073
0.088
Weighting Factors
1.45
0.95
0.65
Products
0.146 +
0.069 +
0.057
Form Correction
Ws*
= 0.272
More refined methods may be used if a better breakdown of the steel weight of the
basis ship is available, e.g.: Upper Deck
Tween Deck
Inner Bottom
Outer Bottom
Side Shell
Bulkheads
Superstructure
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A square number approach is probably appropriate for each of the above elements of
the structure, except Superstructure.
For the Upper Deck WUD L x B with a form correction ideally dependent on the
waterplane area coefficient but practically varying with the block coefficient and a scantling
correction depending on L/D ratio.
The Outer Bottom could be treated in a similar way.
Tween Deck(s) and Inner Bottom will tend to vary only with L x B and block
coefficient, while Side Shell will follow L x D and block coefficient.
Bulkhead weight will tend to vary with B x D, block coefficient and number of
bulkheads.
Superstructure(s) can be treated using their own mini cubic number lsbshs, where ls,bs
and hs are the mean values of length, breadth and height of the superstructure.
Schneekluth quotes a number of methods for scaling steel weight and also formulae
for calculating steel weight from the principal dimensions. Two of the latter, applicable to
Cargo Ships are:Wehkamp/Kerlen
Ws = 0.0832 X e
-5.73 x 10-7
Ws = CB
2/3
0.72
(L B /6) D
[0.002(L/D) + 1]
6.3
Outfit Weight
Outfit can be considered to include: Hatch covers, Cargo handling equipment, Equipment and facilities in the living
quarters (such as furniture, galley equipment, heating, ventilation & air conditioning,
doors, windows & sidelights, sanitary installations, deck, bulkhead & deckhead
coverings & insulation and non-steel compartment boundaries) and Miscellaneous
items (such as anchoring & mooring equipment, steering gear, bridge consoles,
Refrigerating plant, paint, lifesaving equipment, firefighting equipment, hold
ventilation and radio & radar equipment)
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Wo L*B*
LB
An alternative approach holds half of the outfit weight constant and proportions the
remainder by the square number. This variation is applied as follows
Wo*
Wo( 1 + L*B* )
2
LB
This approach can be further refined if a known weight item such as a heavy lift
derrick is either common to both ships or is present in the basis ship but not in the new design.
The known item should be deducted from the basis Wo, the revised value scaled suitably and
the known item added back on if necessary.
Once again if a more detailed breakdown of the outfit weight of the basis ship is
available then more refined methods can be applied to each part.
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6.4
Machinery Weight
2/3
Given that a value of Ps has been obtained for the new design it is possible to take
Wm
Ps
2/3
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By studying engine manufacturers' data he found that over a wide range of engine type
he could express the bare weight of an engine in the form
Weight
12 ( MCR )
RPM
0.84
(tonnes)
6.5
0.7
(tonnes)
Weights of Consumables
Fuel Oil & Diesel Oil
The requirement for fuel is based on Engine Power, Fuel Consumption (SFC) and the
duration of the voyage - i.e. Endurance / Speed.
Fuel Required
Fuel Carried
Tank Volume Required
* Allows for 2.5% of the fuel carried being unpumpable at the bottom of the tanks
** Allows for tanks not being filled to more than 95% of their capacity to allow for
expansion in hot climates.
Take care with the units!
A similar calculation should be carried out for the fuel required for electrical power
generation based on a suitable number of generators running for the duration of the voyage
plus a margin for the time spent in port.
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Lubricating Oil
The requirement for Lubricating Oil is based on Engine Power, Lubricating Oil
Consumption and the duration of the voyage. For similar engines it is therefore proportional
to the product of the power of the main engine(s) and the duration of the voyage.
Fresh Water
The requirement for Fresh Water can be satisfied in one of two ways. Many ships are
fitted with equipment to produce Fresh Water from Sea Water on a continuous basis either by
distillation or by reverse osmosis. In this case it is only necessary to store a few days supply
of water in two tanks each capable of holding say two or three days consumption at a rate of
about 100 litres per person per day. Ships which do not have such equipment need to carry
enough water to last the duration of the voyage at the same daily rate. This would normally be
split between two tanks to guard against the whole supply becoming contaminated. The tanks
would then be filled in each port of call.
Approximately 133 tonnes of fresh water would be required by a crew of 32 on a
voyage of 16000 nautical miles at 16 knots with a consumption of 100 litres per day.
Distillation plant will typically produce 10 tonnes of water from the heat input of one tonne of
fuel oil so the fresh water for the above voyage could be provided from two storage tanks of
10 tonnes each plus distillation plant plus the carriage of an extra 13 tonnes of fuel oil.
Stores
Stores. in the sense of food, drink etc, are normally assessed on the basis of so much
per person per day. The weight carried is therefore proportional to the product of the number
of crew (+ passengers if appropriate) times the voyage duration in days.
Spare Gear
Spare gear is notoriously difficult to estimate. It is very much dependent on the advice
from the manufacturers of all the various pieces of equipment on board the ship and so
accurate information is unlikely until the ship is ready for sea. A fixed weight based on a
similar ship is probably sufficiently accurate for preliminary design.
Crew & Passengers
The present allowance for an average crew member is 75 kg and if effects (personal
belongings, luggage, baggage etc.) are included then the value should double. You should
allow 75 kg for each passenger on a daytime commuter or excursion trip and up to 150 kg (i.e.
with baggage) on a longer-term holiday or cruise.
6.6
Weight estimates alone are not sufficient to allow ship design to progress - the
position of the centre of gravity (C of G) - Vertically, Longitudinally and Transversely - of
each item of weight must also be determined in order to find the overall Centre of Gravity of
the ship.
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This must be assessed to give reasonable assurance that the ship will be stable, float at
the intended fore and aft trim and float upright. In the early stages of Design Port/Starboard
symmetry is often assumed and the Transverse Centre of Gravity is thus sometimes ignored.
NOTE:- In some ship types it may be important that the ship floats exactly upright.
This is almost certainly the occasion when you cannot ignore TCG. Sod's Law says that if two
heavy items are to be positioned on a ship, both will be placed where they have the greatest
impact on TCG and both will be on the side of the ship nearest to the designer when (s)he was
laying out the General Arrangement.
Two methods of determining C of G can be applied to all weight groups depending on
the stage of the design process and the amount of information you have on the ship.
a) Scaled C of G (early design stages)
The position of the LCG of the weight item relative to a suitable datum position
(usually amidships or the A.P.) is proportional to the length of the vessel.
