Lagrangian

This article is about the Lagrangian function in equivalent Lagrangians will give the same equations of
Lagrangian mechanics. For other uses, see Lagrangian motion.[3][4]
(disambiguation).

2 The Lagrangian formulation

The Lagrangian, L, of a dynamical system is a

mathematical function that summarizes the dynamics of
the system. For a simple mechanical system, it is the
value given by the kinetic energy of the particle minus
the potential energy of the particle but it may be generalized to more complex systems. It is used primarily as
a key component in the Euler-Lagrange equations to nd
the path of a particle according to the principle of least
action.

2.1 Simple example

The trajectory of a thrown ball is characterized by the
sum of the Lagrangian values at each time being a (local)
minimum.
The Lagrangian L can be calculated at several instants of
time t, and a graph of L against t can be drawn. The area
under the curve is the action. Any dierent path between
the initial and nal positions leads to a larger action than
that chosen by nature. Nature chooses the smallest action
this is the Principle of Least Action.

The Lagrangian is named after Italian-French mathematician and astronomer Joseph Louis Lagrange. The
concept of a Lagrangian was introduced in a reformulation of classical mechanics introduced by Lagrange
known as Lagrangian mechanics in 1788. This reformulation was needed in order to explore mechanics
in alternative systems to Cartesian coordinates such as
Polar, Cylindrical and Spherical coordinates for which
Newtonian mechanics was not suitable.[1]

If Nature has dened the mechanics problem of the thrown ball in so elegant a fashion,
might She have dened other problems similarly. So it seems now. Indeed, at the present
time it appears that we can describe all the
fundamental forces in terms of a Lagrangian.
The search for Natures One Equation, which
rules all of the universe, has been largely a
search for an adequate Lagrangian.
Robert Adair, The Great Design: Particles,
Fields, and Creation[5]

The Lagrangian has since been used in a method to nd

the acceleration of a particle in a Newtonian gravitational eld and to derive the Einstein eld equations. This
led to its use in applying electromagnetism to curved
spacetime and in describing charged black holes. It also
has additional uses in Mathematical formalism to nd the
functional derivative of an action, and in engineering for
the analysis and optimisation of dynamic systems.

Using only the principle of least action and the Lagrangian we can deduce the correct trajectory, by trial
and error or the calculus of variations.

Denition

In classical mechanics, the natural form of the Lagrangian

is dened as the kinetic energy, T, of the system minus its 2.2 Importance
potential energy, V.[2] In symbols,
The Lagrangian formulation of mechanics is important
not just for its broad applications, but also for its role in
advancing deep understanding of physics. Although LaL = T V.
grange only sought to describe classical mechanics, the
If the Lagrangian of a system is known, then the equations action principle that is used to derive the Lagrange equaof motion of the system may be obtained by a direct sub- tion was later recognized to be applicable to quantum mestitution of the expression for the Lagrangian into the chanics as well.
EulerLagrange equation. The Lagrangian of a given system is not unique, and two Lagrangians describing the
same system can dier by the total derivative with respect to time of some function f (q, t) , but solving any

Physical action and quantum-mechanical phase are related via Plancks constant, and the principle of stationary
action can be understood in terms of constructive interference of wave functions.
1

