chapter

one

and their background

,1",'Tn~~~t~'~~~h~~;~~~;~~~~,;
see liSting
, , (forrull detailS:

the

at the',:, ":

:' ';'; : ;si~ri'Oft~i;:b9bk),; , ',':' ':!"

When you have worked through this chapter you will be able to:
o Identify key management processes
o Understand how people become managers
G

Identify the limitations of specialist career structures

Understand the nature and causes of conflict between specialist and managerial work

c. Identify where
41

you are or are likely to be on the managerial escalator

Developa strategy for getting the right balance between specialist and managerial work, both for yourself and
others

Introduction
This chapter sets the theme for the whole book, First, the nature of management is
examined, and then the way in which people become managers, People usually have an
escalator-type progression into management. They are likely to have to combine _
specialist with managerial responsibilities for much of their career and therefore
\:-.\become
managei'ia(hybrids,
Untortunately, people may ~~'t'h-ei~~a~ge~i~l
responsibilities in favour of specialist activity. If this happens, their personal priorities
conflict with organisational priorities, There are four main reasons why such conflict
can arise, These are because of lack of attention to:

;);:v->
(}.J

13
I?

job definition,
managerial selection,

The skills of management

training and development,

effective monitoring.

$
til

Ma

To be effective, managers need to be prepared to meet organisational rather than

personal priorities. If they concentrate on doing specialist work, they are likely to find
their career prospects severely limited because of the difficulty that organisations have
in providing career structures only involving specialist work. Whilst much of the
material used to illustrate this point is British, the problem of converting specialists into
being managers of other specialists is an international phenomenon.
. Other issues covered are the concept of managerial competencies and the remedial
strategies for improving the quality of management. The remedial strategies are linked
to dealing with the four basic causes of poor management already identified. The first
issue to be developed is the actual nature of management.

C"'Yh'e'-nat~'re"0 (m an'agem'e'nt"'-'..--.-.,- -....._.. ..'_'..."-_ __ - -,-"

'

.. _, .. ,.-._.'"

'_"

.._-,

,.._ ..

"--,""

-,

,--_ .. -

- ..__ ".-.-

,....

...,

'.

THE MANAGERIAL CYCLE

.V

Management has been defined by Mary Parker Follett as}he art of getting things done
~through people' (Graham 1988).
The elements involved in the process of management were identified by Henri Fayol
as 'to forecast and plan, to organise, to command, to co-ordinate and to control' (Gray
1988).
Synthesising Fayols view with later writers, one can identify the basic elements in
terms of the managerial cycle as shown in Figure 1.1.

Identification
~OfObjeCliVes
Remedial
action

Target
setting

(
Feedback

aM\'
. .
Motivation

FIGURE 1.1 The managerial

cycle

communication~

Ho.

Resource
organisation

RELATIC

Managers and their

background

Some writers see the managerial cycle as a simplistic model with too rational a view of
the manager .. Mintzberg's stud of how managers actually operate challenged the
concept of the tota y rational manager. He observed~es
at
work and also reviewed the results of studies of managers at generally lower levels in
other 'Western countries, The overall pattern of managerial work appeared to him to be
for reflective thought. Mintzberg
-a bectic and fragmented one with~ little 00?0rtunity
-----_._----,----also found decision-making was often abrut, intuitive and incremental rather ,than
strategic. ~t wasortenlnfiUei1cedbys~~io~;:;'a_tj9!Lincluding
.internal and external
gossip (Mintzberg 1989).
~other
writer, Watson, also has spent time observing managers at work (1994). His
observations of UK managers in the electronics industry led him to conclude that
individuals view the process of management as being interrelated with their identity,
values, status, development, self-esteem and material rewards. He also saw these
managers' daily activities as particularly concerned with

feeling ones way ill confusing circumstances, struggling to make sense of ambiguous
messages, reading signals, looking around, listening all the time, coping with co}~flicts
and struggling to achieve tasks thro1!gh establishing and maintaining a network of
relationships.
II

Watson 1994: 8

Another recent view of the role and skills of the manager was provided in a study of
management in local government in the UK. There is a general relevance in their
observation:

I
~'

Management is best defined not as a limited number of'top' or 'leading' positions, but
as a set of competencies, attitudes, and qualities bioadiy distributed throughout the
organisation. Management skills are not the propert), of the few. Effectil'e local
authorities will recognise that man)' jobs which have not conventionally borne the tag
'manager' rely Hone the less all that bundle of actions - taking charg, securing an
outcome, controlling affairs - which amounts to 'managing'.
Local Government Ivtanogemenc Board 1993: 8