LCG* = LCG x L*/L
The position of the VCG above the baseline is proportional to the depth of the vessel
VCG* = VCG x D*/D
b) Real C of G (later design stages)
The position of the LCG, VCG or TCG of an item is measured from a suitable datum
on a scale drawing of the vessel or is known by definition, e.g. if the height of a tween deck
above base is 7.6 m then the VCG of the plating will be 7.6 m plus one half of its thickness
above base. As the VCG of the stiffening will be slightly below 7.6 m a reasonable estimate
of the VCG of the deck will be 7.6 m.
If the C of G of an engine is given by the manufacturer as x metres above a datum
level then position the engine in the machinery space, find the height of the datum above base
and the VCG can be found.
The weight of an item may have a recognisable geometric distribution - rectangular,
triangular, parabolic etc. The formulae for finding the centroids of such shapes may then be
useful in determining the C of G of the item with respect to one or more of the usual axes.
As you progress through successive iterations of weight calculations or successive
stages of the design process as a whole you should always consider the use of more refined
and more detailed weight/centre estimation techniques appropriate to your increasing
knowledge of the design - subdivide weight groups, use real engine data etc.
In the later stages of the ship design project you are likely to have real centres for the
majority of the deadweight items although the Lightship centres will probably still be scaled.
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6.7
PROPULSION
Main Engine(s)
Gearbox(es)
Propeller(s) and Shafting
Pumps, Compressors & Separators
Engine Room Pipework
Air Intakes
Exhaust uptakes
SERVICES
Fresh Water Plant
Sewage Plant
Cargo pumps
Gratings, Ladders, Walkways, Insulation in Engine Room.
ELECTRICAL
Electrical Generators
Switchboards
Cabling
Lighting Systems
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6.8
GROUP 1 -
GROUP 2 -
GROUP 3 -
Accommodation
Divisional/Non-structural Bulkheads
Deck/Bulkhead/Deckhead Coverings
Doors, Windows & Sidelights (Portholes)
Sanitary Installations &Piping
Heating, Ventilation & Air Conditioning (HVAC)
Galley and Dining Equipment
Furniture & Bedding
GROUP 4 -
Miscellaneous
Anchors, Chain, Hawsers
Anchor/Chain/Hawser Handling Equipment
Steering Gear & Control Equipment
Navigation & Communication Equipment
Firefighting Equipment
Life Saving Appliances (LSA)
Guardrails, Ladders etc
General Pipework
Hold Ventilation
Cargo Refrigeration
Paint
Deck Coverings excluding Accommodation Areas
A Weight Breakdown system with more detailed subdivision is shown below. It is based on
UK Naval Practice and is taken from Watson, Practical Ship Design, 1998.
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7.1
General
An estimate of the power requirement forms one of the most important and critical
steps in preliminary design. It is also one of the most complex processes in ship design, being
influenced by a large number of design parameters. The power derived has a significant and
direct effect on the deadweight which can be carried by a given ship. In days gone by (when
fuel was cheap) it was important to keep both engine weight & volume and fuel weight &
volume to the minimum to maximise deadweight and cargo capacity. Nowadays the
shipowner seeks optimum fuel economy primarily on cost grounds and secondarily on
deadweight. The choice of propelling machinery for a tanker, a bulk carrier or a general cargo
vessel is now invariably restricted to the direct drive diesel which is by far the most
economical prime mover.
The installed power has a direct influence on another of the owner's requirements speed. Since severe penalties can be incurred for not achieving the design trial speed, the
designer has to allow for a margin of uncertainty in his power requirements to give the ship a
high probability of success. There is a wide selection of diesel engines available to the
designer but it is rare for there to be an engine which exactly suits the power requirement of a
particular ship. The designer then has to choose the best engine which develops sufficient
power over a useful range.
7.2
Definitions of Power
The power needed for propulsion is the aggregate effect of a number of components
which can be considered in three groups as follows: a) Those affecting Hull Resistance, that is the force which must be applied to push or
pull the hull through the water at the required speed. The product of Hull Resistance
(R) and speed through the water (V) is called the Effective Power (PE).
b) Those affecting the conversion of torque into useful thrust which determine the
power to be delivered to the propeller. The product of 2 times Shaft Torque (Q) and
Revs per second is known as the Delivered Power (PD). PD is related to PE by the
Quasi- Propulsive Coefficient (Q.P.C.)
c) The loss of power during its transmission from the engine to the propeller. The
Shaft Power (PS) of the installation is related to PD by the transmission efficiency t.
As Shaft Power is usually measured aft of the thrust block there may be a small
correction for this and for any power lost in gearing in order to arrive at the Installed Brake
Power required from the engine.
A further correction may be required to adjust the engine manufacturer's figure of
Brake Power (Test Bed) for differences in air and water temperatures and losses in the air
intake and exhaust gas systems between Test Bed and Service conditions.
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Thus
PS = PE /( QPC t )
7.3
Standard Series
7.4
Components of Resistance
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Froude tested "geometrically similar" models and argued that the total resistance of
any hull, either model or ship, must be the sum of two components which he called Frictional
Resistance and Residuary Resistance
RT = RF + RR
He measured the resistance of a series of thin planks and, assuming that their
measured resistances were due to friction alone, he derived a formula for the frictional
resistance of a plank of arbitrary length and surface area moving at a specified speed.
By further assuming that the frictional resistance of a model equalled that of the flat
plate of the same length, area and surface finish he calculated the frictional resistance RF of
each model at various speeds. By subtracting the calculated values of RF from the measured
values of RT he deduced the corresponding values of the residuary resistance RR.
He then discovered that plotting values of residuary resistance per ton of displacement,
RR, to a base of V/ L or speed in knots divided by the square root of length in feet, gave a
unique curve for all the "geometrically similar" models. Hence from the measured resistance
of a model over a range of speeds he was able to predict the resistance of a geometrically
similar model or ship.
Froude's basic principle still holds today although some changes in the fine detail have
taken place.
7.5
Frictional Resistance
and
where
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where
RF = 0.5Sv Cf
3
7.6
Residuary Resistance
The residuary resistance of a new design is not quite so easy to calculate as its
frictional resistance. The coefficient of residuary resistance (CR) of a merchant ship having
the optimum position of the LCB can be approximated using the following formula developed
by Schneekluth. The formula tends to smooth out the effect of the humps and hollows of the
resistance curves. It is based on the published residuary resistance curves of Taylor - Gertler
and Harvald - Guldhammer.
