Colourful Language: Searching for the Rainbow (poster)

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Eleanor Maclure

MA Graphic Design, University of the Arts London/London College of Communication,

eleanorbydesign@hotmail.com

1. Introduction
The philosopher Wittgenstein famously asked How do I know that this color is red?
It would be an answer to say: I have learnt English. [1] But how do we know
what is red? In our current, digitised age perhaps a more fitting response would be:
Google it.
For many the Internet has become our primary source of information, it is the
foundation of our knowledge economy. Largely inclusive and participatory, as an
entity it represents the culmination of everything that has been written, posted and
uploaded, with each new contribution slightly altering the shape of the whole. But
how does Google know what is red? Tags, Search Engine Optimisation (SEO) and
complex algorithms now create the precedence for the information we receive when
we search for something. Search engines are able to dictate the type of information
we consume, influencing our perceptions of what is important with the ranking of
their search results.
2. Background
This project forms part of a larger investigation into the way we use language to
describe colours for my MA Major Project. The use of Google Image Search as a
tool to provide a visual interpretation of colour terms began as no more than an
exercise in understanding, to enable me to progress with other aspects of my
research.
I had begun using Google Image Search to provide a visual reference for colour
names that I was unfamiliar with, which had been collected at the outset of the
investigation. It was exclusively a means to an end and not written into the original
proposal for the project. While it proved to be a very useful process, through
repeated attempts it became apparent that the search results themselves generated a
fascinating body of images, providing an insight into the fluid nature of the Internet,
the relationship between the colours in the images and the search terms and the level
of concurrence across the colour of the images retrieved by each search.
While there are a number of systems available for accurate colour specification, we
all still use colour terms rather than precise notation to describe what we see in
everyday life. But how well do we use these terms? How consistent and precise are
we when it comes to defining what is claret, wine, maroon or burgundy? Would we
feel confident asserting that something was beige rather than taupe? Do we know the
difference between lilac and lavender? Is there even a difference?
Through initial trials for the process it became clear that although they are translated
through Googles algorithms, collectively, the images retrieved from internet
searches represent the particular level of understanding of colour and colour terms
by those posting them, tagging them or writing the accompanying text.

3. Methodology
There were several stages to the methodology as the project developed and was
extended. When it became apparent that Google Image Search could be an effective
tool for a visual investigation into colour and language, I felt it was important to
devise a structured and rigorous enough methodology while remaining appropriate
to the scope and ethos of my design-based course. In this instance a generative
approach was highly applicable as Google Image Search could be used as an
input/output system.
English was the language chosen for the project as I am a native speaker, was using
a UK based IP address and internet service provider with Google UK as a default
and because English is still the dominant language on the Internet both in terms of
content generate and the native language of users. [2]
While cross-cultural and linguistic differences in the use of colour terms is a rich
area of study I had already stipulated when writing the proposal that the wider
investigation would be confined to English colour terms, in order to contain the
scope of the project at my particular level of study.
To create my initial criteria for the colour terms to use in the search I employed the
eleven basic colour terms in English as defined by Berlin & Kay [3]: black, white,
red, green, yellow, blue, brown, purple, pink, orange and grey. They offered a
clearly defined set of widely used colour terms, representing a spread of both
spectral, non-spectral and achromatic colours, that were expected to be well
understood by native speakers, and are collectively supported by decades of
academic research. Although there have been criticisms of bias in the methodology
used by Berlin & Kay and questions over the universality of their theory of the
evolution of colour terms, in the absence of any other well established body of basic
colour terms I felt that these arguments would not affect the validity of the
methodology enough to discount the eleven basic colour terms as a basis for the
search.
Before beginning the process I completely cleared my browser history and deleted
any cookies, so that the results would not be influenced by my internet history. This
was followed by inputting each of the eleven basic colour terms into Google Image
Search with the addition of the word colour. The inclusion of the word colour in
the search terms was an undesirable but an unfortunate consequence of a number of
high profile celebrities who feature colour terms as part of their names, such as the
rapper Chris Brown and the singer Pink. This created significant distortions in the
image results for a small number of the colour terms in the initial trials of the
process, without adding anything of value to the comparison. While it would have
been preferable to use the colour term alone, the addition of the word 'colour' was
deemed a necessary concession. It should also be noted that for consistency I used
the English spellings of the words 'grey' and 'colour' throughout, rather than the
American English spellings 'gray' and 'color'.
Once each search had been completed I then took, without exception, the first thirty
images from the search results. When developing the methodology for the project
thirty was considered to be a suitable number for the study, as it would generate a
reasonably sized body of images without creating an excessive time burden for this
aspect of the investigation. These images would both represent the original result of
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each colour term search and provide the basis for analysis using image manipulation
processes.
During the development of my proposal for the wider project I had trialled a number
different digital manipulation techniques as a way of visually analysing the colour
content of each image. These included several processes applied in Photoshop and
using Colourphon, an online colour indexing system [4]. For the body of images
resulting from Google Image Search I selected three processes to apply which would
break down the images from recognisable objects in to progressively more abstract
fields of colour. Each process was applied to the original image in isolation rather
than cumulatively.
The original images were first converted to JPEGs and already being in the RGB
colour mode, were given the Adobe 1998 ICC colour profile. They were then
converted to Gifs so that they could be indexed using Colourphon, resulting in a 9 x
9 grid of dominant colours. The JPEGs were blurred with a specific and constant
amount of Gaussian blur (a radius of 80 pixels) in Photoshop and finally, also using
Photoshop, the RGB values for the pixels in each image were averaged to give a
solid block of colour.
4. Presentation of Results
The methodology for the project resulted in a combined total of 1320 images, 120
for each of the basic colour terms.
Each of the processes applied altered the coherence of the image to a different
degree. They moved from defined forms, into indistinguishable shapes, allowing
dominant areas of colour to appear more clearly and others subside, until finally,
through averaging, a single, consolidated block of colour could emerge.
As this project was a visual investigation, creating a body of images rather than
generating pure numerical data or observations, the results were originally presented
in book form.
All of the images produced by each colour search term and the subsequent results of
each digital manipulation were presented across sequential double page spreads. The
book was divided into sections by colour term and although using the eleven basic
colour terms it was not ordered in the sequence of colour term evolution proposed
by Berlin & Kay as this order was not relevant to the project outcomes. While the
book began with pink, the following sections were ordered spectrally: red, orange,
yellow, green, blue, then by non-spectral purple, brown, black, grey and white. As
the results were being presented visually it was felt that this was a suitable
arrangement that would also be aesthetically pleasing to the viewer.
The images were grouped by process, beginning with the original results and were
presented in the sequence they ranked in Google Image Search results. These were
followed by the groups of indexed images, the blurred images and the colour
averaged images. This allowed the images to be compared both by hue and process
and it was possible to observe how each effect altered the colour composition of the
images.

