Theodolite Surveying: Material

CHAPTER
Theodolite Surveying
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theodolite
state the fundamental lines of a theodolite
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Learning Objectives
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Introduction
In Chapter 3, we discussed compass surveying. A compass measures the direction
by measuring the angle between the line and a reference direction, which is the
magnetic meridian. A compass can measure angles up to an accuracy of 30 and
by judgement up to an accuracy of 15. The principle of working of the compass is
based on the property of the magnetic needle, which when freely suspended, takes
the northsouth direction. Compass measurements are thus affected by external
chapter, we will discuss another method of measuring directions of lines; a theodolite
is very commonly used to measure angles in survey work.
There are a variety of theodolitesvernier, optic, electronic, etc. The improvements (from one form to the other) have been made to ensure ease of operation,
better accuracy, and speed. Electronic theodolites display and store angles at the press
of a button. This data can also be transferred to a computer for further processing.
We start our discussion with the simplest theodolitethe vernier theodolite. Other
forms of theodolites are discussed at the end of this chapter.
The vernier theodolite is a simple and inexpensive instrument but very valuable
in terms of measuring angles. The common vernier theodolite measures angles up
to an accuracy of 20
Theodolite Surveying 249
in a compass, where the line of sight is simple, restricting its range, theodolites
are provided with telescopes which provide for much greater range and better accuracy in sighting distant objects. It is, however, a delicate instrument and needs to
be handled carefully. The theodolite measures the horizontal angles between lines
and can also measure vertical angles. The horizontal angle measured can be the
is the angle in a vertical plane between the inclined line of sight of the instrument
and the horizontal. In the following sections we will discuss the vernier theodolite
as well as its applications in surveying.
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6.1 Vernier Theodolite

The vernier theodolite is also known as a transit. In a transit theodolite or simply
transit the telescope can be rotated in a vertical plane. Earlier versions of theodolites
were of the non-transit type and are obsolete now. Only the transit theodolite will
be discussed here.
Two different views of a vernier theodolite are shown in Figs 6.1(a) and (b). The
instrument details vary with different manufacturers but the essential parts remain
the same. The main parts of a theodolite are the following.
11
12
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12
13
15
16
6
7
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4
10
15
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10
11
14
6
7
4
5
2
3
17
2
3
1
18
18
(a) Sectional view

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Trivet
Tribrach
Foot screw
Inner axis
Outer axis
Vernier plate
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
(b) Another view

Circle plate
A-frame
Vertical circle clamp arm
Vernier frame
Vertical circle
Altitude bubble
Fig. 6.1 Vernier theodolite
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
Vertical circle clamp

Telescope
Plate bubble
Upper clamp
Lower clamp
Tripod head
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Fundamentals of Surveying and Levelling
The lower plate, also known as the circle plate, is an annular,
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Lower plate
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Levelling head The levelling head is the base of the instrument. It has the provision to attach the instrument to a tripod stand while in use and attach a plumb bob
along the vertical axis of the instrument. The levelling head essentially consists
of two triangular plates kept a distance apart by levelling screws. The upper plate
of the levelling head, also known as the tribrach, has three arms, each with a foot
screw. Instruments with four foot screws for levelling are also available. In terms
of wear and tear, the three-foot-screw instrument is preferable. The lower plate,
also known as the trivet, has a central hole and a hook to which a plumb bob can be
attached. In modern instruments, the base plate of the levelling head has two plates
which can move relative to each other. This allows a slight movement of the levelling head relative to the tripod. This is called a shifting head and helps in centring
the instrument over the station quickly. The functions of the levelling head are to
support the upper part of the instrument, attach the theodolite to a tripod, attach a
plumb bob, and help in levelling the instrument with the foot screws.
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cylindrical part. The graduations are provided all around, from 0 to 360, in the
clockwise direction. The graduations are in degrees divided into three parts so
that each division equals 20. An axis through the centre of the plate is known as
the outer axis or the centre. Horizontal angles are measured with this plate. The
diameter of the lower plate is sometimes used to indicate the size of or designate
the instrument; for example, a 100-mm theodolite.
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Upper plate The upper plate is also a horizontal plate of a smaller diameter
attached to a solid, vertical spindle. The bevelled edge of the horizontal part
carries two verniers on diametrically opposite parts of its circumference. These
verniers are generally designated A and B. They are used to read fractions of the
horizontal circle plate graduations. The centre of the plate or the spindle is known
as the inner axis or centre. The upper and lower plates are enclosed in a metal cover
to prevent dust accumulation. The cover plate has two glass windows longer than
the vernier length for the purpose of reading. Attached to the cover plate is a metal
arm hinged to the centre carrying two magnifying glasses at its ends. The magnifying glasses are used to read the graduations clearly.
Two axes or centres The inner axis as mentioned earlier is the axis of the conical
spindle attached to the upper or vernier plate. The outer axis is the centre of the
hollow cylindrical part attached to the lower or circle plate. These two axes coincide and form the vertical axis of the instrument, which is one of the fundamental
lines of the theodolite.
Clamps and tangent screws There are two clamps and associated tangent or
slow-motion screws with the plates. The clamp screws facilitate the motion of the
instrument in a horizontal plane. The lower clamp screw locks or releases the lower
plate. When this screw is unlocked, the lower and upper plates move together. The
associated lower tangent screw allows small motion of the plates in the locked
position. The upper clamp screw locks or releases the upper vernier plate. When
this clamp is released (with the lower clamp locked), the lower plate does not
move but the vernier plate moves with the instrument. This causes a change in the
reading. The upper tangent screw allows for a small motion of the vernier plate for
in the horizontal plane. The construction of the clamp and tangent screws is shown
in Fig. 6.2.
Outer cover
Outer axis
Inner axis
Tangent
screw
Spring
box
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Lower clamp
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(a) Clamp and tangent screw
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1
3
7 8
9 10
11
12
13
50
60
70
80 90
10 20
30
40
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(b) Vertical circle graduations (20 main scale)
40
30
0
20 1
90 80 7
0
60
50
Quadrants 090
(c) Main circle plate graduations
Fig. 6.2 Parts of a theodolite
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Plate level The plate level is a spirit level with a bubble and graduations on the
provided. The spirit level can be adjusted with the foot screw of the levelling head.
The bubble of the spirit level can be moved with the foot screws of the levelling
head, which is a very fundamental adjustment required for using the theodolite.
A small circular bubble may be provided for rough adjustment before levelling.
Index frame The index frame, also known as a T-frame or vernier frame, is a
T-shaped metal frame. The horizontal arm carries at its ends two verniers, which
C and D. The vertical leg of the T-frame, known as the clipping arm, has clipping
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top of this frame. When the telescope is rotated in a vertical plane, the vertical
circle moves and vertical angles are measured on the vertical circle with the help
of these verniers.
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Standard or A-frame Two standards in the shape of the letter A are attached
to the upper plate. The horizontal axis of the instrument is attached to these standards. The clipping arm of the index frame and the arm of the vertical circle clamp
are also attached to the A-frame. The A-frame supports the telescope and the
vertical circle.
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Telescope The telescope is a vital part of the instrument. It enables one to see
stations that are at great distances. The essential parts of a telescope are the eyepiece, diaphragm with cross hairs, object lens, and arrangements to focus the telescope. A focusing knob is provided on the side of the telescope. Earlier, external
focusing telescopes were used. Today, only internal focusing telescopes are used
in theodolites. These reduce the length of the telescope. The telescope may carry
a spirit level on top in some instruments. The optics of the telescope and other
details have been discussed in Chapter 1.
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Vertical circle The vertical circle is a circular plate supported on the trunnion
or horizontal axis of the instrument between the A-frames. The vertical circle has
a bevelled edge on which graduations are marked. The graduations are generally
quadrantal, 090 in the four quadrants as shown in Fig. 6.2. The full circle system
of graduations can also be seen in some instruments. The vertical circle moves
with the telescope when it is rotated in a vertical plane. A metal cover is provided
to protect the circle and the verniers from dust. Two magnifying glasses on metal
arms are provided to read the circle and verniers. The cover has glass or plastic
Vertical circle clamp and tangent screw The vertical circle is provided with a
vertical circle, the telescope cannot be moved in a vertical plane. The tangent screw
allows for a slow, small motion of the vertical circle.
Altitude level
is used for levelling, particularly when taking vertical angle observations.
Compass
horizontal plates. Two plates with graduations are provided in the compass box for
ensuring that the needle ends are centred. The needle can be locked or released by
a pin. When released, the telescope can be turned in azimuth to make the north end
of the needle point to the north by making it read zero.
Tripod One accessory essential with the theodolite is the tripod on which it is
mounted when it has to be used. The tripod head is screwed onto the base or the
lower part of the levelling head. Its legs should be spread out for stability. The legs
of the tripod are also used for rough levelling.
Plumb bob A heavy plumb bob on a good string with a hook at the end is re-
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hook or other device projecting from the centre of the instrument in a central
opening in the levelling head.
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Main circle and vernier graduations In most of the instruments, the vernier
enables readings up to 20 of the arc. This is made possible by marking the graduations on the circle and the vernier suitably as follows. As shown in Fig. 6.2(b),
the main circle is graduated into degrees and each degree is divided into three
parts. Each main scale division thus represents 2. For the vernier, 59 main scale
divisions are taken and divided into 60 parts. 59 main scale divisions form 59
20. Therefore, each vernier scale division represents 59 20/60 minutes. As you
would have studied earlier, least count of the vernier = difference between a main
scale division and a vernier scale division = main scale division vernier scale
division. Hence, in this case,
Least count = 20 59 20/60 = 1/3 = (1/3) 60 = 20
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Thus the least count of the vernier in common theodolites is 20.
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6.2 Terminology
It is important to clearly understand the terms associated with the theodolite
and its use and meaning. The following are some important terms and their
Vertical axis It is a line passing through the centre of the horizontal circle and
perpendicular to it. The vertical axis is perpendicular to the line of sight and the
trunnion axis or the horizontal axis. The instrument is rotated about this axis for
sighting different points.
Horizontal axis It is the axis about which the telescope rotates when rotated in
a vertical plane. This axis is perpendicular to the line of collimation and the vertical axis.
Telescope axis It is the line joining the optical centre of the object glass to the
centre of the eyepiece.
Line of collimation It is the line joining the intersection of the cross hairs to the
optical centre of the object glass and its continuation. This is also called the line
of sight.
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It is the line tangential to the longitudinal curve of the
Axis of the bubble tube

bubble tube at its centre.
Centring Centring the theodolite means setting up the theodolite exactly over the
station mark. At this position the plumb bob attached to the base of the instrument
lies exactly over the station mark.
Transiting It is the process of rotating the telescope about the horizontal axis
through 180. The telescope points in the opposite direction after transiting. This
process is also known as plunging or reversing.
Swinging It is the process of rotating the telescope about the vertical axis for
the purpose of pointing the telescope in different directions. The right swing is a
rotation in the clockwise direction and the left swing is a rotation in the counterclockwise direction.
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Face-left or normal position This is the position in which as the sighting is done,
the vertical circle is to the left of the observer.
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Face-right or inverted position This is the position in which as the sighting is

done, the vertical circle is to the right of the observer.
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Changing face It is the operation of changing from face left to face right and vice
versa. This is done by transiting the telescope and swinging it through 180.
Face-left observation It is the reading taken when the instrument is in the normal
or face-left position.
Face-right observation It is the reading taken when the instrument is in the
inverted or face-right position.
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6.3 Temporary Adjustments