3
where
CV = V/L
and the other terms have their usual meanings.
The residuary resistance is then given by
2
RR = 0.5Sv CR
The limits of validity of the formula are
0.17
2.0
0.50
CB
5.0
2.0
<
<
<
<
<
Fn
<
0.30
10 CV <
11.0
CP
<
0.80
CB (Ayre) + 0.06
L/B <
10.0
B/T <
4.5
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7.7
It is useful at times for the designer to be able to find quickly the total resistance of a
ship in some everyday terms such as pounds of total resistance per ton of displacement,
expressed as RT/, at say the design speed, when only the type of ship and the approximate
Speed-Length ratio or Froude Number are known. For example, the value of RT/ for a large,
modern Great Lakes freighter at its designed speed is about 2 lb/ton and that of a fast
motorboat is of the order of 600 lb/ton.
Such data for a large variety of waterborne craft, both large and small, have been
plotted in Fig 56.I.
The Admiralty Coefficient approach can give a useful first approximation to the
required power for small changes in speed, dimensions or displacement from a basis ship. It
can also provide a guide to the likely power requirement of a ship at an early stage of design.
The original form of the Admiralty Coefficient is given below: 2/3
A.C. = (Displacement)
(Speed) / I.H.P.
where
and
Displacement is in tons,
Speed is in knots
I.H.P. is Indicated Horse Power.
I.H.P. was a measure of the power developed in the cylinders of a steam engine. For
modern ships I.H.P. is replaced by Shaft Horse Power and Fig 2.3.1, a BSRA diagram,
derives the relationship by Dimensional Analysis and gives typical values of A.C. in respect
of the trial performance of a number of ship types.
7.8
The shipowner's normal requirement is in terms of service speed, although the contract
terms will be agreed on the basis of a trial speed i.e. speed obtained under good weather
conditions, in deep water, with the hull in a clean condition. The difference between Trial and
Service conditions is caused by wind and wave action, fouling and increasing hull roughness.
It is normal to provide an allowance of between 15% and 25% on power to cope with the
difference, with the final choice being dependent on such factors as the paint system, cathodic
protection, voyage patterns and hull maintenance policy.
If the allowance (service margin) on power is taken as 25 % this corresponds to a Trial
Speed which is approximately 6% greater than the required Service Speed since in this region
of the Speed/Power curve Power varies as V4 for a well designed hull form.
The graph below illustrates the application of a service margin to the speed/power
curve of a new ship design. The trial speed is derived from the speed/power curve for trial
conditions at 90% of the Maximum Continuous Rating (MCR) of the machinery. The service
speed is taken from the same curve after allowing for the service margin (here taken as an
increase of 25% over the power requirement under trial conditions). That is, Service Speed is
achieved under trial conditions at 80% of the Power used to achieve the Trial Speed.
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7.9
Speed Margins
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Note:-
1 lb = 0.453592 kg
Tq = V/L
1 ft = 0.3048 m
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8.1
8.2
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
Slow Speed
80 - 250
RPM
2)
Medium Speed
400 - 1000
RPM
3)
High Speed
1200 - 1800
RPM
The following attributes of the above types of engine vary as shown below
(1)
8.3
-->
(2)
-->
(3)
(i)
Decreasing Size
(ii)
Decreasing Weight
(iii)
(iv)
Increasing Maintenance
(v)
Auxiliary Machinery
1)
2)
3)
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4)
Hotel Services
5)
Cargo/Ballast Systems
8.4
Fuel
2)
Lubrication
3)
Cooling
4)
Exhaust
5)
Compressed Air
6)
Similar systems will be required to support the Auxiliary Machinery. These may be
Stand-Alone systems or integrated with those for the main engine(s).
8.5
An Ocean-going cargo merchant ship will normally have three service generator sets plus one
(small) emergency set.
Of the three service sets:One will be providing the Normal Sea Load
One will be available as back up (It will be running in circumstances when loss of
power could be dangerous).
One may be under maintenance.
When a ship habitually undertakes long sea voyages at constant speed then it may be practical
to derive some of the electric power from a generator driven by the Main Engine via the
propeller shaft or a Power Take Off (PTO)
Advantages:(i)
(ii)
Disadvantages:(i)
(ii)
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8.6
8.7
2)
Settling Tanks
3)
Centrifugal Separators
4)
Service Tanks
5)
6)
Filtration
There are two formulae which may be helpful in making an initial assessment of Propeller
Diameter. This may be needed to confirm that the draught of a ship is sufficient to ensure that
its propeller(s) is(are) adequately immersed at all times.
D
metres
(1)
0.2 * (Ps / V)
metres
(2)
above is generally quite accurate for Cargo Ships, Bulk Carriers and
Container Ships.
(2)
tends to underestimate the diameter for merchant ships by about 10% but
may be more reliable in its own field of high-powered Naval vessels fitted
with Controllable Pitch Propellers.
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9.x
Let be the inclination of the ship to the vertical at any instant of time. The moment acting on
a stable ship will be in a sense to decrease . For small values of ,
Restoring Moment
- * GMT *
- * GMT *
This is a form of the differential equation denoting simple harmonic motion with frequency .
Let
o sin t
i.e.
then
d/dt =
o cos t
and
d2/dt2 =
- 2 o sin t
d2/dt2 +
- 2
g * GMT / kxx2
(g * GMT / kxx2 )
2/ =
and Period, T
2 (kxx2 / ( g * GMT ))
2 kxx / ( g * GMT )
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9.y
A design study has been made for a ferry and the following basic dimensions have been
chosen:L = 106 m;
B = 17 m;
D = 19 m;
T = 6 m;
CB = 0.62
This achieves both the design capacity and the design displacement. A suitable hull form has
been chosen from a standard series and at a draught of 6 m the following hydrostatic data is
found:KB = 3.5 m;
CIT = 0.71
CIT * L * B3 /12
30813 m4
LBTCB
106 * 17 * 6 * 0.62
6703 m3
30813 / 6703
4.60 m
8.1 - 11.4
-3.3 m
BMT
GMT =
= IT / V
KB + BMT - KG
Clearly unsatisfactory.
Speed depends on L & CB , so it is preferable that they are left unchanged. If B is increased
then BMT will be increased; if T & D are reduced in the same proportion as B is increased
then displacement and capacity will remain unchanged.
