KS55

KS
All available at www.
edexcel.com some
documents such
as the examiners
report may need secure download via
your exams officer.
Chris Duffill currently
works at Monmouth
Comprehensive
School, where he
is responsible for
the A-level music
technology course.
He is also a member
of the senior
examining team for
that A level. In his 20year career, he has
been a live performer,
studio musician,
composer and
producer, working
closely with new
music technologies
as they have
developed.

A2: Edexcel Music Technology Task 3c (composing)

by Chris Duffill

UsefUl sUpport docUments

6MT03 Examiners Report 2010

Music Technology GCE Specification explanation of the nature of the task and an example of
the mark scheme

Getting Started Teachers Guide

2010 and 2011 Portfolio 2 (6MT03) Document

InTroducTIon
A-level Music Technology has had a composing using technology task since the old curriculum 2000 qualification. In the latest specification, the requirement to produce a score has been removed and now only one
composition is required, using a brief set by the exam board and available in September of the examining
year. The aim of composing using technology is that the technology is integral to the realisation of the
finished piece that it could not have been done by any other means.
In practice this means developing unique timbres and possibly rhythmic and melodic motifs to be used
in the composition, using sound design and manipulation techniques such as synthesis, sampling and audio
editing, and creative exploitation of effects. What it does not mean is producing a multi-track recording of a
song played by a band, or sequencing a performance using standard out-of-the-box preset sounds. Either
of these approaches or a combination of both could have been achieved in a number of ways with a
similar outcome, and will not attract many marks for the use of technology.
This article will look at techniques for these approaches to composing using technology, at how to help
your students develop the necessary skills in creating unique sounds, and also how to use them effectively
as compositional elements. The requirements of writing to a brief and the types of brief offered will also be
discussed, and there will be some exploration of what makes successful composition, in the context of the
using the parts created using technology.

WorKIng To ThE brIEf, TASK rEquIrEMEnTS

And ASSESSMEnT
There is a choice of three briefs set by the exam board. The current format is a moving image brief, a set
text brief and a current affairs/sampling brief, each of which has slightly different requirements. They do all
share certain aspects the necessity for getting the correct lengths for the scenes in the moving image brief
is fairly obvious, but the other two briefs also specify a length which should be adhered to: three minutes
means exactly that, not 2:36 or even 3:09. Another shared facet is the requirement to use technology as an
integral part of the work, as outlined above. If this has not been done, the brief cannot be said to have been
fully met, so marks will inevitably be lost.

Moving image brief

As alluded to previously, one of the unique requirements of this will be to work to set timings within the
scenes, and there will also be some hit points or significant action during the scenes where the music should
provide pivotal moments. The mood created by the composition will be of high importance, and will need to
change and evolve according to the scene. The form of each section will have a shape that is dictated by the
scene content, to an extent. It is sometimes a requirement to present separate scenes as discrete tracks on
a CD, otherwise the piece will be a continuous single track though probably with some clear and obvious

Classroom Music I autumn term 2 I 2010/11

changes of mood, pace and direction. In either case make sure the music is presented as requested it is
a simple task that will lose marks if not done correctly.
This brief offers opportunities to explore a range of different musical ideas and perhaps even styles, and
a clear framework for the structure of the music. The use of themes and motivic development will almost
certainly play a part this may suit some students more than others, as not all will be capable of generating
the wide range of musical ideas demanded by this brief, or of making a smooth transition between sections
that may be highly contrasting. It is likely that melodic, harmonic and rhythmic elements will need to show
considerable diversity, with changes of key, tempo and time signature needed.
This brief may not offer the best opportunities for exploiting the technology. Study of music for the moving
image will quickly reveal that large-scale orchestrations are the norm, and even where electronic sound is
used (such as Blade Runner/Vangelis) the approach is largely similar to writing and arranging for a large ensemble, but with synths rather than orchestral sections. It is probably the case that for the technology to be
exploited fully in this brief, a more radical approach needs to be taken, as electronic, ambient and electroacoustic styles may be harder to fit to the brief.

Set text
This is usually presented as a poem, which will have a fairly straightforward rhythmic delivery with perhaps
a few twists that need some careful exploration. The brief offers the opportunity to write a song, but this is
not the only approach and the published portfolio document containing the briefs highlights the possibility
of using a spoken rendition of the text in the context of a soundscape. Taking this direction offers lots of
possibilities with technology, using sound-design techniques on the spoken vocal parts and accompanying
it with electronic and ambient influences, which is likely to attract more marks for manipulation and creative
sound design.
The more obvious approach of writing a song offers a path that many students may already be familiar with
and feel confident about, so it is always worth considering, but again it may take some unconventional approaches to make the sound-design work fit, particularly if the student wants a typical rock-band format.
Hip hop, R&B and other electronic styles offer plenty of opportunities of course, and are often littered with
examples of vocal manipulation and sampling.