The following images (figures 1-4) are a selection of examples from the book to
illustrate the range of results produced by Google Image Search and by the
subsequent digital manipulations.

Fig. 1 Original images from Google Image Search for the colour term red, image results 1-16 as presented in their
original book format.

Fig. 2 Images from Google Image Search for the colour term red, image results 1-16, indexed using Colourphon,
as presented in their original book format.

Fig. 3 Images from Google Image Search for the colour term red, image results 1-16, with Gaussian blur applied
using photoshop, as presented in their original book format.

Fig. 4 Images from Google Image Search for the colour term red, image results 1-16, RGB values of pixels
averaged using photoshop, as presented in their original book format.

Due to the nature of the project it is impossible to reproduce the results of the project
in full for this publication. However if you wish to view the complete body of work
it is available online and is hosted by Issuu at this address:
http://issuu.com/Eleanorbydesign/docs/searching_for_the_rainbow/79.
5. Discussion
As a body of work this project presents a visual representation of each of the eleven
basic colour terms, mediated by Google, and functions as a snapshot of colour on the
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Internet that due to its constantly shifting nature, can never be replicated exactly. It
shows not only the variety of responses to the names of colours but also the level of
consensus across the range of images. It allows the reader to appreciate how the
colours and images transform and mutate with each of the different processes
applied, as they are transformed from clear shapes into a solid, uniform block of
colour.
As this study was produced as a visual research project, using design methodologies
to investigate the relationship between colour and language there was no data
analysis conducted on the results. However there is much scope for further extension
of the project, particularly the potential for scientific or statistical analysis of the
results. While this would clearly add more weight and academic rigour to the results
of the project, at the time it was beyond the scope of my course. To have numerical
data measured against accepted colour standards, supporting the visual output of the
project may also benefit other researchers and make a valid contribution to the field
of colour naming.
However, one of the key aims at the outset of my main investigation into colour and
language was to differentiate this project from other studies in the same field
through the creation of a strong visual component to the outputs of the research. The
project provides a bridge between purely artistic studies of colour and scientific
investigations in the field, striking a balance between aesthetic experiments and hard
data. While there are always areas for improvement in this respect I view the overall
outcome as successful.

5.1. Extensions - further image manipulation

As the use of Google Image Search proved to be a successful and relevant research
tool I extended the project in two different directions while the wider investigation
for my Major Project was still ongoing.
In addition to the processes described in the methodology, I extended this line of
enquiry by using a combination of the search results and the processed images of the
basic colour terms. Working with the 1320 images already generated I considered
methods which may generate further insight into the distribution of the colour
relating to each term within the image results.
All of the images for each process and within each colour term were layered with
30% transparency to demonstrate the combined effect of the colours in each image.
It allowed the areas saturated with the colour used as the search term to be seen
more clearly and to see how that particular colour used as the search term is
distributed throughout the images.
A sample of the centre area of the averaged images was taken and enlarged. This
was one method for producing a culmination of the averages in the sample. It acted
as a representation of that particular colour term, mediated both by Google and
Photoshop.
In addition to this, images have been created for each of the colour terms by taking a
vertical, one pixel wide section through the layered images. This has been stretched
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across a wider area to give a greater visual impression of the layering and to portray
the colour composition of the image in an alternative way.
Examples of the outcomes for this aspect of the project can be seen below in figures
5-10. The full results are available to view online at:
http://issuu.com/Eleanorbydesign/docs/transforming_the_rainbow/11

Fig. 5 (Left) Images from Google Image Search for the colour term red, layered with 30% transparency, as
presented in their original book format.
Fig. 6 (Right) 1 pixel wide cross section, taken from the centre of the image in fig.5 and extended horizontally, as
presented in their original book format.