Try B = 20 m
Reduce Draught, T to maintain constant displacement
T =
6 * 17 / 20
5.1 m
19 * 17 / 20
16.15 m
2.975 m
and KG
=
0.6 * 16.15
=
9.69 m
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IT
GMT =
CIT * L * B3 /12
50173 m4
BMT = IT / V
50173 / 6703
7.485 m
KB + BMT - KG
0.77 m
2 * * k / (g * GMT)
0.32 (B * D)
36.135 / 2.748
5.751 m
13.15 secs
where k
GMT =
2 * * k / (g * GMT)
4 * 2 *k2 / (g * T2)
1.100 m
(Can you determine the maximum value of GMT which will give the desired Rolling Period
before changing the dimensions? What was the value of k for the initial design?)
It would be preferable to have a method of calculating the required change in dimensions
directly and to be able to investigate the sensitivity of GMT to changes in L, B, T or D.
Let =
constant * L * B * T
and differentiating
d / = dL / L + dB / B + dT / T that is, if the fractional changes in dimensions are
small then their sum gives the fractional change
in displacement.
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BMT
IT / V =
constant * B2 / T
2 * dB / B + dT / T
( d BG + d GM ) / (BG + GM )
dT / T = - dB / B
Taking Capacity
= constant * L * B * D
- dB / B
We have KG =
BG
constant * D
dT / T
and
KB =
constant * ( D / T ) * T
constant * T
KG - KB
constant * T
dT / T
- dB / B
d BG / BG =
constant * T
But we have
( d BG + d GM ) / (BG + GM )
= 2 * dB / B + dT / T
= 3 * dB /B
d BG + d GM
3 * ( BG + GM ) * d B/ B
- BG * dB / B + d GM
3 * ( BG + GM ) * dB / B
d GM
( 4 BG + 3 GM ) * dB / B
dB / B
d GM / ( 4 BG + 3 GM )
0.6 m,
d GM =
and BG
KG - KB
dB / B
dB =
0.1797 * 17.0 =
3.3 + 0.6
11.4 - 3.5
3.9 m
7.9 m
0.1797
3.055
B =
20.055 m
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Noting the requirement for small changes in dimensions then this is a fair result.
for GMT
= 1.1 m,
dB / B
dB
= 0.2028 * 17.0 =
d GM =
3.3 + 1.1
3.055 and
4.4 m
0.2028
B =
20.45 m
6 * 17 / 20.45
4.988 m
15.795 m
2.910 m
and
9.477 m
IT
19 * 17 / 20.45
KG = 0.6 * 15.795
=
GMT =
CIT * L * B3 /12
53637 m4
BMT = IT / V
KB + BMT - KG =
53637 / 6703
8.002 m
1.435 m
This is rather higher than was expected but the method is specifically for small changes in
dimensions. The change in Beam is of the order of 20% which is not a small change.
If we now apply the method a second time to reduce GMT from 1.435 m to 1.100 m we
should find an answer that is very close.
d GM =
-0.335 m
BG
KG - KB
dB / B
d GM / ( 4 BG + 3 GM )
9.477 - 2.910
=
=
dB =
-0.011 * 20.45
-0.225
and
6.567 m
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6 * 17 / 20.225
5.043 m
19 * 17 / 20.225
15.970 m
Hence KB =
2.942 m
and
0.6 * 15.970
9.582 m
IT
KG =
=
BMT =
GMT =
CIT * L * B3 /12
IT / V
51886 m4
51886 / 6703
7.741 m
1.101 m
KB + BMT - KG =
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10
General Arrangement
10.1 Introduction
Once the Main Dimensions and Hull Form have been fixed consideration can be given
to the General Arrangement. Normally this will be done by means of the drawing of a small
scale General Arrangement plan. A scale of 1 to 200 is quite suitable although a larger scale
may be more appropriate for small ships. The only boundaries which have been fixed so far
are the hull surface and any deck lines which affect freeboard. The remaining space
boundaries in the ship remain to be fixed. A major decision is to determine the position of the
machinery space. In a light condition the density of the machinery space and the
accommodation, taken together, is greater that the rest of the ship's length. In a loaded
condition the reverse is truer. This is important when considering trim.
10.2 Trim
A level keel trim is usually specified for the full load condition with homogeneous
cargo. This is mainly to make the best use of the available depth of water in port - usually a
restrictive item. Of course the cargo distribution may never quite produce such a trim but it
must be possible without ridiculous cargo stowage and the homogeneous condition usually is
quoted t ensure this. Some designs either specify a design trim or must accept one. There are
ships in which the weight distribution is so extreme that balance between the LCG and LCB
can only be achieved by using trim to make a radical adjustment to the sectional area curve.
Tugs and fishing vessels are common examples where the need for propeller immersion also
plays its part and warships often have this feature.
As ships tend to trim by the bow relative to their static trim when running at normal
speeds, no bow trim at all can be permitted at rest. Usually cargo is disposed to ensure some
stern trim in most sea-going conditions. Steering and directional stability can be upset by bow
trim. In the initial design stages trim is mainly controlled by the location of the machinery
space relative to the cargo holds. Provision of ballast spaces including the peak tanks gives
some control over trim but carrying ballast is a waste of deadweight and may impose
undesirable stresses. Reasonable trim must also be maintained during cargo working at
intermediate ports. In the case of the traditional general cargo vessel this was no easy thing to
do unless the machinery space was amidships.
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In large high-speed and high-powered container ships the machinery space is often
situated in the three-quarters aft position. Although this splits the container stowage area into
two parts it allows the machinery to be installed in a fairly full part of the ship. Trim can be
kept under control with only a modest requirement for water ballast and bending of the hull
girder between loaded and light condition may be minimised.
1)
2)
An end clearance of one or two frame spaces should be added to the neat length. Care
must be taken to ensure that there is sufficient space for the auxiliary machinery. Ideally these
should be sited on the tank top, particularly those requiring a solid foundation to minimise
vibration e.g. Generators and Compressors. Flats can be fitted to provide additional area but
often cannot be made stiff enough to support major auxiliaries.
Technological change tends to make the machinery grow in complexity but to shrink
in size and so machinery spaces tend to become smaller over time. However engine
maintenance is an important consideration for the effective operation of the ship. Too
compact an engine room may make maintenance more difficult and even more expensive.
Access to the equipment and removal routes for parts from them should be adequate.
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In addition to the storage tanks, space also needs to be found for settling tanks and
daily service tanks to satisfy the needs of the main and auxiliary machinery. These are usually
located within the boundaries of the machinery space. Actually finding the space for them
may not be a task for the Naval Architect but the Weight & centre of gravity of their contents
is a legitimate concern.
