Science & Sports (2013) 28, e119e125

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ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Effects of high-intensity interval training on aerobic

and anaerobic indices: Comparison of physically
active and inactive men
Effets dun intervalle training de forte intensit : comparaison entre
sujets physiquement actifs et sdentaires
M. Siahkouhian , D. Khodadadi , K. Shahmoradi
Department of physical education and sport sciences, university of Mohaghegh Ardabili, Ardabil, Iran
Received 23 May 2012; accepted 13 November 2012
Available online 30 January 2013

KEYWORDS
High-intensity
interval training;
Aerobic indices;
Anaerobic indices;
Physical tness

Summary
Aims. The purpose of this study was to compare the effects of high-intensity interval training
(HIT) program on maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max ), rst ventilatory threshold (VT1 ) and second
(VT2 ), 3000-m running time (3000-m RT), peak power output (PPO) and mean power output
(MPO) in physically active and inactive men.
Methods. Twelve healthy young inactive men (age = 19.1 1 years) and 12 collegiate soccer
players (age = 19.4 1 years) volunteered for this study. Each training session involved a 10 min
warm-up followed by a HIT program consisting of 610, 30 s all-out sprints with a 4 min recovery.
A 5 min cool down period was then performed. This regiment was done three times per week
for eight consecutive weeks.
Results. Signicant improvements (P < 0.05) were found in VO2max (7.6%), VT1 (4.5%), VT2
(4.2%), 3000-m RT (4.4%), PPO (8.3%) and MPO (10.9%) following the HIT program in the
active group. We showed signicant improvements (P < 0.05) in VO2max (13.7%), VT1 (3.8%),
VT2 (3.8%), 3000-m RT (5.8%), PPO (14.6%) and MPO (19%) following the HIT program among
inactive subjects. The inactive group exhibited greater improvements in VO2max (P 0.05),
PPO (P 0.05) and MPO (P 0.01) than the active group. In conclusion, greater improvement was observed in the inactive subjects, despite greater maximal values in the active
group.
2013 Elsevier Masson SAS. All rights reserved.

Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: m siahkohian@uma.ac.ir, marefat siahkuhian@yahoo.com (M. Siahkouhian).

0765-1597/$ see front matter 2013 Elsevier Masson SAS. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.scispo.2012.11.006

e120

MOTS CLS
Entranement par
intervalle et de haute
intensit ;
Indices arobies ;
Indices anarobies ;
Aptitude physique

M. Siahkouhian et al.
Rsum
Objectifs. Cette tude a eu pour objectif de vrier les effets dun entranement de haute
intensit et en intervalle (HIT) sur la consommation maximale doxygne (VO2max ), les premier et second seuils ventilatoires (respectivement VT1 et VT2 ), la performance sur un 3000-m
en course pied (RT), le pic de puissance (PPO) et la puissance moyenne, chez des sujets
volontaires entrans ou maintenus sdentaires.
Mthodes. Douze homes sdentaires en bonne sant (ge = 19,1 1 ans) et 12 tudiants
joueurs de football (ge = 19,4 1 ans) ont t volontaires pour participer cette anne. Chaque
sance dentranement comprenait dix minutes dchauffement suivies par un programme de
HIT consistant en six dix, exercices de sprint exhaustif de 30 secondes, spares par quatre
minutes de rcupration. Une priode de rcupration de cinq minutes clt chaque sance
dentranement. Les sujets entrans pratiquent trois sances dentranement par semaine,
pendant huit semaines.
Rsultats. Lentranement HIT induit une amlioration signicative (p < 0,05) de VO2max
(7,6 %), VT1 (4,5 %), VT2 (4,2 %), 3000-m RT (4,4 %), PPO (8,3 %) et MPO (10,9 %), chez
les sportifs entrans. On observe aussi une amlioration signicative (p < 0,05) de VO2max
(13,7 %), VT1 (3,8 %), VT2 (3,8 %), 3000-m RT (5,8 %), PPO (14,6 %) et MPO (19 %) aprs
lapplication de lentranement chez des sujets sdentaires. Une amlioration plus marque est
dailleurs observe chez les sujets auparavant sdentaires, notamment sur VO2max (p 0,05),
PPO (p 0,05) et MPO (p 0,01), en comparaison aux sujets pralablement entrans. En
conclusion, bien que les valeurs des variables physiologiques soient plus leves en n de programme dentranement chez les sujets entrans, les sujets sdentaires sont plus sensibles
lentranement HIT.
2013 Elsevier Masson SAS. Tous droits rservs.