How people become managers

RELATIONSHIP WITH ORGANISATIONAL

STRUCTURE

The structure of organisations is usually such that most employees are engaged in a
specialised activity. The number of general jobs involving the co-ordination of the work
of a number of different specialist departments, for example, tends to be very limited,

~
"

The skills of management

._-

The entry into organisations is usually into specialised activity. People may be engaged
at a 10'wIyleveCmaspe~ialis~d deparTineni.- jUt-ernati~;d),;they may have advanced
specialist skills that they have acquired either by experience or training or a combination
aT both. This specialist background is the pedigree of the vast ma)oritYOf---m;nagers~This can be demonstrated by probing into the background of a~_yone
you know
who has managerial responsibilities. Engineering managers,<tor examPlV come from
the ranks of specialist engine~ w~r
nursing offic~vitably"have
a
professionai nursing qualification. A head teacher will normally have a teaching
qualification. F~~_p.!~pi'gers
are invariably ex-professional players. Small business
entrepreneurs are usually running a business based on their initial technical skill, for
example, in computing, in the building trade or as a motor mechanic.

\('vfiJ

,~~_.

THE MANAGERIAL ESCALATOR

--' V--..'y;Vi."~
. ..J,,-'
.:/
The concept of the managerial escalator seeks to explain how specialists become
~~~
.> .P~~
managers. Initially a specialist may be employed 100 per cent of the time on specialist
activity. This may well be after professional training as an accountant, engineer or
\-'tY~ ,\( ,t
_ . y. t1) \.
whatever. The competent specialist may gradually acquire minor supervisory
~P'
~. \ responsibilities, perhaps quite informally. For example, this could be helping

.-'Ii. . ~
~

<{V0,J;.'V'l'''\ ~

.' , ,.Y~'

\.1. \ ,

./

-4~: Yl newcomers with their job. After five years of competent performance

.'" ..\ ~,<'l;'

'I

,"C' ")

~,.. _,.__\_f..,

0Ji'"

\f'( \(~~

.A

~~~'

,';)

(~

~1),

:\

~)

VJ~J

it would not be
unusual for a specialist 10 be promoted Given the structure of organisations, this
usually involves an element of managecial ,esponsibility. An engineer could become a
section leader or a sales person a sales manager. After five more years there could be a
further formal promotion, either within the same or another organisation. This may
have been precede~ by a certain amount ofaccumulati?n of managerial respo~sibil~ty .
on an informal basis. people tend 10 be carried along this escalator and may finish with
most or even all of their time on the managerial side of the axis. The exact course of
progress will vary widely from one person to another. However, the escalator-type ..
progression is very common. The managerial activity may well be in a specialist
context, but the crucial change i~ that former
have to
most
their time managing other specialists, rather than eng~gi~g_jjre~tl)~_ in

--.

activity themselves.
Figure r:TciemOnStrates, in a rather simplified form, how specialists can, and
do, become managers. The amount of time spent on managerial activity by a
is indicated by reading off the level of the shaded area on the vertical scale on the
hand side of the diagram. The balance of activity, much of which may be of a
nature, is calculated simply by subtracting the managerial element from 100 per
The difference between the amount of time that a person should be spending
managerial activities and the amount of time actually spent is defined as
managerial gap.

Managers and their background

0/0
100

---..I

75

..-

)usiness .
skill, for

...-I

2S

./'

o
AGURE 1.2 The managerial

./

escalator

neer Or
rvisory
lelping
not be
1S, this
:ome a
ld be a
is may
sibility
h with
me of
r-type

NATURE OFTHE PROBLEM

1l&~

--7"':1

s.

f ~~

(Ak

15

20

25

Thepossession of specialist skills is normally an asset and in many cas_::squite indis-

pensable. If the person who manages in a specialist environ11!ent does not understand
it, they will be under a great, anlperhaps insurmountable, ~andicap. Management does
'-not raKeplacemaViTcuuni' Iiut ill a'particular set of circumstances - usually requiring
specialistknowledge. This knowledge may be necessary so that instructions are sensible
but may also serve to inspire respect in others. However, the specialist pedigree of ~l~st _
(./1nanagers is at the root of many of the problems that confront them, particularly the
danger of gettmg'thiili'iongvalance betweenspeclaTist and managerial activity