Current affairs
This approach has been used for a number of years now and focuses on the use of samples taken from
speeches, interviews and other sources to explore a recent news story or political activity. This provides a
broad palette of material to work with, and automatically draws the composition towards a more technological approach as the samples can be manipulated using a range of techniques.
There is also a degree of skill in choosing the samples to represent a coherent storyline or viewpoint, and
editing the samples so they actually fit with the music in the best cases the rhythmic construction of the
spoken words will be chosen, edited and shaped to form a rhythmic pattern closely linked to the musical
movement. Again, electronic and ambient influences are obvious choices of musical style, and have excellent scope for creative electronic sound design.

Classroom Music I autumn term 2 I 2010/11

A note of cAUtion
The emphasis presented here will be on sound design, because this is an area that is often not fully exploited
by students. This does not mean that musical elements of the composition can be disregarded a substantial
amount of marks are awarded for the compositional techniques used. There can be a danger in taking
ambient, abstract or avant garde approaches that do not have much content in terms of melody, harmony,
rhythm, texture and form. For example, a spoken narration of the poem accompanied with a few sound
effects and perhaps a synth pad or two could well fail to attract many marks for the musical elements. This
can be a successful approach if there is enough variety and development to give a strong form, interesting
textures and some sense of rhythm (including timing the sound effects to have a real purpose and impact
when used), and can clearly be a fertile ground for exploiting technology; but students who choose this
approach often produce work that is meandering and disconnected.
One of the requirements of each brief is that there are at least six instrumental parts (this will include voice if
used), so it is important that a variety of roles within an ensemble are filled. There is more discussion of this in
the final part of the article. Control with variety and development are always the key factors to aspire to.
It is true, however, that some of the elements can take a less important role. In common with many other
composition mark schemes, the five musical elements listed above are all marked but only the best three
are counted. This accounts for styles that may be simple in melody and harmony but more complex in
rhythm and texture.

Mark-scheMe suMMary
Four compulsory criteria:
Responding to the brief (6) the best work will be imaginative and reflect all aspects of the
brief

Style and coherence (6) the best work will show excellent flow throughout, demonstrating
detailed understanding of the musical features of the style

Manipulation of sounds (6) the best work will show an excellent sonic palette, actively created
to fit the song

Quality of recorded work (4) the best work will be of high quality in all aspects

optional criteria (best three from list; 6 marks each): melody, harmony, rhythm, texture, form/structure

Classroom Music I autumn term 2 I 2010/11

SynThESIS
Synthesis provides opportunities for making unique sounds, which can provide inspiration for a composition.
Here are some key points:
It is best used to create sounds of an artificial nature, rather than imitating real instruments
original hardware synths were performance instruments with lots of knobs, buttons and sliders used to
shape the sound during performance as well as create new timbres
The easiest type to use and program is a subtractive synthesiser, based on original analogue hardware
synths (such as Moog, ArP, Prophet, oberheim)
These are available as a VST or an Au plug-in instrument within software (a1, Monologue or Prologue in
cubase, Pentagon in Sonar, ES1 in Logic, Subtractor in reason) and as third-party freeware or purchased

See the list of freeware and commercial products at the

end of the article.

models.
Components of a synthesiser
The screenshot shows the Subtractor synthesiser from Reason. This has been chosen because the layout is
easy to see, and settings are mostly made on sliders which should be clearer to view here than rotary controls. You will find similar controls in all subtractive synths.

Synths have four basic components:

OsCillaTOrs
These create the basic waveform (sine, square, sawtooth, triangle). There are usually two oscillators and
controls for pitch (octave and fine tune) see centre top of the picture.
FilTers
These modify the harmonic content (timbre) of the basic oscillator(s) by removing some of the frequency
content (low pass filter). There are two basic controls for cut-off frequency and resonance to the right of
the oscillator section in the picture.
envelOpes
These control how an aspect of the sound changes over time. There are usually at least four controls attack, decay, sustain and release. The amplitude envelope controls the level of sound when a key is struck.
The filter envelope shapes the action of the filter on the right below the filters.
lFO
Low-frequency oscillators can be applied to any other setting to create cyclical changes, such as the change
in pitch of an oscillator to create vibrato there are two in Subtractor (see bottom centre).