1. Introduction
Many sports such as football, basketball and cycling require
energy from both the anaerobic and aerobic systems [1].
Speed and endurance are critical for training and competition in these events. It is critical to make efcient use
of time for coaches and sports scientists especially when
limited time for training is available.
The maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max ) is generally considered the best indicator of cardiorespiratory endurance and
aerobic tness [2]. Of course, in elite athletes VO2max is not a
good predictor of performance. While a high VO2max may be
a prerequisite for performance in endurance events at the
highest level, other markers such as anaerobic threshold are
more predictive of performance [1]. Anaerobic power is also
considered important in athletic performance especially in
the evaluation of peak power [3].
Recent research suggest that a form of interval training known as high-intensity interval training (HIT) leads
to rapid improvements in aerobic and anaerobic power.
While athletes employ a variety of training strategies to
increase aerobic and anaerobic power, recent researches
[48] Laursen et al. [8], for example, demonstrated signicant improvement in anaerobic threshold and power output
following four HIT sessions (total training time 80 min)
in highly-trained cyclists. Increased aerobic and anaerobic
indices have also been reported after a shorter time period
of HIT program (16 min during 2 weeks) by Burgomaster
et al. [5]. On the other hand, moderate-intensity aerobic
training studies have only shown limited improvement in
aerobic indices performed in longer time frames [9].
Evidence-based studies conrm that HIT programs
increase the value of aerobic and anaerobic indices. The

variability of other methods, population and exercise protocols used in these investigations makes an assessment
of the dimension and importance of these changes difcult [5,8,1012]. Furthermore, little is known concerning
the magnitude of the responses comparing physically active
versus inactive subjects undergoing the same HIT program.
Therefore, the purpose of this study was to compare the
effects of a HIT program on VO2max , aerobic and anaerobic
thresholds, aerobic endurance, performance and anaerobic
power in physically active and inactive men.

2. Materials and methods

2.1. Participants
Twelve healthy physically inactive male college students
(mean SD: age = 19.1 1 years; height = 176.2 5 cm;
mass = 68.6 7 kg; percentage of body fat = 17 5%) and
twelve college soccer players (active group) (mean SD:
age = 19.4 1 years; height = 173 6 cm; mass = 66.5 6 kg;
percentage of body fat = 12 2.6%) volunteered to participate in the investigation. The active subjects were in their
off-season. The active subjects had not performed any
HIT exercise programs for a minimum of 3 months before
this investigation. This study was performed in accordance
with the Declaration of Helsinki and the Research Ethics
Committee of the university of Mohaghegh Ardabili.

2.2. Experimental protocol

All subjects were informed on the study protocols and testing prior to their participation to ensure that any learning

High-intensity interval training and physical performances

effect was minimal from their baseline measures. Then,
the exercise tests were performed in three separated sessions. Testing was performed in intervals of at least 48 h and
at a week period. First, each subject completed tests for
body composition and also the graded exercise test (GXT) to
determine their VO2max and ventilatory thresholds. Second,
the participants performed 30 s Wingate Anaerobic Power
Tests to determine power outputs. Subjects also completed
a 3000-m running time trial on the third testing session.
Following baseline testing, subjects performed 8 weeks of
HIT training sessions. Post-training tests were completed in
the same order as the baseline testing, allowing at least
72 h interval from the time of the nal training session. All
subjects were instructed to maintain their current physical
activity and diet throughout the duration of the study and
were asked to refrain from caffeine and vigorous activity
24 h prior to any testing session. Subjects were also asked
to complete food diaries on the two days before baseline
testing and to replicate this diet before the post-testing sessions. Standard environmental conditions (2023 C ambient
temperature, 5565% relative humidity) were ensured during testing sessions. All the exercises were performed in the
evening for safety and effective performance [13].

2.3. Aerobic tness test

All participants performed a progressive incremental test
on the treadmill (Model: Varilant, Lode, The Netherlands)
using the Bruce protocol to determine VO2max and ventilatory anaerobic threshold. This protocol requires the subjects
to run for as long as possible on a treadmill whose speed
and slope are increased at timed intervals. To complete
the Bruce test, the subjects warmed up for 10 min, with
the treadmill speed adjusted to 2.7 km/h and a grade of
10%. Every 3 min, the speed and grade of the treadmill were
increased:

stage
stage
stage
stage
stage
stage

2:
3:
4:
5:
6:
7:

4.0 km/h,
5.5 km/h,
6.8 km/h,
8.0 km/h,
8.8 km/h,
9.7 km/h,

12%;
14%;
16%;
18%;
20%;
22%.