<,(;J2/'

cialist

ost of
cialist
often
':laost
~left:ialist
cent.
18 on
; the

10

Years of employment (excluding lull-time training)

iecialist

Managerial activity

become

__.J

Some of the problems that are likely to arise may now be obvious. A person may
specialist skills that they are increasingly less
able to use. A person may also have an emotional commitment to their specialist area and
a confidence in that area which may be backed up by several years of formal training .
Conversely, the commitment to, and training and aotitude .fur, the managerial side of the
job may be low. It would /lot?!_e_uiiU;;;alfor a manager in a specialist environment to have
'lad_leal's of s~01i!.t_!_r~il1illgbut only days of management training. ThIS inexorably
creates the temptation for managers to adjust the balance of their activity so that they
concentrate on what they like doing and what they feel equipped to do at the expense of
the managerial aspects of their job.

IQ) have em_barked on a career and acquired

B
.~

f
6

The skills of management

JOBTITLES

The conflict between specialist and managerial roles can sometimes be revealed by the
job titles people use. A consultant working in the civil engineering industry found that
the approach of the senior person on site was often indicated by whether they used the
title 'site engineer' or .'site manager'. Job titles can be revealing in many other
occupations as well, for example, the choice of the term 'buyer' or'department manager'
in a department store. It could also be that the use of the term 'head teacher' !ndic~~
.traditional orientation around teaching rather than the management of other teachers.
This can be reinforced by a perception tl1at the specialist activity is more important and
has more ~tatus than managerial activity. The speciaiiStCufiil7:etll"at e..'(lsts-inso mal7Y
---~---,._

--

orgl1l1isatiollSis perhaps the biggest single obstacle to effective management.

Specialist career structul~es and their limitations

THE GENERA')'ROBLEfVl
/)

,~~"-;~\t'~',.'\.,~".~,,
.
The dilemma of the spetialist who is forced into management is "centuated by the
.' . . /
_ \
", _ _
difficulty that organisations have providing alternative career progtessions. In some
-,>0- \} V)' \. .. oY-'/' / .,.i
cases, it may be possible to get around the dilemm, by providing the opportunity for
,:};~ 31(" '-' - ().)--\,:
speti,list career progtession. Howev", thee,tentto which this con be doneseemsto be
se"rely limited in p"Clice as it frequently pro"S imp"dicol to separate managerial
\
,_j.-,JJ,:\'~
and sped,list duties. M,n'geri,1 r;sponsibility usually flows from sped'l~t expertise.
If a person has to run a
are unl
to be able to do thi
f\
:J
understand
what
their
subordinates
are
doing
and
can
give
appropriate guidance about
__
---.---~--=-~-=~-:--:--..,.--.lll
workinoo methods and end results. The development of the concept team
can
lead to specialists acquiring significant management responsibilities despite occupying
:

'1' .,":':'"
,....
\ ",.

V<-'

],i\"'" .,,' ._y\

~---

a junior position.

MANAGERIAL RESPONSIBILITIESOFTHE HYBRID

_~

~.~~~v~

,~,v/
'\

./'1

'

','-

',\,~

\~

()WV'

\)).

<'

\J.-

The problems of disentangling specialist and managerial work can be demonstrated by

identifying the managerial-type activities that specialists may need to get involved in.
C\ll1sequently, they may need to act as hybrids, being involved in both specialist and
managerial activity. Activities that specialists may need to become involved in are:
~ anticipating, planning and allocating workload,
e identification of priorities,
e establishing and reviewing work methods,
e quality control,
~ management of budgets,
e management of physical resources,

Managers

background

s trouble-shooting,
I supervision of staff (including selection, on-the-job training, appraisal, counselling,
motivation, control and grievance handling),
~ liaison with senior management, colleagues at a similar level and ancillary staff,
III external liaison.

und that
other
lanager'
Iicates a
eachers.
:antand
'0 many

and their

1)'

by the
, some
ity for
s to be
igerial
ertise.
s they
about

The flattening of many organisational structures has tended to increase the speed at
which specialists accumulate managerial responsibilities. Reductions in the numbers
of specialist advisers can also lead to a broadening of managerial roles. Conventional
specialist and managerial careers and work boundaries are often breaking down so that
both specialists and managers are having to become multiskilled. These developments
and flexible management structures can also lead to greater lateral movement of personnel in organisations .
.Ironically, it may be more feasible to have a person without specialist knowledge at
the-top of an orgamsanon ffiailiilleSssenior positions. A ch;~fexecutive can rely on a
~atisfclepartmentaJ
heads andconcentrateon co-ordinating their work. Even
then, however, the chief executive would need a good understanding of the environment
in which the organisation was operating and of the internal resources and constraints
within their organisation.

