Heat Transfer Lab

AER 423: Applied Thermodynamics
and Heat Transfer

Laboratory Manual
by
J. V. Lassaline
Ryerson University
Department of Aerospace Engineering
Copyright 2008
Copyright December 18, 2008 J. V. Lassaline

Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document under the
terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.2 or any later version
published by the Free Software Foundation; with no Invariant Sections, no
Front-Cover Texts, and no Back-Cover Texts. A copy of the license is included in
the section entitled GNU Free Documentation License
History
1. Lassaline, J. V. 2008. AER 423: Applied Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer
Laboratory Manual. Ryerson University. Formatting changes, removal of xed
mark scheme, minor corrections.
Laboratory Manual. Ryerson University. Updated instructions, safety information. Source for this version available at http://www.ryerson.ca/~jvl/aer423.
Laboratory Manual. Ryerson University. Initial publication. Source for this
version available at http://www.ryerson.ca/~jvl/aer423.
Acknowledgements
This document is based upon the laboratory manuals produced for Ryerson University courses MEC 309 Thermodynamics, MEC 514 Applied Thermodynamics and
MEC 701 Heat Transfer. The author is indebted to the (alphabetically listed) authors R. Churaman, J. Dimitriu, J. Karpynczyk, D. Naylor, R. Pope, and J. C. Tysoe
for their work on these previous manuals.
Contents
1 Instructions
1.1 Organization of This Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2 Reports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3 Common Mistakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2 Air Nozzle
2.1 Objective . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3 Apparatus . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . .
2.5 Calculations and Discussion
2.6 Experimental Data . . . . .
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3 Gas Turbine
3.1 Objective . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3 Apparatus . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5 Calculations and Discussions
3.6 Experimental Data . . . . . .
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13
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4 Thermal Conductivity and Contact Resistance

4.1 Objective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3 Apparatus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.5 Calculations and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.6 Experimental Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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19
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5 Forced Convection From a Cylinder in Cross Flow

5.1 Objective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3 Apparatus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.4 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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24
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iii
5.5 Calculations and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

5.6 Experimental Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6 Numerical Simulation
6.1 Objective . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.3 Apparatus . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.4 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.5 Calculations And Discussion
6.6 Experimental Data . . . . . .
26
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29
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38
A Errors and Corrections

A.1 Error Estimation and Propagation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A.2 Barometer Corrections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
41
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GNU Free Documentation License

1. APPLICABILITY AND DEFINITIONS . . . . . . . . .
2. VERBATIM COPYING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3. COPYING IN QUANTITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4. MODIFICATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5. COMBINING DOCUMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6. COLLECTIONS OF DOCUMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . .
7. AGGREGATION WITH INDEPENDENT WORKS .
8. TRANSLATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9. TERMINATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10. FUTURE REVISIONS OF THIS LICENSE . . . . . . .
ADDENDUM: How to use this License for your documents
44
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iv
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List of Tables
4.1 Thermal Conductivity of Common Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23
5.1 Constants of Eq. 5.1 from Hilpert (1933). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25
A.1 Temperature correction for Hg and brass barometers in BG units.

Corrections in [in]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A.2 Temperature correction for Hg and brass barometers in SI units.
Corrections in [mm]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
43
43
List of Figures
2.1 A convergent-divergent nozzle schematic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2 Nozzle test rig schematic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6
7
3.1 A gas turbine schematic with Brayton cycle approximation. . [. . . ].

3.2 Rover 1S/60 gas turbine airmeter calibration where x0 = 15.3 in2
is the airmeter eective area, m
a is the air mass ow rate in [lbm/s],
T1 is the air inlet temperature in [K], and pa is barometric pressure
in [psi]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13
18
4.1 One-dimensional heat conduction along a composite bar. . . . . . . 19

4.2 Schematic diagram of the Cussons Thermal Conductivity Apparatus. 20
5.1 Forced convection from a circular cylinder in cross ow. . . . . . . .
5.2 Low speed wind tunnel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24
25
6.1 Temperature distribution of a cooling cylinder as a function of radius and time. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

6.2 Discrete temperature distribution on region r [0, ro ] at time tn .
29
31
vi
Nomenclature
The following nomenclature is used throughout this text with common S.I. units
given if applicable.
Alphanumeric
[ Symbols
]
A
area, m2
BSF C brake specic fuel consumption, [kg/W hr]
D
diameter, [m]
[
]
h
convection heat transfer coecient, W /m2
k
ratio of specic heats, []
k
thermal conductivity, [W /mK]
m
mass ow rate, [kg/s]

N
rotational speed, [rpm]
Nu
Nusselt number,
[]
[
]
p
pressure, N /m2
Pr
Prandtl number, []
q
rate of heat transfer, [W ]
Re
Reynolds number, []
T
temperature, [K]
t
time, [s]
U
speed, [m/s]
V
speed, [m/s]
[ ]
V
volume, m3
W
power, [W ]
x
rst cartesian coordinate direction, [m]
Greek Symbols
eciency, []
kinematic
[ viscosity,
] [kg/ms]
density, kg/m3
temperature dierence, [K]

Subscripts
0
relating to stagnation conditions
relating to free stream conditions

D
relating to cylinder diameter
s
relating to solid surface conditions
t
relating to nozzle throat
vii
Chapter 1
Instructions
1.1
Organization of This Book
This book is divided into several sections, including instructions for writing lab
reports, the background and procedure for each lab experiment, and a set of appendices. It is highly recommended that you review the guidelines for completing
the written lab reports prior to your rst laboratory session. You are also expected
to have read and be familiar with each experiment before attending your scheduled
lab. The appendices include valuable information regarding estimating the errors
associated with your experimental observations and calculations. These skills are
useful not only for the laboratory component of this course, but for future experimental reporting as well.
1.2
Reports
You are reminded that all of the required course-specic written

reports/assignments/labs will be assessed not only on their technical/academic merit, but also on the communication skills exhibited
through them.
You should make note of the following requirements regarding the formal laboratory reports.
Reports must demonstrate your understanding of the experiment and background theory. A clear presentation of your observations and results is critical. Anyone reading your report with a similar education to your own should
be able to reproduce your results using the same equipment.
Lab reports will normally be completed by small groups and must reect the
contribution of each group member. It is up to you to ensure that every
Ryerson University
Appl. Thermo. & Heat Transfer
Winter 2009
group member contributes equally. In the event of an unresolvable conict,

students may only switch groups mid-term with prior instructor approval.
You must attend the laboratory session in order to receive credit for the lab
report. Missed labs will require adequate proof presented to the department
oce. You are also expected to arrive promptly for your scheduled laboratory
session. Remember, if you are going to miss a laboratory session,test, or exam,always
contact your instructor immediately!
Reports must be typeset (e.g. prepared with a word processor.) Reports that
are handwritten will not be accepted, though some sections of the report
may be handwritten as noted below. Reports should be formatted with 1
margins, a 12pt font, and with 1.5 to 2 (i.e. double) spacing on standard 8.5
by 11 paper. Reports must be at least stapled to form one cohesive report.
No special binding is required however loose-paged documents will not be
accepted.
As a minimum, each lab report must contain:
A title page indicating the title of the experiment, the name(s), student
number(s), section and date the experiment was performed.
The body of the report consisting of the following sections:
Objective Describe the purpose of this experiment in one brief paragraph in your own words!
Theory Concise discussion of the background theory governing this
experimentd in your own words!
Apparatus Briey list the equipment used. A simple diagram of the
equipment is advisable. You may reproduce diagrams from this manual
but you must cite the source!
Procedure Discuss the procedure used to complete the experiment.
Describe the process taken during your experiment and not just
a regurgitation of the lab manual. Using your lab report and the
equipment described in the Apparatus section, anyone should be
able to reproduce your results. Note any anomalies in your procedure relative to the instructions in this manual.
Observations Clearly indicate all values measured during this experiment including an estimate of the error. Use tables and/or graphs
when appropriate. Always indicate the errors (if any) present in your
measurements!
Results Based upon the formulae presented in your Theory section,
present the results of the calculations outlined in the lab manual.
Discuss your results and answer any discussion questions indicated
in this manual. Tabulate and/or graph your results as appropriate.
Always calculate and indicate the errors present in your calculations as
indicated in this manual! Methods for determining error propagation
are shown in Appendix A.1.
2
Ryerson University
Winter 2009
Conclusions Provide a brief summary of your experiment and results.