The test was continued until the subjects reached volitional exhaustion. The ventilation (VE), oxygen uptake (VO2 )
and carbon dioxide output (VCO2 ) were measured at 10 s
intervals using an online computer-assisted circuit spirometry (Ganshorn Medizin Electronic GmbH Power Cube-Ergo,
Germany), which was calibrated before each subject according to the manufacturers instructions. The highest 10 s VO2
value during the GXT was recorded as the VO2max value if it
coincided with at least three of the following criteria:
a plateau in VO2 despite an increase in running speed;
a respiratory exchange ratio (RER) higher than 1.2;
peak heart rate at least equal to 90% of the age-predicted
maximum;
and/or visible subject exhaustion.

e121
The rst ventilatory threshold (VT1 ) was automatically
determined by the computer software as an increase in the
ventilatory equivalent for oxygen (VE/VO2 ) with no associated increase in the ventilator equivalent for carbon dioxide
(VE/VCO2 ). The second ventilatory threshold, (VT2 ) was
detected as the point at which a rapid rise in VE/VCO2 and
a fall in partial pressure of CO2 were observed [14]. Both
thresholds were veried by experienced researchers.

2.4. Endurance aerobic performance test

The 3000-m time trial test was run on an outdoor track.
Participants were given a warm-up, which included 5 min
of jogging, 5 min of stretching and another 5 min of running.
The test was begun following a 5 min rest. Verbal encouragement was provided during the test. The test was performed
on a sunny day with an ambient temperature of 2025 C
with 5060% relative humidity, and a light breeze.

2.5. Anaerobic power test

The 30 s Wingate Anaerobic Power Test assesses both the
ATP-PC and glycolytic energy systems [15]. It has been
shown to be a highly reliable and applicable test for
predicting performance in both individual and team sporting events [16,17]. Therefore, participants performed a
Wingate test on a mechanically braked cycle ergometer (Model: Lode B.V. Medical Technology, Groningen, The
Netherlands) against a resistance equivalent to 75 g/kg body
mass. Prior to the test, subjects completed a 5 min standardized warm-up. Participants were instructed to begin
pedaling, as fast as possible, against the inertial resistance of the ergometer, and then the appropriate load was
applied. Participants were verbally encouraged to maintain
maximal speed throughout the 30 s test. Peak power output
(PPO) is dened as the highest work output in a 5 s period,
and mean power output (MPO) as the average work output
for the 30 s test period [17].

2.6. Exercise training protocol

All participants began the supervised, progressive training
program after the week of their nal pre-training test.
Participants trained three sessions per week for eight consecutive weeks. Each session included a 10 min warm-up, 6
to 10 bouts of 30 s all-out sprints separated by a 4 min passive
recovery, and a 5 min cool down period. Training programs
involved a periodised increase in volume with a taper in the
nal week. A representation of the 8 weeks exercise training
program is presented in Fig. 1. The number of all-out sprints
was similar for both sedentary and active subjects, during
the training program. The two groups were trained at the
same time and by the same head coach and two assistants,
who were present during each training session.

2.7. Statistical analyses

All results are presented as mean standard deviation (SD).
Normal distribution of all variables was checked using the
Kolmogorov-Smirnov test. Independent samples t-test was

e122

M. Siahkouhian et al.

Table 1 Maximal oxygen consumption (VO2max ), rst (VT1 ) and second ventilatory threshold (VT2 ) at baseline and following
high-intensity interval training (HIT) program.
Active group

VO2max (mL/kg/min)a
AVT1 (% VO2max )a
AVT2 (% VO2max )a

Inactive group

Pre-training

Post-training

Pre-training

Post-training

53.5 4.6
63.9 4.2
78.1 3.5

57.4 3.9b
66.7 3.9b
81.3 3.8b

41 2.6
56.3 4.3
72.3 2.6

46.7 4.9b,c
58.5 4.3b
75.1 4.3b

Values are mean SD.

a P < 0.05 between the two groups.
b P < 0.05 from the corresponding pre-training value.
c P < 0.05 higher improvement from active group.

used to compare baseline demographic and descriptive

variables between the groups. The paired t-test was run
separately in each group in order to determine whether
HIT programs had any effect on the dependent variables.
Differences between groups were analyzed using univariate analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) by pretest scores as a
covariate and the post-test scores as the outcome variables.
Bonferronis post-hoc tests were performed when a signicant F ratio was found. The effect was also calculated using
Cohens d (d). The thresholds for small, moderate, and large
effects were 0.20, 0.50, and 0.80, respectively [18]. The
alpha level for statistical signicance was set at 0.05.