Classroom Music I autumn term 2 I 2010/11

Tutorial: exploring sound creation and shaping

Learning about how a synthesiser works can be approached in a step-by-step way, gaining understanding
of what each section does before moving on to a different area. The following is a tutorial for discovering the
sound generation and shaping possibilities on offer.
1. OsCillaTOrs
The settings shown in the patch (a word used for a single group of settings) above are mostly basic, default
values. This is a good place to start. Note the following as a good starting point:
only one oscillator is active osc 2 does not have the toggle switch lit so it is off
The oscillator is set on a sawtooth wave
The filter cut-off is about half way, the resonance at zero, and the type is LP12 (low pass filter, 12db per
octave)
The amplitude envelope is set to recreate a piano-like response quick attack (A), a sustain level (S) to hold
the note if a key is held down, and a short release (r) to play after the note has ended
Lfo1 and Lfo2 both have amount set to zero this means they will not affect the sound
The filter envelope also has amount set to zero so it will not change the filter cut-off.
Play a note somewhere in the middle of the keyboard and listen to the sound. Listen to the differences between the different oscillators by changing the type between triangle, sine, saw and square. Each one will
sound quite plain and basic, but they all have different characters.

tips
It is useful to set up a reverb and add a small amount to any synth sound. It always helps the sound to
breathe synths can sound very sterile with no effects. Some VST synths will have their own effects sections
these may not be the best quality.
Delay also helps give the sound life. A delay of around 300400mS with just two or three repeats, mixed
quite quietly, will work well.
It is always best to set up reverbs and delays on send and return loops rather than directly on the synth
output. It gives much more flexible control as the dry and wet signals are independent.

Now switch in the second oscillator and listen to combinations of the two oscillators now a wider range of
sounds starts to become available. Note that the mix knob controls the amount of level from each oscillator.
Next, try changing the octave and detune (called cent in Subtractor). Straight away a more complex and
rich timbre is created.
Go to www.
classroom-music.
co.uk

Set up the patch shown on the next page either copy the settings indicated in the table, which is the best
way of learning, or use one of the presets loaded onto the Classroom Music website.

Example patches are organised as follows:

Reason files Synths 1 to 4.rns has the Subtractor synths named Synth ex 1, 2, 3 and 4 shown
and discussed later in the article; Synths 5 to 7.rns has Synth ex 5, 6 and 7

These are also provided as Subtractor patches (.zyp) for loading into Subtractor directly

Equivalent patches are provided as Monologue patches in the Cubase 5 song Synths.cpr synths
1, 2 and 3 are on the first three tracks; synth 4 is not included as it depends on dual filters which
Monologue does not have; note that Monologue is monophonic

Cubase song Synth 6 and 7 has versions of Synth ex 6 and 7.

Classroom Music I autumn term 2 I 2010/11

Synth ex 1 detuned sawtooth patch

Settings

osc 1 triangle octave 3, detune +4

osc 2 triangle octave 4, detune -11
Mix slightly more of osc 1

filter

cut-off almost fully open

resonance zero

Amplitude envelope

Typical piano type envelope, fast attack, sustain

level medium, short but not zero release

other settings

note that the amount knob is at zero for Lfo 1

and 2, modulation envelope and filter envelope.

Playing this patch as it is will reveal a typical synth sound buzzy, with a fatness caused by the detune of
the two oscillators. Synth patches based on sawtooth waves have a bold, aggressive quality and are very
common in all kinds of electronic music styles.
2. FilTer

This means that

none of these are influencing the sound.
We will continue to
explore their functions further on.
Put the detune at 0
for each and hear
the difference. Dont
forget to return to
the original settings
after to continue the
exercise.

With the original settings, bring down the filter cut-off (called Freq in Subtractor) and notice how the sound
becomes duller. A typical synthesiser technique is to vary the cut-off either manually in performance or by
automation in a sequencer.

For an example of a detuned sawtooth synth in action, listen to Zombie Nation/Kernkraft 400 on YouTube.
The main synth riff enters around 0:47; before this, the octave synth pattern is played with an opening
filter from about 0:40

This clip may be

unsuitable for some
groups check it
before showing to
your students.

Now bring the cut-off back up and raise the resonance (res) to about halfway. Bring the cut-off down again
and notice the change in timbre. The cut-off frequencies are accentuated, giving a fuller sound. Moving the
cut-off quickly up and down between about 30% and 80% will produce a wah-wah type sound.
Increase the resonance again, with the setting almost at maximum. Bring the cut-off up and down again and
hear the accentuation of the cut-off frequency. The filter is now close to self-oscillating, producing its own
frequency component independent of the oscillator, and sounds something like tuning in an old transistor
radio on AM frequencies.

