LCA

Purpose of an LCA - reduce environmental impacts. Cradle to grave approach

as it follows the extraction of raw materials to return of wastes to landfill.
Evaluates inputs, outputs and the potential environmental impacts of a
product. Assessment of raw material production, manufacture, distribution, use
and disposal including all transportation steps.
LCA Methodology:
Goal and Scope: intended application and reason for carrying out study,
intended audience. Definition of system boundaries, functional unit,
description of data quality, assumptions and limitations, review
considerations
Inventory Analysis: detailed flow diagrams, data collection, calculation of
environmental burdens, validation of data.
Impact Assessment: selection of impact categories, calculating
magnitude of categories, weighting of indicators for their relative importance,
data quality analysis
Mid Point Categories: noise, climate change, acidification, eutrophication, land
use, depletion of biotic resources, human toxicity, eco-toxicity, global warming.
Biomass Resources
Ligno-cellulosic biomass most abundant in biomass (33%). Readily available
and economical to produce. Uses include solid woods, flibre materials,
combustion for heating, fuels, chemicals and new materials.
Ligno-cellulosic materials and constituents: wood, bagasse, corn stover, straw,
switch grass, bamboo, etc. Lignin sits in the middle lamella layer and glues the
fibres together.
Hardwood has broad leaves, the seed is a fruit, darker coloured, shorter fibres.
Eg. Eucalyptus.
Softwood has needle like leaves, the seed is long and cone shaped, light
coloured, long fibres. Eg. Pine
There is a significant amount of carbon that is tied up in biomass. Large scale
land clearing would decrease carbon stocks and increase CO2 in the
atmosphere. CO2 can also be generated when burned for fuel. Carbon can be
sequestered in biomass by growing trees and preserving wood once harvested.
Before using biomass as a feedstock, different factors need to be checked. The
density of the material (whether it is green or dry), its moisture content and the
annual growth increment need to be observed.
The density of wood will affect calculations of fibre mass and it would differ
between the species, growing patterns and breeding processes.
Making supply estimates: wood density, annual growth, fraction of annual
growth used (eg, what part of the tree is used and taking in account the
residue from sawmilling)

The consumption of energy from petrol is 7 times as much as what can be

produced by biofuels currently. However, refineries have the sufficient capacity
in order to produce these biofuels. To improve this, higher growth rates are
available as currently, trees are only used for timber and paper.
Palm Plantations as Bioresources
The fruit of the oil palm tree consists of a seed inside a shell, surrounded by a
fleshy mesocarp from which the oil is extracted. The kernel oil is a secondary
byproduct.
Palm oil is advantageous due to its higher annual yield compared to other oils.
Energy content is also higher.
Short chain fatty acids are of a lower boiling point and are more soluble in
water. Unsaturated acids also have a lower point compared to the saturated
ones.
Applications of palm based oleochemicals: soals, detergents, textiles, candles,
paints and coatings, printing ink, biofuels, pharmaceuticals, animal feeds,
rubber, lubricants, etc...
Unit operations involving palm oil mills:
I. Loading ramp - weighbridge and unloading
II. Sterilisation - batch autoclave process
III. Stripping - separate fruit from bunch
IV. Digestion - fruit is mashed in stream heater
V. Extraction - passed through screw press and vibrating screens
VI. Separations of nut from fibre - in a cyclone
VII. Nut Cracking - in a centrifugal cracker to remove kernel from shell.
Ist Gen Biodiesel - from seed oils, fruit oils, and waste animal fats. Advantages
include the fact that they are a renewable resource, extraction and processing
is relatively simple, the fuel properties are close to diesel fuel, no sulphur
means no SOx emissions, minimal toxicity and is biodegradable. Easy to blend
with any type of petroleum as well.
Disadvantages include the lower energy content, higher cloud and pour point
(freezes at a higher temperature), so this means that the fuel is incompatible
with some hoses or gaskets. Usually higher NOx emissions and is normally used
as a blend rather than B100.
Biodiesel Process Overview: produced by chemically reacting vegetable oil with
an alcohol in the presence of a catalyst. The product is a mixture of methyl
esters and glycerol. This process is known as transesterification. There are only
five chains of fatty acids that are common in these vegetable oils and animal
fats. The relative amounts of these chains determines the physical properties of
the fuel.
Biodiesel Process Description: Pretreatment of the feedstock, removal of dirt or
water using centrifuges or oil dryers. The oil is heated in pre-heating tanks.
Methanol and sulphuric acid are added to start the esterification. The mixture
of oil and biodiesel is dried and neutralised. The methanol and NaOH is
dissolved in the alcohol and added to the oil. The total amount of catalyst
depends on the level of fatty acids.