Theodolite has two types of adjustmentstemporary and permanent. Temporary
adjustments are to be done at every station the instrument is set up. Permanent
adjustments deal with the fundamental lines and their relationships and should be
done once in a while to ensure that the instrument is properly adjusted. The fundamental lines and their desired relationships are explained later in this chapter and
the permanent adjustments are explained in detail in Chapter 4. In this section we
will discuss temporary adjustments.
The temporary adjustments are the following: (a) setting up and centring,
(b) levelling, (c) focusing the eyepiece, and (d) focusing the objective.
6.3.1 Setting Up and Centring
The following procedure is adopted for this operation.
the station where the instrument is to be set up. The tripod legs should be well
apart and the telescope should be at a convenient height for sighting.
2. Tie a plumb bob onto the hook provided at the base. If there is no shifting head
in the instrument, centre it by adjusting the tripod legs and shifting the instrument as a whole to bring the plumb bob over the station mark.
3. To centre the plumb bob, shift the tripod legs radially as well as circumferentially. Moving any leg radially shifts the plumb bob in the direction of
the leg. This does not affect the level status of the instrument. Moving any
leg circumferentially does not appreciably shift the plumb. However, this
movement tilts the instrument and affects the level of the plate bubbles. By
moving the legs the plumb bob is brought over the station mark at the same
time ensuring that the instrument is approximately level. This saves a lot of
time for the next operation of levelling.
(or the instrument as a whole) to bring the plumb bob over the station mark.
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6.3.2 Levelling
After setting up and centring the instrument, levelling is done. Levelling has to
be done at every station the instrument is set up. By levelling the instrument, it is
ensured that as the instrument is swung about the vertical axis, the horizontal plate
moves in a horizontal plane. The instrument may have a three-screw or a four-screw
levelling head. The levelling operations differ slightly in these two cases as detailed
in the following sections. Most instruments have only one bubble tube, but some
instruments have two bubble tubes set at right angles over the plates.
Three-screw levelling head
When the theodolite has a three-screw levelling head, the following procedure is
adopted.
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1. Swing the theodolite and bring the plate bubble parallel to any two of the foot
screws. Centre the bubble by rotating the foot screws. To do this, hold the foot
rotate both either inwards
or outwards [see Fig. 6.3(a)]. Also note that the bubble moves in the direction
of movement of the left thumb during this operation.
2. Once the bubble traverses (or comes to the central position from the graduation of the tube), swing the instrument and bring the bubble over the third foot
screw. In this position, the bubble tube is at right angles to the earlier position.
Centre the bubble by rotating the third foot screw alone.
Foot screw
Level
Bubble
movement
Level
Level
Thumb
movement
(a)
Fig. 6.3 Three-foot-screw levelling head
(b)
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3. Bring the plate bubble to its previous position by swinging the instrument back.
Check whether the bubble traverses. If it does not traverse, bring the bubble to
the centre using the two foot screws as before.
4. Repeat the procedure till the bubble traverses in both these positions.
5. Swing the instrument through 180 and check whether the bubble traverses.
The bubble should traverse in all positions if the instrument has been properly
adjusted.
If two plate bubbles are provided [see Fig. 6.3(b)], the procedure is the same
except that swinging the instrument through 90 is not required. When one plate
level is kept parallel to a pair of foot screws, the other plate level is over the
third foot screw (in a perpendicular direction). The third foot screw is adjusted
alternately by the same process using the foot screws over which they are parallel.
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Four-screw levelling head
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When the theodolite has a four-screw levelling head, the following procedure is
adopted.
1. After setting up and centring the theodolite, bring the plate level parallel to
any one pair of diagonally opposite foot screws. Operate these foot screws to
centre the bubble (Fig. 6.4).
2. Swing the instrument to bring the plate level parallel to the other pair of foot
screws. Centre the bubble.
3. Swing it back to the previous position. Check whether the bubble traverses.
If it does not, centre it with the foot screws to which the level is parallel.
4. Swing it back, check the position of the bubble, and repeat the procedure.
5. Once the bubble traverses in the two orthogonal positions, swing it through
180. The bubble should traverse in this position or in any other position.
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If two plate levels are provided, the procedure is the same. Bring one plate
level parallel to a pair of opposite foot screws. The other pair will be parallel to the
remaining pair of foot screws. There is no need to swing the instrument. Bring the
bubble to the central position alternately and check in the other positions.
Fig. 6.4 Four-foot-screw levelling head
6.3.3 Focusing the Eyepiece

Focusing the eyepiece is the operation of bringing the cross hairs to focus. The
focusing position varies with the eyesight of the observer. If the same observer is
taking the readings, this has to be done only once. To focus the eyepiece, use the
following procedure.
1. Keep a piece of white paper in front of the telescope or direct the telescope
towards a clear portion of the sky.
2. Looking through the telescope, adjust the vision by rotating the eyepiece till
the cross hairs come into sharp and clear view.
3. If the eyepiece has graduations, note the graduation at which you get a clear
view of the cross hairs. This can help in later adjustment if required.
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6.3.4 Focusing the Objective

The objective lens has to be focused whenever an object is sighted, as this depends
upon the distance between the instrument and the object. A focusing screw on the
side of the telescope is operated to focus the objective. This operation brings the
image of the object in the plane of the cross hairs. This helps to exactly bisect the
object, be it a ranging rod or an arrow. To focus the objective, swing the instrument
to bring the object into view by looking over the telescope. Rotate the focusing
knob till the object is in sharp view along with the cross hairs.
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6.3.5 Using the Theodolite

The theodolite is mainly used to measure horizontal and vertical angles, even though
many other operations can be done with the instrument. It is a delicate and sensitive instrument and needs to be handled carefully. The following points should be
noted while using the instrument.
1. The theodolite should be set up and levelled at every station. This is a fundamental, necessary operation and should be carried out carefully.
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The line of sight is arranged to bisect the object clearly.

3. The graduated circle plate gives the outer axis and the vernier plate provides
the inner axis. Both the axes coincide if the instrument is properly adjusted
and form the vertical axis.
4. There are three clamp screws each with its own tangent screw. The lower clamp
screw releases the lower plate, the upper clamp screw releases the upper vernier plate, and the third vertical circular clamp releases the vertical circle. One
should be familiar with the location of the clamp screws and the corresponding
tangent screws.
5. Each clamp screw releases one plate. The lower plate is released by the lower
clamp screw. When this plate is released, swinging the instrument or rotating it
in a horizontal plane causes no change in the reading of the circle, as both the
plates move together. This is used when an object has to be sighted with the zero
setting of the circle or with any other reading without changing the reading.
6. Both the clamp screws should not be released together. When the lower clamp
is tight and the upper clamp screw is released, the upper plate moves relative to
the lower plate and the reading changes. This is done when one has to measure
an angle.
a very small movement has to be effected by the tangent screw. For each clamp
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8. To set the instrument to zero at the plate circle, release the upper clamp and
rotate the instrument about the vertical axis. On the vernier A, make the zero
of the circle coincide with the zero of the vernier. Tighten the upper clamp and
using the upper tangent screw, make the zeros exactly coincide. This can be
tions on either side are symmetrical. Verify the condition on vernier B as well,
where the 180 graduation should coincide with the zero of the vernier.
9. While bisecting the signals or setting the zero reading, keep the line of sight
in such a position that the tangent screw moves the sight in the same direction
as the movement of the instrument. If the movement is clockwise, then the
tangent screw is adjusted to move the cross hairs from left to right.
10. Operate a tangent screw only after clamping the corresponding clamp screw.
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Read the circle by bringing the glass over the reading and looking directly over
the reading to avoid any parallax error.
12. While bisecting stations with the theodolite, the station mark should be very
clear and must be a point. Bisect either the cross marks on pegs at their intersection or the ranging rod and arrow at their lowest pointed end.
13. Clamp screws and tangent screws need careful handling. Do not apply great
force on these screws and handle them delicately during survey work.
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6.4 Measuring Horizontal Angles

To measure the horizontal angle between two lines, the following procedure is
adopted.
1. Referring to Fig. 6.5, the angle POQ is to be measured. Set up the theodolite
at O.
2. Set the instrument to read 0 00 00.
P
This is not strictly required, as the
angle can be determined as the difreadings. However, it is convenient
to make the initial reading zero. For
this, release the upper clamp and
O
rotate the instrument to make the
Q
reading approximately zero. Clamp
the upper plate and using the upper Fig. 6.5 Measuring a horizontal angle
tangent screw, make the reading
exactly zero. Vernier A reads zero and vernier B reads 180 00 00.
3. Release the lower plate and rotate the instrument to bisect the station P. After
approximately bisecting it, clamp the lower plate and using the lower tangent
screw, bisect the signal exactly. The readings on the plates do not change as
both the plates move together in this operation. Check that the readings on
vernier A and B are zero and 180, respectively.
4. Release the upper plate by loosening the upper clamp. Rotate the instrument to
screw, exactly bisect the signal at Q.
5. Read both the verniers A and B. The reading at A will give the angle directly.
The reading at B will be 180 + POQ.
6. If there is any difference, take the average of the two values as the correct
angle.
Horizontal angles are measured this way for ordinary work. The accuracy can be
improved by reading the angles with face-left and face-right observations and taking
the average of the two. For more precise work, the angles are repeatedly measured
with both the faces and the average taken. This method is known as the repetition
method and is described below.
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1st
123 25
40 Q
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(a)
20
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61 112
123
2nd
61
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00
0
O
42
00
40
5
20
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6.4.1 Method of Repetition

In the method of repetition, the horizontal angle is measured a number of times
and the average value is taken. It is usual to limit the number of repetitions to three
with each face except in the case of very precise work. With large number of repetitions, errors can also increase due to bisections, reading the verniers, etc. Very
large number of repetitions necessarily do not lead to a more precise value of the
angle. However, a number of errors are eliminated by the repetition method. The
procedure is as follows (Fig. 6.6).
3rd
Q
(b)
185 08
20
(c)
Fig. 6.6 Repetition method
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1. Angle POQ is to be measured. Set up, centre, and level the theodolite at O.
Ensure that the instrument is in the normal position, i.e., face left.
2. Set the instrument to read 0 00 00. For this release the upper clamp and
bring the zero of the vernier (at vernier A) very close to the zero of the circle.
Clamp the upper plate and using the upper tangent screw, coincide the two
zeros exactly.
3. Loosen the lower clamp and rotate the instrument so that the left signal at P is
approximately bisected. Tighten the lower clamp and using the lower tangent
screw, bisect the signal at P exactly. Read the verniers at A and B. The reading
should not change and they should read zero and 180.
4. Loosen the upper clamp and rotate the instrument clockwise to approximately
Q exactly.
5. Read the verniers at A and B. The reading at A gives the value of the angle
directly. The reading on the vernier at B will be 180 + the angle. Record both
the readings.
6. Release the lower clamp and rotate the instrument clockwise to bisect the sig-
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7.
8.
9.
10.
exactly. Check the readings on the verniers at A and B. They should remain
the same as recorded.
Release the upper clamp and rotate the instrument to bisect the signal
approximately. Lock the upper clamp and bisect the signal exactly with the
upper tangent screw. Read the verniers A and B. The readings should be twice
the angle. Record the readings from both the verniers.
Repeat the procedure once more. We thus have three repetitions of the value.
Record the readings of both the verniers.
Change the face of the instrument. Invert the telescope and make it face right.
Repeat the above procedure to have three more readings of the angle.
The average of the face-left readings and the average of the face-right readings
are averaged to get a very precise value of the angle.
Sets for precision work
Table 6.1
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In works requiring greater precision, sets of readings are taken. One set may consist
of six face-left readings and an equal number of face-right readings. The readings
may be taken in clockwise and counterclockwise directions with different faces.
A number of similar sets may be taken. Sets may also start with a different initial
00, and so on. The average
of the average readings from the various sets will give a very precise value of the
angle. Such sets are taken in triangulation work. The readings can be recorded as
shown in Table 6.1.
Recording of observations by repetition method
Set 1
Instrument Sight
Face/swing
at
to
repetition number
P
Q
1
P
Q
2
P
Q
3
Mean value of the angle = 61 42 47
0
61
61
123
123
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Left/right
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Reading at
A
00
42
42
25
25
08
00
40
40
20
40
20
Mean reading
00
42
42
25
26
08
00
0
40 61
40
20 123
40 123
20 185
00
42
00
45
25
26
08
20
40
20
Set 2
Instrument
at
Sight
to
Face/swing repetition number
Reading at
A
P
Q
P
Q
P
Q
00
61
00
42
00 00
40 42
00
40
123
25
40 25
40
185
08
00 08
00
Right/left
O
Mean reading
Mean value of the angle = 61 42 40
185
08
00
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40
at
130 13 00
7 2
0
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68
00
6.4.2 Method of Reiteration

The method of reiteration is
another method of measuring
P
horizontal angles. This method is
useful when a number of angles
are to be measured at one point. In
Fig. 6.7, let O be the point where
the instrument is set up and P, Q, Closing
R, and S be the stations. Angle the horizon
POQ, QOR, and ROS are to
be measured. In the retiration
method, each angle is measured
The method of repetition helps to eliminate the following errors.