Warning extreme
resonance settings
can produce very
sharp and loud
sounds: do not turn
your equipment up
too loud!

In the Zombie Nation example, listen from about 2:00 to hear the increased resonance setting on the
synth.

3. FilTer envelOpe
To see how this works, set the filter cut-off to around 50% and the resonance slightly higher. Note the settings
of the filter envelope in the Synth ex 1 screenshot above and copy them. Bring up the amount to about 60%

Classroom Music I autumn term 2 I 2010/11

and play a note. The cut-off frequency is now being controlled by the filter envelope and the evidence should
be plain to hear as the filter opens and closes again, creating a similar wah sound to that previously made
by manually altering the cut-off.

Load up the Subtractor patch Synth ex 2 or the Cubase song Synths 2, which has an example using
Monologue on track 1, to hear the suggested settings in action. If you have a chance to try these side by
side, you will hear that the filter in Subtractor has a smoother sound than Monologue, which sounds quite
uneven as it changes value. In extreme cases digital filters can produce an unwanted sound called zipping
you can hear the filter opening or closing by steps rather like the sound of a zip.
A synth pad is a
common term used
to refer to sounds
that are suitable for
textural thickness,
usually having some
element of motion
and development
to the sound, with
a slowish attack
and long releas.e
Other synth sounds
are categorised as
leads, basses, poly
synths (capable of
playing more than
one note at a time)
and SFX.

With a few changes this patch can become something very different. Bring the filter cut-off down to 25%, and
bring the filter envelope attack up to around 60%. Now the sound is a dark, filter-sweep-type pad, useful for
slow moving textural chords or lines (this is saved as Synth ex 3).
One further thing to note about envelopes they can often be inverted. In Subtractor, the button on the top
right of the filter envelope section is selected to achieve this. This can lead to interesting results, though in
the current example it just cuts the sound to a low level. The Subtractor patch Synth ex 5 has settings where
the action of the filter envelope in normal and reverse mode can be heard clearly.

Synth ex 5 demonstrates inverting filter envelope

4. MODulaTiOn envelOpe
The modulation envelope has a wider choice of destinations for the action of the envelope. In Subtractor,
Osc 1 and Osc 2 will change the pitch of each of those oscillators. In the next example, Synth ex 4, the
modulation envelope is set to filter 2. This is a second low pass filter, but not all synths have this. By using
the settings shown in Synth ex 4, the pad from Synth ex 3 becomes more complex, as the two filters are
being changed independently and with a different shape.

Synth ex 4 sweep pad with dual filters

Classroom Music I autumn term 2 I 2010/11

The options provided by envelopes when directed to the sound generation and shaping components of a
synth offer many possibilities for creating movement in the sound. This is important in a musical context, as
a static synth sound can quickly become fatiguing. All instrumentalists use movement in their expression
vibrato and timbral changes using different techniques help create interest in the performance.
5. lOW FrequenCy OsCillaTOrs
An LFO does not create sound in the way oscillators 1 and 2 do. It creates a cyclical change in whatever
component of the synthesiser it is connected to this could be oscillator pitch or filter cut-off, but the possibilities can be almost infinite on certain synths.
In its most common application, LFOs are used to create vibrato by changing the pitch of one or both of the
oscillators. Usually this can be controlled by the modulation wheel on a keyboard, so it can be used as a
direct performance control.
Because the LFO is cyclical, and the rate can be linked to a songs tempo, it provides opportunities for using
up rhythmic synth patches. Return to the setting used in Synth ex 2, the filtered detune saw patch. Now set
LFO 1 to sync with the songs tempo, and set the rate to 1/8 note. Two more settings need to be made the
waveform which determines the shape of the cyclical changes (in this case set to a square wave), and the
destination (in the example shown set to the mix), changing the balance between the two oscillators. Synth
ex 6 in Subtractor shows these settings.

Synth ex 6 rhythmic octaves

Bring up the amount setting and listen to the effect this has on the sound. The oscillators are an octave apart
so the cycle between the Osc 1 and Osc 2 gives a pulsing octave figure. The filter is still operating, which
gives a shape to the sound as it opens and closes.
Other possibilities are available by using different waveforms to control the cycles in the example above
these are selected via the waveform button on the left of LFO 1. The first four are triangle, reverse sawtooth,
sawtooth and square, which offer regular variations using those waveshapes. The two at the bottom of the
list are interesting as they change the pulse width of the cycle each time (i.e. the up and down sections of
the wave are different lengths), while still maintaining a longer cycle that is linked to the tempo this gives
a random element to the cycles. Changing the destination has further areas for exploration; the filter cut-off
will clearly have some interesting results.
There is a second LFO in Subtractor, which offers some different possibilities. For example, the destination
could be set to the cut-off in filter 2 operating at a different rate, which can develop some complex evolving
sounds. LFOs can be useful for pad sounds when set on a slower rate, so the changes evolve slowly, and
when fast rates are used some very bizarre, tremolo-like SFX can be created.
With the current popularity of dubstep, it would be a good point to look at how the distinctive wobble bass
is made. There are many different approaches of course, but here is one as starting point:
Set the two oscillators to square waves, in the same octave with no detune
Set the filter cut-off to somewhere around 40% to 50%, so the sound is deep and round, and not very
bright