Fig. 7 (Left) Images from Google Image Search for the colour term red, indexed using Colourphon then layered
with 30% transparency, as presented in their original book format.
Fig. 8 (Right) Images from Google Image Search for the colour term red, with Gaussian blur applied in Photoshop
then layered with 30% transparency, as presented in their original book format.

Fig. 9 (Left) Images from Google Image Search for the colour term red, with RGB values average then layered
with 30% transparency, as presented in their original book format.
Fig. 10 (Right) Block colour created from the centre of fig. 9, an average of the average, as presented in the
original book format.

Collectively, these further visual experiments represented a conclusion to this line of

investigation. While having created some striking and appealing imagery, the
method of applying additional digital processes to the images presented a limited
opportunity for further insight. However it is clear that the use of Google Image
search, and other search engines, as research tools has great potential to generate
insights, certainly in colour naming, if not beyond.

5.2. Extensions - widening the search

Also building on the methods developed using Google Image Search I extended the
process by widening the search to commonly known, but less widely used colour
terms. Although this criteria is not as clearly defined as the eleven basic colour
terms and therefore subject to the influence of personal bias, I felt it important to
extend the process to include a greater variety of colour terms. The terms were all
monolexemic, but many were descriptive, such as 'cream' and 'peach'.
As before, the colour names were used as search terms in Google and the first thirty
images from the ranking were extracted in the order they appeared in the results. The
images were presented in book form with the colour terms ordered sequentially by
hue, so it is possible to compare the results of different searches or similarly
coloured images. In contrast to the original methodology the images were not
subjected to any additional digital processes. This aspect study was specifically
concerned with the comparison of Google Image search results, for colour terms that
go beyond our basic rainbow.
This method allowed for subtle distinctions to be observed between colours that are
often regarded as interchangeable, for example wine, claret, maroon and burgundy.

It also allowed for similarities to be seen between colours that are generally thought
of as more disparate.
There was also a semantic dimension to the images, with some of the results for
each colour term exhibited common themes. 'Champagne' was associated with
wedding imagery, 'coral' was a strong fashion colour, and 'hazel' was almost
exclusively linked to eye colour. A selection of the results generated by this part of
the project can be seen below in figures 11-12. The complete body of images can be
viewed online at: http://issuu.com/Eleanorbydesign/docs/looking_for_hue/21

Fig. 11 Google Image Search results for the colour terms watermelon (left) and coral (right).

Fig. 12 Google Image Search results for the colour terms aquamarine (left) and turquoise (right).

The outcome of a Google Image Search may not provide a conclusive answer for the
visual interpretation of colour terms, but as the results show, colour is rarely, if ever,
definitive. Everyones idea of what a particular colour is, may equate to many subtly
different shades. However, in all but a few cases, notably puce, there is some degree
of consistency across the search results. While it is widely understood that both
colour perception and colour naming are subjective, this methodology has produced
a body of images defined by the process of colour naming but created in a real-

world, non-experimental context. The degree of variation seen within the colour
range of the images is a reflection of how each colour terms is generally used.
6. Conclusion
Google Image search has allowed me to capture an interpretation of colour terms
across a medium, which is still relatively democratic and where content is less
mediated and regulated. The Internet comprises of a range of often competing
influences from personal to commercial to political to academic, but perhaps the
way colour is expressed in this virtual medium is actually is quite reflective of the
practical ways we use colour terms for identification in the real world. The results of
each search add to the collective understanding of what a colour term represents and
it is possible for anyone and everyone, through their own contributions to the
Internet, to influence that understanding in some way. This method is but one of the
many possible ways of exploring the relationship between colour and language but it
one that is truly a reflection of our digital age.
Bibliography
[1] Batchelor, D., 2000. Chromophobia. London: Reaktion.
[2] Anon., 2013. W3Techs. Web Technology Surveys, [online] Available at:
<http://w3techs.com/technologies/overview/content_language/all> [Accessed 19/04/13]
[3] Berlin, B. & Kay, P., 1969. Basic colour terms: their universaility and evolution. Stanford : Center
for the Study of Language and Information.
[4] Colourphon, 2008. [online] Available at: <http://www.colourphon.co.uk/> [Accessed 16/12/10].

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