References Cite all references, including this lab manual using proper
citations. A preferred citation method is the author-date format
(University of Chicago 2003), although numbered references are
acceptable.
For example, a citation to this lab manual using the author-date
system would appear in the text as follows
as presented in the lab manual (Lassaline 2005). Blah blah
blah
and the References section would contain the following:
Coyote, W. E. 1976.
Application of the ACME rocket
booster. Modern Rocketry. Los Angles: WB Press Ltd.
Lassaline, J. V. 2005. AER 423: Applied Thermodynamics &
Heat Transfer Laboratory Manual. Ryerson University.
Alternatively, numbered references should be presented in the text
as follows
as presented in the lab manual [2]. Blah blah blah
with the References containing the corresponding enumerated list
of sources.
[1] Coyote, W. E. Application of the ACME rocket booster.
Modern Rocketry. Los Angles: WB Press Ltd. 1976.
[2] Lassaline, J. V. AER 423: Applied Thermodynamics & Heat
Transfer Laboratory Manual. Ryerson University. 2005.
An appendix which should contain the following section(s):
Sample Calculations Demonstrate all the calculations necessary to
obtain your results. If one type of calculation is repeated many
times only one sample is required using your experimental values.
May be hand-written.
Graphs/Tables (optional) If you have a large number of graphs or
tables in either your Observations or Results section, you may optionally place them in the appendix and refer to them by either page
number or label (e.g. Table A-1, Fig. A.2, etc.)
Equations should follow a clear nomenclature (e.g. density v.s. pressure p)
and should be numbered at either the right or left hand margin. For example,
p 1 2
+ V + gz = const
2
(1.1)
If your word processor is capable of writing equations clearly then use this
feature, but it is acceptable to leave adequate space and add the equations by
hand.
3
Ryerson University
Winter 2009
The technical writing of lab reports is expected to be of high quality and

concise. Excluding the title page, gures and tables of values, the main body
of your report should not exceed four pages.
Graphs and tables must be clearly presented and must be labelled (e.g. Table
1, Fig. 2) including an appropriate caption. Axes labels, a title, error bars (if
applicable) and a legend (if appropriate) must be present. Computer generated plots are preferred, but hand-drawn plots on graph paper are acceptable.
1.3
Common Mistakes
Every year students will miss an opportunity to maximize their mark by making
needless mistakes. Some hints as to how you can avoid making the same mistakes
are as follows.
Show up for each and every lab on time. The penalties for missing a lab are
outlined by your instructor at the beginning of the year. The experiments
are set so that you may improve upon your understanding of what you have
learned from the lectures. Dont waste your time or, worse, the time of your
classmates.
Answer all the discussion questions and perform all the requested calculations as outlined in the lab manual. The calculations and discussion questions
are clearly listed for each experiment. Check that your lab report is complete
before you submit it.
Provide suitable references and make proper citations. There is some exibility in how you present your references, but it is best to use a common
scientic citation style. If in doubt, use the same style as used for references
in this lab manual. An excellent reference on accepted writing styles is The
Chicago Manual of Style (University of Chicago 2003). Dont forget to reference the source of your gures. A good rule of thumb is: if its not yours,
cite the source!
Dont use footnotes for citations. Footnotes should only be used for adding
extraneous information that would interfere with the ow of your text or
occasionally to reference an unusual source.1
Web sites are poor (and volatile) references. While the Internet may be useful
for general information and handy diagrams, the information presented on
most Web sites is not peer reviewed as are text books, encyclopedia, journal
papers, or conference proceedings.
Check your grammar and spelling. Most word processors have at least a spellcheck feature. Note that 30% of your lab report mark is based upon your
technical writing skills.
1 For example, the denition of extraneous, as used in this context, is not forming an essential or
vital part.
Ryerson University
Winter 2009
Dont plagiarize this manual verbatim in your lab report. For example, the
procedure you used during your experiment may dier from that outlined in
this manual. Use your own words and ideas. You are not given marks on how
accurately you can copy the text of this manual. If you wish to quote a section
of this manual then provide a citation.
Feel free to look at previous years lab reports as a guide but do not plagiarize!
Plagiarism is a violation of the Student Code of Conduct and will be dealt
with harshly.
Work together as a group. If dierent members of your group are responsible
for dierent sections of the report, make sure that everyone is clear on their
respective duties. It is your responsibility to ensure that your report is a
cohesive document and is completed on time.
If something is not clear, ask your instructor or instructor for clairication,
but dont wait until the last moment!
Chapter 2
Air Nozzle
2.1
Objective
The objective of this lab is to demonstrate the laws governing compressible ow

in a convergent-divergent nozzle. This experiment will demonstrate the eect of
back pressure on the ow within the nozzle and the concept of choked ow. In
addition, the presence of shock waves within the nozzle ow will be demonstrated.
2.2
Theory
Consider a nozzle formed from a convergent-divergent duct as in Fig. 2.1 drawing

air from a large reservoir at xed pressure p0 with back pressure pb downstream of
the exit. For a rocket nozzle, the back pressure is the atmospheric pressure, which
decreases with altitude. For this experiment the back pressure is controlled
convergent section
divergent section
by a valve downstream of the nozzle
exit. As we will see in this experiment,
the back pressure can be shown to inuence the mass ow rate through the reservoir p
back pressure
p
throat
p
p
nozzle.
If pb = p0 there would be no ow
and thus the mass ow rate would be
zero. If the back pressure is decreased,
the uid will accelerate from V 0 in
the reservoir up to a maximum velocity Figure 2.1:
A convergent-divergent nozzle
at the narrowest portion of the nozzle schematic
(throat). If the back pressure continues
to decrease, the throat velocity Vt and mass ow rate will continue to increase until
the Mach number at the throat reaches sonic Mt = 1 and pressure pt = p. As the
local Mach number cannot increase beyond unity in a converging section, reducing
the back pressure further will not increase the mass ow rate. At this point the ow
i
Ryerson University
Winter 2009
P2
Air in
Steam in

Handwheel
V1
R1
V2
V3
V4

Glass Bowl
Filter
P1
Nozzle
P3
V5
V6
V7
OrificePlate Flowmeter
Condenser
Inclined Manometer
Figure 2.2: Nozzle test rig schematic
is considered to be choked. Reducing pb further has no eect upon the conditions

in the nozzle upstream of the throat.
For choked ow, the theoretical mass ow rate can be determined from the
reservoir (stagnation) pressure and throat pressures. If the expansion from the
reservoir to the throat is isentropic then for choked ow (Mt = 1) the ratio of
throat to stagnation pressure can be written as
pt
p
=
=
p0
p0
2
k+1
k
) k1
(2.1)
for calorically perfect air where the ratio of specic heats k = 1.4.1
Using the isentropic property relations, we can also write the ratio of throat to
stagnation temperature as
Tt
=
T0
pt
p0
) k1
k
=
2
k+1
(2.2)
To determine the theoretical mass ow rate m