EMPLOYEE PRESSURES
The pressures for specialist career structures are often employee driven. Specialists
may want to obtain the rewards usually associated with accepting managerial responsibility without actually accepting such responsibilities. Problems that this can cause for
the organisation are:

's'can

e the demand for highly paid specialist jobs may greatly exceed their availability,

pying

e the more highly paid specialists there are, the more the problems of integrating their
work with that of colieagues,
(dl the incentive
for and availability of other specialists to accept management
responsibilities can be reduced.

.d by
din.
and

The above issues have arisen with regard to the teaching and nursing professions. In
1998 the UK government announced plans for nursing consultants andsuperteachers'.
Whilst this might be popular with members of the nursing and teaching professions
who get appointed to these positions, organisations will still be left with the problems
of finding enough capable specialists to undertake crucial manageria_l respon~ibili~es,
The concept of 'superteachers' appears to have since become incorporated with
performance-related pay for teachers. Substantial rewards for good teachers may deter
people from taking OIl positions with greater responsibility and will not ease the
chronic shortage of capable head teachers and deputies. However, the introduction of
'super-nurses' may have the advantage of reducing the pressures on scarce and
expensive medical staff.

Managers

i~

'gnise that it
ertise without
ilisr areas, the'
make a good
)f managerial

and their background

nsfo~ people opting out of managerialresponsibilities

IDENTIFY THE .MANAGERIAL
'-'----_.--_._..
.