The temperature is raised to 65C under 3bar to prevent the loss of methanol
vapour and facilitate rapid transesterification. The mixture of biodiesel and
glycerol is purged from the reactor. Separation is done using centrifuges or
settling tanks.
The biodiesel is transferred to a washing station where it is passed through a
centrifuge or filter press to remove dissolved contaminants like soap or
glycerol. Then passed through a filtration unit to purify the biodiesel.
Feedstock purity: Free fatty acid (FFA) requires more catalyst resulting in a
higher salt and soap formation. Higher water content creates soap and higher
phosphorous increases the difficulty in separating the biodiesel from the
glycerol.
1st Generation Fuels: corn, rapeseed oil, sugar cane, palm oil, wheat.
Advantages: familiar feedstocks, well established production, scalable
processed, compatibility with fossil fuels, commercial production and use in
several countries.
Disadvantages: competition with food crops, high cost feedstocks lead to high
production costs, modest reduction in fossil fuel use and greenhouse gas
emissions, production of by products exceeds demand.
Second generation fuels: from energy crops such as poplar, switchgrass, willow,
food wastes, manure, straw, waste wood. Advantages: similar process to the
petrol/chemical/bio industry, no competition issues with food, reduction in the
amount of waste that needs to be treated/disposed of.
Disadvantages: unfamiliar feedstock and the available is fluctuating/uncertain.
High capital and energy costs, competition for land and water, only a fraction of
waste can be used.
Third generation fuels: microalgae. Advantages: high oil content, can be
cultivated in a range of systems, a wide spectrum of processing routes and
biofuels.
Disadvantages: not commercially available yet, high initial costs, high water
content, could require large areas, could impact on marine life if exploited from
oceans.
Some sustainability issues:
Environmental: global warming potential, land availability, biodiversity.
Economic: feedstock costs, investment costs, biofuel price, local income
generation.
Social: human health, labour rights, land ownerships, impact on food
security, community development and the impact on indigenous people.
Ethanol as fuel: less energy compared to petrol but a higher octane level.
Second Gen Biochemical: uses cellulase (that produce bacteria) and it is
capable of breaking down cellulose. Cellulose is difficult to breakdown and
therefore the fermentation process is quite slow.
Second Gen Thermochemical: uses any ligno-cellulosic as feedstock Heat is
supplied by circulating hot synthetic olivine sand. Gasification occurs and

produces syngas, tars, solid char. The solid char is burned to regenerate sand.
The syngas can be used to produce alcohols and electricity.
PLA Lifecycle: atmospheric CO2, corn production, dextrose production, lactic
acid production, lactide production and polymerisation, packaging
manufacture, comsumption, landfill
PP Lifecycle: natural gas extraction, natural gas liquids, ethylene and propylene
production, pp polymerisation, packaging manufacture, consumption, landfill
Recycling for white paper: deinking is the main process, based on mineral
flotation. Measure of recycled paper quality is the brightness, visible ink specs
and stickies.
Recycling for brown paper: generally poor quality, simpler process.
Dual Separation process: separation of fibres from contaminants, removal of
said contaminants using screens, washing, etc.
Recycling unit operations:
1.Hydrapulper: adding water to the dry fibres. Mechanical action with
suspension separation. The fibres separate from each other and
contaminants (plastics, inks, toner) are removed. The force applied by the
rotor must be enough to defibre the paper but not break down the
contaminants as they will be much harder to remove.
2.Screens: coarse and fine screens to remove different sized flakes.
3.Cleaners - the pulp is fed tangentially. Separation is based on density and
shape of the flakes.
4.Flotation Cells: main purpose is to remove ink.
Flotation Mechanism:
The air bubble approaches the particle and there is contact. The particle slides
over the surface of the liquid film separating the bubble from the particle. The
film ruptures which brings the particle and the bubble in contact. The particle,
bubble and fluid form a quick three phase contact. The bubble stabilises and
the particle can only be removed by severe turbulence.
Sodium Hydroxide - adjusts the pH level to alkaline which hydrolyses the ink
resins. The fibres are able to absorb water which causes swelling and cracks
the ink off the fibres.
Hydrogen Peroxide - used to decolourise wood or paper pulp.
Chelating agents - form soluble complaxes with metal ions in order to avoid the
hydrogen peroxide breaking down eg. Sodium Silicate
Surfactants - form chain molecules with the hydrophobic or hydrophilic parts.
Dispersants cover particles with the hydrophilic layer. This helps when
separating inks from the fibres.
Collectors anionic molecules are added to aid flotation.
Displectors are a combination of dispersant and collector. They adhere to air
bubbles and prevent the redeposition of hydrogen peroxide.
Chemical Pulping: liberation of fibres from ligno-cellulosic wood and non-wood
materials. The process can be mechanical by grounding the wood into fibres