Water ballast is required to give adequate propeller immersion in the lightest seagoing
condition and to ensure that the minimum draught forward is sufficient to avoid excessive
slamming.
While many ships now distil their own Fresh Water from sea water a limited storage
capacity is necessary for use when the ship is in polluted or coastal waters where distillation is
not possible.
Holding tanks for sewage and waste water are necessary to avoid marine pollution.
They are small in a cargo ship but of significant size in passenger ships.
10.7 Hatchways
Large hatchways assist easy cargo working but hatch widths are restricted by the need
to maintain not only the cross sectional area of deck material for structural reasons but also
the shelf space at the tween deck levels. The ingenious use of twin hatches, side by side, can
facilitate both good cargo working and the containment of grain cargoes in a general cargo
ship.
The length of hatches is constrained by the length of deck taken up by cargo gear and
hatch cover stowage. General cargo ships usually have the capability of carrying some
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containers within the line of hatches and this will lead to hatch dimensions tending to be a
multiple of container lengths and widths with an allowance for clearance between them.
Flush hatches are clearly desirable for ease of cargo working but in general load line
requirements will prohibit or severely penalise the ship for their use on a weather deck.
Deck and Engineer Officers. In single or double cabins (Master and Chief
Engineer should each have an individual cabin). Bathroom with one bath or
shower and one wash basin for every six persons. Separate dining saloon and
smoke room.
b)
c)
Where two ratings share a cabin the above figures are reduced by 1 m2 per person
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d)
Many ships offer higher standards than these such that all crew have single cabins
with ensuite bathrooms and perhaps double beds so that wives can travel on some voyages.
An officers single cabin could reach 21 m2 with bathroom and a crews single cabin 16 m2,
also with bathroom.
The combination of tall superstructures and double beds can be a problem though. The
Master and the Chief Officer of a ship so fitted both fell asleep on watch because they could
not sleep comfortably alone in their double beds near the top of a tall superstructure on a
rolling ship.
170.00 m;
B mld
26.70 m;
Design Draught
6.00 m
The VOYAGER OF THE SEAS at a gross tonnage of 137,300 was, at the time she was built,
the largest cruise liner in the world. She can accommodate 3840 passengers in 1557 cabins
and in addition carries a crew of 1180 in 667 cabins. Six diesel alternator sets each produce
17,600 kVA (electrical) from 12,600 kW @ 514 rpm (mechanical) and drive three electric
motors in Azipods each of which can absorb 14,000 kW @ 140 rpm. This gives her a service
speed of 22 knots.
LBP
274.70 m;
B mld
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From Chapman, The Optimum Machinery Position in Dry Cargo Vessels, NECIES
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12
The history of regulation of shipping starts with taxation. Rules were devised to
measure the amount of cargo a ship could carry - its "Tonnage" so that Kings and port owners
could charge tax or dues on that cargo. The next development was "Registration" - the
determination of ownership which was necessary to enforce the collection of dues or taxes
and to decide in time of war whether a ship belonged to friend or foe. The last area to develop
was setting up rules for the construction of ships to ensure their strength and safety at sea. The
rules were required to classify in terms of quality of the ships which were carrying
commercial cargoes for private owners who wished to insure the ship, the cargo or both
against the risk of being lost at sea.
These three activities are representative of the three main subdivisions of regulation International, National/Governmental i.e. Statutory and Private/ Commercial i.e.
Classification. While, historically, they have developed in the above order, the Naval
Architect's interest in these areas increases in the reverse order and so that is how they will be
approached in this section.
Lloyd's Register of Shipping is the world's oldest classification society and its origins
go back more than two hundred years. In the latter part of the eighteenth century, cargo
owners, ship owners and ship builders met in Mr Lloyd's Coffee House in London to discuss
and arrange their business. The cargo owners knew that many ships were lost at sea taking
their cargoes down with them. An insurance market developed in the Coffee House whereby
the owners paid so much a voyage as premium and if their cargo was lost they were repaid its
value.
Neither the cargo owners nor the insurers entirely trusted the ship owners who might
be inclined to lie about how seaworthy their ship might be. The people who supported the
insurance schemes, called underwriters, decided to keep a register with details of all the ships
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they knew about and how good they were. Eventually they were able to classify just how
good any ship would be by looking at it and knowing who built it.
When the underwriters began to say how ships should be built both the ship owners
and the ship builders became very worried. After much argument and unpleasantness it was
decided to form a new society with representatives from all three groups to supervise ship
construction and maintenance and to put ships into classes depending on their quality.
Because of its place of origin it was called Lloyd's Register of Shipping and it was the
forerunner of similar societies set up in many of the major shipbuilding nations. The insurance
market developed separately into the Corporation of Lloyd's and set about insuring all sorts of
things as well as ships.
The classification societies operate on a world-wide basis and publish rules and
regulations governing the structural strength of the ship and the reliability of its propelling
machinery. Classification implies that the ship and its machinery conform to the standards
published in the rules of the Society. Classification is voluntary on the part of the ship owner
and the only penalty that can be imposed for non-compliance with the rules is suspension of
class. In general, a ship will have difficulty in gaining insurance unless it is classed by a
recognised classification society.
Classification of a new ship with, for example, Lloyd's Register, entails approval of
constructional drawings, testing of materials, special survey while the vessel is under
construction and a recommendation for class from the surveyor by report to the committee.
Following acceptance of the report by the committee, the certificate of class is issued and the
appropriate entry made in the Register book.
The highest class given by Lloyd's Register is +100A1. New ships built under Special
Survey are given the Maltese Cross (+) before the character figure in the register book. The
character figure 100 indicates that the vessel is suitable for sea-going service, while the
character letter A indicates that the vessel accords with the Society's Rules and Regulations
and is maintained in good and efficient condition. The figure 1 following the character letter
indicates that the mooring equipment comprising anchors, cables and hawsers, is in good
condition.
When the class +100A1 is assigned it may be followed by a descriptive notation such
as Oil Tanker, Bulk Carrier etc. plus a service restriction notation such as Ice Class 2 or
Strengthened for Heavy Cargoes.
Additional Class notations may be added for the condition of Propulsion Machinery
and/or Refrigerating Machinery. +LMC indicates that the Propulsion Machinery and essential
Auxiliary Machinery has been constructed, installed and tested under Special Survey and in
accordance with the Rules and Regulations. UMS indicates that the control arrangements of
the ship allow the machinery spaces to be unmanned during normal operations.