3 EXPLANATION

The same principle, and the Lagrangian formalism, are

tied closely to Noethers theorem, which connects physL
,
ical conserved quantities to continuous symmetries of a p2 =
q2
physical system.
Lagrangian mechanics and Noethers theorem together say, can be directly seen if the Lagrangian of the system
yield a natural formalism for rst quantization by in- is of the form
cluding commutators between certain terms of the Lagrangian equations of motion for a physical system.
L(q1 , q3 , q4 , . . . ; q1 , q2 , q3 , q4 , . . . ; t) .
Also, if the time t, does not appear in L, then the
Hamiltonian (which is related to the lagrangian by a Leg The formulation is not tied to any one coordinate endre transformation) is conserved. This is the energy
system rather, any convenient variables may be conservation unless the potential energy depends on ve[6][7]
used to describe the system; these variables are locity, as in electrodynamics.
called "generalized coordinates" qi and may be any
quantitative attributes of the system (for example,
strength of the magnetic eld at a particular loca- 3 Explanation
tion; angle of a pulley; position of a particle in space;
or degree of excitation of a particular eigenmode The Lagrangian in many classical systems is a function
in a complex system) which are functions of the of generalized coordinates qi and their velocities dqi/dt.
independent variable(s). This trait makes it easy to These coordinates (and velocities) are, in their turn, paraincorporate constraints into a theory by dening co- metric functions of time. In the classical view, time is an
ordinates that only describe states of the system that independent variable and qi (and dqi/dt) are dependent
satisfy the constraints.
variables as is often seen in phase space explanations of

2.3

Advantages over other methods

If the Lagrangian is invariant under a symmetry,

then the resulting equations of motion are also invariant under that symmetry. This characteristic is
very helpful in showing that theories are consistent
with either special relativity or general relativity.

2.4

Cyclic coordinates and conservation

laws

systems. This formalism was generalized further to handle eld theory. In eld theory, the independent variable
is replaced by an event in spacetime (x, y, z, t), or more
generally still by a point s on a manifold. The dependent
variables (q) are replaced by the value of a eld at that
point in spacetime (x,y,z,t) so that the equations of motion are obtained by means of an action principle, written
as:

S
An important property of the Lagrangian is that conser- i = 0,
vation laws can easily be read o from it. For example,
if the Lagrangian L does not depend on qi itself, then the where the action, S , is a functional of the dependent variables i(s) with their derivatives and s itself
generalized momentum ( pi ), given by:
L
pi =
,
qi

S [i ] =

)
(
i (s)
,
s
dn s
L i (s),
s

is a conserved quantity, because of Lagranges equations: and where s = { s } denotes the set of n independent variables of the system, indexed by = 1, 2, 3,..., n. Notice
L is used in the case of one independent variable (t) and
L
L is used in the case of multiple independent variables
pi =
= 0.
(usually four: x, y, z, t).
qi

It doesn't matter if L depends on the time derivative qi of

that generalized coordinate, since the Lagrangian independence of the coordinate always makes the above partial derivative zero. This is a special case of Noethers
theorem. Such coordinates are called cyclic or ignorable.

The equations of motion obtained from this functional

derivative are the EulerLagrange equations of this action. For example, in the classical mechanics of particles,
the only independent variable is time, t. So the Euler
Lagrange equations are

For example, the conservation of the generalized momentum,

L
d L
=
.
dt i
i

4.2

In spherical coordinates

Dynamical systems whose equations of motion are obtainable by means of an action principle on a suitably
chosen Lagrangian are known as Lagrangian dynamical systems. Examples of Lagrangian dynamical systems
range from the classical version of the Standard Model,
to Newtons equations, to purely mathematical problems
such as geodesic equations and Plateaus problem.

4.2 In spherical coordinates

Suppose we have a three-dimensional space using
spherical coordinates (r, , ) with the Lagrangian

L=

m 2
(r + r2 2 + r2 sin2 2 ) V (r).
2

Then the EulerLagrange equations are:

An example from classical mechanics

4.1

In Cartesian coordinates

Suppose we have a three-dimensional space in which

a particle of mass m moves under the inuence of a
conservative force F . Since the force is conservative, it
corresponds to a potential energy function V (x) given by
F = V (x) . The Lagrangian of the particle can be
written

=
L(x, x)

1
mx 2 V (x).
2

The equations of motion for the particle are found by applying the EulerLagrange equation

m
r mr(2 + sin2 2 ) + V = 0,
d
mr2 sin cos 2 = 0,
(mr2 )
dt
d
(mr2 sin2 )
= 0.
dt
Here the set of parameters si is just the time t, and the
dynamical variables i(s) are the trajectories x(t) of the
particle.
Despite the use of standard variables such as x, the Lagrangian allows the use of any coordinates, which do not
need to be orthogonal. These are "generalized coordinates".