using grindstones or disk refiners. The process could also be chemical by

degrading the dissolving the lignin.
Kraft Process: chemicals react with the lignin and the hemicellulose. The
washing process removes the chemicals and all the dissolved wood content.
The organics are burnt for energy and the chemical are recovered. The wood
chips have to be the right size in order for the liquor to penetrate and have a
complete cooking process. Thinner chips will be cooked too much.
Wood density is important. Increase in the amount of wood packed into the
digester means increased production. The wood density could vary depending
on different tree species and the age of the tree, thicker cell walls.
Juvenile wood has shorter and narrower fibres, thinner cell walls, lower density,
lower cellulose content.
White Liquor - usually consists of NaOH, Na2S, Na2CO3, Na2SO4.
The cooking chemicals are dissolved in water. There are two transport
mechanisms that could occur:
I.
Capillary penetration: the liquor penetrates the chip through pores. It is
effective over long distances in grain direction but ineffective across the
grain.
II.
Diffusion: of ions through the liquid present in the chip. Most effective in
water saturated wood, only effective over short distances and effective
across the grain.
Batch Digester: filled with chips and cooking liquor. The digester is sealed and
the heating begins. There is venting of air and non-condensable gases to
prevent pressure build up in the vessel.
Continuous Digester: tube shaped reactor in which the chips move through
continuously. There are different zones in the reactor - charging, impregnation,
heating, cooking.
Chip Packing methods: the most common method is to load the chips along
with the liquor. The liquor helps to lubricate the chips and improve packing.
Reduces loading time of the digester. Steam packing can also be done to
increase the packing density. The chips enter in a tangential motion which
results in a flat bed of chips rather than a conical profile.
Heating: is done externally by an external heat exchanger. This gives a uniform
form of heating and liquor distribution. Heating can also be done internally
through steam applied through the bottom of the digester. Convection allows
the heat to pass from the top and bottom (due to temperature difference). The
disadvantages of this method is that the steam dilutes the liquor and the nonuniform temperature causes non-uniform cooking which reduces the quality of
the fibres.
Washer: the chips are cooled rapidly and fresh washing liquor. The chemicals
are removed through a diffusion controlled process.
Batch vs Continuos; the batch process is more flexible with regards to grade
changes and fibre sources. Less maintenance issues and the production is
flexible. The continuous process has lower energy costs and is easier to control.
The whole system is relatively compact and has a steady state flow rate.

Recovery of Liquor:
White liquor - fresh pulping liquor for the kraft process
Black liquor - waste liquor from the kraft process. Contains most of the
organic inorganic components and a high concentration of dissolved organics.
Green liquor - partially recovered kraft liquor
Recovery Cycle: burns the black liquor in a recovery boiler. Filter out the smelt
and separate calcium and carbonate. Regenerate original chemicals.
Papermaking:
1.
Forming: jet of fibre suspension (usually 5kg of solids per 1000kg of
suspension). Consists of gravity dewatering. The fibres deposit themselves
on a continuously moving filter mat. This mat drains the water. The mats
need to be cleaned using high pressure showers for continuous mats and
washing with acid for batch processing. This process requires the right
amount of draining (not too much or the sheet will start to seal) and the
right amount of agitation to keep the fibres dispersed.
2.
Pressing: the sheet is still very weak and wet (around 20%). Mechanical
pressure is used to remove the remaining water.
3.
Drying
4.
Additional
Wastewater Treatment
Wastewater sources:

Industrial wastewater: high concentration of pollutants, small volume and

more toxic components

Municipal wastewater: low concentration of pollutants, large volume and

less toxic chemicals

Agricultural runoff: fertilisers and pesticides

Storm water and urban runoff: oil, heavy metals, low concentration of
pollutants
Physical Characteristics of waste water consist of solids (suspended or
dissolved), odour, colour, temperature, turbidity
Chemical Characteristics of waste water consist of organic material, nutrients,
chlorides, micro pollutants, metals and acidity
Organic Matters:
Total Organic Carbon (TOC): the total amount of carbon that is
bound to an organic compound. The organics are oxidized by heating
to a high temperature and measuring the production of carbon
dioxide.
Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD): the oxygen demand of polluted
water caused by microorganism under aerobic conditions. The BOD
is normally measured for 5 days, units mgO2/L
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD): the oxygen demand caused by
oxidising polluted water by chemical oxidants such as potassium
permanganate or dichromate)

The biodegradability of wastewater is calculated by BOD/COD. If the

value is >0.3,
the water is biodegradable and if it is <0.2, it is nonbiodegradable.
Biological Characteristics of waste water consist of bacteria, parasitic worms,
viruses, algae and protozoa.
Impact of wastewater:
Public health: pathogenic microorganisms can lead to dangerous diseases
to humans and animals. The wastewater contains toxic substances such as
pesticides and heavy metals. The odour can affect the public as well.
The environment and ecosystem: toxic pollutants can destroy aquatic
systems. Eutrophication can occur (increase in nutrient concentration in the
water body that leads to algal blooms). Pollutants can change the colour of the
ecosystem.
Treatment options of Industrial wastewater:

Discharge to a centralised wastewater treatment plant of a municipal

wastewater treatment plant
Benefits: the company can concentrate on its core business, reduce the
footprint of the plant and may reduce capital and optional costs.
Preconditions required: nearby wastewater treatment plant. Quality of
the wastewater needs to meet certain requirements. Untreated wastewater
could lead to workers being exposed to toxic substances. Expensive sludge
treatment options
may be required. Corrosion may occur due to
substances in the wastewater. Toxic
substances could be led out into the
environment. All of these problems can be
controlled by pretreatment,
waste minimisation, recycling and or re-use.
2.

Discharge to natural water bodies

There is a need to meet local and national discharging standards. The key
target pollutants are the COD, BOD and TOC, N, P and heavy metals. A highly
efficient treatment process with comprises of several chemical and biological
units is required.
3.

Recycling
Could be used for cooling water, process water and other things such as
car washing, grass watering, etc. The target pollutants are salts, pathogens and
micro pollutants. An advanced treatment process must be used.
Factors for

selection of wastewater treatment processes

Characteristics of the wastewater
Discharge or reuse standards
Cost
Future plans

Pretreatment of industrial wastewater is required to:

To prevent the introduction of pollutants into the next process that will
interfere with their operation and pass through the treatment works

To improve opportunities to recycle and reclaim waste waters and

relevant sludge.

Primary Treatment consists of screening, sedimentation, flotation, oil

separation, equalisation and neutralisation.
Screening: Racks are used to prevent logs, stumps, heavy debris from entering
the treatment process. Coarse screens are then used to remove large solids
and debris. Fine screens and micro screens are used to remove small solids and
reduce the amount of suspended solids.
Equalisation: to minimise or control fluctuations in wastewater characteristics.
Similar to a CSTR.
Neutralisation: Mixing acidic and alkaline waste streams. For example, acid
wastes are neutralised through limestone beds.
A pump station is usually required as wastewater typically flows through the
treatment process by gravity and will eventually reach a substantial depth.
Types of pumps include a centrifuge and a screw pump.
Sedimentation: to remove smaller suspended solids. The mechanism utilises
gravity (the density of the targeted suspended solid must be higher than the
density of water). One or more steps of sedimentation may be needed in a
treatment sequence. Eg. grit sedimentation (inorganic sand), primary (organic
solids) and secondary sedimentation (activated sludge).
Types of Settling:

Type I (Discrete settling): each particle settles independently. eg. grit

chamber

Type II (Flocculent settling): particles flocculate as they settle. eg.

primary sedimentation

Type III (Zone or hindered settling): particles interfere with each other
forming a lattice which settles. This happens are a high solid
concentration. eg. secondary sedimentation