Classroom Music I autumn term 2 I 2010/11

 Make sure the amp envelope is set for a quick attack and sustains at a decent level when the note is held
An example is given
in Synth ex 7.

Set Lfo 1 to sawtooth wave and destination filter cut-off

Set the rate to 18 and bring up the amount. The rate can be varied between 14, 316, 18, triplet and so on, to
give the typical dubstep sound.
Further shaping can be done to filter and modulation envelopes to vary the attack of the sound.

Synth ex 7 wobble bass

6. OTher synThesis COnTrOls

A lot of possibilities have been explored already, and these four components of a synthesiser will take you
a long way if you understand their function and their relationships with each other. But there is much more,
and it is worth mentioning some of the other functions briefly.
a. Other types of filter
LPf 12, 18, 24 these numbers relate to the slope of the filter, or how much frequency it removes above the
cut-off point. It is a figure for db per octave so 12db per octave will attenuate the signal by that amount in
each octave above the cut-off frequency. The higher the number, the more extreme the filtering can sound,
especially once resonance is used.
hPf high pass filter, removes low frequencies below the cut-off point. notice that this means when it is
on maximum there will be almost no sound. An interesting alternative is to lower the filter from a very thin
sound to a full one.
notch filter removes a narrow band of frequencies around a centre point (cut-off frequency).
bPf band pass filter, removes frequencies above and below the band of frequencies around the cut-off
frequency.
b. noise
In the filter section there is often a noise generator. This can be used on its own by switching out any other
oscillators you can make synth drum sounds like this or can be blended in with the other oscillators to
add a bit of dirt.
c. portamento
Makes pitches of different notes slide between each other. A slight amount on lead synths is common, and
swooping effects can be created by turning it up and playing two consecutive notes spaced far apart.
d. velocity response
Subtractor has options to make the sound respond to variations in velocity. The usual mapping on any keyboard is that velocity alters the amplitude the harder a key is struck, the louder the note. Other options that
can be used are filter cut-off, making harder notes brighter; mix of oscillator level, which could create layered
sounds; amplitude attack, which could make softer notes have a slower attack.
e. Modulation wheel destination
As mentioned above, the mod wheel is usually assigned to the LFO to create vibrato. This doesnt have to be
the case, and more expressive set-ups could use filter cut-off or resonance as the destination. This is useful
for real-time performance of synth parts.

Classroom Music I autumn term 2 I 2010/11

Recording and editing real-time synthesis controls automation, envelopes, MIDI controllers
The shaping of sound and introduction of variations is one of the strengths of synthesisers. The original
hardware synths had banks of knobs, buttons, sliders and switches to make sound design accessible and
to enable sound shaping to be part of the performance.
Most modern MIDI controller keyboards will come with a range of buttons and sliders that are intended for
this purpose. Some of them will relate to more mundane MIDI controllers like main volume, but there will be
controls that are mapped to the filter cut-off and resonance. Each keyboard is different, so it is just a case of
loading up a synth and moving the knobs/slider and observing what happens.
The good news is that knobs and sliders can be assigned to different controls it is usually best to do this
on the MIDI keyboard rather than changing the VST instrument settings, because the control number used
for a filter, for example, on one synth, will often be the same on another. Hence, once the keyboard is set up
it should work on different plug-in instruments.
That being said, there is also a MIDI learn function in most software that allows you to activate a control on a
synth, and send MIDI data by moving a knob, and this then sets that knob to that function. Reading manuals
and documentation will help clarify the approach for your own set-up.
Once a suitable set of controls are assigned, this can be recorded in the same way that any other MIDI part
is recorded, either in real-time with the performance, or using overdub on an existing part. The usual options
of editing are then available in the editor; controllers appear as lanes like the standard velocity lane and can
be set to show or hide.
Another recording method involves using track automation. This is usually selected using a separate record
arm switch on the relevant plug-in instrument track (there is also usually a read automation switch that will
need to be selected to hear back the results). The real-time movement of any control on the graphic interface of the instrument can then be recorded, so using a mouse to adjust settings can be useful if your MIDI
controller keyboard does not have knobs. The recorded data will show up as track envelopes, which can be
edited from the main arrange page using the usual tools. There are advantages to working this way, though
it should be noted that the data is the same as the MIDI controller data, so if both methods are used there
will be conflicts. Choose one method or the other.
The approach of real-time shaping and variation should be regarded as an essential of synthesiser use,
certainly for the purposes of this assessment task. The key to successful synthesis is a willingness to explore
learning the basics as outlined here provides some starting points for that exploration. Using synthesis it is
possible to create sounds that are visualised (or auralised?) in the composers imagination to suit a particular part of the music; alternatively, free exploration can give rise to a new sound that will suggest a musical
mood, or inspire a riff or melody.