5 Lagrangian of a test particle

Then

A test particle is a particle whose mass and charge are

assumed to be so small that its eect on external system
is insignicant. It is often a hypothetical simplied point
particle with no properties other than mass and charge.
Real particles like electrons and up quarks are more complex and have additional terms in their Lagrangians.

L
V
=
,
xi
xi

5.1 Classical test particle with Newtonian

gravity

d
dt

L
x i

= 0,
xi

where i = 1, 2, 3.

=
x i
x i

1
mx 2
2

and

d
dt

L
x i

)
=

1 ( 2)
m
x = mx i ,
2 x i i

Suppose we are given a particle with mass m kilograms,

and position x meters in a Newtonian gravitation eld
with potential in Jkg1 . The particles world line is
parameterized by time t seconds. The particles kinetic
energy is:

)
= m
xi .

T (t) = 12 m |x(t)|

Thus

and the particles gravitational potential energy is:

m
x + V = 0,

V (t) = m(x(t), t).

which is Newtons second law of motion for a particle Then its Lagrangian is L joules, where
subject to a conservative force. Here the time derivative
is written conventionally as a dot above the quantity being
2

m(x(t), t).
L(t) = T (t) V (t) = 12 m |x(t)|
dierentiated, and is the del operator.

6 LAGRANGIANS AND LAGRANGIAN DENSITIES IN FIELD THEORY

Varying x in the integral (equivalent to the Euler

Lagrange dierential equation), we get

L(t) dt =

0=

L(t) dt

d mx(t)

q(x(t), t)q A(x(t),

0=
t)q x(t)A(x(t),
t)
dt
v 2 (t)
1 c2
which is

x(t)
(mx(t)
m(x(t), t) x(t)) dt.

Integrate the rst term by parts and discard the total integral. Then divide out the variation to get

d mx(t)
= qE(x(t), t) + q x(t)
B(x(t), t)

2
dt
1 v c(t)
2
which is the equation for the Lorentz force, where:

0 = m
x(t) m(x(t), t)

E(x, t) = (x, t) A(x,

t)

and thus

B(x, t) = A(x, t)
are the elds and potentials.
is the equation of motion two dierent expressions for
5.3
the force.

General relativistic test particle

In general relativity, the rst term generalizes (includes)

5.2

Special relativistic test particle with both the classical kinetic energy and the interaction with
the gravitational eld. It becomes:[8][9]
electromagnetism

In special relativity, the energy (rest energy plus kinetic

dx (t) dx (t)
energy) of a free test particle is
2 d (t)
mc
= mc g (x(t))
.
dt
dt
dt
The Lagrangian of a general relativistic test particle in an
dt
mc2
3 v 4 (t) electromagnetic eld is:
2 1
2
= +mc + mv (t)+ m 2 +. . . .
mc
=
2
d
2
8
c
1 v c(t)
2

dx (t) dx (t)
dx (t)
However, the term in the Lagrangian that gives rise to
L(t) = mc g (x(t))
+q
A (x(t)).
the derivative of the momentum is no longer the kinetic
dt
dt
dt
energy. It must be changed to
If the four spacetime coordinates x are given in arbitrary
units (i.e. unitless), then g in m2 is the rank 2 symmetric metric tensor which is also the gravitational potential.

1 v 4A
(t) Vs is the electromagnetic 4-vector potential.
v 2 (t)
2 d (t)
2
2 1
2
mc
= mc 1 2 = mc + mv (t)+ Also,
m 2 in
+. . .
dt
c
2
8
c that a factor of c has been absorbed into the square
Notice
root because it is the equivalent of
where c is the vacuum speed of light in ms1 , is the
proper time in seconds (i.e. time measured by a clock

moving with the particle) and v2 (t)=x(t)x(t). The second

v 2 (t)
term in the series is just the classical kinetic energy. Sup- c 1 2 = (c2 + v 2 (t)).
c
pose the particle has electrical charge q coulombs and is
in an electromagnetic eld with scalar potential volts This notion has been directly generalized from special rel(a volt is a joule per coulomb) and vector potential A ativity.
Vsm1 . The Lagrangian of a special relativistic test particle in an electromagnetic eld is:
2