Type IV (Compression settling): the weight of the particles cause further

settling. Eg. Sludge thickening.
Design of the grit chamber: is done to protect the mechanical equipment from
abrasion and wear. It reduces the formation of deposits in pipelines and
channels. It also reduces the frequency of digester cleaning required due to
accumulated grit. The grit chamber also separates the organic material from
the grit.
Types of grit chambers include the horizontal flow chamber, the detritus tank,
the aerated grit chamber (involves a spiral flow pattern) and the vortex flow
grit chamber.
Coagulation/Flocculation: aims include the removal of colloids and other
charged suspended particles. This is done by the compression of the electric
double layer of the particles. This causes the particle to be adsorbed and the
charge is neutralized. The particles start to bridge together and are then
enmeshed in a precipitate.

The primary focus of the coagulation/flocculation process is the removal of

turbidity (cloudy appearance of water due to suspended particles). This process
also removes bacteria and improves the colour of the water. The coagulant
chemicals are added and the water is mixed violently to ensure that the
chemical is well spread. The water has to be mixed for the appropriate amount
of time because if it is mixed too long, the blades will shear the newly formed
precipitate back into smaller particles. The next step is the coagulation. The
electrical charged of the fine particles are neutralized which allow them to
come closer together and form large clumps. Flocculation then occurs where
the gentle mixing brings the clumps together. This floc then settles out in the
sedimentation basin.
Biological Treatment: Advantages include a low operational cost as well as the
removal of toxic pollutants in the final product. Disadvantages include a large
footprint, the infeasibility of destroying all the toxic pollutants.
Microorganisms produce more cells of microorganisms in waste water as well
as CO2, CH4 and H2O. There are three types of microorganisms: aerobic
(require oxygen), anaerobic (dont require oxygen) and anoxic (have electron
acceptors such as nitrate and nitrite).
Microorganisms in waste water include:
Bacteria dominate in all biological processes and use soluble organics
as food.
Fungi need less nitrogen source
Algae photoautotrophs, popular in natural water treatment systems eg
lagoons, wetlands
Protozoa use bacteria as food
Rotifers and Crustaceans consume bacteria
Viruses no contribution to pollutant removal
Microorganisms require a carbon source (organic matter), an energy source
(oxidation or reduction reaction) as well as nutrients (N, S, P, K, Zn, Mn, Co) to
grow.
Aerobic Oxidation:

The aerobic heterotrophic bacteria predominate in this process. The protozoa

also play a role in consuming the bacteria and colloidal particles.
Anaerobic Treatment: The purpose of the anaerobic process is to convert
sludge to liquid and gas products while producing as little biomass as possible.
This process is more economical.
1. Hydrolysis: large polymers are broken down by enzymes
2. Fermentation: production of CO2 and organic acids
3. Acetogenesis: breakdown of volatile acids to acetate and hydrogen
4. Methanogenesis: the acetate, hydrogen and CO2 are converted to
methane and water.
Nitrification: Aerobic autotrophic bacteria must predominate to accomplish
nitrification. The pH must be controlled during this process.

Denitrification: Both heterotrophic and autotrophic organisms can take part in

this process. pH is elevated as alkalinity is produced.

Anaerobic Processes: process in which organic materials are converted into

CH4 and CO2 in the absence of O2 via the activity of groups of anaerobic
microorganisms.
Temperature ranges for anaerobic digestion:
Psychrophilic: optimum temperatures 15-20C. Low efficiency but it is
highly desirable with economic trades in temperate climates.
Mesophilic: 30-37C. Most commonly employed anaerobic treatment
process. Often unstable.
Thermophilic: 55-60C. More efficient than mesophilic processes.
Thermophilic reactor can accept a higher organic loading and produce
lower quantities of sludge. More energy is required to heat up the reactor.
They produce high concentrations of VFA in their effluent. Useful in
treating slurries of constant composition.
Covered anaerobic lagoon process: Advantages include a strong ability to
handle a wide range of wastewater. The process is simple, has a low
construction cost and will create high effluent quality and has a high residence
time.
Disadvantages include the fact that a large land area is required and the feed
flow distribution is inefficient.
Anaerobic sequencing batch reactor: batch fed, decanted, suspended growth
system and is operated in a cyclic sequence of four stages: feed, react, settle,
decant.
Upflow anaerobic sludge blankets (UASB): Critical elements of this process
include the influent distributor, the gas, liquid and solid separator and the
effluent withdraw system. It is an incredible high strength wastewater
treatment process. Granular sludge is fed as the influent; 1-3 microns in size.
There is a high concentration at the bottom of the tank and low conc at the top.
High volume of organic loading and setteability level.
While designing the UASB, a few factors need to be kept in mind. The upflow
velocity determines the formation of the granular sludge and sludge
separation. The reactor volume and dimensions.
Anaerobic Baffled Reactor (ABR): Advantages include its simplicity; there is no
special separation device or mechanic mixing. There is a low residence time
and wastewater of different constituents can be treated. This process is also
stable with regards to shock loads.
Membrane separation anaerobic treatment process: Advantages include a
higher biomass concentration which in turn will reduce the size of the reactor
required. This process has high removal efficiency.