(a) Errors caused by the eccentricity of the centres and verniers, by reading both
the verniers and averaging.
(b) Graduation errors by reading from different parts of the circle.
(c) Imperfect adjustment of the line of collimation and horizontal axis by face-left
and face-right observations.
(d) Observational errors and other errors tend to be compensated by the large
number of readings.
However, the errors due to levelling cannot be compensated. This has to be done
by permanent adjustment. Also a large number of repetitions tend to increase the
wear of clamp and tangent screws.
Therefore, from the two sets,
Mean value of the angle = (1/2)(61 42 47 + 61 42 40 ) = 61 42 44
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S
of sight is brought back to P, i.e.,
the line of sight is made to close
Fig. 6.7 Reiteration method
the horizon. The instrument is
turned through 360. Obviously, the instrument should read, upon closing the horizon, the same reading set initially at P. The procedure is as follows.
1. Set up and level the theodolite at O. Keep the instrument in the normal position, i.e., face left. Set the vernier at A to read zero using the upper clamp and
upper tangent screw. Check that the vernier at B reads 180.
2. Loosen the lower clamp and swing the instrument to bisect the station mark at
3.
4.
5.
6.
at P. Check that the verniers at A and B read zero and 180, respectively.
Release the upper plate with the upper clamp, swing the instrument clockwise
to bisect the signal at Q. Tighten the clamp and using the upper tangent screw,
bisect the mark at Q exactly.
Read the verniers at A and B and record both the readings.
Release the upper clamp screw, bisect the signal at R. Tighten the clamp and
bisect the mark at R exactly with the upper tangent screw. Read the verniers at
A and B and record the readings.
Continue the procedure with other stations.
262
7. After the last angle has been recorded, release the upper clamp and swing the
instrument to close the horizon and bisect the station mark at P. Check that the
verniers at A and B now read the initial reading set while starting. If there is
the lower
clamp and the lower tangent screw should not be touched during the entire
process after bisecting the station mark at P.
9. Each angle is calculated from the mean value of the readings of verniers A and
B at each station. The difference between these mean values gives the value of
the required angle.
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an inverted position (right face). To be more accurate, the second set of

readings may be taken with the initial value of the reading different from zero.
The instrument can be set to read 30 or 60 initially. The reading may also be
taken in an counterclockwise direction along with the change of face. A second
average value can be obtained.
Recording of angles by the reiteration method
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Table 6.2
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the angle.
As in the repetition method, sets of values can be obtained and averaged for more
precise work. The readings can be recorded as shown in Table 6.2.
Face left/right swing

Instrument Sight
at
to
00
32
13
07
00
ie
P
Q
R
S
P
00
68
130
233
00
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Reading at
A
00
40
00
20
00
Mean reading Angle
Value
00
32
13
07
00
00
40
00
20
00
00
32
13
07
00
00
68
130
233
00
00
40
00
20
00
POQ
QOR
ROS
68 32 40
61 40 20
102 54 20
Face right/right swing

Instrument at
Sight
to
Reading at
A
Mean reading
Angle
00
00
00 00 00 00
00 00
68
32
20 32 20 68
32 20
POQ
130 13
20 13 20 130 13 20
QOR
233 07
40 07 40 233 07 40
ROS
00
00 00 00 00
00
Value
The mean values of the angles are
00 00
68
32
20
61
41
00
102
54
20
POQ = 68 32 30,
6.5
QOR = 61 41 10,
ROS = 102 54 20
Measuring Vertical Angles
A vertical angle is made by an inclined line of sight with the horizontal. The line
of sight may be inclined upwards or downwards from the horizontal. Thus one
may have an angle of elevation or depression. See Fig. 6.8. For measuring vertical
angles, the theodolite is levelled with respect to the altitude bubble.
P
8 46 20
12 32 40
Horizontal line
R
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6 52 40
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Fig. 6.8 Measuring vertical angles
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The procedure for measuring vertical angles is as follows.

1. Set up the theodolite at the station from where the vertical angle is to be measured. Level the instrument with reference to the plate bubble.
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arm. This bubble is generally more sensitive. The procedure for levelling is
the same. Bring the altitude level parallel to two foot screws and level till the
bubble traverses. Swing through 90 to centre the bubble again with the third
foot screw. Repeat till the bubble traverses.
3. Swing the telescope to approximately direct the line of sight towards the signal
at P. Loosen the vertical circle clamp screw and incline the line of sight to bisect
P. Clamp the vertical circle and bisect the signal exactly with the horizontal
cross hair.
4. Read the verniers C and D. The average of these readings gives the value of
the angle.
This procedure assumes that the instrument is properly adjusted. If there is an index
error, the instrument does not read zero when the bubble is in the centre and the
line of sight is horizontal, the adjustment is done by the clip screw. There may be
a small index error, which can be accounted for in the value of angle. The readings
can be recorded as shown in Table 6.3.
6.5.1 Measuring Vertical Angle Between Two Points
The two points may be above the horizontal or below the horizontal or one may be
above and the other below. In all cases, the vertical angles between the instrument
and the points are measured. If the points lie on the same side of the horizontal, the
vertical angle between the points is the difference between the measured angles. If
they lie on either side of the horizontal through the instrument, the vertical angle
between the points is the sum of the angles measured.
264
Table 6.3
Recording of vertical angles
Face left
Instrument at
Sight
to
Reading on vernier
C
Mean angle
Vertical angle
12
32 40 32
40 12
32
40
46 20 46
20 8
46
()6
52 40 52
40 ()6
52
20
46
20
40
19 25
20
Face right
Reading on vernier
Vertical angle
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12
32 20 32
20 12
at
32
20
46 20 46
20 8
46
() 6
52 20 52
20 ()6 52
20
46
00
20
19 24
40
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Mean angle
Sight
to
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Instrument at
The mean vertical angles are:
between P and Q = 3 46 10,
between P and R = 19 25 00
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6.6 Other Theodolite Operations

The theodolite is a very versatile instrument and can be used effectively for many
accurate operations. Some of these are discussed below. Traversing with the theodolite is discussed in Section 6.7.
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6.6.1 Measuring the Magnetic

Bearing of a Line
The following procedure is adopted to
measure the magnetic bearing of a line.
1. To determine the magnetic bearing of
line PQ, set and level the theodolite at
P (Fig. 6.9).
N
Q
Magnetic
bearing
release the upper plate and swing the Fig. 6.9 Measuring magnetic bearing
instrument to set the reading on vernier A to read zero approximately. Clamp
the upper plate and with the upper tangent screw, make the zero of the vernier
and the circle coincide exactly.
3. Release the lower plate and the magnetic needle of the compass. Swing the
instrument so that the magnetic needle is nearly at the centre of its run, with the
north end of the needle pointing to the zero of the graduations on the compass.
Tighten the lower clamp and using the lower tangent screw, bring the magnetic
needle to read exactly zero at the north end. Check the verniers at A and B. They
should read zero and 180 as set earlier.
4. The line of sight of the instrument is in the direction of the magnetic meridian
at P. Release the upper clamp and swing the instrument to bisect the signal at
tangent screw, bisect the signal exactly at Q.
5. Read both the verniers. The average of the two readings gives the magnetic
bearing of the line PQ.
6.6.2 Prolonging a Given Line
Let PQ be the line given. It is desired to prolong the line to another point T in line
with it and establish intermediate points R and S (Fig. 6.10). There are many ways
to do this. The following three methods are common.
S
Fig. 6.10 Prolonging a line
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Fig. 6.11 Back sighting method
Direct method
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The procedure is as follows.

1. Set up and level the theodolite at P.
2. Swing the instrument and bisect the signal at Q. Exact bisection can be done
with the lower clamp and the lower tangent screw.
3. Establish a point along the line of sight at R.
4. Shift the instrument to Q. Level the instrument and sight the signal or station
mark at R. Establish a third point at S along the line of sight.
5. Shift the instrument and set it up at R. Sight the station mark at S. Establish
another station along the line of sight.
6. Continue the process until the point T is reached.
The method is suitable when the instrument is aligned properly.
Back sighting
The following procedure is adopted (Fig. 6.11).

1. Set up and level the theodolite at Q. Swing the instrument to take a back sight
on P. Clamp both the motions (upper and lower plates) and transit the telescope.
2. Set a point R along the line of sight at a convenient distance.
3. Shift the instrument to R. Set up and level the instrument at R. Swing the instrument and take a back sight on the station mark at Q. Clamp both the motions
and transit the telescope. Fix a point S along the line of sight.
reached.
266
This method also assumes that the instrument is properly aligned. If not, when the
instrument is transited, the line of sight may not be along PQ and dotted lines will
be the result.
Double sighting
R
R
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The double sighting method is used when the instrument is not properly aligned
and does not give precise results. The procedure is as follows (Fig. 6.12).
1. Set up the theodolite at Q and level the theodolite. Release the lower plate,
swing the instrument, and take a back sight on P.
2. With both the plates clamped, transit the telescope and establish a point in line
with the line of sight.
3. Change the face of the instrument and again take a back sight on P.
4. With both motions clamped, transit the telescope. The line of sight should now
bisect the station mark established earlier. If not, mark a second point in line
with the earlier point.
5. Point R was established with the left face and point R is established with the
right face. Take the midpoint of R and R and mark this point R.
6. Shift the instrument to R and repeat the process of double sighting to establish
other points till the point T is reached.
Fig. 6.12
Double sighting
Laying a straight line between two given points
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There are three methods for laying a straight line between two given points depending upon whether the two stations are intervisible, intervisible from an intermediate
point, or are not intervisible from any intermediate point.
When the stations are intervisible When the two given stations are intervisible,
the procedure is simple, as follows (Fig. 6.13).
2. Sight the signal at Q and clamp both the motions. Finely bisect the signal at Q
using the lower tangent screw.
4. PRSTQ is a straight line.
P
Fig. 6.13 Laying out a straight line
When the stations are visible only from an intermediate point In this case a
method known as balancing-in is used. The procedure is as follows (Fig. 6.14).
1. Determine a point midway between P and Q from which both P and Q are visible.
2. By judgement, establish a point R in line with P and Q.
3. Set up and level the theodolite at R.

4. Swing the instrument and take a back sight on P. Transit the telescope and sight
the station mark at Q. It may not be in line as the position of R is only set by
estimation.
5. Estimate a new position of R to be in line with P and Q.
6. Repeat the procedure till, after back sighting on P and plunging the telescope,
the signal at Q is bisected.
7. R is then a point in line with P and Q.
R1
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R
R2
at
Fig. 6.14 Balancing-in method
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When the stations are not visible from any intermediate point In this case the
random line method is used. The procedure is as follows (Fig. 6.15).
1. Run a random line at any angle to one side of the line joining the two stations
P and Q.
2. To do this, set up the theodolite at P. Centre and level the instrument.
3. Take a line of sight along PQ and establish point Q such that Q is visible from
Q and the distance QQ can be measured.
, S, etc. along the line of
sight of PQ.
5. Measure QQ, PQ, PR, PS, etc. accurately with a steel tape.
6. Set up and level the instrument at Q. Measure angle PQQ = a accurately.
7. Set up the instrument at R and level it. Swing the instrument and lay off an angle
equal to a. The point R on line PQ can be obtained by measuring a distance RR
on the line laid at angle a. (The method to lay off an angle is given later.)
8. The length of this line can be determined using similar triangles PQQ and
PRR. RR is equal to QQ PR/ PQ.
9. Repeat the same procedure with points S, etc. PRSQ is a straight line between
P and Q.
R
P
Fig. 6.15 Random line method
Locating the point of intersection of two given lines
the point of intersection of the two lines. The procedure is as follows.
268

S

Release the lower clamp, swing the
instrument, and bisect the signal at
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exactly bisect the station mark at Q.

1
2. Along the line of sight, set up two
2
points 1 and 2, roughly on either
O
side of an estimated intersection
point of PQ and RS.
3. Set up and level the instrument at
Q
R
R. Release the lower clamp, swing
the instrument to sight S. Clamp and Fig. 6.16 Intersection point of two lines
using the lower clamp screw, exactly bisect the station mark at S.
4. The intersection point O lies along this line of sight and between the points 1
and 2 established earlier.
Laying off a given angle
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at
sighting from R to S, obtain the point O and mark it accurately.