= VA we need to know the
average uid velocity, the cross-sectional area and the uid density at the throat.
Applying an energy rate balance and ignoring gravity, we can determine the throat
1 Note
that the symbol (dimensionless) may also be used in place of k which should not be confused
with thermal conductivity k ([W /m K]).
Ryerson University
air speed using
Vt =
Winter 2009
2cp (T0 Tt )
(2.3)
where T0 is the reservoir temperature and Tt is the temperature at the throat. The
uid density at the throat can be determined using the ideal gas law.
2.3
Apparatus
The nozzle apparatus, as illustrated in Fig. 2.2, can be operated with either air or
steam, however for this experiment only air will be studied. Compressed air is fed
into a steam chest and then passes through a polished convergent-divergent nozzle
with a throat diameter of 0.191 [in]. A search tube of 0.13 [in] diameter aligned
with the nozzle axis is mounted on a carrier such that it may be traversed along the
axis of the nozzle. A high-grade pressure gauge attached to the top of the search
tube registers the pressure at a small hole (pressure tap) drilled perpendicular to
the tube axis.
The location of the pressure tap may advanced in 0.1 [in] steps by rotating a setting wheel attached to the search tube carrier. At the upper limit, the pressure tap
is clear of the nozzle and registers the pressure in the inlet chest. At the lower limit
the pressure tap registers the pressure downstream of the nozzle. The position of
the pressure tap is indicated by a pointer and scale prole of the nozzle mounted
on the apparatus.
The nozzle discharges into a vertical pipe of 2 [in] bore tted with a valve for
controlling the downstream back pressure. After passing through a steam condenser, the ow vents to the room through a thin-plate orice ow meter. The
thin-plate orice ow meter oers a direct measurement of the volumetric ow
rate as measured by the pressure drop across the sudden restriction introduced by
a thin-plate orice. The volumetric ow rate can be determined using Bernoullis
equation and conservation of mass as
2p
Q = (V A) = CA
(2.4)
(1 4 )
where C = 0.65 is the orice discharge coecient to correct for losses within the
ow meter, A is the area of the orice, p is the pressure drop across the orice,
is the density of the uid, and = d/D where d and D are equal to the orice
and pipe diameters respectively. For this ow meter the orice has a diameter of
1.065 [in] and is installed in a 3 [in] internal diameter pipe.
2.4
Procedure
For this experiment, only compressed air will be used as the working uid.
1. Ensure that steam valves labelled V3, V4, V5 and V6 in Fig. 2.2 are closed,
and that air valve V1 is open.
8
Ryerson University
Winter 2009
2. Open back pressure valve V7 completely.

3. Set the pressure probe traversing hand-wheel to position 1.
4. Open nozzle air inlet valve V2 fully and adjust regulator R1 to obtain a nozzle
inlet pressure of 75 [psig] (or as high as possible if the supply line cannot
provide 75 [psig]) according to the large pressure gauge P2. Use the smaller
gauge P3 attached to the inlet chest to monitor inlet pressure during the
experiment.
5. When conditions are stable, advance the pressure probe through nozzle positions 5 to 27, recording the probe pressure with the large gauge and the pressure drop across the thin-plate orice ow meter with the inclined manometer, at each location. At the end, return the probe to position 1 to verify the
inlet pressure using the large pressure gauge.
6. Set the pressure probe to position 28 to measure the back pressure.
7. Close the back pressure valve V7 to increase the back pressure and repeat
this experiment for back pressure readings of 10 [psig], 20 [psig], 30 [psig],
40 [psig], and 60 [psig].
8. Shut down experiment by closing air valve V2.
2.5
Calculations and Discussion
Plot the pressure prole for all back pressures on one graph, using the absolute pressure ratio ( pp0 ) versus probe position. Include a legend to identify
each curve.
Calculate the average manometer reading for each back pressure. If the manometer scale was not adjusted to zero for no ow, correct the readings with respect to any initial oset.
Calculate and tabulate the measured mass ow rate for each back pressure
case as measured using the thin-plate orice ow meter. Fluid density can be
determined from ambient conditions using the ideal gas law.
For the zero back pressure case only, calculate the theoretical mass ow rate
(using the reservoir pressure and temperature) assuming choked ow. Compare the theoretical mass ow rate to the measured mass ow rate. Note that
the cross-sectional area of the throat is an annulus due to the presence of the
cylindrical probe aligned with the nozzle axis. The area at the throat can be
written as
(2.5)
At = (d2t d2p )
4
where dt and dp are the diameters of the nozzle throat and probe, respectively.
Ryerson University
Winter 2009
Plot the mass ow rate versus the ratio of absolute back pressure to absolute
reservoir pressure ( pp0b ), and determine the pressure ratio at which the nozzle
switches from choked to non-choked ow.
Discuss the reasons for the various shapes of the pressure proles. Which
parts of the proles correspond to subsonic versus supersonic ow? Locate
any shocks present in the divergent section and give their approximate locations by probe position. Are the shocks sharply dened or spread out?
Complete one error propagation estimation for the measured ow mass ow
rate of the zero back pressure case. Does the error in your measurements
account for any dierences between the theoretical and measured mass ow
rate?
10
Ryerson University
2.6
Experimental Data
Atmospheric pressure (pa ):
Ambient temperature (Ta ):
Inlet temperature (T0 ):
Manometer at zero ow:
Approximate error in pressure
measurements (p ):
Approximate error in manometer

measurements (h ):
11
Winter 2009
Ryerson University
Back
Pres.
Probe
Pos.
0 [psig]
Pres.
[psig]
Man.
[mm
H2 O ]
10 [psig]
Pres.
[psig]
Man.
[mm
H 2 O]
20 [psig]
Pres.
[psig]
Man.
[mm
H2 O ]
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
12
30 [psig]
Pres.
[psig]
Man.
[mm
H 2 O]
Winter 2009
40 [psig]
Pres.
[psig]
Man.
[mm
H2 O ]
60 [psig]
Pres.
[psig]
Man.
[mm
H 2 O]
Chapter 3
Gas Turbine
3.1
Objective
The purpose of this lab is to carry out a full-load test on the Rover 1S/60 gas turbine
engine at steady state. The developed power, fuel consumption rate, and overall
eciency will be determined from observed test data.
3.2
Theory
A gas turbine engine, whether used to produce thrust or shaft work,