Membrane fouling can be caused by a high concentration of sludge or the

accumulation of colloidal materials and sludge on the membrane surface.
Precipitation of inorganic salts can also cause fouling. In order to
control/prevent fouling, there needs to be a high liquid velocity and the loss of
active sludge.
Anaerobic filter: a matric provides an attachment surface that supports
anaerobic microorganisms. Its a form of a biological wastewater treatment
process. A fluidized bed reactor can also be used; in this case, the matrix is
fluidized. This can handle fine suspended solids without the potential of
blocking.
Process for BOD removal nitrification using an aeration tank: the air is used to
mix the activated sludge with the water. The air also provides the oxygen
demand needed for the organisms to oxidise the organic compounds. This
process can be done in five ways: 1) a plug flow activated sludge 2) step
aeration activated sludge 3) a complete mix activated sludge 4) oxidation ditch
and 5) a sequencing batch reactor
Process for biological nitrogen removal: this process uses an anoxic mix to
remove nitrogen in the waste water. Preanoxic methods of removal include 1) a
modified Ludzack-Ettinger 2) a sequencing batch reactor. Post anoxic method
involves the anoxic stage after the aerobic stage.
Activated sludge process model: Biomass in influent + net biomass growth =
biomass in effluent + biomass wasted
While designing a biological treatment process, a few considerations need to
be taken:
Selection of reactor type based on the nature of waste water, the local
environmental conditions, the presence of toxic substances, cost and
future plans.
Sludge retention time
Organic loading
Food to microorganism ratio
Sludge production
Oxygen requirements
Nutrient requirements
Aerobic lagoon advantages include a low operational cost and easy
maintenance. Disadvantages include low biological organism removal
efficiency, a long reaction time and a large footprint. A larger size of the lagoon
means a higher BOD removal.
Filters: a rock media could possibly cause the problem of plugging and has a
low surface to volume ratio. A synthetic media trickling filter has a high surface
to volume ratio and is considerably lighter.
Nitrification: BOD removal and nitrification can be accomplished in trickling
filters operated at low organic loading.
Recirculation is done to increase the contact efficiency between the biofilm and
the waste water. This process also helps to dilute the influent. Improves

distribution over the surface, thus reducing the tendency to clog and also
reduce filter flies. Prevents biological slime.
Design considerations: the filter has to be low cost and high durability +
porosity. Needs to have adequate airflow. Loading criteria.
Rotating Biological Contactors (RBSs): advantages include the simplicity of the
process and low energy costs, BOD removal is comparable to well operated
activated sludge process and denitrification could be achieved if the process is
well designed.
Combined aerobic treatment processes:
Integrated Fixed-Film activated Sludge (IFAS): an activated sludge system
that has a fixed film media in a suspended growth reactor. The purpose of
the film media is to increase the biomass in the reactor. Media types
include a sponge, plastic carriers or honeycomb polyester fabrics.
Moving Bed Biofilm Reactor (MBBR): this process uses small plastic
elements (7-22mm) to support the growth of biofilm in the reactor. The
suspended growth portion of the hybrid is designed as a complete mix
reactor.
Attached growth vs activated sludge: activated sludge is more economical,
flexible and easy to operate/maintain.