6 Lagrangians and Lagrangian

densities in eld theory

v 2 (t)

q(x(t), t)+q x(t)A(x(t),

t).
c2
The time integral of the Lagrangian is called the action
Varying this with respect to x , we get
denoted by S. In eld theory, a distinction is occasionally

L(t) = mc2

7.1

Newtonian gravity

made between the Lagrangian L, of which the action is substituted back in equation (1), the Lagrangian equation
the time integral:
for the test particle in a Newtonian gravitational eld, provides the information needed to calculate the acceleration
of the particle.

S=

L dt

7.1 Newtonian gravity

and the Lagrangian density L , which one integrates over

all spacetime to get the action:
The Lagrangian (density) is L in Jm3 . The interaction
term m is replaced by a term involving a continuous

mass density in kgm3 . This is necessary because using a point source for a eld would result in mathematiS[i ] = L(i (x)) d4 x.
cal diculties. The resulting Lagrangian for the classical
gravitational eld is:
General form of Lagrangian density: L =
i
L(i , i, ) [10] where i, x
i (see
4-gradient)
1
L(x, t) = (x, t)(x, t)
((x, t))2

n1
8G
The relationship between L and L : L = L d
x
[10]
, where
similar to
n is the space-time dimension
where G in m3 kg1 s2 is the gravitational constant.
q = dV .
Variation of the integral with respect to gives:
In eld theory, the independent variable t was replaced by an event in spacetime (x, y, z, t) or still
2
more generally by a point s on a manifold.
L(x, t) = (x, t)(x, t)
((x, t))((x, t)).
8G
The Lagrangian is then the spatial integral of the La- Integrate by parts and discard the total integral. Then
grangian density. However, L is also frequently sim- divide out by to get:
ply called the Lagrangian, especially in modern use; it
is far more useful in relativistic theories since it is a
locally dened, Lorentz scalar eld. Both denitions of
1
the Lagrangian can be seen as special cases of the gen- 0 = (x, t) + 4G (x, t)
eral form, depending on whether the spatial variable x
is incorporated into the index i or the parameters s in and thus
i(s). Quantum eld theories in particle physics, such as
quantum electrodynamics, are usually described in terms
of L , and the terms in this form of the Lagrangian trans- 4G(x, t) = 2 (x, t)
late quickly to the rules used in evaluating Feynman diagrams.
which yields Gausss law for gravity.
Notice that, in the presence of gravity or when using general curvilinear coordinates,
the Lagrangian density L 7.2 Einstein Gravity
will include a factor of |g| or its equivalent to ensure
that it is a scalar density so that the integral will be in- Main article: EinsteinHilbert action
variant.

Selected elds

To go with the section on test particles above, here are the

equations for the elds in which they move. The equations below pertain to the elds in which the test particles
described above move and allow the calculation of those
elds. The equations below will not give you the equations of motion of a test particle in the eld but will instead give you the potential (eld) induced by quantities
such as mass or charge density at any point (x,t) . For example, in the case of Newtonian gravity, the Lagrangian
density integrated over spacetime gives you an equation
which, if solved, would yield (x,t) . This (x,t) , when

The Lagrange density for general relativity in the presence

of matter elds is

LGR = LEH + Lmatter =

c4
(R 2) + Lmatter
16G

R is the curvature scalar, which is the Ricci tensor contracted with the metric tensor, and the Ricci tensor is
the Riemann tensor contracted with a Kronecker delta.
The integral of LEH is known as the Einstein-Hilbert action. The Riemann tensor is the tidal force tensor, and
is constructed out of Christoel symbols and derivatives
of Christoel symbols, which are the gravitational force
eld. Plugging this Lagrangian into the Euler-Lagrange