The type of synthesis explored here is called subtractive synthesis. There are other types, including FM and
granular synthesis that are offered in other plug-ins. See the list at the end of the article.

Classroom Music I autumn term 2 I 2010/11

10

SAMPLIng
Sampled sound is the basis of many instruments heard today. Heres a summary of what samplers do.

AboUt sAmplers
The original samplers used a short recorded sound in the place of oscillators in the same configuration as
a synthesiser so it can be shaped using filtering, envelopes, LFO etc. The pitch of a sample follows the
keyboard up and down, and the sound is made to sustain by making it play as a loop, usually taken from
the sustained portion of the sample. Moving a sample too far from its original pitch can make it sound very
unnatural this may be a good thing if unique sounds are wanted, but when creating authentic instruments,
samplers will use multi-samples that are mapped across the keyboard, so no sample is playing very far
from its original pitch.
Because samples are actual recordings, they are more realistic than synthesised sounds for imitating real
instruments, so many high-quality keyboards, sound modules and VST instruments use sampled sounds
as their basic sound source. Drum sounds are usually sampled this is easy to do as there is no sustained
portion to the sound.
Samplers are digital, and sounds are usually stored on a hard drive, or on removable data storage. With the
current availability of large data storage systems, sampled instruments now have huge libraries, often with
many samples for each note (or individual drum) which are triggered at different velocities.
The predominant use of samplers currently is as a high-quality sample playback instrument. This is a
valuable use, but it also ignores the creative potential of sampling. The original hardware samplers were
often used to generate unusual and unique sounds by adjusting and editing the raw sampled material, or
sourcing unusual sounds in the first place. This application is what we will explore here, as this has most
relevance to the sound-design requirements of the composing task.

Using sampling in composition

Any sound can be used as a sample, so the only limit is imagination. One approach is to take some everyday materials and see what sounds can be generated, recording the results. Paper is a good example it
can be rubbed between the palms, slapped with pens or a ruler, torn, scrunched up, flapped all of which
will produce different sounds. The recordings are then edited, which will include trimming away unwanted
silence, and then loaded into a sampler for playback.
Simply experimenting with how the sample sounds at different pitches gives a whole range of possibilities.
A non-pitched sound can make an ear-catching motif if a short phrase is played with it. Whole styles have
been based on the idea of re-tuned drum loops drum and bass uses tuned up loops, making the drums
pingy and tight, while trip hop uses tuned-down loops, making the drums grainy and dark.
With the example of scrunched paper, if there is a fairly long section, pitching it down could yield an interesting grainy rhythmic pattern. This could be looped so it continues for longer, and it is also possible to
experiment with reverse playback or a forward/reverse loop. Add some reverb and delay, and possibly some
filtering and LFO movement, and this can become a unique and interesting textural element.
Another approach to using audio material can be to bypass the sampler altogether, and import it directly into
an audio track in sequencing software. This is particularly useful for vocal or instrumental material. From an
audio track it can be sliced and moved to fit in with the music; a different range of processing can be applied
including pitch and time shift/stretching, which again produces unique results.
When exploring recorded material for sample use, it is good to stay aware of the possibility of extracting
short samples from longer recordings to be used as percussive or SFX elements. Some very individual
sounds can be found in this way. A classic example is vocal stuttering, which is well used but effective, and
gapping, which applies a rapid fluctuation in level in the same way an LFO would do.