6. The point can be checked by setting up the instrument at O and checking
whether PQ and RS are in line with the station point.
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The procedure for setting an angle on the ground is as follows (Fig. 6.17).
1. Let the angle to be set be 38 47 20 with
Q
a line PQ.
0
0
2. Set up the theodolite at P, centre it, and level
0
0
0
it with reference to the plate level.
3. Release the upper clamp, swing the instru38 47 20
R
ment to make vernier A read 0 00 00. Set P
Fig. 6.17 Laying out an angle
the reading exactly to zero with the upper
tangent screw. Read vernier B, which should register 180 00 00.
4. Release the lower clamp and swing the instrument to bisect the signal at Q.
Exactly bisect the signal at Q with the lower tangent screw. Check the reading
on both the verniers, which should be the same as set before (0 00 00).
5. Release the upper clamp and swing the instrument clockwise. Set vernier A to
read approximately the given angle and clamp. Set the angle to the given value
exactly using the upper tangent screw. Check the angle on vernier B.
6. Set a point R along the line of sight. Angle QPR is the given angle.
Laying off a given angle by repetition
If greater precision is required in setting the angle, the method of repetition can be
used. While a given angle can be measured by the method of repetition directly,
there is no corresponding direct method to set an angle. An indirect method is
employed. The procedure is as follows (Fig. 6.18).
1. Let the angle to be set off be 54 36 35 with the line OP.
2. Set up and level the theodolite at O. Set the instrument to read zero using the
upper clamp and the upper tangent screw. Check vernier B also.
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P
3. Release the lower clamp, bisect the station
mark at P, and exactly bisect the mark with
the lower tangent screw. Check the readings
on both the verniers; they should remain the
same.
4. Release the upper clamp, swing the instrument
54 36 00
clockwise, and set the instrument to read 54
Q
O
36 00. With the upper tangent screw, make
Q
the readings exactly 54 36 00. Make a sta- Fig. 6.18 Laying out an angle
tion mark along the line of sight. Point Q is
by repetition
established.
5. Measure the angle POQ by the repetition method. Take three readings with
face left and three readings with face right. Find the average value of the angle
from these observations. Let the average value be equal to 54 36 12.
6. The difference between the angle to be set and this angle is 23. The angle is
corrected by linear measurements, as the difference in angles is too small.
7. Let the length of the line OQ be 100 m. Then QQ = 100 tan (23 ) = 0.011 m.
8. Measure this distance accurately along the perpendicular with a steel tape to
get point Q. Angle POQ is the required angle.
9. Measure the angle POQ again by repetition to check.
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6.7 Theodolite Traversing

We have seen that chain traversing or chain triangulation is done using only a chain
and the de
ing can be done with the directions of lines coming from bearings and distances
measured with a chain or tape. With the theodolite, traversing can be done by many
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angles, or external angles of a traverse, with the distances measured using a tape.
Open and closed traverses can be surveyed accurately with a theodolite.
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of details with offsets. The skeleton is not restricted to a framework of triangles

and can have any shape. The survey lines are arranged to suit the terrain and the
details to be located.
The basic procedure for theodolite traversing is the same as that in any other
method of traversing. First reconnaissance has to be conducted with a sketch drawn
of the terrain using approximate locations of traverse stations, then the important
details are to be picked up, the intervisibility of stations to be checked, and the basic
equipment required for the survey to be collected. Theodolite traversing requires
station marking tools such as pegs, arrows, a theodolite with its stand, and a steel
tape. The decision regarding which method of surveying will be used, by angles
or bearings, should also be taken in advance including the scale of the plot to be
6.7.1 Traversing with Magnetic Bearings
The method of traversing with magnetic bearings is suitable in places where local
measuring angles. This method is also known as the fast needle method of traversing.
270

N
Direct method (without transiting)
In the direct method, the bearings at

each station are taken by swinging the
telescope. The procedure is as follows
(Fig. 6.19).
1. Set up and level the theodolite at N
station P of the traverse PQRSTP, a
closed traverse.
P
Q
R
N
N
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Fig. 6.19 Magnetic bearings

Direct method (without
transiting)
at
tangent screw, set vernier A to read

zero.
3. Loosen the magnetic needle. Release the lower clamp and point
the telescope in the direction of the
magnetic meridian till the magnetic
needle comes to rest at the zero posi-
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7.
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5.
6.
4.
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the north end of the magnetic needle

to read exactly zero.
Release the upper plate and swing the instrument to bisect the signal at Q. With
the upper tangent screw, bisect the station mark exactly.
Read vernier A, which gives the bearing of the line PQ.
Keeping both the clamps tight, shift the instrument to Q. Set up and level the instrument. Check the reading on vernier A. It should be the same as the magnetic
bearing of the line PQ (if not, this can be corrected and the bearing value noted
earlier be set on vernier A).
Release the upper clamp. Swing the instrument clockwise to bisect the station
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Read the vernier at A and note down the reading.

8. With both clamps tight, shift the instrument to R and repeat the procedure. The
work is continued at all stations in a similar manner.
The following points should be carefully noted.
(a) We get the correct reading of the bearing of PQ at P on vernier A.
(b) At Q, as the theodolite is swung to sight R, the instrument is 180 out of orientation and a correction has to be applied to the reading on vernier A. In this
position, vernier B gives the correct reading of the magnetic bearing of line
QR. This can be seen from the sample readings given in Table 6.4.
(c) It is more convenient to read one vernier only throughout the operation. In such
a case, the bearings at Q and S (or the second, fourth, sixth, etc.) stations need
etc.) can be read directly on vernier A.
(d) Alternately, read vernier A for the magnetic bearings of PQ, RS, and TP (or
ST (or the second, fourth, sixth, etc.).
before measuring the bearing of PQ. This can be used for checking.
Table 6.4
Recording magnetic bearings
Instrument Sight to
at
Reading on
vernier A
Line
00
00
00
00
00 00
62
42
20
242
42 20
Bearing
PQ
62
42 20
201
59
40
21
59 40
334
53
40
154
53 40
QR
154
53 40
202
32
40
22
32 40
RS
202
32 40
101
43
20
281
43 20
ST
281
43 20
21
59
40
201
59 40
TP
21
59 40
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T
Q
Reading on
vernier B
Direct method (with transiting)
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In this method, instead of swinging the

instrument, the telescope is transited at
Q
the second station. This gives the correct
R
reading of the bearings at the station. The
N
procedure is as follows (Fig. 6.20).
1. Set up and level the theodolite at P. Set
P
the reading on the vernier to zero with
the upper clamp and the upper tangent
T
screw.
S
2. Release the lower clamp and swing the
instrument towards the magnetic meridian. Release the needle of the compass. Fig. 6.20 Magnetic bearingsDirect
method (with transiting)
With the lower tangent screw, set the
magnetic needle to read exactly zero.
3. Release the upper clamp and swing the instrument to bisect the signal at Q.
With the upper tangent screw, exactly bisect the station mark Q. Read vernier
A and record the reading.
4. With both plates clamped, shift the instrument to Q, and set up and level the
instrument.
5. Release the lower clamp and swing the instrument to take a back sight on P.
Exactly bisect the signal with the lower tangent screw. Check that the reading
on vernier A is the bearing of PQ.
6. Transit the telescope. The line of sight is now directed in the direction of the
extension of line PQ. The reading of the bearing is correct in this position.
7. Release the upper clamp and swing the instrument to bisect the station mark at
R. Exactly bisect the signal with the upper tangent screw. Read vernier A and
record. This will be the correct bearing of line QR.
272
8. Shift the instrument to the next station and repeat the procedure.
The following point may be noted in this method: the instrument is transited at
every station to orient it with the line of sight.
Back bearing method
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In this method the instrument is set to the back bearing of the line to get the correct
orientation of the line. The procedure is as follows.
1. Set up and level the theodolite at P. With the upper clamp and upper tangent
screw, set vernier A to read zero. With the lower clamp and lower tangent screw,
bring the line of sight to the magnetic meridian by releasing the magnetic needle.
When the needle reads zero, clamp the instrument.
2. Release the upper clamp, swing the instrument to bisect the signal at Q, and
bisect the signal exactly with the upper tangent screw. Read vernier A and
record the reading as the bearing of PQ.
3. Shift the instrument to Q. Calculate the back bearing of line PQ. With the upper clamp and the upper tangent screw, set the reading of vernier A to the back
bearing of PQ. Release the lower clamp and take a back sight on P. With the
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oriented.
4. Release the upper clamp, swing the instrument, and bisect the signal at R. With
the upper tangent screw, exactly bisect the signal. Read vernier A. This reading
gives the bearing of line QR.
5. Shift the instrument to other stations and repeat the procedure.
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The following points may be noted in this procedure.

(a) The theodolite is not transited at any station. Thus the error due to line of sight
reversal is not present.
(b) The instrument is brought into correct orientation by setting the back bearing
of the previous line.
(c) The instrument is swung and rotated in a horizontal plane at every station to
bisect the signal at the next station.
(d) The reading on vernier A gives the correct bearings of the lines at every station.
6.7.2 Traversing by Angles
Instead of bearings of lines, the angles of a traverse can be measured with the
theodolite. The angles measured can be included (interior) angles, exterior angles,
-
measured to get the direction of the magnetic meridian at that place.

Traversing by interior or exterior angles
Figure 6.21 shows the interior and exterior angles of a traverse. If the traverse is
covered in the clockwise direction, the angles measured are interior angles. If we
go counterclockwise over the traverse, we measure the exterior angles. The general
procedure in either case is as follows.

Q
Q
R
P
T
S
T
S
(a) Interior angles
(b) Exterior angles
Fig. 6.21
Recording of interior angles
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Table 6.5
Traversing by angles
Face left/swing right; traversing clockwise
Q
T
R
P
S
Q
T
R
S
P
Q
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Angle Horizontal angle
00
139
00
87
00
132
00
100
00
79
Reading on vernier
A
B
00 00
00
17 20
17
00 00
00
48 40
48
00 00
00
21 00
21
00 00
00
49 00
49
00 00
00
44 00
44
00
20
00
40
00
00
00
00
00
00
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Sight to
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Instrument at
TPQ
139
17
20
PQR
87
48
40
QRS
132
21
00
RST
100
49
00
STP
79
44
00
Pr
Face right/swing right; traversing clockwise

Instrument at Sight
to
P
Q
R
S
T
T
Q
P
R
S
Q
T
R
P
S
Reading on vernier
A
B
00 00 00 00 00
139 17 00 17 00
00 00 00 00 00
87 48 20 48 20
00 00 00 00 00
132 21 20 21 20
00 00 00 00 00
100 49 20 49 20
00 00 00 00 00
79 43 40 43 40
Angle
Horizontal
angle
Mean angle
TPQ
139 17 00 139 17 10
PQR
87
QRS
132 21 20 132 21 10
RST
100 49 20 100 49 10
STP
79
48 20 87
43 40 79
48 30
43 50
274
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1. Set up and level the theodolite at the starting station P. Measure the magnetic
bearing of line PQ as per the procedure outlined earlier. With the upper clamp
and the upper tangent screw, set the instrument to read zero on vernier A. Check
the reading on vernier B. Record both the readings.
2. Release the lower clamp and swing the instrument to sight the station mark Q.
Bisect the signal exactly with the lower tangent screw. Check that the reading
on both the verniers has not changed. Release the upper clamp and swing the
instrument to bisect the station mark at T. Exactly bisect the signal at T with
the upper tangent screw. Read verniers A and B and record the observations.
This gives the interior angle at station P.
3. Shift the instrument to Q, set it up, and level it. Set the vernier readings to zero
again with the upper clamp and the upper tangent screw. With the lower clamp
and lower tangent screw, bisect exactly the station mark at R. Check the readings on the verniers, which should read zero and 180.
4. Release the upper clamp and swing the instrument to bisect the signal at P. Read
verniers A and B and record the readings. This will give the interior angle at Q.
5. Repeat the procedure at all stations of the traverse.
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The readings can be recorded as shown in Table 6.5. To achieve greater accuracy,
the angles can be measured at a station with both faces, face left and face right.
For high, precision work, angles can be read by the method of repetition with three
repetitions for each face. When you go counterclockwise and measure the angles
from the previous station to the forward station, you measure the exterior angles.
The procedure is exactly the same.
Traversing by deflection angles is the

preferred method for open traverses.
The method can be used for closed traverses as well. The procedure is as follows
(Fig. 6.22).
1. For the closed traverse PQRSTP
shown, set up and level the theodolite
at P. Observe and record the magnetic
bearing of the line PQ by the method
outlined above.
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T
S
tangent screw, set vernier A to read

zero. Check vernier B. Record the
Fig. 6.22
readings of both the verniers.
angles
gent screw, bisect the signal at the last station T. Transit the telescope. Release
the upper clamp, and swing the instrument to bisect the signal at the next station
Q. With the upper tangent screw, bisect the signal exactly. Read the verniers.
bearing, this can help as a check.
4. Shift the instrument to Q, set it up, and level it. With the upper clamp and tangent
screw, set vernier A to read zero. With the instrument reading zero, release the
lower clamp and swing the instrument to bisect the signal at P. Exactly bisect
the signal with the lower tangent screw.
5. Transit the telescope. Release the upper clamp and swing the instrument to
bisect the signal at R. Clamp the upper plate and, with the upper tangent screw,
exactly bisect the signal. Read both the verniers and record.
6. Repeat the procedure at all the stations.
The observations can be recorded as shown in Table 6.6. It should be noted that
right, when the next line is to the right of the continuation of the previous line. A
previous line. It should be recorded simultaneously with the observed angles.
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Table 6.6
Reading on vernier
A
00
00
00
61
46
20
46
20
00
00
00
00
00
R (R)
15
36
40
36
20
00
00
00
00
32
20
36
40
00
00
00
00
00
54
28
40
28
40
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00
44
S (R)
S
00
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00
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P
Q
Mean value
Sight to
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Instrument
at
at
Face left
61 46
20
15 36
30 15 36
30
44 36
30 44 36
40
54 28
40 54 28
40
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T (R)
S
Q
N
P
Fig. 6.23 Open traverseDirect angles
Open traverse with direct angles
open traverse. The procedure is the following (Fig. 6.23).