Maintenance of standards is an important function of any classification society.
Periodical surveys are required and failure to conform may result in removal of the ship from
class and a reduction in its value as well as an increase in its insurance premium, assuming
cover can be obtained.
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Having started out as organisations promoting Quality long before the term was
recognised by shipbuilders, many of the societies now offer a wide range of services far from
the sea to industries which recognise their expertise in Quality Control, Quality Assurance
and all other aspects of Quality Management.
They are also heavily involved in the implementation of the International Safety
Management Code (the ISM Code) both in advising companies how to set up Safety
Management Systems and in auditing their success in doing so. Once again this is a logical
development from their origins in promoting Safety.
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An indication of the work of the MCA may be obtained from the following list of their
main activities.
i) Load Line Rules
The MCA administer the British interpretation of the International Load Line
Convention and assigns freeboards according to the geometric properties of the ship and its
structural strength, in conjunction with the strength and security of covers to deck and
superstructure openings among other considerations.
ii) Survey of Passenger Ships
A ship intended to carry more than 12 passengers must conform to the regulations for
passenger ships and be issued with a Passenger Certificate appropriate to the number of
passengers and the place of operation.
Every passenger ship and every cargo ship must be inclined in the presence of a MCA
surveyor, on completion, to determine its Lightship Weight and C.G. position for the
assessment of stability. Based on these results the ship's master must be supplied with
information for guidance on the safe loading and ballasting of the ship.
iii) Life Saving Appliances (LSA)
In general, passenger ships are required to carry lifeboats under davits for all persons
on aboard and life rafts for an additional percentage of the number on aboard. Passenger ships
operating in river and coastal waters may be permitted to reduce the number of lifeboats and
rely on life rafts for the safe evacuation in emergency of all on board. Cargo ships, generally,
are required to be provided with, on each side of the ship, life boats under davits which will
accommodate all persons on board and life rafts which will similarly accommodate all
persons on board.
All lifeboats must be built to conform to the requirements of the LSA rules and are
inspected during construction.
All persons on board must be provided with an approved life jacket.
iv) Masters and Seamen (Crew Accommodation)
The Merchant Shipping Acts lay down minimum standards for crew spaces in terms of
floor area, construction, lighting, heating, ventilation etc. Plans and details of accommodation
areas must be submitted to the MCA at an early stage of design for approval. The actual
accommodation is subsequently inspected and measured at the ship.
v) Tonnage Measurement
Ships must be measured for tonnage to establish the Gross and Net tonnages on which
port, canal and navigation dues are levied.
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The ship's name to be marked each side of the bow, and the name and port of
registry to be marked on the stern.
ii)
The Official Number and Net Tonnage to be marked on the main beam.
When these items are satisfactorily marked the surveyor certifies the carving note and
returns it to the registrar who can now sign the Certificate of Registry and hand it over to the
owner on receipt of the appropriate fee.
A ship may change its name or port of registry under certain regulated circumstances
(and the choice of name is subject to official approval) but the Official Number allocates on
its first registry is never changed. If a ship ceases to be a British ship by reason of sale or
other circumstance then the Certificate of Registry must be returned to the Registrar at its port
of registry and its registration is cancelled. If the vessel later returns to British ownership then
it may be re-registered after survey and will be known by its original Official Number.
The Merchant Shipping (Registration etc.) Act 1993 introduced changes to the detail
of the process of registration during 1994 so that all the recording of data is centralised under
the Registrar General of Shipping and Seamen. There are no longer Registrars in the ports
handling registration. Thus there are no longer "Ports of Registry"; instead the port named on
the stern of a ship will be a "Port of Choice".
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Originally, the same procedure had to be followed for amendments to Conventions but
this was later modified to allow amendments approved by IMO to be implemented a fixed
period of time after their approval. Given that it took 25 years for the full implementation of
the 1969 Convention on Tonnage Measurement the change of approach for amendments was
clearly much needed!
The governing body of IMO is the Assembly, which meets once every two years and
comprises all the member states. In the period between sessions of the Assembly a Council
runs the affairs of the Organisation. The Council consists of 32 member states elected by the
Assembly for two-year terms.
The organisations technical work is carried out by a number of committees, the most
senior of which is the Maritime Safety Committee (MSC). This has ten sub-committees
whose titles reflect their areas of interest (See figure). The other committees are the Marine
Environment Protection Committee (MEPC) which has two sub-committees (one is shared
with MSC), the Legal Committee, the Facilitation Committee and the Committee on
Technical Co-operation.
International Conventions
The IMO has been responsible for instigating and introducing the following
International Conventions: - For the Safety of Life at Sea 1960 (SOLAS 1960)
- For the Safety of Life at Sea 1974 (SOLAS 1974)
- SOLAS Protocol 1978
- SOLAS Protocol 1988
- For the Safety of Life at Sea 1990 (SOLAS 1990)
- For the Safety of Life at Sea 1995 (SOLAS 1995)
- For the Prevention of Pollution of the Sea by Oil 1973 (MARPOL 1973)
- MARPOL Protocol 1978
- On Facilitation of International Maritime Traffic 1965
- International Load Line Convention 1966 (LL 1966)
- Load Line Protocol 1988
- On Tonnage Measurement of Ships 1969
- On Intervention on the High Seas in cases of Oil Pollution Casualties 1969
- On Civil Liability for Oil Pollution Damage 1969
- On Civil Liability in the Field of Maritime Carriage of Nuclear Material 1971
- Establishment of an International Fund for compensation for Oil Pollution
Damage 1971
- Special Trade Passenger Ships Agreement 1971
- Safe Containers 1972
- On Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea (COLREG 1972)
- International Maritime Satellite Organisation 1976 (INMARSAT 1976)
- Safety of Fishing Vessels 1977
- Standards of Training, Certification and Watchkeeping for Seafarers 1978
(STCW78)
- Standards of Training, Certification and Watchkeeping for Seafarers 1995
(STCW95)
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The IMO Maritime Safety Committee has recommended that the maximum size of
tank in the largest tankers should be limited to 50000 m3 for centre tanks and 30000 m3 for
wing tanks. This would limit the hypothetical oil outflow in the event of collision or stranding
to 30000 m3. In the case of normal tankers with two longitudinal bulkheads, the capacity of a
centre tank and of a wing tank will be limited to 30000 m3 and 15000 m3 respectively.