11

Classroom Music I autumn term 2 I 2010/11

Quality control
It is important to consider quality issues when using samples. Usual recording quality control needs to
apply, as any imperfections will tend to be magnified when the sound gets manipulated. When sourcing
sample material on the internet, particularly vocal quotes, it should be noted that YouTube generally has
poor audio quality. Another danger is getting unwanted clicks or glitches. This can occur when a sample
it cut. There will always be a method of putting a short fade on the start and end of samples to avoid this,
and this should be adopted as standard procedure when handling digital audio.

listening exAmples
negativland make use of sampled spoken material The Truth in Advertising has some examples of cutting
and placing spoken word to create new contexts
the prodigy sample many sources a classic example is the track Charly, which uses the soundtrack from
a 1970s road safety advert
hip hop has always extensively drawn on material from other sources, initially by mixing breaks from vinyl,
but examples of creative sampling can often be found
This video has some useful discussion of making sound effects for Terminator Salvation.

crEATIVE EffEcTS uSE

Effects are very important in electronic sound-shaping. As mentioned already, reverb and delay will help
give life to synth and sampled sounds they are essential for this purpose as the sounds will often be sterile
without some general mix effects to soften and help them blend. There is another approach to using effects,
where the settings are pushed beyond the normal boundaries and start to become a component in making
unique timbres.

Timed delay
Most delay plug-ins have a function to sync to tempo. The delay time is then presented as note values. The
following is an example of how to work with suitable parts to create new rhythms and textures.
1. Take a rhythmically simple part, not too busy a hi-hat or percussion line, or a riff or rhythmic chord part.
2. Set up a delay on a send and return, and with the sync activated, set the delay time to 1/8 note.
3. Bring up the send on the chosen part and listen to the result adjust the delay feedback so just a few
repeats are heard.
4. Now try different time settings 116 is an obvious one to try for a faster pace. Notice that when the delay
time is changed there is a pitch shift as it is adjusted. This can be interesting, and the change could be
automated to achieve another unique sound.
5. Try other delay time settings 316 and dotted-note settings will produce a more complex rhythmic element. Triplet settings will introduce swing to the rhythm.
Automation was mentioned in one context above, and track automation can be used to control any of the
settings so the delay can be switched in or out as needed, the level can be changed or feedback could be
increased.
Once a suitable setting has been found, the delay can be further manipulated using other effects. Phaser
or flanger can work very well, as can filtering of the delayed signal. At extreme settings, the effect can start
to sound like a sweeping synth pad. Its even possible to put a different delay on the delay, creating even
more complex rhythms.

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Other uses for delay include marking a high point in the music with a dramatic addition of delay on a vocal
line, drum hit or instrumental line. This technique is commonly used in dub mixing, where instruments or
vocals are muted from the mix and short sections are dropped in with extreme amounts of delay, and reverb
can also be used in this way.

Reverb
A well-used technique with reverb is to reverse the image. This can be done by sampling a normal reverb
with a decent-length tail from a percussive sound or cymbal, and reversing this using audio editing on an
audio track or in a sampler. Timing it to end at some rhythmically significant point in the song, or creating
space for it to fill, can be a good way of a punctuating a phrase.
Reverb units will also usually have the option to select a reverse reverb. This will still play after the initial
sound, but is still a useful sound to experiment with. Again, automation is a help as it is unlikely the effect will
be used extensively switching it in at crucial points for dramatic impact works better.
Use of extreme amounts of reverb is another technique to try out. Long, washy reverbs can be successful on
spare piano parts, or on occasional vocals lines. Reverbs will often have EQ settings built in, and it helps to
keep this type fairly dark without much high frequency. EQ on the original sound can also have the high end
cut to assist this; very bright settings will interfere with other high frequencies in the mix, and could occupy
too much of those areas of the spectrum.
As with the delays, adding additional effects to a reverb can develop new dimensions of the sound. Phaser,
wah, flanger, chorus and filtering will all create different types of movement. Long reverbs can be gapped as
Experiments with
real acoustic
spaces can yield
other useful results
a sports hall or
stairwell can be
worth investigating.

described above in the section on sampling.

Other areas to explore are the unusual settings you will find in the list of presets available. Spring reverb can
be interesting it has a very different quality from other reverbs. If there is a guitar amp with spring reverb,
this can be used on a send and return to process a range of sounds, not just guitar.