may be modeled as a thermodynamic
cycle (Brayton Cycle) if an air standard analysis is applied. In the BrayFuel in
ton Cycle, air as an ideal gas is used
3
2
Combustor
Gas Turbine Engine
as the working uid instead of air, fuel
optional
work out
and combustion products. In an actual
Compressor
Turbine
gas turbine engine, energy is extracted
1
from the hot combustion products by
Air in
Products
4
Heat in
out
the turbine to produce work. A fraction of this work is used to drive the
Heat
3
2
Brayton Cycle
Exchanger
optional
compressor, while optionally generatwork out
ing shaft work for power generation.
Compressor
Turbine
As illustrated in Fig. 3.1, using an air
Heat
standard analysis, the combustor is re4
1
Exchanger
placed by an equivalent heat addition
Heat out
at constant pressure. To satisfy the second law of thermodynamics and form
a closed loop, an additional heat rejec- Figure 3.1: A gas turbine schematic with Brayton
tion to the atmosphere is used to con- cycle approximation.
nect the turbine exit and compressor
inlet states. This can be thought of as
13
Ryerson University
Winter 2009
the air exiting the turbine and cooling o in the atmosphere before eventually returning to the compressor inlet.
For a gas turbine engine used to generate power, we can measure the power developed at the output shaft, more commonly referred to as brake horsepower, by
applying a load using a dynamometer. In this experiment a hydraulic dynamometer
is used, with the turbine shaft turning a rotor inside a stator through which water
ows. This mechanism is similar to the torque converter in an automatic transmission. The power developed by the engine is dissipated as heat generation in the
water via viscous dissipation. Although not directly connected to the stator, the
rotor applies a torque on the stator by rotating the water past the vanes of the stator. The stator casing is mounted on trunnions and is prevented from rotating by
a spring scale. When a balancing torque is applied to the stator casing at a xed
RPM, the power developed by the engine equals the dynamometer loading torque
times the dynamometer RPM.
3.3
Apparatus
This experiment will use the Rover 1S/60 gas turbine engine, which contains a single stage centrifugal compressor, a reverse ow combustion chamber, and a single
stage axial turbine to produce a maximum of 60 [hp] with a maximum governed
speed of 46000 [rpm]. The engine is loaded using a Heenan and Froude DPX2 hydraulic dynamometer. Note that the maximum reading of the dynamometer spring
scale is 50 [lbf ], and for this experiment an additional 50 [lbf ] has been added to
the dynamometer torque arm. A calibrated airmeter is attached at the compressor
inlet for determining the air mass ow rate. The Rover gas turbine engine uses a
multi-piston fuel pump with an automatic control. The fuel ow rate is measured
using a rotameter mounted on the central panel. For this experiment a premium
diesel fuel will be used.
3.4
Procedure
This experiment will be run with the assistance of a member of the technical sta
who will prepare and operate the engine.
1. Familiarize yourself with the various components of the engine and dynamometer.
2. Record the atmospheric temperature and pressure. Record the type, heating
value and specic gravity of the fuel used.
3. Complete the engine start sequence.
4. Load the engine by admitting water to the dynamometer. Balance the torque
using the load balancing handwheel. Increase loading until a maximum turbine exit temperature of 1100 [F ] is reached.
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Ryerson University
Winter 2009
5. Verify the engine is operating at steady state by observing the engine instrumentation, including all temperature, pressures and ow rates.
6. Record the indicated dynamometer load including the additional 50 [lbf ] of
extra loading. Record the dynamometer speed.
7. From the central instrument panel, record the air ow meter pressure drop,
compressor to turbine pressure drop, turbine exit static pressure, and compressor inlet and exit pressures.
8. Record the compressor inlet and exit temperatures and turbine exit temperature.
9. Record the fuel pressure and ow rate. In addition, record the temperature
and pressure of the engine oil and dynamometer water.
10. Complete the engine shutdown sequence. Record the time for the engine to
run down.
3.5
Calculations and Discussions
b ) from the dynamometer

Determine the brake horsepower developed (W
load (W ) and dynamometer RPM (N ). Note that for this dynamometer, to
calculate the power in [hp], the following formula applies
b = WN
W
4500
(3.1)
where the load W is in [lbf ] and speed N is in [rpm].

Calculate the mass ow rate of fuel m
f in [lbm/min]. Note the specic gravity of the fuel and that one imperial gallon of water has a mass of 10.02 [lbm].
The rotameter measures the volumetric ow rate!
Using the heating value and mass ow rate of the fuel, determine the total
energy added by the fuel Q in in [Btu/min].
b for a given
For an equivalent Brayton cycle producing a net rate of work W
rate of heat transfer input Q in , calculate the thermal eciency of this cycle.
Note that 1 [hp] = 42.41 [Btu/min].
Calculate the brake specic fuel consumption BSF C in [lbm/hp hr]
BSF C =
m
f
b
W
(3.2)
Calculate the mass ow rate of air m

a in [lbm/s] using the calibration chart
in Fig. 3.2. Note that the air meter pressure drop is measured in inches of
15
Ryerson University
Winter 2009
oil with a specic gravity of 0.827. The quantity p/pa is a dimensionless

quantity. You may use the following conversions and values
1 [inH2 O ] = 0.0362 [psi]

1 [inHg ] = 0.491 [psi]
[ ]
x0 = 15.3 in2
Calculate the air/fuel ratio A/F .
Calculate the power developed by the turbine in [hp] using an air standard
analysis. Assume that the compressor is an isentropic device. Note that a
fraction of the power produced by the turbine is used to drive the compressor and an additional 5 [hp] is lost to friction and accessories. Therefore the
turbine power can be written as
t=W
c+W
b+W
f
W
(3.3)
c is the compressor power and W

f is the power lost to friction and
where W
accessories. Hint: To calculate the compressor power requirement
apply a mass and energy balance.
Calculate the turbine inlet temperature using an air standard analysis. Do
not assume the turbine is an isentropic device. Hint: Apply a mass and
energy balance to the turbine.
Calculate the back work ratio bwr.
Calculate the thermal eciency of the gas turbine engine assuming an cold
air standard analysis (k = 1.4) with the compressor pressure ratio r = p2 /p1.
Hint: Pressures must be absolute!.
t = 1 r
1k
k
How does this compare to the previous thermal eciency calculation?
16
(3.4)
Ryerson University
3.6
Experimental Data
Fuel:
HHV of fuel:
Specic gravity of fuel:
Atmospheric pressure:
Atmospheric temperature:
Dynamometer load [lbf ]:
Dynamometer speed [rpm]:
Fuel ow rate [I.Gal./h]:
Airmeter pressure drop p [in of oil]:
Compressor to turbine pressure drop [inHg ]:
Compressor inlet (impeller tip) pressure p1 [psi]:
Compressor exit (comp. delivery) pressure p2 [psi]:
Compressor inlet temperature T1 [F ]:
Compressor exit (comp. delivery) temperature T2 [F ]:
Turbine exit pressure [in of oil]:
Turbine exit temperature T4 [F ]:
Dynamometer pressure [psi]:
Dynamometer temperature [F ]:
Oil pressure [psi]:
Oil temperature [F ]:
Fuel pressure [psi]:
Run down time [s]:
17
Winter 2009
Ryerson University
Winter 2009
0.026
0.024
0.022
p
pa
0.02
0.018
0.016
0.014
0.012
0.01
0.08
0.085
0.09
0.095
0.1
0.105
m
a T1
x0 pa
0.11
0.115
0.12
0.125
0.13
[ ]
Figure 3.2: Rover 1S/60 gas turbine airmeter calibration where x0 = 15.3 in2 is
the airmeter eective area, m
a is the air mass ow rate in [lbm/s], T1 is the air inlet
temperature in [K], and pa is barometric pressure in [psi].
18
Chapter 4
Thermal Conductivity and