Further international debate on tanker safety followed the grounding of the Exxon
Valdez on the coast of Alaska in 1989 and the resulting oil spill. The United States of
America unilaterally imposed its Oil Pollution Act 1990, demanding double skin construction
for all tankers trading to U.S. ports. IMO has conducted a wide-ranging enquiry into
alternative means but has not settled on one ideal arrangement.
The Carriage of Chemicals in Bulk
In view of the increase in the sea transportation of hazardous or noxious chemicals in
bulk it became apparent that there was a need for international measures to ensure their safe
carriage. The Maritime Safety Committee approved an interim recommendation for existing
ships of the tanker type carrying dangerous chemicals in bulk liquid form.
Fire Safety in Ships
Fire is one of the most serious hazards facing ships at sea, especially passenger ships.
IMO has recommended a series of amendments to the 1960 SOLAS convention for existing
passenger ships and a further series which would apply to new ships only.
Marine Pollution
The British government convened an International Conference which resulted in the
International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution of the Sea by Oil 1954.
Responsibility for this convention was transferred to IMCO when it came into being.
The 1954 convention dealt only with the deliberate or operational discharge of oil from ships
and did not relate to pollution arising from maritime accidents.
The 1954 convention was extensively amended in 1969 to cover the following topics:
- Prohibition of deliberate discharge
- Prevention of accidental discharge
- Powers given to states for dealing with pollution
- Provisions for redress for damage caused
- Methods for dealing with spillages
At the 1973 IMO Conference on Marine Pollution the main objective was the
complete elimination of wilful and intentional marine pollution by oil and other noxious
pollutants coupled with the minimisation of accidental spills.
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ii)
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13
Tonnage
13.1 Introduction
Tonnage is a measure of the internal volume of a ship and was originally introduced to
represent its size or its earning capacity in assessing port or harbour dues and the charges for
certain services rendered to the ship. It then became convenient to use a scale of tonnage to
set requirements for manning levels, provision of safety and lifesaving equipment, etc.
Shipowners usually consider it an advantage to obtain the minimum tonnage for a given ship.
The word ton originally came from tun which was a wine cask and, in some cases, the
cargo capacity of a ship was measured by the number of wine casks it could carry. In the 13th
Century when tonnage measurement first arose the most valuable cargo and the most
profitable trade for England was wine shipment across the Channel from France.
The system of tonnage measurement used in the UK until 1982 derived from that
enacted in the Merchant Shipping Act of 1854 and is associated with the name of George
Moorsom. The rest of the world then based their schemes for tonnage measurement to a
greater or lesser extent on the Moorsom system.
Initially the Moorsom system was quite simple. Gross tonnage based on the total
enclosed volume of the ship represented its size and Net or Register tonnage based on the
volume of the cargo and/or passenger spaces represented its earning capacity. The unit of
tonnage was a volume of 100 cubic feet and although called a ton bore no direct relationship
to the weight of cargo which would occupy that volume. However, through time, it lost its
simplicity. Complex rules developed to determine whether particular spaces were included in
the gross tonnage or exempt (not included) or deductable (in the gross but not in the net).
Some of these rules encouraged the building of inherently unsafe ships the Open Shelter
Decker which had no permanent means of making watertight the transverse bulkheads
above the tonnage deck. The spaces bounded by these bulkheads were open and thus
exempt and not included in the gross tonnage. Unfortunately they were unlikely to
contribute to keeping the ship afloat after it was damaged.
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capacity its ability to pay for services rendered. The resulting measures were not to result in
too great a change to existing ships and were not to act to distort the criteria of the ship design
process.
When the new rules were established it was intended that in general the existing
tonnages should be unchanged. However two types of ship, small open shelter deck cargo
ships and Ro-Ro ships did suffer a significant increase in both gross tonnage and net tonnage.
Passenger ships (without Ro-Ro capability), Bulk Carriers and Ore Carriers were awarded a
significant reduction in net tonnage.
The provisions of the Convention came into force on 18th July 1982 for new ships,
converted ships and ships changing registry and on 18th July 1994 for all ships.
The two parameters used for the measurement of tonnage are still called Gross
Tonnage and Net Tonnage but are dimensionless numbers and so bear no units.
Gross Tonnage is based on the Volume of all enclosed spaces in the ship.
Net Tonnage is generally based on the Volume of the cargo spaces. In passenger ships
account is also taken of the Number of passengers carried in two categories those in cabins
with up to 8 berths and those carried in larger cabins or without cabins.
All volumes included in the calculation of Gross and Net Tonnages are measured to
the inner side of the shell plating, i.e. moulded dimensions are used. Volumes of appendages
are included in the total volume; volumes of spaces open to the sea are excluded from the total
volume.
The Gross Tonnage (GT) of a ship is determined by the formula: GT = K1*V
where V is the total volume of all enclosed spaces in the ship in cubic metres
and K1 = 0.2 + 0.02*log10(V)
The Net Tonnage (NT) of a ship is determined by the formula: NT = K2Vc(4T/3D)2 + K3(N1 + N2/10)
where Vc is the total volume of cargo spaces in the ship in cubic metres
K2 = 0.2 + 0.02*log10(Vc)
K3 = 1.25((GT + 10000)/10000)
D = Moulded Depth amidships in metres
T = Moulded Draught amidships in metres
N1 = Number of Passengers in cabins with not more than 8 berths
N2 = Number of other Passengers
Now the factor (4T/3D)2 must not be taken greater than 1.0000
the term K2Vc(4T/3D)2 shall not be taken less than 0.25*GT
N1 and N2 shall be taken as zero when N1 + N2 < 13
NT shall not be taken less than 0.30*GT
These rules now apply to virtually all ships.
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(However you should be aware that different Regulations may apply to Fishing
Vessels and to vessels under 24 m in length.)
Excluded spaces are defined as those open to the sea and not suitable for the carriage
of cargo.
Cargo spaces are defined as compartments for the carriage of cargo which is to be
discharged from the ship and are to be permanently marked with the letters CC.
Alteration to the parameters of the net tonnage formula that would result in a reduction
of net tonnage is restricted to once a year.
