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b,*
a
ATEC Inc., 387 Technology Dr., College Park, MD 20742, USA
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Maryland, 2181Glenn L Martin Hill, College Park, MD 20742, USA
Received 10 August 2003; received in revised form 20 December 2003; accepted 22 January 2004
Abstract
A technique for determining the heat transfer on the far surface of a wall based on measuring the heat ux and temperature on
the near wall is presented. Although heat transfer measurements have previously been used to augment temperature measurements
in inverse heat conduction methods, the sensors used alter the heat ow through the surface, disturbing the very quantity that is
desired to be measured. The ideal sensor would not alter the boundary condition that would exist were the sensor not present. The
innovation of this technique in that it has minimal impact on the wall boundary condition. Since the sensor is placed on the surface
of the wall, no alteration of the wall is needed. The theoretical basis for the experimental technique as well as experimental results
showing the heat ux sensor performance is presented.
2004 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Heat ux sensor; Inverse heat conduction; Experimental technique; Boundary conditions
1. Introduction
Inverse heat conduction methods can be used to
determine heat ux and temperatures on an inaccessible
surface of a wall by measuring the temperature on an
accessible boundary (TS method, Fig. 1a). The noise
present in any measure of temperature, however, can
cause instabilities in the predicted heat uxes. It has
been suggested [1] that the prediction can be greatly
improved by measuring temperature at two locations
(Fig. 1b). Altering the wall to include an interior thermocouple cannot be performed in many applications,
however, and installation of an interior thermocouple
can result in material inhomogeneities that change the
heat ow through the wall. By numerical experiments
and a sensitivity analysis we show that incorporating a
measurement of the heat ux at the accessible boundary
(TS/HFS method, Fig. 1c) can be used to improve the
calculation.
The objective of this work was to develop a method
by which stable predictions of the heat transfer on an
inaccessible boundary could be obtained without alter*
2. Numerical experiments
In order to demonstrate the advantage of using both
heat ux and temperature data at an accessible boundary to predict heat transfer at an inaccessible boundary,
904
Nomenclature
h
K
q
S
T
Y
h
s
c
x
1, h
1, s
Subscripts
1
inaccessible surface
2
accessible surface
inaccessible
wall (point 1)
accessible
wall (point 2)
T2 (t)
q (t)
1
(a) TS method
inaccessible
wall (point 1)
q (t)
1
T2 r; tM T0
accessible
wall (point 2)
T2 (t)
q (t)
1
M
X
qn D/r; tMn
n1
T (t)
3
inaccessible
wall (point 1)
accessible
wall (point 2)
T2 (t), q2(t)
2
X
i1
dq1
q1
1
TS method
TS/HFS method
0.8
0.6
dq1 =q1
dT2 =T2
For q2 :
Sq2
dq1 =q1
dq2 =q2
10
TS method
TS/HFS method
Error in q1
where, dq1 is the average of the absolute dierence between estimated and exact values of q1 over the whole
time domain. This value was normalized with respect to
the input error in the temperature and heat ux values.
The results shown on Fig. 2 show that the TS/HFS
method decreases the error levels considerably. For a
12% error (in temperature at point 2), the average error
in the estimated value of q1 is about 85% of the average
value for the TS method while it is about 42% for the
TS/HFS method, demonstrating the superiority of the
mixed method with respect to errors in estimated heat
ux values.
In order to investigate this eect, the errors in temperature T2 and heat ux input q2 data were separated and the sensitivity of q1 to each of these inputs in
905
10
100
0.1
0.4
0.2
0
4
10
11
12
13
14
0.01
t_plus
Fig. 3. Eect of the time step and time of the rise of the triangular heat
ux input on the estimated heat ux error.
906
3. Heat ux sensor
Ts
T,s
Passive sensor
hs
T,h
q''
q''c
hh
Ts
Th
q''
x
q ''
x
Active heater
Wall
q00x
T1;s
hs
10
11
where
q00c hh Th T1;h
12
If the heater temperature Th is kept at the same temperature as the sensor (this is done using a feedback
circuit as described below), then Th Ts and Eqs. (10)
and (12) can be substituted into Eq. (11) to yield
00
00 hh
q h qx
13
1 hh T1;s T1;h
hs
Examination of Eq. (13) indicates the following properties of the heat ux sensor:
(1) If the heat transfer coecients (hs and hh ) and the
environment and coolant temperatures (T1;s and
T1;h ) are constant and hh > hs , then the heat supplied to the heater is linearly proportional to the
heat transfer through the substrate. By measuring
q00h , q00x can be determined.