ELEMENT IN A JOB

One reason why managers som_e!imes engage in an inap!?ropria~~lanc!_?i

~~~vj~!~.
__
may simply be that they have failed to identify that they are doing so. If the general
style IS for over-concentration on specialist activity, an imbalance may not be easily
recognised by others either, far less be the subject of constructive comment and advice.

- to keep the

essential
I<j_ivitycan
~
.
(mentatIOn

re

give more
! teachers
or trivial
ovided is
~.g.firms
's cannot
riorities,
'essional
gence of
Jund to
'owever,
nains a

It is easy to see why professional footballers may try to combine the daunting tasks of
playing and managing. Their reputations will be as players and, if they step down a
division or two, they may find that for a while they can cope with both tasks. However,
there is a danger that they will fail in both directions, Their playing ability will be on the
decline because of age, just as technical specialists moving up the managerial escalator
will find that their technical skills are declining. Their selection and support by club
directors may be such that they have limited help, and perhaps limited aptitude, for the
jobs for which they have been chosen. Under these pressures, and those of trying to
learn a new job, probably with a new cIub~th~y\egress'
intoa00g ~~a.~~ley' have
been historically good at. Tne more they try in this direction, the more may be their
physical eXhaustIOn and retreat from the key area of management. Perhaps a few playermanagers can cope with this for a while; others try and fail, and still others accept that
they have to 'cross over the ljoLa-Ad concentrate fuM-time on management. The same
.
logic applies when players move into the more restricted role of coach.
The football example is meant to help explain a general problem. When people are
experiencing strain in the managerial part of their job they may seek to avoid this by
r~r-f(Jr.!1~~rsp~cJaTlsfrore:-fhis
proviclea -telJlPorary refuge, or
comfort zoneand-;estore confidence by enabling the person to d~d
~,Iike
much avoidance behaviour, it is likely to make matters even worse in the
long term. A symptom of this may be the eagerness with which a manager insists on
'acting down' when a subordinate is away.

--_

----

may

A pressure to take promotion may include an antipathy to being supervised by any

of the other people who may be appointed to the boss job. Some people rna)' be
reconciled to this shift and be able to cope with it. Others may not be reconciled to it
and/or may not be equipped to handle it. This may lead to them over-concentrating on

10

The skills of management

the specialist area - either through conscious design or, more likely, because they have
never really reasoned it through. The problems may be compounded by the actions and
perceptions of their bosses. If the boss has not reasoned it through either, a pattern may
be created down the line. Alternatively, even if bosses have reasoned it through for
themselves, the appointment of subordinate managers may still be faulty.

REWARDS
~

Q:;

The reasons why people strive to obtain positions that they cannot or will not handle
properly needs some ex-plaining. A basic cause is that the structure of most organisanons IS such that this may be the only way for employees to gain promotion with the
associated increases in pay, status and authority. Employees may accept promotion
without appreciating the shift in emphasis to managerial activity that is required. On
other occasions, people may have a calcuiated strate~ of~efits
as
possible from a job but doing as little as.. _pOSSIble01
the .work involved.
-_0.- .
_

Employers may need to give some attention as to how they reward 'knowledge' workers.
As explained in chapter 7, if a particular expertise really is critical to the success of an
organisation, it may be necessary to pay accordingly. Care needs to be taken that this is :
not done on spurious grounds or that any advantages are greater than the disadvantage
of discouraging people from accepting managerial responsibilities. The worst thing 10 '.
do is to promote people into managerial jobs while Jetting them think that they need net .
take their managerial responsibilities seriously.

----'7 WORK PREFERENCES

specialisation). This can happen in many, if not all, managerial environments.
this was explained to a group of transport managers they responded by saying tha~
only did they recognise the phenomenon, but they also had a name for it. SU
who insisted on driving, ostensibly to 'keep their hand in', were described by

Managers

..:

'>

,-

ny
It,-.
.d
is'
O.

PERSO,,!A~!T'(F~<;TORS
The ability or willingness of people to handle managerial activity can be influenced by
powerful psychological factors relating to individual personalities. Some people may
strive for the power that managerial authority can give, regardless of whether or not
they are competent to exercise that authority wisely. Sometimes people may actually be
r2.-in flight from their specialism because they are not very good at it or because they have
{burnt out' Jfl that area.
....---._--- .........
- - - - .- .,
......

d.::~:;
!(,,:':'
~.;.:::
i'\.,.
,:

This does not mean that there are not also perfectly valid reasons why people aspire
to positions of greater responsibility. One has sympathy for people who are sucked into
management but who are concerned that, if for any reason they lose their jobs, they will
have difficult}, in returning to their specialist sphere unless they have kept up to dale.
The point being made, however, is that it is necessary at the selection stage to try and
identify the real reason why people want a particular job and to distinguish between
valid and invalid reasons.

'.,~

ers.
an
sis
1ge
to
lot

rr

n
)t

background

being 'cab happy'. Ex-pilots are notorious for this, and the tendency is reinforced by the
requirement that ~ minimum number of hours must be flown to retai"n a-licenc~.]f this
type of achvn}' oniy happens occasionally, perhaps one should not worry too much.