EQ/filtering
EQ is not generally referred to as an effect, as it does not create an additional image in the way delay or
reverb do. It has become commonly used in sound design and at extreme settings the result can be termed
an effect. One of the most popular is the telephone voice, the result of sharply removing low and high frequencies and leaving just a narrow range in the mid range. This can also work well on some instruments
putting a drum break through a thin EQ like this can be the basis of a breakdown. Adding further effects
like delay can work well.
Filters like those explored in the section on synthesis can also be found as a stand-alone effect, and sweeps
or high resonance settings can produce interesting results.
As with all these
approaches,
experimentation
is essential, as is
keeping an open
mind as to how a
sound could be
used in the context
of a composition.

other effects
Modulation effects such as wah, phaser, flanger, ring modulation, vocoder and chorus are all worth
exploring. Their use has been mentioned already in the context of adding additional movement to delays
and reverbs, but using them on their own also works.
Putting phaser or flange on a drum break or percussion part can work very well. Ring modulation will produce
a Dalek voice on vocals. Wah can be very useful on electric pianos and synth pads.
Take care when applying these types of effects to bass sounds in fact, avoiding it completely would be
recommended, as some of them change the frequency content, which in the bass range can have strange
and unwanted results.

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listening exAmples
dub reggae is a fruitful source of extreme and dramatic effects use King Tubby is a good place to start;
Lee Perry is also a great experimenter
brian eno and peter gabriel often use interesting and unusual approaches
madonnas Ray of Light album, produced by William Orbit, has some great electronic sound design.

MuSIcAL conTExT
How should students make the most of these techniques when writing composing? Two areas can make a
composition really stand out proportion and development. Given that the control of the musical elements is
suitable, a good composition will show variety in the ideas (giving a sense of development) and well thoughtout placing of ideas in the structure (giving a sense of proportion).
Most popular music uses an ensemble based on instruments covering similar roles:
rhythm drums and/or percussion usually have a prominent position in the music
harmonic structure often based on rhythmic chordal parts the guitar is the most common but keyboards
also fill this role; often, several parts combine or take the lead at different points
Melodic lines even a very rhythmic and textural approach will benefit from some short melodic motifs
(hooks) guitars, keyboards and synths, brass or strings often being used; where the approach is to present
a piece with melody as the main focus, this is likely to be in the vocals, but could also be instrumental
bass line sometimes built on straightforward underpinning of the harmony, but also sometimes with more
melodic and rhythmic movement, particularly in electronic and dance styles.
The exact construction and delivery of these elements, and the choice of timbre for the different parts, depend on the conventions of the style being used.

exercise
Get your students to analyse several pieces from diverse styles say heavy rock, reggae, soul, indie/grunge
and identify:

The instruments in each of these roles

Where the changes occur and how they relate to each other

How the song builds up and relaxes

What is important about the performance and delivery of the musical parts

The recording and production approaches.

Note that the styles

chosen here are
last years and this
years special focus
styles.

Some conclusions that may emerge:

riffs are likely to be used in several of the areas hooks, harmonic patterns and bass lines are often riffbased
changes in musical parts are linked to structural elements intro, verse, pre-chorus, chorus, bridge, instrumental, links, solo, outro
Some songs vary the sections each time they occur the second chorus may be longer than the first, the
third verse may go straight to the bridge or add a pre-chorus instead of the chorus
Additional parts or variations often occur near the change of a section drum rolls before a chorus or to
mark each four- or eight-bar phrase; additional harmonic lines or a variation in the bass part.
To apply this thinking to composition and to ensure development, each of the main instrumental parts within
the piece should have four variations. If there are four distinct sections to the structure this may seem obvi-

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ous, but in the case of a lot of electronic music there may be fewer parts to the structure, which can often
be strophic.
Even if there are four different sections to the structure, variations to the basic patterns are still desirable as
mentioned above, good song-writing will include variations between the repeated sections so, for example,
the second verse has a different bass line and some additional harmony elements.
These basic musical building blocks can be augmented by occasional punctuation using more dramatic
and extreme elements discussed in the sampling and effects sections or using SFX synth parts. Care
should be taken with these parts that they are not over used, to avoid the music becoming cluttered and to
preserve the dramatic impact.

Within the requirements of the assessment for this task, it should always be remembered that the musical
elements provide a large proportion of the marks. Going too far into the realms of the avant-garde and
experimental, at the expense of demonstrating control in melody, harmony, rhythm, texture and structure,
can be a dangerous approach. The skill of a composer in this field is knowing how to balance those elements
with the sound design and more radical sounds.

Visit www.kvraudio.
com for lists of
freeware synths and
plug-ins, as well as
discussion on commercial products.

Plug-in synths to investigate

freeware:
RGC Triangle II subtractive synth
Green Oak Crystal a more complex type of synth
MDA DX10 FM-type synth
Dash Signature Da Hornet subtractive synth based on the Wasp hardware synth
Ichiro Toda Synth 1
Superwave P8 nice polysynth
Native Instruments (NI) Kore Player has only a few controls but is very good quality.

commercial:
Native Instruments (NI) make a range of powerful synths including Absynth and Reaktor
Arturia make several good recreations of classic synths.

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