1. Set up the theodolite at station P and level it. Record the magnetic bearing of
line PQ.
276
2. Shift the instrument to Q. Set up and level it. Set vernier A to read zero using
the upper clamp and upper tangent screw. Check vernier B also.
3. Release the lower clamp and swing the instrument to take a sight on the station
mark at P. Exactly bisect the signal with the lower tangent screw.
4. Release the upper plate with the upper clamp and swing the instrument clockwise to bisect the signal at R. This reading gives the angle between the lines
QP and QR.
5. Shift the instrument to other stations and repeat the procedure.
Closed traverse with central angles
Q
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P
In the case of a closed traverse, another
procedure can be adopted to survey the
skeleton of the traverse. The method
of reiteration can be conveniently employed here. The procedure is as follows
O
T
(Fig. 6.24).
1. Select a convenient point O within the
traverse from which all the points of
the traverse are visible and chaining
S
to those points is possible.
R
2. Set up and level the theodolite at O.
Set the instrument to read zero with the Fig. 6.24 Closed traverse by
central angles
upper clamp and upper tangent screw.
Vernier A should read zero and vernier B should read 180.
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Exactly bisect it with the lower tangent screw.

4. Check the reading on the verniers. They should be the same as set. Release
the upper clamp and swing the instrument to bisect the signal at Q. Bisect it
5. Similarly, take sights to stations R, S, and T and note the angle readings from
both the verniers. Finally close the horizon by taking a sight to station P. Check
the reading on the verniers. They should be the readings we started with at P,
in this case zero and 180.
6. Accuracy can be improved with a second set of readings with changed face,
starting from a reading other than zero at the start and reading angles in a
counterclockwise direction.
The readings can be recorded as shown in Table 6.7. The following points should
be noted.
(a) Along with the angles, the distances OP, OQ, etc. are measured with a tape.
These are required for plotting the traverse.
(b) As a check, the distances PQ, QR, etc. are also measured. This is not extra work,
as these distances are measured for the purpose of taking in details with offsets.
(c) There is no direct measurement of the traverse angles. They can be calculated
from the properties of triangles, knowing the three sides.

Table 6.7
Recording of observations
Face left
Instrument at
Sight to
P
Q
R
S
T
P
Reading on vernier
B
00 00 00
43 40 43
38 00 38
53 40 53
15 00 15
59 40 59
Angle
00
40
00
40
20
40
POQ
QOR
ROS
SOT
TOP
Horizontal angle
62
57
72
80
86
43
54
15
21
44
40
20
40
10
50
Interconversion of Angles
6.7.3
00
62
120
192
273
359
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The theodolite measures the whole circle bearings of lines. These can be converted
to reduced bearings by the methods discussed in Chapter 3. Also, one can calculate
included angles from bearings and vice versa. Included angles can also be calculated
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The following relationships of the angles of a closed traverse are known from
geometry:
(a) sum of the interior angles = (2n 4) right angles
(b) sum of exterior angles = (2n + 4) right angles
It is desirable to draw a rough sketch of the traverse before attempting to solve
problems. The following examples illustrate these principles.
The whole circle bearings of the lines of a closed traverse are given below.
Find the included angles of the traverse.
Line
AB
BC
CD
DA
Bearing
78 40 20
152 31 40
251 18 40 3 44 15
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Example 6.1
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Solution It is desirable to draw a rough sketch of the traverse as shown in Fig. 6.25. The
solution is shown in Table 6.8.
Table 6.8
Solution to Example 6.1
Angle at
258 40 20
105
03
55
152 31 40
332 31 40
106
08
40
CD
251 18 40
71 18 40
81
13
00
DA
3 44 15
183 44 15
67
34
25
Line
Fore bearing
AB
78 40 20
BC
Back bearing
First we calculate the back bearings of the lines. The included angle is the difference between
the back bearing of a line and the fore bearing of the next line. Thus,
DAB = bearing of DA bearing of AB = 183 44 15 78 40 20
= 105 03 55
ABC = bearing of BA bearing of BC = 258 40 20 152 31 40
= 106 08 40
278
BCD = Bearing of CB bearing of CD = 332 31 40 251 18 40

= 81 13 00
CDA = bearing of CD bearing of DA = 71 18 40 3 44 15
= 67 34 25
Check: Sum of included angles of a traverse = (2n 4) right angles = 360 or a four-sided
Q
N
87 48 40
N 62 42 20
152 31 40
78 40 20
P 139 17 20
at
251 18 40
79 44 00
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15
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C
3 44
132 21 00
Fig. 6.26 Traverse of Example 6.2
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100 49 00
S
20. The
included angles of the traverse are given below. Calculate the whole circle bearings of the lines.
Example 6.2
P
Q
139 17 20 87 48 40
R
132 21 00
S
100 49 00
T
79 44 00
Station
Angle
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Solution A rough sketch of the traverse is shown in Fig. 6.26. The solution is given in
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Table 6.9.
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Table 6.9
Solution to Example 6.2
Station Included angle Line
Fore bearing
Back bearing
139 17 20
PQ
62 42 20
242 42 20
87 48 40
QR
154 53 40
334 53 40
132 21 00
RS
202 32 40
22 32 40
100 49 00
ST
281 43 40
101 43 40
79 44 00
TP
21 59 40
201 59 40
A closed traverse ABCDEA was conducted and the included angles mea 20
vertex and the bearings of the lines.
Station
A
B
C
D
Angle
105 03 55
106 08 40 81 13 00
67 34 25
Example 6.3
Solution A rough sketch of the traverse is shown in Fig. 6.27. The solution is given in
Table 6.10.

Table 6.10 Solution to Example 6.3
Station
A
B
C
D
Included angle
105
03 55
106
08 40
81
13 00
67
34 25
Line
56
51
47
25
74
73
98
112
05
20
00
35
AB
BC
CD
DA
Bearing
78 40 20
152 31 40
251 18 40
3 44 15
Example 6.4
measured in a closed traverse ABCDEA

are given below. Find the included
angles of the traverse.
B
106 08 40
78 40 20
105 03 55
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81 32 40
65 54 20
72 14 30
68 25 50
81 13 00
C
either has not been measured or is not
67 34 25
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Solution
at
A
B
C
D
E
in a closed traverse is equal to 360,
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20. The included angle is equal to 180 de-
20
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A
81 32 40
98 27 20
B
65 54 20
114 05 40
C
72 14 30
107 45 30
D
68 25 50
111 34 10
E
71 52 40
108 07 20
As a check, sum of the included angles = 540 00 00.
Example 6.5
A traverse was conducted and the exterior angles were measured. Find the
Station
A
Exterior angle 254 56 05
B
253 51 20
C
D
278 47 00
Solution The sum of the exterior angles of a closed traverse = (2n + 4) right angles. This
condition can be used to evaluate the unknown exterior angle.
(2n + 4) right angles = (2 4 + 4) 90 = 12 90 = 1080
Sum of given angles = 787 34 25
Exterior angle at D = 1080 00 00 787 34 25 = 292 25 35
A: 74 56 05,
B: 73 51 20,
Example 6.6
30.
C: 98 47 00,
D: 112 25 35
280
P
Q
R
S
T
62 44 20
48 22 00
57 36 40
71 15 20
120 01 40
Solution The solution is shown in Table 6.11.

Table 6.11 Solution to Example 6.6
20
00
40
20
40
PQ
QR
RS
ST
TP
54
102
160
231
351
Bearing
25
47
24
39
41
30
30
10
30
10
at
P
Q
R
S
T
44
22
36
15
01
Line
62
48
57
71
120
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Station
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6.8 Locating Landscape Details with the Theodolite

We have discussed so far methods to survey the main frame or the skeleton of the
survey. In most surveys, it is necessary to locate details such as buildings, railway
lines, canals, and other landmarks along with the survey. A transit with a steel tape
is used to locate details, and many methods are available, as the transit is an anglemeasuring instrument. The following methods can be used.
Angle and distance from a single station
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A point can be located with an angle to the station along with the distance from that
station as shown in Fig. 6.28(a). The angle is preferably measured from the same
reference line to avoid confusion. A sketch with the line and the distance and angle
measured will help in plotting later. A road can be located as shown in Fig. 6.28(b).
Angles to a number of points are measured and with each angle two distances are
measured to locate the road.
Angle from one station and distance from another
If for any reason, it is not possible to measure the angle and distance to an object
from the same point, it may be possible to locate the point by measuring angles
from one station and distances from the other. The recorded data should clearly
indicate the stations from which the angle and distance are measured. Figure 6.28(c)
shows this method of measuring. The angle is measured from station A to point
P. When the instrument is shifted to B, the distance to point P is measured from B
with a steel tape.
Angles from two stations
If for some reason, it is not possible to measure distances, then angles from two
stations are enough to locate a point. As shown in Fig. 6.28(d), the point P is located
by measuring angles to point P from stations A and B.
P
d
q
O
(b)
P
(a)
P
d
q
A
(d)
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(e)
(f)
Fig. 6.28 Filling-in details
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Intermediate points on lines
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If the stations are far away, any of the above methods can be used to locate details
from any one or two selected points on the main line. The angle and distance or two
angles from two different points can be used to locate points. The end of a chain
indicate the points and the angles and distances from the points.
Offsets
As in the case of chain surveying, details can be located by offsets with the offset
rod or tape as described earlier from the main chain lines. This is suitable when a
number of points have to be located along the chain line.
6.9 Fundamental Lines and Desired Relationships

The theodolite has to be properly adjusted before it is used. All the methods
described above assume that the instrument is properly adjusted, though some
techniques whereby certain errors due to bad adjustment of the instrument can be
eliminated were discussed. However, the instrument should be in adjustment for
survey work. Here we discuss only the fundamental lines and their relationships for
getting accurate results using the theodolite. The actual procedure for adjustment
is discussed in Chapter 4.
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The following are the fundamental lines.