When it forms a regular pattern, though, there is likely to be a serious problem.
Another problem can arise people with a background in a particular management
specialism. Like other specialists, they may pay too much attention to their area of
historic specialisation. Consequently, they may give too much priority in terms of time
and decision making to issues in their specialised area.

ern may
lugh for

handle
irgam.
ith the
notion
ed. On
'fits as

and their

.-

The fundamental nature of some of the personality factors that may discourage
people from applying for managerial positions, or regressing when they are in such
jobs, needs examination. One basic possibility is that extroverts prefer the managerial
~nd
introverts the specialis~ activity. To appoint or not to appoint just on that basis
would be somewhat simplistic. However, the value system that specialists develop
in their formative occupational years and their self-image rna}' be much more bound
up with specialist rather than managerial activity. This, in turn, may conflict with
organisational values.
Keenan points out that several authors have noted how the professional values of
engineers and scientists - emphasising technical accomplishment, autonomy and public
availability of knowledge - are at a varIance with the goals of profIta5,Tity,markeiablliTf--

'-----

-----.-.--

II

/
12

The skills of management

of products and safeguarding of knowledge which might be useful to competitors

(Bladder ana Shimmin 1984: 23). The conflict between these sets of values-;;;y b~_tr_:.cipitated by promotion and creat~<;Dnsid~tabl~_stress-,-Blacklerand Shimmin comment
that promotion to supervisory or management positions of specialists 'may reduce or
remove the opportunity to do the work for which they were trained and with which they
identify. Professional and skilled manual work:~s are particularly p'~gn~to this typeof __
conflict, for example, nurses whose contact with patients lessens with increasing
seOiorit)' and engineers for whom advancement means abandoning technical work for
. management' (1984:23). They add:

The pelfectionist,for example, whose self-esteem is tied closelyto the idea of ajob well
done, is likely to be more subject to stressof this kind than someone who is happy-golucky in his or her approach.
1984: 25

As Keenan says of professional engineers. 'the successful accomplishment gi..

.l!_leaningful. techn!ca!_,~o~k i: at the centre o_f~eil~peic_~ptiQn of th.~B1~~lv:e~in their
980). Consequently, neither work that underutilises their technical skills nor
work that is so demanding that they feel unable to complete it successfully is
~~sfactory
from their point of view.
,
Those with professional or scientific training rna)' also. according to Pedler and
----':""
.1'
Boydell, have developed norms of carefulness and certainty, and learnt to avoid conflict
rather than develop skills to handle it (1985). There may also be little in their specialist
culture to equip them to deal with that key variable - people.
Personality factors can. in turn, be reinforced by the uncongenial aspects of many
managerial roles. This has led Sease and Goffee to coin the phrase..:'r:.:.e;.;;lu:.:.c.:.:ta:.::.:n:.:.t=-==~_,__
which is also the title of their book (1989). They refer to the 'emotional hardening' that
may be necessary to handle managerial roles. They also comment
angmg
~social values and the iiicreasing desire of managers to balance their work and domestic
roles. The stereotype of the male manager with the family's interests subordinated to
his career is decreasingly representative. What is more common is for managers. as for '
others, to have significant domestic responsibilities. This can be for a variety of reasons
including the career of a partner. dependent elderly relatives and single parenthood.
There is also an increasing risk of divorce (Sease and Goffee 1989). Additionall)', the
actual work may be fragmented. managers can be expected to reconcile a mass of
conflicting pressures. be poorly serviced and supported and in some cases even receive
a lower salary than their subordinates. These unenviable aspects are considered further
in chapter 14 under the sub-heading 'supervisory control'. There are still more reasons
why those with managerial responsibilities might wish to shy away from the managerj~
aspects of their work. Pressures to reduce overall spending are another disi
Two further factors to be examined in detail are pressure from subordinateS
inadequate training.

~7

~ 0

14

The skills of

management
developing countries, demonstrate the international nature of the problems identified
in this chapter.

GENERAL CONSEQUENCESOF OPTING-OUT

Managers are likely to be judged ultimately by the results they achieve through consfructive management of employees - not by possession of specialist knowledge. The
specialist knowledge that managers require is that which enables them to supervise
others. If subordinates can do a particular job better than the manager, the manager's
skill is in arranging them to do so. To compete with the subordinate and then fail is
hardly recommended.
There is a world of difference between a manager having no specialist competence
and having sufficient specialist knowledge to supervise subordinates. The latter may be
quite sufficient. It would be very nice if all managers knew more about every aspect of
the subordinate's job than the subordinate, but it is not very realistic, particularly with
changing technology. It may also not do a great deal for the esteem of subordinates. The'
manager may have to face up to being confronted by a specialist issue that they cannot
deal with. Rather than worry about this, it may be that this is simply an instance when
the manager reroutes the subordinate to a source where they may get the
information. The emphasis needs to be on seeing that the specialists maintain
develop their skill base rather than on the manager trying to do this.
A whole host of problems can arise if the weaning process, whereby those
managerial responsibilities get the right balance of specialist and managerial