(2) If hh is larger than hs , the heat ux sensor acts to amplify theh heat i transfer through the wall by an
amount hhhs 1 without disturbing the wall temperature.
(3) In order to avoid the possibility of negative q00h , we
should keep T1;s > T1;h and hh =hs > 1.
(4) If hs and hh are constant, then drifts in T1;s and T1;h
simply result in an oset to q00h . The heat ux sensor
can be operated with dierent T1;s and T1;h by using
Eq. (13) to correct the output.
A schematic of the electronic feedback circuit is
shown on Fig. 5. The voltage applied to the active heater
is controlled using a feedback control circuit similar to
that described by Bae et al. [6]. This circuit maintains the
temperature of the active heater equal to the temperature of the passive sensor. The op-amp in the control
circuit measures the imbalance in the bridge and outputs
the voltage needed to keep ratio Ractive =Ru equal to the
resistance ratio on the right side of the bridge. The
heater resistance (Ractive ), and thus the heater temperature are controlled by changes in the resistance of the
passive sensor (Rpassive ) due to temperature changes on
the surface of the wall. The voltage across the heater
907
Coolant in
24 V
1K
Coolant out
Ru
Passive sensor
Rt
Active sensor
10 mm copper block
+
-
+
Ractive
R active,0
R passive
V
A
R passive,0
(Vout ) is measured and used to determine q00h . The resistance of the passive sensor can be determined by measuring VA and the current through the small resistor
Rpassive;0 . Since the temperature of the active heater
tracks the temperature of the accessible boundary (as
measured by the passive heater), the presence of the
active heater and the cooling of this heater do not alter
the thermal boundary condition on this boundary.
The sensor described above is preferable to other heat
transfer measuring systems for the following reasons:
The sampling rate of each heater can reach a frequency as high as 15 kHz, allowing for rapid temporal discrimination of changes in heat ux, if needed.
The measurement technique could be capable of handling high temperatures.
The incorporation of a feedback loop to maintain the
temperature of the heater at the same temperature as
the surface that is undisturbed by the active sensor
eliminates the problem of sensor-structure interaction
that can occur with other heat ux sensing techniques
and the resulting heat ux errors.
Unlike thin lm sensors, the output of this sensor is
directly measurable, with no need for amplication
by using either a series of sensors and/or ampliers.
The proposed sensor can be easily designed to survive
hostile environments.
15000
q''h (W/m2)
Vout
10000
5000
0
3000
4000
5000
6000
q''x (W/m2)
7000
908
+10%
6000
-10%
5000
4000
3000
3000
4000
5000
6000
7000
Fig. 8. Comparison of actual heat ux into the copper plate vs. the heat
ux measurement using the active and passive sensors.
Acknowledgements
The support of Kirtland AFB under SBIR F2960102-C-0138 is gratefully acknowledged. The grant monitor was Dr. Choon Tham.
12000
ACTUAL
10000
ESTIMATED
8000
References
6000
4000
2000
0
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
Time (s)
5. Conclusions
The advantage of incorporating heat ux into an inverse heat conduction method for predicting heat uxes
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Ill-posed Problems, Wiley, New York, 1985.
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(1960) 2026.
[3] G.J. Borell, T.E. Diller, A convection calibration method for local
heat ux gages, ASME Trans. J. Heat Transfer 109 (1987) 8389.
[4] J.M. Hager, L.W. Langley, S. Onishi, T.E. Diller, Microsensors for
high heat ux measurements, J. Thermophys. Heat Transfer 7 (3)
(1993) 531534.
[5] D. Leclercq, P. Thery, Apparatus for simultaneous temperature
and heat ux measurements under transient conditions, Rev. Sci.
Instrum. 54 (1983) 374380.
[6] S. Bae, M.H. Kim, J. Kim, Improved technique to measure time
and space resolved heat transfer under single bubbles during
saturated pool boiling of FC-72, Exp. Heat Transfer 12 (3) (1999)
265278.