1. The vertical axis
2. The horizontal or trunnion axis
3. The line of collimation or line of sight
4. Axis of altitude level
5. Axis of plate level
The meaning of these terms has been discussed earlier. The axes are shown in
Fig. 6.29. When the instrument is properly adjusted, the relationships between these
axes are the following.
(a) The horizontal axis must be perpendicular to the vertical axis.
(b) The axis of the plate level must be perpendicular to the vertical axis.
(c) The line of collimation must be at right angles to the horizontal axis.
(d) The axis of the altitude level (and telescope level) must be parallel to the line
of collimation.
(e) The vertical circle vernier must read zero when the line of sight is horizontal.
Each one of these relations gives conditions for accurate measurement.
(a) When the horizontal axis is perpendicular to the vertical axis, the line of sight
generates a vertical plane when transited.
(b) When the axis of the plate level is perpendicular to the vertical axis, the vertical
axis will be truly vertical when the bubble traverses.
(c) When the line of collimation is at right angles to the horizontal axis, the telescope when rotated about the horizontal axis will move in a vertical plane.
(d) When the line of collimation and the axis of altitude level are parallel, the
vertical angles will be measured without any index error.
(e) The index error due to the displacement of the vernier is eliminated when the
vernier reads zero with the line of collimation truly horizontal.
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Cross hairs
Vertical axis
Trunnion axis
Eyepiece
Optical centre
Line of sight
Vertical circle
Objective
Axis of bubble
Bubble axis
Altitude level
Plate bubble
Horizontal plate
Fig. 6.29 Fundamental lines of a theodolite
6.10 Errors in Theodolite Work

The theodolite is a very versatile but delicate instrument. The fundamental lines
retain the desired relationships just for a few uses. Thus, errors creep into the measured values. Other errors are due to incorrect use and operations by personnel.
Still other errors may be attributed to natural causes. These are discussed below.
6.10.1
Instrumental Errors
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(i) Maladjustment of the plate level When the axis of the plate level, which is
a line tangential to the bubble tube at its centre, is not perpendicular to the
vertical axis, the horizontal circle is inclined when the bubble traverses. The
angles measured are not in a horizontal plane and an error will be introduced
in the measurements. This error becomes serious when the angle is measured
between two points at different elevations. A permanent adjustment has to be
carried out to set this right. The instrument can also be levelled with respect to
the altitude level, which is a more sensitive bubble tube.
(ii) Line of collimation not at right angles to the trunnion axis In this case, when
the telescope is transited (rotated in a vertical plane), it does not move in a
plane. The error can be eliminated by taking face right and face left observations and averaging the two.
(iii) Horizontal axis not perpendicular to the vertical axis When the horizontal axis
is not perpendicular to the vertical axis, an error is introduced, as the line of
sight will not move in a vertical plane but along an inclined plane. This error is
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are at considerable difference in elevation. The error can be eliminated by both

face observations and averaging the result.
(iv) Eccentricity of inner and outer axis When the instrument is in adjustment, the
inner and outer axes coincide to form the vertical axis. If there is any difference
between them, the correct angle can be obtained by reading both the verniers
and averaging the result.
(v) Axis of altitude level not parallel to line of collimation This condition
results in error in the measurement of vertical angles, as the zero line of
the verniers does not act as a true reference line for measuring vertical
angles. Taking observations with both the faces and averaging the results
eliminate the error.
(vi) Faulty circle graduations The graduations of the circle may be faulty, not being equidistant in different parts of the circle. The error can be minimized by
taking the readings for an angle several times with different parts of the circle
and averaging the results.
(vii) Verniers being eccentric This condition arises when the zeroes of the verniers
are not at 180 or diametrically opposite. Taking readings at verniers A and B
and calculating the average eliminates this error.
6.10.2
Personal Errors
Personal errors arise due to faulty manipulation of the instrument controls and errors in sighting, reading, and recording.
284
Inaccurate centring over a station
taken to see that the plumb bob is exactly over the station mark before taking the
reading. The effect of wrong centring can be derived as follows. In Fig. 6.30, let C
be the station mark. Due to inaccurate centring, the centre of the instrument is at
C1. In such a case, instead of the correct angle PCQ, the angle measured is PC1Q.
The correct angle PCQ is given by
PCQ = PC1Q a b = PC1Q (a + b )
Q
P
a
C1
C
(a)
C1
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(b)
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Fig. 6.30 Innacurate centring
Variation of centring error with the length of sight
Centring error (mm)
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Table 6.12
Length of sight (m)

25
10
15
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20
Angular error
41
50
21
25
1 22
50
41
25
50
25
2 45
50
1 22
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On the other hand, if the centring is done over C2 on the other side, then
Correct PCQ = PC2Q + (a + b )
The error due to centring, (a + b ), depends upon the length of sights and the error in centring. Table 6.12 shows the error due to centring and how it varies wih the
length of sights.
Slip
error can also result from the clamps not being properly tightened or the shifting
head not being properly clamped.
Wrong manipulation of controls
This is a common error. Clamping the instrument and operating the wrong tangent
screw can result in erroneous zero setting or reading of the angle. The remedy is to
familiarize oneself with the controls, operate them carefully, and verify the readings frequently.
Inaccurate levelling
The levelling operation is fundamental to the theodolite. Levelling should be done

the instrumental error of the plate level not being perpendicular to the vertical axis.
Inaccurate bisection of target
As angles are to be measured accurately, ideally a point target is required. Many

often, it is not possible to observe the cross mark on the peg over the station. Care
must be taken to ensure that if a ranging rod is sighted, the lowest point is observed
and an appropriate mark is made for bisection.
Non-verticality of ranging rod
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The ranging rod or other object held over a station has to be truly vertical. Otherwise an error is introduced in the reading. The error is inversely proportional to
the length of sight. The error is given by tan e = error in verticality/length of sight.
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Displacement of target
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All stations should be properly marked. If the target is misplaced or shifted during
surveying, serious error can occur.
Parallax
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To avoid parallax, the eyepiece should be focused properly. The focusing of the
objective should be done at every sight to get a sharp and clear image.
Mistakes in setting and reading
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Mistakes in reading the main and vernier scales are common. These could be due
to reading the vernier in the wrong direction, inaccurate adjustment of the vernier,
or reading the main and vernier scales at an angle instead of directly over the
graduations.
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6.10.3 Errors due to Natural Causes

Errors due to natural causes include errors due to (i) settlement of the tripod due to soft soil
(ii) wind, causing vibrations and turning, and (iii) high temperature, causing faults
in reading due to refraction, differential expansion of different parts, and direct
6.11 Precision in Linear and Angular Measurements

In measuring angles and distances with a theodolite and a tape, one must maintain
consistency between the linear and anguC1
lar measurements. As shown in Fig. 6.31,
let AB and AC be two lines. The angle
C2
between the two lines is a and the length
C
of line AC is l. Let the angular error in
measuring the angle be da and the linear
da
error in measuring the length be n/l. The
true position of the required point is C, but A a
B
due to linear and angular errors, the posiin linear and
tion shifts to C1. C2C1 is the linear error n. Fig. 6.31 Precision
angular measurements
286
CC2 = l tan da; C1C2 = n. Equating the two, tanda = l/n. Linear error is usually
expressed as 1 in L
various angles.
Table 6.13 Relationship between linear and angular error
Angular error
10
20
30
45
60
1/L
1/206,26
1/103,13
1/6875
1/4584
1/3438
Linear error
1 in 500
1 in 3000
1 in 5000
1 in 10,000
1 in 25,000
Angular precision
6 50
1 8
41
21
8
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Upkeep and Maintenance of Theodolite
6.12
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this value is 1/20626 which is the corresponding linear error. If the linear error is
1 in 500 (1/500), tan1
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following points should be taken care of to maintain the instrument in good condition.
(a) The instrument should be properly kept in the box supplied with the
equipment. The clamp screws are loosened to enable movement and the instrument is then kept in the proper position in the box. The instrument is kept
in a tight position within the box by appropriate holding knobs or plates. The
instrument should not move around when it is carried in the box.
-
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(c) It should be protected by a plastic cover or any other similar arrangement when
kept at a station while taping or locating details.
(d) Depending upon the extent of usage, the instrument should undergo permanent
adjustments frequently.
prevent it from falling off the tripod.
(f) Anti-moisture gel must be kept in the box to prevent damage to the optical
parts due to excessive humidity.
(g) The instrument should be dusted to remove dust and moisture before keep
ing it in the box after the days work.
If proper care is taken the theodolite can provide good service for a long time.
6.13 Modern Theodolites

We have discussed the vernier theodolite earlier. The vernier theodolite was a
very valuable instrument in earlier times. Most vernier-type instruments have a
least count of 20. They are still in use in many places. For geodetic work, vernier
instruments with large-diameter circles were used with a small least count in early
days. To improve this instrument and measure angles with greater precision, many
and electronic theodolites, which need less maintenance, were developed for ease
of operation and greater precision. In these theodolites, permanent adjustments

remain for a longer period of time. Angles can be read to an accuracy of 1 or even
vary with the manufacturers but the essential principles remain the same.
6.13.1 Micro-optic Theodolites
Micro-optic theodolites can read angles to an accuracy of 10 or even less. The essential principle is illustrated in Fig. 6.32. The special features of such theodolites
are as follows.
(a) Conventional metal circles are replaced by glass circles on which the gradua-
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and sharper by this technique. Both the horizontal and vertical circles are made
of glass and generally graduated to 10.
(b) Light passing through the circle at the point of the reading is taken through a
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circle. In case night operation is required, the battery-operated light provided

in the instrument can be used.
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of view. This is an advantage, as the readings of both the circles can be taken
at the same time. Some manufacturers make a switching arrangement so that
the horizontal or vertical circle reading can be seen along with the micrometer
reading.
(d) The optical micrometer is used to read fractions of the main scale division.
Depending upon the reading system, angles can be read up to 10 or less.
(e) The circles are generally graduated to 10 or 20 of the arc. The micrometer
can be read after coinciding the index with the nearest main scale division.
The fractions are then read from the micrometer scale, which is also seen in
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(f) A small, separate reading telescope is provided besides the main telescope. It
eliminates the need to move while bisecting an object and taking the reading.
(g) In most instruments, diametrically opposite ends of the circle are brought
Reading telescope
Micrometer
Vertical
circle
B
Horizontal circle
Fig. 6.32 Micro-optic theodolite
288
6.13.2 Electronic Theodolites

The electronic theodolite (Fig. 6.33) is a recent development in the manufacture
of theodolites. The working principle remaining the same, the graduated circle is
made differently and the method of taking readings is also different. At the press
of a button, the angles are displayed and can be stored in memory. The following
are the characteristic features of electronic theodolites.
Fixed photodiode
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Coded circle
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Movable
photodiode
Laser digital theodolite
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Fig. 6.33 Incremental encoding
Graduated circle
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The graduated circle is made of glass as in an optical theodolite, but the graduations
are made in a special code to be read by photodiodes. The photodiodes convert the
readings into electrical signals that are processed by a microprocessor into angles
that are digitally displayed on an LCD or LED panel. The graduated circle can be
encoded in two waysthe incremental system and the absolute encoding system.
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Incremental system In this system, two photodiodes are placed at diametrically

opposite positions over the glass circle. The circle is encoded by dividing it into a
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zero of the circle. As the telescope is turned in azimuth, the other photodiode moves
along with the telescope. The circle does not move. The photodiode measures the
movement of the alidade from the code etched on the circle and the signal is sent to
a processor for converting the measurement into an angle for display and storage.
Absolute encoding system In this system, each position on the circle is uniquely
encoded. The circle is illuminated by an internal source and this light passes through
the circle onto an array of photodiodes, which convert the light into an electric signal.
This signal is processed by a microprocessor for display as an angle and storage.
Compensator
Most optical and electronic theodolites have a compensator system to ensure that
any deviation of the axis from the true horizontal does not affect the reading. Single
or dual-axis compensators are employed. Electronic theodolites are levelled as in
the case of vernier theodolites. The vertical axis may not exactly coincide with the
true vertical. To make the levelling process simple, compensators are provided.
The theodolite is only approximately levelled and any small tilt of the instru-
ment is taken care of by the compensator. The compensator systems are shown in
Fig. 6.34.
Photodetector
Excitation coil
Level vial
Level vial
Detection coil
Collimator
Collimator
(a) Single-axis compensator
(b) Dual-axis compensator
Fig. 6.34 Compensator systems
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The single-axis compensator measures the tilt of the vertical axis and compensates by adjusting the vertical angle. The dual-axis compensator measures the
tilt of the vertical axis as well as the trunnion axis. The horizontal angle is also
adjusted for any tilt in the trunnion axis. Single-axis compensator systems are of
liquid or magnetic type. Current is passed through the central coil known as the
excitation coil. This generates a current in the other two coils. The current values
will be equal if the instrument is level and different if there is any tilt in the vertical
axis. This difference is measured and converted into a tilt angle. The measured angle
is also compensated for this tilt by the processor before displaying the angle.
In dual-axis compensators, light from an internal source is passed onto a lens
for evenly distributing the light onto a liquid vial. A photodiode divided into four
sections receives this light. The light falling on the various sections of the photodiode will be even if there is no tilt in the axes and uneven if there is any tilt in
the axes. The difference in light intensity is converted into tilt angles for both the
axes by the processor. The horizontal and vertical angles are also corrected for tilt
before displaying.
Display consoles may be provided either on one side or on both sides. Most
electronic theodolites have a zero set facilitychanging the direction of the reading from clockwise to counterclockwise, a display of angles, a display of grades,
etc. The angles are measured and displayed within a few seconds of pressing a
button. The batteries last for about 75 to 100 hours of operation. The data from the
theodolite can be transferred to a computer for further processing.
Digital theodolites
The instruments are light weight and are similar to electronic theodolites in construction.
The instrument is set up over a station as in the case of normal theodolites. They
will have extendable tripod legs which can be adjusted for comfortable viewing.
The centring and levelling operations are done with a circular vial for coarse setting
one has to press only a measure button to get the readings of angles and distances.
Some models also have a laser pointer for easy alignment in critical cases and for
staking out operations. With the arrival of total stations, these theodolites have less
demand though they are cheaper compared to a total station.
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The following are typical features in a digital theodolite:

Angle measurement by absolute encoding glass circle;
Diameter 71 mm
Horizontal angle 2 sides; vertical angleone side;
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objective lens 45 mm
Field of view 130 Minimum focus distance 1m
Stadia values: Multiplying constant 100; additive
constant 0
Also see Plate 1
Laser pointer coaxial with telescope; 633 nm class II
laser; Method focusing for alignment and stake out operations
Display on both sides; 7-segment LCD unit
Display and reticle illuminated
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Power supply 4 AA size batteries; Operating times Theodolite only 140 hours
Laser only 80 hours; Theodolite + laser 45 hours
Weight 4.2 kg
Optical plummet
Standards
Tribrach
Prism
Eyepiece
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Most instruments are provided with an optical or laser plummet for accurate centring.
The plummet system is shown in Fig. 6.35.
A small telescope is provided at the tribrach
level. The station point can be seen through
the telescope very accurately. The image of
the station point is brought to the view of the
Pickup lens
centre of the instrument.
6.14 Adjustments of Theodolite

The fundamental lines of a theodolite are the
following.
Station mark
1. Vertical axis
Fig. 6.35 Optical plummet
2. Horizontal axis or trunnion axis
3. Line of collimation or line of sight
4. Axis of plate level
5. Axis of altitude level
6. Axis of the striding level, if provided
The desired relationships among these lines are (see Fig. 6.36) the following:
(a) The axis of the plate level must lie in a plane perpendicular to the vertical axis.
(b) The line of collimation must be perpendicular to the horizontal axis. The line of
collimation, the vertical axis, and the horizontal axis must intersect at a point.
(c) The horizontal axis must be perpendicular to the vertical axis.
(d) The axis of the altitude bubble must be parallel to the line of collimation.
(e) The vertical circle should read zero when the line of collimation is horizontal.
Cross hair
Horizontal or
trunnion axis
Vertical
circle
Line of collimator
Optical centre
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Parallel
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Altitude bubble axis
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Plate bubble axis
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Vertical axis
Horizontal circle
Fig. 6.36 Desired relationships between the fundamental lines of a theodolite
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Each of these conditions (relationships) will result in a desirable performance of

the instrument as follows. Condition 1 ensures that the vertical axis is truly vertical
when the plate bubble is in the centre. Condition 2 ensures that when the telescope
is moved about the horizontal axis or transited, it moves in a vertical plane. Condition 3 ensures that the vertical angle measured will be free from the error caused by
axes not being parallel. Condition 4 ensures that the line of sight generates a vertical
plane when the telescope is transited. Condition 5 ensures that vertical angles will
be free from any index error due to the vernier.
6.15 Permanent Adjustments of Theodolite

The permanent adjustments of a theodolite are done in a prescribed order so that
one adjustment does not affect any other adjustment. The order in which the
adjustments are to be done is the following.
1. Plate level test to make the plate level at the centre when the vertical axis is
truly vertical.
2. Cross hair ring test to make the line of collimation coincide with the optical
axis and also to ensure that the line of collimation generates a vertical plane
when the telescope is transited.
3. Spire test to make the horizontal axis perpendicular to the vertical axis.
4. Collimation test to make the line of collimation perpendicular to the horizontal
axis.
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5. Telescope bubble test to centre the telescope bubble when the line of sight is
horizontal.
6. Vertical vernier test to ensure that the vertical circle reads zero when the line
of sight is horizontal.
6.15.1
Plate Level Test
The plate level test is intended to make the vertical axis truly vertical. The steps are as
follows (see Fig. 6.37).
Test
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level(s) and foot screws as in temporary adjustment.

2. Turn the instrument through 180. Reverse the bubble end for end. If the bubble
does not traverse, adjustment is required.
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Bubble axis
B
(90 a)
Vertical axis
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Vertical axis
a
True
vertical
True
vertical
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Horizontal plate
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(a) First position
(b) Position after turning through 180
Fig. 6.37 Plate level test
Adjustment
1. Shift the bubble towards the centre by n/2 divisions using the capstan-headed
screws at the end of the bubble tube. Bring the bubble to the centre of its run
using the foot screws.
2. Repeat the test and adjustment till the instrument is in adjustment.
Alternative method The altitude level on the telescope or on the T-frame is more
sensitive than the plate level. This is used for adjustment. The procedure is as follows.
Test
1. Turn the telescope parallel to any two foot screws. Bring it to the centre of its
run using the two screws. Turn the telescope through 90 and bring the level
over the third foot screw. Bring it to the centre of its run. Repeat until the bubble
remains at the centre in these two positions.
the number of divisions by which the bubble is off centre. Let the bubble be
off centre by n divisions.
Adjustment
Cross Hair Ring Adjustment
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6.15.2
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1. Bring the bubble halfway (n/2 divisions) by means of the clip screw or the
vertical circle tangent screw. Bring the bubble to the centre of its run (correct
the remaining n/2 divisions) using the foot screws.
2. Bring the bubble over the third foot screw. Check whether the bubble traverses.
If not, adjust with the third footscrew.
3. Repeat the test and adjustment till the altitude bubble traverses in all positions.
4. The vertical axis has now been made truly vertical. If the plate level is off centre, bring it to the centre by means of the capstan-headed screws. The bubble
should now traverse in all positions.
Adjustment of the horizontal hair
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The cross hair ring adjustment test is done to make the line of collimation coincide
with the optical axis of the telescope. The vertical and horizontal hairs are adjusted
separately.
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For the adjustment of the horizontal hair, proceed as follows [see Fig. 6.38(a)].
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Test
1. Select two points P and Q about 100 m apart. Select a point R about 10 m from
P in line with P and Q on the line PQ.
2. Set up the theodolite at P and level the instrument carefully.
3. Keep a levelling staff each at R and Q with face left and take readings. Let the
readings be r1 and q1.
4. Transit the telescope and swing it through 180 to get the face right.
5. Set the horizontal hair to the earlier reading r1 obtained on the staff at R.
6. Again take the reading on the staff at Q. If the reading is the same as that obtained earlier, q1, the instrument is in adjustment as far as the horizontal hair
is concerned. If not, let the reading be r2. Adjustment is required for the hair.
Second line
of sight
r1
First line
of sight
q2
q1
R
Q
(a) Horizontal cross hair test
Fig. 6.38 (Contd.)
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q2
q1
(b) Alternative horizontal cross hair text

3
a
100 m
2a
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R
P
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100 m
(c) Adjustment of vertical hair
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Fig. 6.38 Cross hair ring test
Adjustment
1. With the top and bottom screws on the diaphragm, bring the reading to the
mean reading (r1 + r2)/2.
2. Repeat the test till the instrument is in adjustment.
Test
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Alternative method As an alternative, the horizontal angle can be noted while

taking the reading. Proceed as follows [see Fig. 6.38(b)].
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1. Select two points P and Q about 100 m apart from each other. Set up and level
the instrument at P.
reading of the vertical angle.
3. Transit the telescope and turn it through 180 to sight the staff again at Q with
the alternative face. Set the reading on the vertical circle to the same angle.
Read the staff. If the reading is the same as q1, the instrument is in adjustment.
If not, let the reading be q2.
Adjustment
1. The adjustment is done using the diaphragm screws by setting the reading to
the mean of the two readings, (q1 + q2)/2.
2. Repeat the test and adjustment until the instrument is in adjustment.
Adjustment of the vertical hair
Vertical adjustment is done to ensure that when the telescope is transited, it generates
a vertical plane. If the adjustment is not done, it will generate a cone with its axis
as the horizontal axis. We proceed as follows for this adjustment [see Fig. 6.38(c)].
Test
1. Select a point R such that about 100 m of level ground is available on either
side of R. Set up and level the instrument at R. This is to ensure that the test
is not affected by the difference in elevation between the points on either side.
Any further adjustment of the horizontal axis, even if it is not strictly horizontal,
will not affect the adjustment.
2. Select a point P about 100 m from R. Keep a ranging rod at R and bisect it
accurately with the telescope. Keep the upper and lower motions clamped.
3. Transit the telescope. Keep a ranging rod at about 100 m from R on the other
side of P in the line of sight. Place the ranging rod accurately in line with PR.
4. Transit the telescope again. Check whether P is in the line of sight. If P is sighted
accurately, the instrument is in adjustment. Otherwise, the vertical hair has to
be adjusted.
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Adjustment
1. Place a ranging rod in the line of sight beside P. Let this position be P. Measure PP.
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to a point P at one-fourth distance of PP from P.

3. Repeat the test till the instrument is in perfect adjustment.
It must be noted that the instrument is transited twice and the apparent error is four
times the actual error.
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6.15.3 Spire Test

In the spire test the horizontal axis is
made perpendicular to the vertical axis
when the instrument is levelled. This,
together with the adjustment of the
vertical hair, ensures that the line of
collimation generates a vertical plane.
Proceed with the test and adjustment as
follows (see Fig. 6.39).
Second mark
Correct
Third mark
Fig. 6.39 Spire test
Test
1. Set up the instrument at 1020 m from a building or any structure that has a clearly
2. Set up and level the instrument at this point. With face left, sight the high point.
Clamp the motions and depress the telescope. Mark a point on the ground or
on the wall. It may be better to use a levelling staff placed horizontally below
the high point. In such a case, note the reading on the staff.
3. Transit the telescope, turn it through 180, and again sight the point on the top.
it is the same as the previous one, the instrument is in adjustment; otherwise,
adjustment is required.
Adjustment
1. If points are marked, measure the distance between the points on the wall or
ground. Find the point midway between the two marks. If a staff is used, take
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the mean of the two readings to get the point midway between the two readings.
Sight this point with the telescope. Clamp both motions.
2. Raise the telescope and check whether the high point is sighted. It will not
bisect the point.
3. With the horizontal axis adjustment screw on the standards, adjust the horizontal
axis so that the point is sighted.
4. Repeat the test and adjustment till the instrument is in adjustment.
6.15.4 Collimation Test
The collimation test ensures that the line of sight coincides with the optical axis
of the telescope. The test procedure is the same as the two-peg test described for
a level.
Alternative method The procedure is the same as in the two-peg test except
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for the following.