The HIT program decreased the 3000-m running time

in both the active (4.4 1.5%; d = 0.82) and the inactive
group (5.8 1.5%; d = 1.1). There was no signicant difference between groups for improvement in running time
(P > 0.05) (Fig. 2).
PPO and MPO were increased with the HIT program
in both active (8.3 5%; d = 1.2 and 10.9 3.8%; d = 1.1,
respectively) and inactive groups (14.6 5.3%; d = 1.5 and
19 5.4%; d = 2.4, respectively). The inactive group exhibited a greater signicant increase for PPO than the active
group (P 0.05; d = 1.2) and MPO (P 0.01; d = 1.9) (Table 2).

4. Discussion
3. Results
As expected, the college athletes had a signicantly lower
percentage of body fat (P 0.05), and attained signicantly
higher cardiorespiratory tness (P 0.001) and anaerobic
indices than the inactive men (P 0.05). The mean intervention performed time was 92.1 min out of a possible 95.5 min
(96.4%).
Training programs caused increase in VO2max in
both active (7.6 2.1%; d = 0.93) and inactive groups
(13.7 4.9%; d = 1.4), with a signicantly greater increase
in the inactive group (P 0.05; d = 1) (Table 1). HIT programs had a similar signicant effects on relative values
of VT1 (active group: 4.5 5.5%; d = 0.69 vs. inactive
group: 3.8 4.2%; d = 0.5) and VT2 expressed by percent
of VO2max (active group: 4.2 5.2%; d = 0.88 vs. inactive
group: 3.8 5.7%; d = 0.78), with no signicant differences
between the two groups (P > 0.05) (Table 1).

The data in the current literature is confusing concerning

the effect of a HIT program on aerobic capacity. Some of
the studies that failed to show an improvement in VO2max
generally used very a short HIT sessions lasting only 515 s
[19] or a HIT intervention period that was less than 2 weeks
[5,8]. In contrast, this study found an increase in aerobic
capacity including maximal or near maximal benet with HIT
sessions that lasted more than 15 s, and continued for more
than 2 weeks [4,12,20]. It is also known that the aerobic
contribution to HIT exercise programs increases, depending
on the type [21] and duration of the recovery between bouts
[22]. The relatively short passive recovery periods used in
the present study may signicantly affect the recovery of
the aerobic energy system by allowing for the clearance
of lactic acid and the resynthesis of phosphocreatine [23].
In addition, the number of intervals performed [24], the
timing between the nal training session and post-testing
session [25], and the nutrition used in different studies may

Figure 1
program.

Figure 2 3000-m running at baseline and following HIT

program.* P 0.001 from the corresponding pretraining value.

Representation of the periodised exercise training

High-intensity interval training and physical performances

e123

Table 2 Peak power output (PPO) and mean power output (MPO) at baseline and following high-intensity interval training (HIT)
program.
Active group

PPO (w/kg)a
MPO (w/kg)a

Inactive group

Pre-training

Post-training

Pre-training

Post-training

11.4 0.9
7.2 0.8

12.3 0.5b
8 0.6b

10.4 1.1
6.3 0.6

11.9 0.8b,c
7.4 0.4b,c

Values are mean SD.

a P < 0.05 between the two groups.
b P < 0.001 from the corresponding pre-training value.
c P < 0.05 higher improvement from active group.