Contact Resistance1
4.1
Objective
The objective of this lab is to measure the thermal conductivity of two materials
using a heat conduction apparatus. In addition, the thermal contact resistance at
the interface between the two materials will be determined.
4.2
Theory
Fouriers law of heat conduction states that the local heat ux q/A is proportional to
the local temperature gradient. Fouriers law
can be written in one dimension as
q
dT
= k
(4.1)
A
dx
TA
where the constant of proportionality is the
TB
thermal conductivity k , and area A is the crosssectional area at location x. For steady-state, T
one-dimensional conduction it can be shown T
4
that the heat ux at any location x is constant, T3
T2
q
and thus the temperature distribution, T (x), T
1
through the conducting media must be a linkA
kB
ear function of x. If we know temperatures T1
and T2 at two locations spaced some distance L
LA
LB
x
apart, then the rate of heat transfer by conduction in one-dimension can be written as
Figure 4.1: One-dimensional heat conT1 T2
duction along a composite bar.
q = kA
.
(4.2)
L
1 This
chapter is based upon the work of D. Naylor (Naylor 2001).
19
Ryerson University
Winter 2009
Fig. 4.1 illustrates one-dimensional conduction through a sequence of two different materials of constant cross-sectional area. As the rate of heat transfer through
both materials must be the same, if the thermal conductivity of each material is
dierent, then the gradient of the temperature distribution in each material must
be dierent. It is important to note that there may be a substantial temperature
drop at the interface of the two materials due to imperfections in the mating of the
two surfaces. Heat transfer across the interface occurs by conduction at the contact points, by radiation between the surfaces, and by convection and conduction
across any interstitial uid if present. For perfectly smooth surfaces there would be
no thermal contact resistance and no discontinuity in temperature at the interface.
The thermal resistance to heat ow at the interface, or thermal contact resistance, may be dened as
Rt,c =
TA TB
q
(4.3)
(4.4)
4.3
25
6.5
25
Apparatus
Al
which can be rearranged to solve for hi.
T3
T2
S.S.
T1
6.5
Tin
+
T4
50
based upon the temperature jump across the interface and the
heat transfer rate through the interface. Contact resistance may
also be dened in terms of an equivalent heat transfer coecient
hi using Newtons law of cooling as
q = hi A(TA TB )
Electrical
Heater
Cooling
Water
Tout
Measurements will be made using the Cussons Thermal ConAll dimensions

ductivity Apparatus. A schematic diagram of the Cussons Apin [mm]
paratus is shown in Fig. 4.2. For illustration purposes two test
specimens (25 [mm] diameter bars) are shown clamped into the
apparatus. The specimens are heated electrically at the upper Figure 4.2: Schematic
end and cooled at the lower end by a ow of water. To reduce diagram of the Cussons
heat losses to the surroundings, an insulation jacket (not shown) Thermal Conductivity
Apparatus.
surrounds the specimens.
The conduction heat transfer rate is calculated by measuring
mass ow rate and temperature rise of the cooling water supplied to the lower end of the bar. Using an energy rate balance
with constant specic heats the heat transfer rate to the water can be written as
q = mc
p (Tout Tin )
(4.5)
The inlet and outlet temperatures of the cooling water are measured using glass
thermometers. The mass ow rate is measured using a stop watch, bucket and
weigh scale. Steady-state temperature measurements are made at the four locations
shown in Fig. 4.2 using type-K thermocouples. Using these temperature and heat
transfer rate measurements, the thermal conductivity of each sample (kA , kB ) and
the interfacial contact coecient (hi ) can be calculated using equations presented
above.
20
Ryerson University
4.4
Winter 2009
Procedure
1. If not already assembled, place the aluminum and stainless steel specimens
together in the apparatus as illustrated in Fig. 4.2. Check that all four thermocouples are in place and cover the apparatus with the insulating jacket.
2. Turn on the cooling water supply and switch the heater to full power. Wait
for the hot end (T4 ) to reaches approximately 200 [C], then reduce the heater
current to about 0.35 [amps].
3. Allow the apparatus come to steady-state. Monitor the specimen and cooling
water temperatures to conrm that steady conditions have been achieved.
4. Once at steady-state, time the collection of the cooling water in the container
provided. Record the specimen temperatures, and the cooling water temperatures every two minutes. At the fourth reading, once 6 minutes has elapsed,
stop collecting the cooling water. Weigh the amount of water collected.
4.5
Using appropriately averaged cooling water temperature readings, calculate

the heat transfer rate through the composite bar. Plot the temperature distribution (temperature versus location) within the aluminum and stainless steel
bars on one plot. Assuming a linear temperature distribution for both materials, extrapolate the interfacial temperature dierence. Using this result,
calculate the interfacial thermal resistance Rt,c and heat transfer coecient
hi.
Calculate the thermal conductivity of both samples (kA , kB ) and compare to
published values for various stainless steel and aluminum alloys. A table of
values appears in the appendix of the course textbook and in Table 4.1. Determine the closest material based upon the measured thermal conductivity.
If dierences exist, be sure to discuss the most likely reasons in your report.
The two specimens are clamped together in the apparatus. If the two specimens had simply been stacked in the apparatus, what eect might this have
had on the experiment results?
Suggest two methods for decreasing the thermal contact resistance between
the two specimens.
21
Ryerson University
4.6
Winter 2009
Experimental Data
Time
0 [min]
2 [min]
Water Tin
Water Tout
T1
T2
T3
T4
Mass of water collected:
Collection time:
22
4 [min]
6 [min]
Ryerson University
Material
Aluminum pure
Aluminum alloy 2024-T6
Boron
Cadmium
Chromium
Cobalt
Copper pure
Bronze (commercial)
Brass (cartridge)
Constantan
Gold
Iron pure
Armco (99.75% pure)
Cast iron (plain)
Cast iron (alloy)
Carbon Steels
Plain carbon
Carbon-Silicon
Carbon-Mn-Si
Chromium (low) Steels
0.18% C, 0.65% Cr, 0.23% Mo, 0.6% Si
0.16% C, 1% Cr, 0.54% Mo, 0.39% Si
0.2% C, 1.02% Cr, 0.15% V
Stainless Steels
AISI 302
AISI 304
AISI 316
AISI 347
Lead
Magnesium
Molybdenum
Nickel pure
Nichrome
Inconel
Platinum pure
Platinum alloy 60Pt-40Rh
Rhodium
Silicon
Silver
Tin
Titanium
Tungsten
Uranium
Zinc
Zirconium
Winter 2009
Thermal Conductivity k [W /mK]

100 [K] 200 [K] 400 [K] 600 [K]
302
237
240
231
65
163
186
186
190
55.5
16.8
10.6
203
99.3
94.7
159
111
90.9
80.7
167
122
85.4
67.4
482
413
393
379
42
52
59
75
95
137
149
17
19
327
323
311
298
134
94
69.5
54.7
95.6
80.6
65.7
53.1
54
47.2
48.7
45.5
9.2
12.6
39.7
169
179
164
36.7
159
143
107
8.7
77.5
100
186
884
444
85.2
30.5
208
21.5
117
33.2
10.3
72.6
125
154
264
430
73.3
24.5
186
25.1
118
25.2
56.7
49.8
42.2
48
44
39.7
38.2
42
46.8
36.7
39.1
42.1
17.3
16.6
15.2
15.8
34
153
134
80.2
14
13.5
71.8
136
146
98.9
425
62.2
20.4
159
29.6
111
21.6
20
19.8
18.3
18.9
31.4
149
126
65.6
16
17
73.2
141
136
61.9
412
Table 4.1: Thermal Conductivity of Common Metals
23
19.4
137
34
103
20.7
Chapter 5
Forced Convection From a