7 SELECTED FIELDS

equation and taking the metric tensor g as the eld, we We can then write the interaction term as
obtain the Einstein eld equations

1
8G
Rg + g = 4 T
2
c

+ j A = j A

Additionally, we can package the E and B elds into what

The last tensor is the energy momentum tensor and is de- is known as the electromagnetic tensor F . We dene
this tensor as
ned by

F = A A
2 (Lmatter g)
Lmatter
T
= 2
+g Lmatter .

g
g
g
The term we are looking out for turns out to be
g is the determinant of the metric tensor when regarded
as a matrix. is the Cosmological constant. Generally,
in general relativity, theintegration measure of the action 0 E 2 1 B 2 = 1 F F = 1 F F

20
40
40
of Lagrange density is gd4 x . This makes the integral 2
coordinate independent, as the root of the metric deterWe have made use of the Minkowski metric to raise the
minant is equivalent to the Jacobian determinant. The
indices on the EMF tensor. In this notation, Maxwells
minus sign is a consequence of the metric signature (the
equations are
determinant by itself is negative).[11]

7.3

Electromagnetism in special relativity

The interaction terms

F = 0 j

and F = 0

where is the Levi-Civita tensor. So the Lagrange density

for electromagnetism in special relativity written in terms
of Lorentz vectors and tensors is

A(x(t), t)
q(x(t), t) + q x(t)
are replaced by terms involving a continuous charge den- L(x) = j (x)A (x) 1 F (x)F (x)
40
sity in Asm3 and current density j in Am2 . The
resulting Lagrangian for the electromagnetic eld is:
In this notation it is apparent that classical electromagnetism is a Lorentz-invariant theory. By the equivalence
principle,
it becomes simple to extend the notion of elec0
1 2
L(x, t) = (x, t)(x, t)+j(x, t)A(x, t)+ E 2 (x, t) tromagnetism
B (x, t). to curved spacetime.[12][13]
2
20
Varying this with respect to , we get

0 = (x, t) + 0 E(x, t)
which yields Gauss law.
Varying instead with respect to A , we get
1

0 = j(x, t) + 0 E(x,
t)
B(x, t)
0
which yields Ampres law.
Using tensor notation, we can write all this more compactly. The term (x, t) + j A is actually the inner
product of two Lorentz vectors. We package the charge
density into the current 4-vector and the potential into the
potential 4-vector. These two new vectors are

j = (, j) and A = (, A)

7.4 Electromagnetism in general relativity

The Lagrange density of electromagnetism in general
relativity also contains the Einstein-Hilbert action from
above. The pure electromagnetic Lagrangian is precisely
a matter Lagrangian Lmatter . The Lagrangian is

L(x) = j (x)A (x)

1
c4
F (x)F (x)g (x)g (x)+
R(x) = L
40
16G

This Lagrangian is obtained by simply replacing the

Minkowski metric in the above at Lagrangian with a
more general (possibly curved) metric g (x) . We
can generate the Einstein Field Equations in the presence of an EM eld using this lagrangian. The energymomentum tensor is

1
2
SMaxwell =
T (x) =
0
g(x) g (x)

1
F (x)F (x) g (x)F
4

7.6

Dirac Lagrangian

It can be shown that this energy momentum tensor is is not necessary because forms have coordinate dierentraceless, i.e. that
tials built in. Variation of the action leads to

dF = J.

T = g T = 0

These are Maxwells equations for the electromagnetic

If we take the trace of both sides of the Einstein Field
potential. Substituting F = dA immediately yields the
Equations, we obtain
equation for the elds,
R=

8G
T
c4

dF = 0

So the tracelessness of the energy momentum tensor im- because F is an exact form.
plies that the curvature scalar in an electromagnetic eld
vanishes. The Einstein equations are then

7.6 Dirac Lagrangian

) Lagrangian density for a Dirac eld is:[15]