Secondary Clarifier: in the upper, discrete floc particles start to settle (Type I),
as the particles start to sink, they begin to flocculate (Type II) and in the lower
zones, hindered settling occurs and compression settling (Type III).
If too much sludge builds up, there is poor settling and a low separation
efficiency.
Membrane bioreactor (MBR): biological process in which the secondary clarifier
is replaces by a membrane filtration unit. Advantages include a high quality of
permeate, longer SRT, less sludge production, higher sludge concentration,
shorter HRT, small footprint and a higher hydraulic loading. The effluent of the
MBR is low in BOD, COD, Ammonia, total nitrogen and turbidity. The smaller
plant size means less sludge and high quality of water. Lower production cost
and longer membrane life makes MBR a more competitive option.

Disadvantages include high capital cost, high replacement cost, high energy
cost and possible maintenance issues.
Types of MBR include the side stream MBR and the immerged MBR.
MBR Process:
1. Preliminary Treatment removal of grit and materials that can be
screened.
2. Primary Treatment generally not required for a MBR.
3. Solids Retention Time (SRT): benefits nitrification
4. Mixed Liquor Suspended Solids (MLSS): immersed MBRs have mixed
liquor concentrations.
Types of membrane fouling:
Biofouling formed due to deposition and growth of microorganisms on
membrane surfaces.
Organic fouling caused by the deposition of proteins, polysaccharides,
acids and other organic substances (soluble or colloidal) that originates
from feed water or microbial secretion.
Inorganic fouling results from chemical precipitation of inorganic
crystals and/or biological precipitation of inorganic complexes.
Disinfections: purpose is to reduce pathogen concentrations to acceptable
levels, rather than completely remove them.
Chemical methods:
1. Chlorination using free chlorine, sodium hypochlorite or chlorine dioxide
The chlorine (which forms hydrochloric acid and hypochlorous acid) must
penetrate into the bacterial cell to cause cell inactivation. The chlorine
dioxide causes the disruption of protein synthesis which leads to
inactivation. Sodium hypochlorite or calcium hypochlorite is less toxic
and only available in the liquid phase. This method is expensive and
requires special handling.
2. Ozonation causes physical damage to DNA which leads to inactivation.
Free radicals are formed, hydroxyl superoxide and ozone itself.
Physical methods: ultraviolet radiation. The DNA absorbs the light (200-300nm)
which causes damages
Mechanical methods: membrane filtration
Factors that influence disinfection: contact time, concentration of the
disinfectant and the characteristics of the water.
Formation of disinfection byproducts (DBPs):
Trihalomethanes are a group of four chemicals that are formed when
chlorine and other disinfectants are used to control microbial
contaminants in drinking water with naturally occurring organic matter.
The four chemicals are chloroform, bromodichloromethane,
dibromocloromethane and bromoform.
Haloacetic acids
Chlorite is a byproduct of chlorine dioxide

Factors that affect DBP formation: presence of organic precursors (remove as

much organic material as possible before disinfection), free chlorine
concentration (replace chlorine with chloramine), bromide concentration
(remove bromide before disinfection), pH and temperature.
Dechlorination can be done by a few compounds, sulphur dioxide gas, sodium
sulfite, bisulphite and metabisulphite.
Formation of DBPs in ozonation: bromate is the main chemical formed when
ozone is used to disinfect drinking water. The ozone reacts with bromide which
is naturally occurring in source water. Ozone depletes rapidly, so ozone
residuals are not likely to be found in the effluent. Oxygen concentration is
usually high, so there is no need for reaeration.
UV Practice: quartz sleeves are used to isolate the lamps from direct water
contact and to control the wall temperature. Regular cleaning is required for
these sleeves.
Advantages: no residual toxicity, high efficiency with regards to most bacteria
and viruses, no formation of DBPs, small footprint and improved safety
compared to the use of chemical disinfectants.
Disadvantages: less effective in inactivating some viruses, spores, energy
intensive, capital cost is high; acid washing is required to remove the scale on
the sleeves, hydraulic design of the UV system is mandatory.
Significance of wastewater reuse: for population growth, in case of
contamination of water resources and periodic droughts.
Water for industrial purposes can either be recycled externally at a waste water
treatment plant or internally using on site treatment facilities. One issue
regarding in-plant reuse is the accumulation of salt.
The recycled water could be used for cooling tower water, however there could
be some issues regarding calcium, magnesium and silica deposits. Precipitation
could also occur.
The wastewater could also cause metallic corrosion in the piping due to TDS,
dissolved oxygen and some metals. This could be solved by adding chemical
corrosion inhibitors and reducing TDS and metals.
The wastewater could also have biological growth due to the warm and moist
environments and the fact that organics and nutrients are available. This would
cause problems with regards to heat transfer and create corrosion. To control
this, the pH needs to be controlled and biocides need to be added.
In some cases, the recycled waste water can have a significant impact on crop
yield and soil properties. The accumulation of salt results in deterioration of the
soil. Ion toxicity can accumulate in the crop itself and excess nitrogen can
reduce the quality of the crop.
Groundwater recharge: the purpose of groundwater recharge is to reduce, stop
or reverse declines of groundwater levels. It protects the underground
freshwater against saltwater and it stores reclaimed water. It is done by surface
spreading and direct injection. Contaminants in the groundwater are removed