Cylinder in Cross Flow1
5.1
Objective
The objective of this lab is to determine the convective heat transfer rate from a
circular cylinder in a cross ow of air. Experimental measurements will be made
using a lumped capacitance transient cooling technique. Using the experimental
data, an empirical correlation will be derived and compared to published results.
5.2
Theory
Forced convection from a circular cylinder in a cross

ow of uid is encountered in a wide range of thermodynamics and uids engineering applications. As shown uniform
flow
in Fig. 5.1, uid with free stream velocity U and free U, T Ts
stream temperature T ows normal to the axis of the
turbulent
cylinder. The cylinder has diameter D and uniform surD
wake
face temperature Ts. Some theoretical solutions to this
problem have been obtained for low Reynolds number. However, at moderate and high Reynolds number, an unsteady turbulent wake forms behind the cylin- Figure 5.1: Forced convection
der making mathematical solution of the governing from a circular cylinder in cross
equations extremely dicult. Hence, in the range of ow.
most practical applications, heat transfer correlations
are based on experimental measurements.
For external forced convection problems, experimental heat transfer data has
been found to t a relationship of the following form
1/3
NuD = CRem
D Pr
1 This
chapter is based upon the work of D. Naylor (Naylor 2001).
24
(5.1)
Ryerson University
ReD Range
0.4 4
4 40
40 4, 000
4, 000 40, 000
40, 000 400, 000
C
0.989
0.911
0.683
0.193
0.027
Winter 2009
m
0.330
0.385
0.466
0.618
0.805
Table 5.1: Constants of Eq. 5.1 from Hilpert (1933).
where
hD
k
U D
ReD =
cp
Pr =
k
NuD =
average Nusselt number
(5.2)
cross ow Reynolds number
(5.3)
uid Prandtl number
(5.4)
In Eq. 5.1, the constant C and exponent m are obtained from a best t to
experimental data. The values of C and m for several Reynolds number ranges are
given in Table 5.1 (from measurements by Hilpert (Hilpert 1933).) To partially
correct for property variations, all uid properties should be evaluated at the lm
temperature Tf = (Ts + T )/2.
5.3
Apparatus
The convective heat transfer rate

will be measured using the Plint
Cross Flow Apparatus. The primary component of this apparaflow control gate
tus is a low speed wind tunnel. A
traversing
sketch of the wind tunnel is shown
pitot tube
test cylinder
in Fig. 5.2. The wind tunnel has
a 12.7 [cm] 12.7 [cm] cross secfan
tion and is equipped with a gate on
the outlet of the fan to control the
air ow. A traversing pitot tube is
used to measure the air velocity in
the tunnel.
Figure 5.2: Low speed wind tunnel
The test cylinder has a diameter of 1.242 [cm] and is instrumented with a single thermocouple. The middle section of the cylinder is made of copper and has a length of
9.5 [cm]. Cylindrical end pieces made of phenolic are attached to the copper cylin25
inlet
flow
Ryerson University
Winter 2009
der to reduce axial conduction. An annular heater is used to heat the cylinder prior
to each test.
5.4
Procedure
1. Turn on the wind tunnel fan. With the ow control gate approximately 50%
open, traverse the pitot tube over the cross section of the wind tunnel to
check the velocity prole. (In a properly designed wind tunnel, the velocity
should be uniform over most of the tunnel cross section.)
2. Check that the copper test cylinder is polished. Insert the copper cylinder
into the annular electric heater.
3. With the wind tunnel fan on, open the ow control gate fully. Once the
cylinder temperature reaches 80 [C] to 85 [C] , quickly insert the cylinder
into the wind tunnel.
4. Using the data acquisition computer, immediately record the cylinder temperature at regular time intervals. Take frequent readings during the initial
period of rapid cooling.
5. Record the pitot tube manometer deection, the inlet air temperature, and
the barometric pressure.
6. Repeat steps 2 to 5 for several gate settings. Get at least ve cooling curves
at dierent air velocities. Use the pitot tube to get even velocity increments
between data sets.
7. Repeat one test, matching the test conditions as closely as possible. In your
report, comment on the your experimental reproducibility.
5.5
Using a lumped capacitance analysis, the temperature variation of the cylinder with time t can be shown to be:
T T
=
=e
i
Ti T
hAs
V cp
where
Ti is the initial cylinder temperature at time t = 0,
T is the ambient temperature,
h is the average heat transfer coecient,
As is the surface area of the cylinder,
is the density of the cylinder,
26
(5.5)
Ryerson University
Winter 2009
cp is the specic heat of the cylinder, and

V is the volume of the cylinder
Taking the natural logarithm of Eq. 5.5 gives
ln
=
i
hAs
V cp
)
t
(5.6)
For each set of cooling data plot ln(/i ) versus time t and t a straight line
through each data. Referring to Eq. 5.6, use the slope of this best-t line to
calculate the average heat transfer coecient h for each air velocity. For each
set of data, calculate the air velocity from the pitot tube manometer reading.
Calculate the Reynolds number, Prandtl number and average Nusselt number
for each data set. Evaluate the uid properties at the average lm temperature, Tf = (Ts + T )/2.
Plot ln NuD versus ln ReD (or log NuD versus log ReD ) . Fit a straight line to
the data and use the slope and y-axis intercept to calculate the constant C
and exponent m for your experimental data. On the same graph, plot the
correlation of Hilpert (Hilpert 1933).
Plot the average heat transfer coecient h versus the free stream air velocity
U. How much does the convective heat transfer rate increase if the free
stream air velocity is doubled?
Measurement errors caused by blockage eects are always present in an enclosed wind tunnel. The test model reduces the cross section for ow, causing the air velocity near the model to be articially high. Using your h versus
U graph, estimate the approximate percentage error in h caused by wind
tunnel blockage.
27
Ryerson University
5.6
Winter 2009
Experimental Data
Barometric pressure:
Test 1
Air
Man.
Temp.
Test 2
Air
Man.
Temp.
Test 3
Air
Man.
Temp.
Test 4
Air
Man.
Temp.
Test 5
Air
Man.
Temp.
Repeat Test
Air
Man.
Temp.
Time
[s]
Time
[s]
Time
[s]
Time
[s]
Time
[s]
Time
[s]
Temp.
[C]
Temp.
[C]
Temp.
[C]
28
Temp.
[C]
Temp.
[C]
Temp.
[C]
Chapter 6
Numerical Simulation of a
Cylinder in Cross Flow
6.1
Objective
The objective of this lab is to numerically simulate the temperature distribution of

a cylinder cooling in a cross ow of air. Experimentally determined heat transfer
coecients will be used to model convection at the outer cylinder surface. The
temperature of cylinder at the centerline as a function of time will be determined
numerically and compared to experimental results.
6.2
Theory
As seen in Ch. 5, the convection heat transfer

coecient, h, can be determined for a cylinder
T
in cross ow for a variety of ow speeds. This
q"
convection coecient can be treated as the av- T
t=0
i
erage convection coecient acting over the ent>0
tire outer surface of the cylinder. In the case of
the cylinder used in the previous experiment,
Cylinder
Air
the ends of the cylinder are insulated such that
(,cp,k)
(h,T)
conduction within the cylinder may be considered to be one-dimensional. The thermocouple T
t
r
used to measure the temperature of the cylin-
ro
0
der in the previous experiment is located at the
cylinder centerline.
The heat conduction equation, written in Figure 6.1: Temperature distribution of
its simplest form for one-dimensional conduc- a cooling cylinder as a function of radius
and time.
29
Ryerson University
tion in cylindrical coordinates, is