1. With the vertical circle clamped, bring the bubble to the centre of its run using
the clip screw.
2. In adjusting the reading on Q to the correct reading, use the clip screw. This
eliminates any index error in the vertical circle and vernier.
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6.15.5 Altitude Bubble Test

The objective of the altitude bubble test is to ensure that the vertical circle reads
zero when the telescope bubble is centred. If the telescope bubble is in the centre,
but the vertical circle does not read zero, then there is an index error. Corrections
can be applied to the vertical angles measured. However, the test and adjustment
are done to eliminate the index error so that confusion of signs in applying the corrections is avoided. Proceed as follows.
3.
4.
5.
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2.
plate bubble.
Bring the altitude bubble to the centre of its run with the help of the vertical
circle tangent screw.
Read the vertical circle. If it reads zero, the instrument is in adjustment.
If the vertical circle does not read zero, note down the reading. This is the
index error, which should be added to or subtracted from the vertical angles
measured.
To make the vertical circle read zero, the screws attaching the vernier arc
to the standards are loosened and adjusted to make the vertical circle read
zero.
6.16 Importance of Adjustments

The error caused by many of the required conditions of the fundamental lines not
being met can be eliminated by face-left and face-right observations.
The plate level adjustment is very important for all the operations of the theodolite. This adjustment should be done frequently. If the vertical axis is not truly
vertical, the error cannot be eliminated by face-left and face-right observations.
The plate level adjustment ensures that the horizontal circle and trunnion axis are
Points to Remember
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truly horizontal. The measurement of horizontal angles is not affected except when
using the method of repetition.
The second adjustment is that of cross hairs. The adjustment of the horizontal
hair is important for measuring vertical angles and also when the theodolite is used
as a level. If the horizontal hair does not lie on the optical axis of the telescope, its
position will change during focusing. This, however, does not affect the measurement of horizontal angles. The adjustment of the vertical hair is important in many
operations such as prolonging a line by transiting, measuring horizontal angles,
and measuring with the telescope in inclined positions. The errors caused can be
eliminated by face-left and face-right observations.
The third adjustment to make the horizontal axis perpendicular to the vertical
axis becomes important in all operations involving the motion of the telescope in a
vertical plane. The telescope should generate a vertical plane during such motion,
which is ensured by this adjustment.
The fourth adjustment, of the altitude level, is important for accurate measurement of vertical angles and for using the theodolite as a level.
The index error adjustment of the vertical circle and vernier is done for convenience only. It is possible to apply corrections to the measured angles after noting
down the index error.
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Theodolite is used to measure horizontal and vertical angles. A theodolite consists of a base levelling head for levelling the instrument and can be screwed on to a tripod stand. The horizontal
circle is graduated from 0 to 360 degrees and has a vernier to read angles up to 20. Magnifying
glasses are provided to read the two verniers provided 180 degrees apart.
The A-frame on top of the levelling head carries the telescope and the vertical circle graduated
from 0 to 90 degrees in the four quadrants. There is an altitude bubble for levelling which is
more sensitive than the horizontal bubble on the levelling head. The telescope can be transitted
or rotated in a vertical plane and can be moved horizontally.There are locking screws and tangent
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attached for observing bearing of a line.

Temporary adjustments of the theodolite to be performed at each station where it is set up are
centering and levelling. Centering is done using a plumb bob attached to the lower hook on the
levelling head by adjusting the tripod legs. Levelling is done by the spirit level on the levelling
head and bringing the bubble to the centre in two perpendicular directions. Before taking observations both the eye piece, for a clear image of the cross hairs, and objective lens, for a clear image
of the object, have to be adjusted.
Permanent adjustments are done to maintain the desired relationships between the fundamental
lines of a theodolite. The adjustments are done in a particular order to maintain the earlier adjustments.
Face left and face right observations using a theodolite are taken when the vertical circle is
to the left or right of the telescope. The observation face is made to change by transitting the
telescope and panning the telescope to the object.
Horizontal angles are measured using the repetition method by measuring the angle a number of
times from different parts the circle. Bothe face left and face right observations are made. Another
method is the reiteration method where a number of angles are measured at a point closing the
horizon. For accurate work, a number of sets of observations are taken.
Vertical angles, either angles of elevation, are made by tilting the telescope and bisecting the
point with the horizontal cross hair. The altitude bubble can be used to level the instrument for
this measurement.
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Many other operations like prolonging a line and ranging of a line can be performed using the
theodolite.
Traversing is the main operation done using a theodolite. Traversing is done by measuring interior
In a closed traverse, interior angles must add up to (2n 4) right angles; exterior angles must
In adjusting a traverse, any difference in angles is equally distributed among the angles.
The fundamental lines of a theodolite are: vertical axis formed by the inner and outer axes of
the leveling head, trunnion axis on which telescope is supported, bubble tube axis of the plate
level and altitude level and the line of collimation of the telescope.
Modern theodolites
angles through the main or an additional reading telescope. The view of the circles are brought
glass circles read by photodiodes. The display panel shows the angles. For centering, an optical
plummet is generally used.
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Exercises
Multiple-Choice Questions
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1. A theodolite is often designated by

(a) diameter of the objective lens
(c) diameter of the eye piece lens.
(b) diameter of the horizontal circle
(d) length of the telescope
2. To change the reading on the circle while measuring an angle,
(a) upper clamp is tightened and lower clamp is loosened
(b) upper clamp is loosened and lower clamp is tightened
(c) both upper and lower clamps are loosened
(d) both upper and lower clamps are tightened
3. The horizontal circle in a theodolite is graduated in
(a) the quadrantal system from 0 to 90 in the four quadrants
(b) the whole circle system from 0 to 360
(c) the semi-circle system from 0 to 180 in the right and left halves
(d) a way similar to that in a prismatic compass
4. The vertical circle of a theodolite is generally graduated in
(a) the quadrantal system from 0 to 90 in the four quadrants
(b) the whole circle system from 0 to 360
(c) the semi-circle system from 0 to 180 in the right and left halves
(d) a way similar to that in a prismatic compass
5. When you transit the telescope, you rotate the telescope about
(a) the vertical axis
(c) the optical axis of the telescope
(b) the trunnion axis
(d) the line of collimation
6. A face-left or normal position of observation means
(a) the vertical circle of the instrument is on the left of the observer
(b) the vertical circle is on the right side of the observer
(c) the station being observed is to the left of the observer
(d) the left side vernier is read for the angle value
7. Focusing the objective lens is an operation done
(a) to get the cross hairs to clear view
(b) every time to focus the object being sighted
(c) for reading the vernier clearly
(d) for reading vertical angles
8. In the method of repetition for measuring horizontal angles, to rotate the instrument without
changing the reading,
(a) lower clamp screw is tightened and upper clamp is loosened
(b) lower clamp screw is loosened and upper clamp screw is tightened
9.
10.
14.
17.
.
18.
19.
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15.
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13.
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11.
(c) any one of the clamp screw is loosened

(d) both the clamp screws are loosened
In the method of reiteration of measuring horizontal angles,
(a) the same angle is measured three times
(b) the same angle is measured by face-left and face-right observations
(c) the angle is measured and the instrument turned to close the horizon
(d) the angle is measured three times each using face-left and face-right observations
The inner axis of a theodolite is
(a) the plate bubble axis on the horizontal circle
(b) the axis passing through the centre of the vertical circle
(c) the trunnion axis
(d) the centre of the spindle carrying the vernier circle
The outer axis of a theodolite is
(a) the axis of the altitude level
(b) the trunnion axis
(c) the axis passing through the centre of the horizontal graduated circle
(d) the line of collimation of the theodolite
The index frame or vernier frame is
(a) the A-frame attached to the telescope
(b) the verner circle of the horizontal circle
(c) the T-shaped frame carrying the vernier of the vertical circle
(d) the base of the theodolite having the leveling head
A micro-optic theodolite has horizontal and vertical circles made of
(a) steel
(c) aluminium
(b) glass
(d) horizontal and vertical circles made of light plastic
In electronic theodolites, the horizontal and vertical circles are made of
(a) glass having specially coded graduations read by photo diodes
(b) special metal read electronically
(c) steel plates with specially coded graduations
(d) plastic with coded graduations
Optical plummet is used
(a) in optic theodolites for measuring angles
(b) in electronic theodolites for compensating any tilt in the axis
(c) for accurate centrring of the theodolite over a station
(d) for accurate levlling of the theodolite
The horizontal axis of the theodolite is the line
(a) tangential to the plate bubble
(b) tangential to the altitude level
(c) perpendicular to and passing through the centre of the vertical circle
(d) the line joining the intersection of cross hairs and centre of objective lens
Plate level test of a theodolite is done to ensure that
(a) horizontal axis is truly horizontal
(b) the vertical axis is truly vertical
(c) the plate bubble axis is horizontal
(d) the horizontal circle is truly horizontal
The spire test for permanent adjustment of a theodolite is done to ensure that
(a) the line of sight is perpendicular to the vertical axis
(b) the two axes, of plate level and altitude level, are parallel
(c) the vertical circle lies in a vertical plane
(d) the horizontal axis is perpendicular to the vertical axis
The error that cannot be eliminated by face left and face right observations is when the
(a) vertical axis is not truly vertical
(b) line of collimation and trunnion axes are not perpendicular
(c) axes of the bubble tubes are not parallel
(d) line of collimation and axis of plate level are not parallel
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Review Questions
1. Draw a neat sketch of a vernier theodolite. Describe its main parts and their functions.
lines and the effects if such relationships are not maintained.
3. With a neat sketch, explain how the main scale and vernier scale are graduated to obtain a least
count of 20.
4. Explain the temporary adjustments of a theodolite.
5. Explain the steps involved in measuring horizontal angle with a theodolite.
6. Explain the repetition method to measure horizontal angles and how readings are recorded.
7. Explain the procedure for the reiteration method of measuring horizontal angles.
8. Explain the step-by-step procedure to measure the vertical angle between two points.
10. Explain the procedure to measure the bearing of a line with a theodolite.
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12. Describe a method to range a line between two points when the stations are not intervisible from
an intermediate point.
13. Explain the different methods to prolong a line.
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be taken to eliminate them.

15. List the possible personal errors in theodolite work and the precautions that should be taken to
eliminate them.
16. Describe how consistency in linear and angular measurements can be achieved.
Problems
A
102 30 40
B
124 10 40
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Station
Angle
280 27 30
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Bearing
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1. The following included angles were measured in a closed traverse. If the bearing of the line AB is
70 40 30
Station
A
B
C
D
E
Angle
78 42 30
104 15 20
92 44 40
112 36 10
131 41 20
2. The bearings of lines measured in a theodolite survey are given below. Find the included angles
of the traverse.
Line
PQ
QR
RS
Bearing
160 33 20
58 47 40
320 46 30
traverse.
Station
Station
A
20
D
10
225 52 40
C
96 08 20
B
70 18 40
E
82 31 30
114 58 20
D
131 00 40
E
86 09 40
C
88 20 20
20,
Station
Q
R
68 30 20
81 18 30
Station
S
T
10
94 00 20
6. The exterior angles of a traverse were measured during the survey of an area. If the bearing of
the line PQ is 45 32 40
Station
P
Q
R
Ext. angle
202 36 20
250 18 40
268 20 20
Station
S
T
Ext. angle
276 13 10
262 31 30
40

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CHAPTER

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6.1 Vernier Theodolite

(a) Sectional view

(b) Another view

Fig. 6.1 Vernier theodolite

Vertical circle clamp

Fundamentals of Surveying and Levelling

The lower plate, also known as the circle plate, is an annular,

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(a) Clamp and tangent screw

(b) Vertical circle graduations (20 main scale)

Fig. 6.2 Parts of a theodolite

Fundamentals of Surveying and Levelling

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Thus the least count of the vernier in common theodolites is 20.

Fundamentals of Surveying and Levelling

It is the line tangential to the longitudinal curve of the

Axis of the bubble tube

Face-right or inverted position This is the position in which as the sighting is

6.3 Temporary Adjustments

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Fig. 6.3 Three-foot-screw levelling head

Fundamentals of Surveying and Levelling

Four-screw levelling head

Fig. 6.4 Four-foot-screw levelling head

6.3.3 Focusing the Eyepiece

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6.3.4 Focusing the Objective

6.3.5 Using the Theodolite

The line of sight is arranged to bisect the object clearly.

Fundamentals of Surveying and Levelling

6.4 Measuring Horizontal Angles

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6.4.1 Method of Repetition

Fig. 6.6 Repetition method

Fundamentals of Surveying and Levelling

Sets for precision work

Face/swing repetition number

Mean value of the angle = 61 42 40

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6.4.2 Method of Reiteration

The method of repetition helps to eliminate the following errors.

Fundamentals of Surveying and Levelling

an inverted position (right face). To be more accurate, the second set of

Recording of angles by the reiteration method

Face left/right swing

Mean reading Angle

Face right/right swing

The mean values of the angles are

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Measuring Vertical Angles

Fig. 6.8 Measuring vertical angles

The procedure for measuring vertical angles is as follows.

Fundamentals of Surveying and Levelling

Recording of vertical angles

The mean vertical angles are:

between P and Q = 3 46 10,

6.6 Other Theodolite Operations

6.6.1 Measuring the Magnetic

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Fig. 6.10 Prolonging a line