The
1

R
g (x)F (x)F (x)
4
/ mc2

L = ic
Additionally, Maxwells equations are
0

where is a Dirac spinor (annihilation operator), =

is its Dirac adjoint (creation operator), and / is Feynman

slash notation for .
D F = 0 j

8G 1
= 4
c 0

F (x)F (x)

where D is the covariant derivative. For free space,

we can set the current tensor equal to zero, j = 0 . 7.7 Quantum electrodynamic Lagrangian
Solving both Einstein and Maxwells equations around
a spherically symmetric mass distribution in free space The Lagrangian density for QED is:
leads to the Reissner-Nordstrom charged black hole, with
the dening line element (written in natural units and with
/ mc2
1 F F
charge Q):
LQED = icD
40
where F is the electromagnetic tensor, D is the gauge
(
)
(
)
2
2 1
covariant derivative, and D
/ is Feynman notation for D
2M
Q
2M
Q
ds2 = 1
+ 2 dt2 + 1
+ 2
dr2 .+r2 d2
r
r
r
r
[14]

7.5

7.8 Quantum
grangian

chromodynamic

La-

Electromagnetism using dierential

The Lagrangian density for quantum chromodynamics
forms
is:[16][17][18]

Using dierential forms, the electromagnetic action S in

vacuum on a (pseudo-) Riemannian manifold M can be
(
) 1
written (using natural units, c = 0 = 1) as
LQCD =
icn D
/ n mn c2 n n G G
4
n

S[A] =

(
)
1
F F + A J .
2
M

where D is the QCD gauge covariant derivative, n = 1,

2, ...6 counts the quark types, and G is the gluon eld
strength tensor.

Here, A stands for the electromagnetic potential 1-form,

J is the current 1-form, F is the eld strength 2-form and
the star denotes the Hodge star operator. This is exactly 8 Mathematical formalism
the same Lagrangian as in the section above, except that
the treatment here is coordinate-free; expanding the inte- Suppose we have an n-dimensional manifold, M, and a
grand into a basis yields the identical, lengthy expression. target manifold, T. Let C be the conguration space of
Note that with forms, an additional integration measure smooth functions from M to T.

11 NOTES

8.1

9 Uses in Engineering

Examples

In classical mechanics, in the Hamiltonian formalism, M is the one-dimensional manifold R , representing time and the target space is the cotangent
bundle of space of generalized positions.
In eld theory, M is the spacetime manifold and the
target space is the set of values the elds can take at
any given point. For example, if there are m realvalued scalar elds, 1 , ..., m, then the target manifold is Rm . If the eld is a real vector eld, then the
target manifold is isomorphic to Rn . There is actually a much more elegant way using tangent bundles
over M, but we will just stick to this version.

8.2

Mathematical development

Consider a functional,

S:CR
called the action. Physical considerations require it be a
mapping to R (the set of all real numbers), not C (the set
of all complex numbers).
In order for the action to be local, we need additional restrictions on the action. If C , we assume S[] is the
integral over M of a function of , its derivatives and the
position called the Lagrangian, L(, , , ..., x) .
In other words,

C, S[]

50 years ago Lagrangians were a general part of the engineering curriculum, but quarter of a century later, even
with the ascendency of dynamical systems, they were
dropped as requirements from the majority of engineering programs, and considered to be the domain of physics.
A decade ago this changed dramatically, and Lagrangians
are not only a required part of many ME and EE curricula,
but are now seen as far more than the province of physics.
This is true of pure and applied engineering, as well as
the more physics-related aspects of engineering, or engineering optimization, which itself is more the province of
Lagrange multipliers.
Today, Lagrangians nd their way into hundreds of direct engineering solutions, including robotics, turbulent
ow analysis (Lagrangian and Eulerian specication of
the ow eld), signal processing, microscopic component contact and nanotechnology (superlinear convergent
augmented Lagrangians), gyroscopic forcing and dissipation, semi-innite supercomputing (which also involve
Lagrange multipliers in the subeld of semi-innite programming), chemical engineering (specic heat linear
Lagrangian interpolation in reaction planning), civil engineering (dynamic analysis of trac ows), optics engineering and design (Lagrangian and Hamiltonian optics)
aerospace (Lagrangian interpolation), force stepping integrators, and even airbag deployment (coupled EulerianLagrangians as well as SELMthe stochastic Eulerian
Lagrangian method).[19]