(
)
1
T
T
rk
= cp
r r
r
t
Winter 2009
(6.1)
subject to the boundary conditions
T (0, t)
=
0
(6.2)
r
T (ro , t)
= h(T (ro , t) T )
k
(6.3)
r
where the former boundary condition is required for symmetry about the centerline
(r = 0) and the latter satises the surface energy balance at r = ro. A solution to the
heat conduction PDE, subject to the above boundary conditions and starting at the
initial conditions T (r, 0) = Ti , will yield the temperature distribution T (r, t) within
the cylinder. We expect a solution that varies from the uniform initial temperature
at t = 0 to a uniform nal temperature equal to the air temperature.
6.3
Apparatus
For this numerical experiment we will use a conventional computer and the software package Matlab, a high-level technical computing language and environment.
To approximate a solution to the governing PDE we will use the Matlab function
pdepe.
The function pdepe can approximate a solution to a PDE of the form
(
(
))
(
)
(
)
T
T
T T
m
m
r
r f r, t, T,
+ s r, t, T,
= c r, t, T,
(6.4)
r
r
r
r t
To solve Eq. 6.1 with pdepe requires
m=1
(
)
T
T
f r, t, T,
=k
r
r
(
)
T
s r, t, T,
=0
r
(
)
T
c r, t, T,
= cp
r
(6.5)
(6.6)
(6.7)
(6.8)
The function pdepe expects boundary conditions to be presented in the form

)
(
T
=0
(6.9)
p(r, t, T ) + q(r, t)f r, t, T,
r
which for r = 0 is satised with p = 0 and q = 1, and for r = ro
p(ro , t, T ) = h(T T )
q(ro , t) = 1
30
(6.10)
(6.11)
Ryerson University
The function pdepe approximates a solution to

T (r, t) at a nite number of locations on the region
r [0, ro ] and for a nite number of instances over
the time span t [0, tf ]. The initial conditions
are specied as values for each point on the region
r [0, ro ]. The function pdepe works by approximating the PDE as an ordinary dierence equation
(OE). Spatial derivatives are approximated as nite dierences between neighbouring points in the
region r [0, ro ]. For example, a rst derivative
may be approximated at location rj as
(
)
Tj+1 Tj1
T
(6.12)
r j
rj+1 rj1
Winter 2009
solution at
time tn
Tj
rj-1 rj rj+1
ro
Figure 6.2: Discrete temperature diswhere the j + 1 and j 1 refer to the neighbour- tribution on region r [0, ro ] at time
ing values of the j -th location. Temporal derivatives tn
may be approximated in a similar way and after suitable rearrangement allow the function to march the
solution from one time step tn to the next tn+1 , beginning with the initial conditions at t = 0. Note that the solution to the OE is only an approximation to
the solution of the PDE, however with a suitable choice of parameters a highly
accurate approximation can be constructed. As we will use pdepe simply as a numerical tool, the exact details of how pdepe functions are left to future courses.
It will be necessary to provide the function pdepe with the details regarding the
region, time span, PDE parameters, boundary conditions, and initial conditions.
6.4
Procedure
A certain degree of computer prociency and familiarity with Matlab or

similar software is assumed. The following instructions should be sucient to complete this experiment without prior Matlab experience, however if you are having diculty you should speak to your lab instructor
during your scheduled lab session. Matlab documentation may be accessed
through the Help menu or by entering the command doc. Extra notes are
provided below as boxed paragraphs.
1. Start the Matlab application which will open, at least, the main Matlab window containing the Command Window and menus. Within the Command
Window, change directories to an empty local working directory.
Matlab commands and expressions can be entered in the Command
Window interactively,or read from a script le.You may also dene
your own functions as M-les in the current working directory.
In the Command Window, type doc matlab for an overview
of Matlab.
31
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Winter 2009
You can determine your working directory from the Command

Window with the pwd command. You can change directories
with the cd directory command. Type help cd for more information.
The main Matlab window should appear similar to the following.
2. Add the cylsolve function to your working directory as a new M-le called
cylsolve.m.
32
Ryerson University
Winter 2009
You can create a new M-le from the menu (FileNewMFile) and edit this le using the Matlab Editor. Save this le as
cylsolve.m in your working directory. Or, optionally you can
edit an existing le with the editor.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
The cylsolve.m le will take the following form, where you will need to
replace the values indicated as ??? with appropriate values. A copy of this
le is also available on the course Blackboard Web site.
cylsolve.m
function [Tc]=cylsolve(t,Ti,Tinf,h,rho,cp,k,D)
% Determine temperature at r=0 for time span vector
% t for a cylinder in cross flow.
% Inputs:
% t = A vector of time [s] for solving T(t)
% Ti = Initial cylinder uniform temperature [K]
%
or [C]
% Tinf = Fluid temperature [K] or [C]
% h = Convection cooling coefficient [W/m/K]
% rho = Density of cylinder [kg/m^3]
% cp = Specific heat of cylinder [J/kg/K]
% k = Thermal conductivity of cylinder [W/m/K]
% D = Diameter of cylinder [m]
% Returns:
% T = Temperature at core T(t) [K]
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Ryerson University
Winter 2009
16
17
18
19
% Generate a linear distribution of 100 points from

% r=0 to r=r_o
r=linspace(0,D/2,100);
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
% Call pdepe to solve the PDE problem described by

% the cylPDE, cylIC, cylBC functions. The solution
% will be described by a matrix sol where the
% solution at location r_j and time t_n can be found
% at the entry sol(n,j).
% For more information, type help pdepe or
% doc pdepe.
sol=pdepe(1,@cylPDE,@cylIC,@cylBC,r,t);
29
30
31
32
% Return the centerline temperature as a function of

% time span t (i.e. the first column of sol)
Tc=sol(:,1);
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
% Define the PDE sub-function cylPDE.

% Note that all the above variables
% (eg. Ti,Tinf,h,rho,cp,k, and D)
% are defined for this function.
% ------------------------------------------------function [c,f,s] = cylPDE(r,t,T,dTdr)
% return c,f,s according to Eq. 6.4-6.8 as a
% function of the given r,t,T,dTdr
c = ???;
f = ???;
s = ???;
% End of cylPDE
end
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
% Define the initial conditions sub function

% cylIC.
% ------------------------------------------------function [T0] = cylIC(r)
[n,m]=size(r);
T0=ones(n,m)*Ti;
% End of cylIC
end
59
60
61
% Define the boundary conditions sub function