by soil filtration and retained in the soil matrix. Biodegradation of organic

matters takes place in the soils and pathogen removal isnt efficient.
Advanced Wastewater Treatment: some of the residual constituents in treated
wastewater include suspended solids, dissolved organic matter, ammonia,
nitrogen and phosphorous.
Technologies that can be used for advanced treatment: depth filtration,
membrane filtration, adsorption, ion exchange, chemical oxidation, chemical
precipitation, air stripping
Membrane Filtration: involves a semipermeable membrane. Reverse osmosis
occurs when the filter is too small. Pretreatment is required to remove chemical
precipitation or ion exchange, chemical oxidation to limit bacterial activity and
the removal of residual organics.
Adsorption: is done by activated carbon - powdered activated carbon (PAC) or
granular activated carbon (GAC).
Carbon regeneration: chemicals are used to oxidise the adsorbed materials.
Steam drives off the materials and solvents are used to let the adsorbed
materials redissolve. Thermal methods are used to reactivate the adsorbed
materials.
GAC Column: Fixed bed, expanded bed, moving bed.
Ion Exchange: a strong acid cation, weak acid cation, strong base anion. Ion
Exchange helps in the removal of nitrogen, heavy metals and TDS.
Solid Waste Disposal: sources of solid wastes include woods and plastics from
the screening units, sands and other inorganics from the grit chamber,
undissolved organics from the primary clarifier and microorganisms from the
secondary clarifier. In the advanced treatment, activated carbon is left over
from adsorption, polymers from the ion exchange and organic
matters/chemicals from filtration.
Disposal methods of solid wastes:
- Landfill: suitable for most solid wastes except toxic matters, the resources and
energy are wasted.
Incineration: suitable for organic solids, energy is recovered and the
water content should be low. This method has a high capital cost
Anaerobic Digestion: energy is recovered and is suitable for
biodegradable solids
Application of biosolids to land: utilising the nutrients available.
Sludge Processing Steps:
I.
Preliminary Operations: involve grinding (to cut or shear large materials
into small particles to prevent clogging and wrapping). Screening is an
alternative to grinding. Grit removal, blending and storage
II.
Thickening: to increase the solid content of the sludge by removing a
portion of liquid. Can be done by gravity, centrifugal, gravity belt.
III.
Stabilisation: to reduce the amount of pathogens, eliminate odours and
to inhibit the potential putrefaction. Can be done by anaerobic digestion
(cylindrical or egg-shaped)

Cylindrical Advantages: allows relatively large volume for has storage,

low profile, convention constructional techniques. Disadvantages include
inefficient mixing, grit accimulation, large surface area provides space for scum
accumulation, regular cleaning is required
Egg-Shaped Advantages: minimal grit accumulation, higher mixing
efficiency. More homogeneous biomass is obtained, lower operating and
maintenance costs, smaller footprint and foaming is minimalised.
Disadvantages include little gas storage volume, high profile structure,
difficulty in accessing the top mounted equipment, higher construction costs.
IV.
Conditioning: to reduce the incoming moisture content and improve the
dewatering characteristics. Can be done by chemical conditioning or heat
treatment.
V.
Dewatering: to reduce the moisture content of the sludge and biosolids.
Dewatered sludge is easier to handle and is required prior to incineration
and landfilling
VI.
Heat Drying
VII. Thermal Reduction
Final Desposal:
Land Application (Composting): process in which the organic material
undergoes biological degradation to a stable end product. The volatile solids
are converted to carbon dioxide and water. Pathogens are destroyed due to
high operation temperature. The composted biosolids can be used as soil
conditioners and fertilisers.
Incineration Plant (electricity generation)
Landfill