10 See also

(
)
dn xL (x), (x), (x), ..., x . 11

Notes

It is assumed below, in addition, that the Lagrangian depends on only the eld value and its rst derivative but not
the higher derivatives.
Given boundary conditions, basically a specication of
the value of at the boundary if M is compact or some
limit on as x (this will help in doing integration
by parts), the subspace of C consisting of functions, ,
such that all functional derivatives of S at are zero and
satises the given boundary conditions is the subspace
of on shell solutions.
The solution is given by the EulerLagrange equations
(thanks to the boundary conditions),

S
=

L
( )

)
+

L
= 0.

The left hand side is the functional derivative of the action

with respect to .

[1] Simha, Padmanabha. The Need for the Reformulation of

Newtonian mechanics to Lagrangian mechanics. http://
physics-depristine.blogspot.co.uk. Retrieved 2014-07-14.
[2] Torby, Bruce (1984). Energy Methods. Advanced Dynamics for Engineers. HRW Series in Mechanical Engineering. United States of America: CBS College Publishing. ISBN 0-03-063366-4.
[3] Goldstein, Herbert; Poole, Charles P.; Safko, John L.
(2002). Classical Mechanics (3rd ed.). Addison-Wesley.
p. 21. ISBN 978-0-201-65702-9.
[4] Bell, L.D. Landau and E.M. Lifshitz ; translated from the
Russian by J.B. Sykes and J.S. (1999). Mechanics (3rd
ed. ed.). Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann. p. 4. ISBN
978-0-7506-2896-9.
[5] The Great Design: Particles, Fields, and Creation (New
York: Oxford University Press, 1989), ROBERT K.
ADAIR, p.2224
[6] Classical Mechanics, T.W.B. Kibble, European Physics
Series, McGraw-Hill (UK), 1973, ISBN 0-07-084018-0

[7] Analytical Mechanics, L.N. Hand, J.D. Finch, Cambridge

University Press, 2008, ISBN 978-0-521-57572-0
[8] Lev Davidovich Landau & Evgeny Mikhailovich Lifshitz,
The Classical Theory of Fields, (1975), Elsevier Ltd.,
ISBN 978-0-7506-2768-9, page 26
[9] Noel A. Doughty, Lagrangian Interaction, (1990),
Addison-Wesley Publishers Ltd., ISBN 0-201-41625-5,
pages 310
[10] Mandl F., Shaw G., Quantum Field Theory, chapter 2
[11] Zee, A. (2013). Einstein gravity in a nutshell. Princeton: Princeton University Press. pp. 344390. ISBN
9780691145587.
[12] Zee, A. (2013). Einstein gravity in a nutshell. Princeton: Princeton University Press. pp. 244253. ISBN
9780691145587.
[13] Mexico, Kevin Cahill, University of New (2013). Physical
mathematics (Repr. ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781107005211.
[14] Zee, A. (2013). Einstein gravity in a nutshell. Princeton: Princeton University Press. pp. 381383, 477478.
ISBN 9780691145587.
[15] Itzykson-Zuber, eq. 3-152
[16] http://www.fuw.edu.pl/~{}dobaczew/maub-42w/node9.
html
[17] http://smallsystems.isn-oldenburg.de/Docs/THEO3/
publications/semiclassical.qcd.prep.pdf
[18] http://www-zeus.physik.uni-bonn.de/~{}brock/
teaching/jets_ws0405/seminar09/sluka_quark_gluon_
jets.pdf
[19] Roger F Gans (2013). Engineering Dynamics: From the
Lagrangian to Simulation. New York: Springer. ISBN
978-1-4614-3929-5.

12

References

David Tong Classical Dynamics (Cambridge lecture

notes)

10

13

13
13.1

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