Segregated Ballast Oil Tankers
Tankers with segregated ballast tanks complying with MARPOL 1973 may have the
tonnage of these tanks entered in the tonnage certificate. The tonnage of these tanks is to be
calculated according to the formula: TSB = K1*Vb
where TSB = Tonnage of Segregated Ballast Tanks
Vb = Total volume of segregated ballast tanks in cubic metres
K1 = 0.2 + 0.02*log10(V)
and V is the total volume of all enclosed spaces in the ship in cubic metres
Deck Cargoes
Where cargo is carried in any uncovered space on deck the tonnage of the space
occupied to be taken into account for the payment of dues where goods are carried in spaces
not forming part of the gross or net tonnages shall be determined by the formula:
TDK =0.535(mean length*mean breadth*mean height)
where TDK is deck cargo tonnage
and the mean length, mean breadth and mean height are measured in metres
Definitions
In the context of the Tonnage Regulations, the following definitions apply: Length is the greater of (a) the distance between the fore side of the stem and the axis of the
rudder stock or (b) the distance measured from the fore side of the stem being 96% of the
distance between that point and the aft side of the stern, both measurements being taken at a
waterline corresponding to 85% of the least moulded depth of the ship. In the case of a ship
having rake of keel the waterline shall be parallel to the designed waterline.
Moulded Depth is the vertical distance from the top of the keel to the underside of the upper
deck at side. In a ship with a rounded gunwale the moulded depth shall be measured to the
point of intersection of the moulded lines of the deck and side shell, the lines extending as
though the gunwale was angular. Where the upper deck is stepped and the raised part of the
deck extends over the point where the depth is to be determined then the moulded depth shall
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be measured to a reference line extending from the lower part of the deck parallel to the raised
part.
Moulded Draught is the draught corresponding to the Summer Load Line, or the deepest
subdivision load line assigned to a passenger ship.
These notes provide an extract from the Regulations sufficient for the work of this
class. For professional work you should be in possession of a copy of the full Regulations and
any amendments.
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deck then the exemption in the tonnage rules did not apply. Thus the tonnage rules
encouraged a design of ship which was not as safe as it might be. Many ships with nonwatertight bulkheads in the tween decks were in existence in 1939 and during the Second
World War their increased vulnerability was recognised. As a temporary measure the
bulkheads were made watertight to improve their subdivision.
In the years following 1945 steps were taken to amend the existing regulations in
order to eliminate open shelter deck ships without removing from them the benefit of reduced
tonnage. Eventually ships were measured for tonnage in both the open and the closed
condition and the decision as to which applied depended on the draught of the ship. A tonnage
mark was set on either side of the ship at amidships to correspond to the draught which would
be obtained if the second deck were the freeboard deck. If the mark was immersed then the
closed (higher) tonnage applied and if the mark was not immersed then the open (lower)
tonnage applied.
Paragraph ships were designed to gain an advantage from certain paragraphs in the
tonnage regulations and their impact on other statutory requirements. For example a ship
exceeding 500 gross tons was required to carry a fully qualified radio officer.
To avoid such requirements, many ships were designed to be 499 gross tons. Over a period of
time designers became very adept at interpreting the regulations so that a ship of increasing
cargo deadweight still remained under 500 gross tons.
These observations principally apply to the British tonnage regulations but similar
anomalies were found in the rules of most other nations. All of these rules (except for the
special rules used by the authorities of the Suez and Panama Canals) were superseded by the
1969 International Convention on Tonnage Measurement.
Bibliography
The Merchant Shipping (Tonnage) Regulations 1997, S.I. 1997 No 1510
The 1969 International Conference on Tonnage Measurement of Ships by E. Wilson,
Transactions RINA Volume 112, 1970 pp357-390
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14
These can be placed into three categories as far as regulation is concerned: 1 & 3 can be satisfied by go/no go decisions under the heading of conditions of
assignment.
4
is normally achieved by ensuring that the structure complies with the rules of a
recognised classification society plus some simple stability criteria.
2 & 5 are left to be dependent on the geometry of the ship.
The purpose of the freeboard calculations to be discussed later is to assess the geometry
of the ships hull so that the minimum freeboard can be determined.
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In the mean time Lloyd's had evolved a calculation for freeboard based on the tonnage
coefficient (Underdeck Tonnage in cubic feet divided by the product of Length, Breadth and
Depth). In 1886 the Board of Trade stated that ships marked in accordance with this
calculation would not be detained for overloading. The calculation was brought into the law in
1890.
The rules were revised in 1906 when freeboards were reduced. A committee investigated
Load Lines in 1913-15 following the loss of the Titanic and considered that the reduction of
1906 was justified. The first international conference on Load Lines was held in 1930 and the
views of the 1913-15 committee and two others, which had met in 1925 and 1929, were the
basis for its consideration. Hitherto the purpose of freeboard was simply to ensure a reserve of
buoyancy and that was all that the rules sought to impose. Under the International Convention
agreed in 1930 the assignment of freeboard was to be dependent on the ship having adequate
strength and being well constructed and maintained. In addition passenger ships had to satisfy
requirements on subdivision and intact stability.
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Length
Subdivision requirements
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B+
B
B-60
100 m to 225 m
B-60
None
None
To withstand the flooding of any single damaged
compartment within the cargo hold length at an
assumed permeability of 0 95
As above, but the machinery space also to be treated
as a floodable compartment at an assumed permeability of 0 85
To withstand the flooding of any two adjacent fore
and aft compartments within the cargo hold
length at an assumed permeability of 0 95
As above, but the machinery space, taken alone,
also to be treated as a floodable compartment at
an assumed permeability of 0 85
Damage is assumed as being for the full depth of the ship, with a penetration of 1/5 the
beam clear of main transverse bulkheads. After flooding the final water-line is to be below the
lower edge of any opening through which progressive flooding may take place. The
maximum angle of heel is to be 15, and the metacentric height in the flooded condition
should be positive.
Bibliography
The Merchant Shipping (Load Line) Regulations 1998, S.I. 1998 No 2241
as amended by,
The Merchant Shipping (Load Line)(Amendment) Regulations 2000, S.I. 2000 No 1335
Merchant Shipping Notice MSN 1752 (M)
The 1966 International Conference on Load Lines by D. R. Murray Smith, Transactions
RINA Volume 111, 1969 pp 1-20
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15
Further Reading
15.1 Books
Practical Ship Design, by D. G. M. Watson,
Elsevier Science Ltd, Oxford 1998
Elements of Ship Design, by R Munro-Smith,
Institute of Marine Engineers, London 1975 reprinted
Ship Design for Efficiency and Economy, by H Schneekluth,
Butterworth, London 1987 (First Edition)
(There is now a Second Edition - 1998 - but it is rather less useful than the
First Edition)
Ship Design and Construction, by T. Lamb (Ed.),
SNAME, Jersey City, NJ 2003
Basic Ship Theory (Volume 2), by K J Rawson & E C Tupper,
5th Edition, Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford 2001
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