Managers

and their

background

is not satisfactorily accomplished. This is the recurrent theme of this chapter. Often
managers show favouritism in the allocation of resources to their own area of interest
and historical specialisation.

The remedial strategies needed to d~L wLth the problem Qf .poor managerial perfor.- mance involve dealing with the four basic causes of ineffective performance identified
in the introduction to this chapter. These issues are so important that they are worth
repeating before being addressed in detail. They are:
role definition.
'? managerial selection,
e training and development,
o monitoring.
I

ROLE DEFINITION

conThe
'vise
ger's
il is
nee
;be
t of
'ith
'he
lot

en
:ht
ld
:h

y,

When managers are reluctant to accept managerial responsibility, a key remedial strategy
is to make such responsibilities crystal clear. This is also necessary if the other remedial
strategies of selection, training and development, and monitoring are to be effective.
This role dari Kation needs to be an inteoral art of selection, and the need to highlight
t~~e_n~aI)agerial aspects of a job are necessary for both applicants and those making
appointments. This issue is given particular attention in the following section on
managerial selection.

MANAGERIAL SELECTION
There are a variety of reasons why the wrong people are given managerial responsibility
Two key mistakes are considered i;;-thi;sec-tlo~:~'iz. failure to recognise the manag~rial
element in jobs and general selection incompetence. Intervention strategies need to be
based on avoiding such mistakes.
Mistake No, 1: Failure to identify and select on the basis of the managerial
element in a job
The easiest way to choose a manager is to look at their historical performance and
, appoint or reject on that basis. The danger in this approach is, however, that ~here may _
be critical differences between tb.e...d!J.tie.s..lhat-a..p.ersOI1-ha&.perfofmed.in
the_lillS.Land.
ihose that they may be expected to perform in the future. Unfortunately, this point
rna)' not be properly grasped and, in any case, it is so much easier to assess historical
performance rather than speculate about a person's managerial potential. It is, for

15

16

The skills of management

choose the right person for the future. In the police service this sometimes
sergeants being regarded as 'constables with stripes on their arms'.

..

'

~=-::~~~~~~~~~~~~~E~~~~.:.:.:::~~:..:..::However,
those who
find that they have emerged through the selection system as managers need to address
themselves to the behaviour that will be appropriate, even if those appointing them
not. A further obstacle to appointment on the basis of suitability to the job in the UKhas,
historically at least, been the importance of social class. According to Sease and Goffee,

\.

-.

The 'skills'that have been traditionally,but perhaps erroneously,associatedwith leadership may be difficult to acquire, if only because they are derived through particular
child-rearing patterns, education and class-based experiences. The persistence of such
styles resuitsfrom the tendency for senior managers to recruit successorswith similar.
personal characteristics. Such processes militate against the career opportunities of
thosefrom working-class origins, of women and of others who have been unableto
acquire the intangible but realpersonal attributes of classprivilege.
The problems that can arise as a result of selecting on the basis of historic
are satirically and amusingly explained in the book The PeterPrinciple by Peter and
(1970). Their observations contain more than a germ of truth. The basic
explained in the book is that if one looks backward in time instead of forward
selecting, people will rise up through organisational hierarchies until they pass
threshold of competence. Only when that has happened will there be no basis
appointment at a higher level of responsibility. The basic Peter Principle is stated
that: 'In a hierarchy evel)' employee tends to rise to his (or her) level of .
Corollaries are:

Managers and their background

ional foot.
5e of skills
f selectors

in time, every post tends

out its duties;

to be occupied

by an employee who is incompetent to carry

work is accomplished by those employees who have not yet reached their level of
incompetence (Peter and Hull 1990:22-24).

The material in chapter 9 on selection gives practical guidance on how to appoint on the
basis of'fit' with the job. It is crucial that the managerial ability or potential is included
in selection criteria. It is also important that those undertaking the selection are competent in the techniques of selection, also explained in chapter 9.

<,

TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT OF MANAGERS

_--_

>_

Whilst management training is a key intervention are<!, the quantity and quality of
t@ining"'aeveiopment:rwsQfte~1eell
neglected. Historic~Ily, 1~1a~ag~; have often
received little management training. Charles Handy maintained that in the UK this had
much to do with the amateur tradition:
Management, after all, was held by the British to be akin to parenting, a role of great
importance for which no training, preparation or qualification was required: the
implication being that experience is the 0110'possible teacher and character the only
possibie qualification.

petence
ple with
ise who
address
em did
JKhas,
Goffee,

1991: 122

There has been an increase in managers receiving training and a marked trend to
including management throughout the world. In Britain there has also been a great
expansion in business studies courses, and the annual output of .MBA graduates is
almost 10,000 (Thomson et al. 1997).Management training is also increasingly a core
component of vocational university and professional courses. However, increases in
the quantity of management training are one thing, ensuring that training is effective
is another.

leaderticular
ifsuch
imilar
ties of
'hIe to

Management training can often be ineffective for a variety of reasons. These include