affect the results as well [26]. This study demonstrated an

improvement in aerobic capacity in both active and inactive groups. Increases in central oxygen delivery and/or
peripheral oxygen utilization by active muscles may be the
mechanisms responsible for the dramatic improvement in
aerobic capacity [27,28]. Given that the maximal heart rate
remains unchanged in response to training, improvements in
oxygen delivery to exercising muscles during high-intensity
exercise can be attributed to an increase in stroke volume
[29]. However, the information gleaned from this study can
only be interpreted as a comparison between active and
inactive college men and cannot be extrapolated to the general population without other tests being done with other
control groups.
Previous studies have reported that the HIT exercise protocol places greater demand on the pumping ability of the
heart than that done by the lower intensity exercises programs [30]. The current studys ndings may be partially
explained by the up regulation of mitochondrial oxidative
enzymes, which consequently increases arteriovenous oxygen differences [5,7]. The observed different magnitude of
VO2max responses of active and inactive subjects to the HIT
program in this study is supported by other previous studies
[10,28].
In the present study, both active and inactive groups
experienced signicant improvement in VTs (VT1 : 4.5% vs.
3.8% and VT2 : 4.2% vs. 3.8%, respectively). These results
are in agreement with those of Laursen et al. [8]. Of course,
some investigations reported no signicant alteration in VT
following HIT exercise programs [10,26]. It has been shown
that training at above anaerobic threshold level is more
effective in improving the VT than training at anaerobic
threshold level [31], however, these studies were performed
at a lower intensity level than the current study [10]. Unaltered VT following HIT exercise programs may also be due
to the short nature of the intervention [10], or to the small
sample size [28]. Improvements in VT have been reported
to be signicantly correlated with working muscles, muscle
oxidative capacity [11,32], an increased ability to engage a
greater volume of muscle mass [33], and an increased ability in the rate of lipid utilization relative to carbohydrate
[34]. Improvements in cardiovascular tness may also coincide with a decrease in lactate accumulation resulting in an
improvement in VT [26].
Our data show that endurance performance was significantly improved after 8 weeks of a HIT program in both
active and inactive groups (4.4% vs. 5.8%, respectively),

but with no signicant differences between groups. This

nding is in agreement with studies that have shown an
increase in capacity to perform exercise that is primarily
aerobic in nature (e.g. for the 3000-m track running 86%
by males) [35] by active and inactive subjects following various HIT programs [5,28,36]. Improved exercise efciency
following HIT programs may be attributed to an improvement in VO2max and/or VT. It seems that increased aerobic
endurance performance in inactive subjects is possibly due
to improvement in VO2max ; also improvement in VT is the
main reason for increased aerobic endurance performance in
active subjects. However, the factors that regulate aerobic
endurance performance are multifactorial and extremely
complicated [5,37]. Other study results recommend that
HIT programs may arouse a range of adaptations that could
improve performance in addition to changes in oxygen
delivery and mitochondrial potential. The other potential
adaptations that may contribute to the improvement in
aerobic capacity following HIT includes increases in lactate transport capacity and H+ release from active muscle,
Na+ /K+ pump capacity, and enhanced sarcoplasmic reticulum function [38]. Additionally, neural activation, [33] as
well as, increases in resting muscle glycogen stores, [5]
whole-body fat oxidation, and/or improvements in running
economy may also be adaptations that occur [28].
PPO and MPO increased following the HIT program in both
groups, although the inactive group demonstrated greater
increases than the active group. Bogdanis et al. indicated
that a specialized basketball training program, performed
exclusively on-court was as effective as a mixed basketball
plus a conditioning training program in terms of aerobic and
anaerobic tness improvement [10]. The probable mechanisms responsible for HIT-induced increase in anaerobic
power include increases muscle phosphocreatine concentration, anaerobic enzyme activities, motor unit activation
[33], and shifts of Type I and Type IIx bers to Type IIa bers
[24]. It should be noted that FTa Fibers have faster rates of
lactate removal and greater buffering capacity and, therefore, greater anaerobic endurance than either IIx or I Fibers
[39]. Bishop et al. [40] reported HIT program results with a
decrease in H+ accumulation and an increase in the rate of
phosphocreatine resynthesis following supramaximal exercise may improve performance.
Generally, our results showed that the HIT program
improves aerobic and anaerobic energy supplying systems in
male collegiate soccer players. These ndings may only be
applicable for the off-season period. However, the concept

e124
that the HIT program is more effective than moderateintensity aerobic training is appealing. Generalization of
the present study ndings for other periods of the training
year should be validated by further research. Healthy inactive subjects also presented greater improvement in aerobic
and anaerobic indices than active subjects during the same
training program. Possibly these inactive subjects were less
conditioned and were further away from their maximal possible conditioning values than the soccer players who were
in their off-season.

Disclosure of interest
The authors declare that they have no conicts of interest
concerning this article.

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