_jn~ccurate diagnosis of 1l~~~_P~?!.~~tio!1_and ~nsati~fac~~!..L~~~_0l~g.A particular
problem with management training is the need fgr those receiving the training_1Q_
integrate what they have learnt with their eer~onal behavioll!:.jometimes
the
aCl}ustments that ma;ager;-need to make to manage are effectively beyond them. Also
in-house training budgets can be amongst the first casualties in organisations seeking
to economise. The problems of providing effective management training are considered
further in chapter 11.

;-186

lance
IHull
leept
"hen
their
; for
o be
'ice'.

\-r

110NITORING
The fourth key intervention is monitoring. This applies whether a manager is managing
others or reviewingtheir ~~lan.ce_;rhe
good work in trying to ensure accurate
role definition, selection, and training and development can easily be undone if there is

17

18

The skills of management

no effective monitoring. Akey feature of any strategy for correcting imbalance in the job
is for those likely to experience the problem to be made more aware of it. They may
do this for themselves by learning, perhaps on a trial and error basis. However, training
and monitoring of performance can help to ensure that people do not have to learn
everything the hard way - or even not at all. Unfortunately, if an organisation has too
much of a specialist culture, it is particularly likely that those with managerial
responsibilities will fail to see the need to monitor and then correct the performance of
their subordinates or themselves .
.Managers have a responsibility to see that the training and development of themselves and their staff fits into an integrated pattern. These are not activities that can be
handled just by training departments or by sending people on courses. Performance
management, on-the-job learning, appraisal, coac_hingand formal training need to be
integrated. There is a particular responsibility for bosses to see that those who are
given managerial responsibilities are also given help through appraisal, counselling and
coaching. This is particularly necessary when people make critical moves up the
managerial escalator. $0 often people are 'thrown in at the deep end' by managers
who have not handled the transitional problems properly themselves and 'who blame
subordinates for their shortcomings in a new job. The developmental strategies and
techniques mentioned in this section are given more detailed attention in chapter J L

if The basics of management have been identified as a necessary prelude both to the

chapter and the book. The essence of management is that it involves achieving
results through others. Most managers gradually acquire managerial responsibility
and change, in an escalator-like progression, from being specialists to being the
managers of specialists. Most managerial activiry is probably undertaken by
(i.e. people who combine specialist and managerial activity). Unfortunately, there
often a conflict between the work that those with managerial responsibilities prefer
to do and organisational priorities. Many specialists undertake managerial duties.
because of the lack of an alternative career structure. There are considerable
practicable difficulties preventing organisations arranging specialist career structures.

IIVLIIl"''- ...

t~;

V It is by understanding the above issues that individuals can understand

pressures on them to undertake managerial responsibilities and how they ,~
handle them effectively.From an organisational point of view the four key remeOIa.~Jtl.l
strategies are:
e the accurate definition of managerial roles,
e effective managerial selection,
e/ appropriate and adequate management training and development,
e the effective monitoring of those with management responsibilities.

Managers

and their

background

r./ From an individual's point of view it is particularly important to define one's role

accurately, plan appropriate training and development, and develop means of selfmonitoring.
hi' Having identified the need for the proper definition of managerial roles as the first
in this sequence of activities both organisationally and individually, it is appropriate
that this forms the subject matter of chapter 2.

\,.'

,'.'

..'

.j"',

1. How did Mary Parker Follett define management?

2. \"'hy are people with managerial responsibilities

background?

likely to have a specialist

ers
ne

3. Why do organisations find it difficult to provide specialist career structures?

1d

4. Why might those with managerial

responsibilities neglect them in favour of

specialist activity"

,
G
t-

5. \'\'here are you on the managerial escalator? Where might you be in five years?

r"

6. What are the four key areas where attention is needed to ensure that those with
managerial responsibilities perform effectively?

,;

,
)

(.,

References)

(Works of general interest in the specific references are marked with a star.)
Blackler,Frank and Sheila Shimmin, (1984) Applying Psychology ill Organisations, Methuen.
This paraphrases T. Keenan's (1980) work, which is contained in 'Stress and the
Professional Engineer', in CA. Cooper and J. Marshall (eds), White-collar and
Professional Stress, Wiley,p.p. 23-24.
Coles, Margaret (1997) 'IT skills shortage stumps recruiters' (report of a survey by Theaker,
Monro & Newman,Sunday Times appointments section, 16November).
Commons Select Committee on Culture, Media and the Arts (l997), Chairman Gerald
Kaufman, reported in the Evening Standard, London, 3 December.
Fayol,Henri, General and Industrial Management, revised by Irwin Gray (1988), Pitman.
Graham, Pauline (1998) Dynamic Managing - The Follett Way, Professional Publishing.
,. Handy, Charles (1991) The Age of Unreason,Business Studies Books, 2nd ed.
Lever, D. and Blease, D. (October 1992) 'what Do Primary Headteachers Really Do?'
Educational Studies.
Local Government Management Board (1993) Managing Tomorrow,Panel of Inquiry report.
,. Mintzberg, H. (1989) Mintzberg 011 Management, The Free Press.
Mead, R. (1998) International Management: Cross Cultural Dimensions. 2nd ed., Blackwell
Business.

19