34
Ryerson University
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
Winter 2009
% cylBC.
% ------------------------------------------------function [pl,ql,pr,qr] = cylBC(rl,Tl,rr,Tr,t)
% Define the left boundary conditions at r=0,
% according to Eq. 6.9, as a function of the given
% left boundary values rl and Tl.
pl = ???;
ql = ???;
% Define the right boundary conditions at r=r_o,
% according to Eq. 6.9-6.11, as a function of the
% given right boundary values rr and Tr.
pr = ???;
qr = ???;
% End of cylBC
end
80
81
82
% End of cylsolve
end
cylsolve.m
In Matlab, all text following the % character is ignored as a comment. The entry at the i-th row and j -th column of a matrix, for example sol, can be retrieved with the expression
sol(i,j). You can extract just the j -th column with the expression sol(:,j), or just the i-th row with the command
sol(i,:).
The cylsolve function will return the temperature distribution at the centerline T (0, t) as a vector for the time span you provide as the vector t. If you
type help cylsolve, Matlab should return the rst block of comments.
Test your function before continuing by calling cylsolve with Ti = T
for a small time span [0;0.5;1]. As the initial and freestream temperatures are equal, cylsolve should return the same temperature at each time
regardless of the other parameters. For example,
>> Tnum=cylsolve([0;0.5;1],10,10,1,1,1,1,1)
Tnum =
10
10
10
35
Ryerson University
Winter 2009
3. Load your observations for the rst set of data (time versus temperature)
from the previous lab experiment. You will need two separate vectors: t
containing the times, and T containing the temperatures. You can enter this
data manually, or load the data from a text le.
(a) To enter the data manually, you will need to type in each entry. For
example, if your time [s] versus temperature [C] data consisted of the
pairs (0, 80.8), (10, 75.4), and (20, 67.7), then you could enter this data
as
>> t=[
0;
10;
20]
t =
0
10
20
>> T=[
80.8;
75.4;
67.7]
T =
80.8000
75.4000
67.7000
(b) Or, to read this data from a text le, for example from a comma-delimited
le exported from a spreadsheet, use the command dlmread. If the
comma-delimited le data.csv in the working directory contains
0,80.8
10,75.4
20,67.7
then the command X=dlmread(data.csv,,) would load in
the data as a 3 2 matrix. This can be split into two column vectors as
follows.
>> X=dlmread(data.csv,,)
X =
36
Ryerson University
Winter 2009
0
80.8000
10.0000
75.4000
20.0000
67.7000
>> t=X(:,1)
t =
0
10
20
>> T=X(:,2)
T =
80.8000
75.4000
67.7000
4. Using your cylsolve function, generate the numerical solution Tnum using
your time span vector t. Ensure that you pass appropriate values for the
cylinder including initial temperature Ti, air free stream temperature Tinf,
convection cooling coecient (as determined in the previous experiment) h,
cylinder density rho, cylinder specic heat cp, cylinder thermal conductivity
k, and cylinder diameter D.
>> Tnum=cylsolve(t,T(1),<INSERT YOUR VALUES HERE>)
The result will be a vector Tnum that is the same size as t and T, but represents the numerical solution to the unsteady heat conduction problem.
5. Plot the experimental and numerical temperature (T and Tnum) versus time
(t) on the same plot, ensuring that the two curves are labelled clearly. Print
or save this plot for your lab report.
From the Figure window you may save the image in any format
using FileSave As.
In Matlab, you can use the plot command to produce a two-dimensional
plot. For example, the following commands produce a labelled plot with a
legend.
clf; % Clear current figure
plot(t,T,*,t,Tnum,-); % Plot both data sets
37
Ryerson University
Winter 2009
xlabel(t [s]); % Label for x-axis

ylabel(T [C]); % Label for y-axis
legend(Experimental,Numerical); % Add a legend
title(h=??? [W/m/K]); % Add a title
6. Repeat steps 3 to 5 for each remaining data set from the previous experiment.
You should have plots for each ow control gate setting. Ensure that each
plot is clearly labelled.
7. For the last data set, calculate the numerical solution using the same data, but
for a cylinder that is double in diameter. Plot the experimental versus numerical temperature versus time, and include this plot in your report. Ensure that
this plot is clearly labelled.
8. Print or save a copy of your le cylsolve.m for inclusion in your report.
9. When nished, if working in a public lab, erase the contents of your working
directory.
6.5
Calculations And Discussion
Include all plots produced using Matlab, clearly labelling each plot.
Include a print out of your function cylsolve.m.
In the previous experiment, we used a lumped capacitance method to model
the cooling of the cylinder. Conrm that the lumped capacitance method
is valid for this experiment. The function pdepe returns a solution to the
temperature at many radial locations within the cylinder, not just the centerline. If the lumped capacitance method is valid, how should the numerical
solution at r = ro and r = 0 compare over time?
For the numerical simulation of a cylinder that is double in diameter, estimate
the nal temperature using the lumped capacitance method of the previous
experiment. How do your numerical results compare to the lumped capacitance method value? What is the expected eect of doubling the cylinder
diameter?
In the previous experiment we heated the cylinder in an annular heater until
the centerline temperature reached approximately 80 [C]. For the numerical
experiment we assumed that the cylinder was at a uniform initial temperature. What dierences might exist between the numerical and actual initial
conditions? Is this a signicant source of error in our numerical solution?
6.6
Experimental Data
Verify that you have the following les or print-outs:

38
Ryerson University
Winter 2009
Plots for each ow control setting (including the repeated test) comparing
the experimental to numerical values.
A plot of the last test data, but this time using a cylinder with a dierent
diameter.
A copy of the source code for your cylsolve function.
39
Bibliography
CRC (1988). Handbook of Chemistry and Physics. CRC.
Hilpert, R. (1933). Wrmeabgabe von geheizten drhten und rohren. Forsch. Geb.
Ingenieurwes. 4, 215224.
Lassaline, J. V. (2005). AER 309: Thermodynamics Laboratory Manual. Ryerson
University.
Naylor, D. (2001). MEC 701: Heat Transfer Laboratory Manual. Ryerson University.
University of Chicago (2003). The Chicago Manual of Style. University of
Chicago.
40
Appendix A
Errors and Corrections

A.1
Error Estimation and Propagation
When presenting measured values you must provide an estimate of the error. For
example, if you are measuring temperature with a thermometer that is marked at
every 1 degree Celsius, your best measure of the current room temperature may be
21.50.2[ C]. In other words, to the best of your measuring ability the temperature
is 21.5[ C] with an expected error of approximately 15 of a degree. As errors are at
best estimates, it is normal to truncate the error at the rst non-zero digit (e.g.
0.005 rather than 0.004925.)
When using digital equipment, the accuracy of the measure should be taken to
be 1/2 count of the last digit shown, unless otherwise noted. For example, if a digital scale read 2.512[g], the error would be 0.0005[g]. Other sources of error, such
as a small breeze across the scale, may raise the error to 0.001. Use your best
judgement and record the estimate of error with your measurements.
All reported observations should include an estimate of the error. All plots
containing values with an estimate of error should include error bars. (If your software cannot include error bars in the gure, draw them in by hand.) When using
your measured observations in a calculation you need to propagate this estimate of
error throughout your calculations. Your sample calculations should demonstrate
the resulting error. Pay careful attention to the instructions for each experiment to determine when your report should include error propagation
analysis.
For this course we will use a simplied form of the proper statistical technique
(which uses standard deviations.) If we have a function formed from a pair of independent (uncorrelated) measured values x x and y y , we can estimate the
error in the function using a few simple rules based upon the worst-case scenario.
For addition or subtraction of two values with errors, the error is cumulative.
(x x ) + (y y ) = (x + y) (x + y )
(x x ) (y y ) = (x y) (x + y )
41
(A.1)
(A.2)
Ryerson University
Winter 2009
For multiplication or division by an exact number, both the value and the error are
scaled by the exact number.
2(x x ) = 2x (2x )
(A.3)
For multiplication of a pair of values with errors, the error is formed as follows
(x x )(y y ) = xy (xy + yx + x y ) xy (xy + yx ) (A.4)

assuming that x y is much smaller than the other error products. For both multiplication and division this can be reduced to an expression for the relative error
xy
x
y
=
+
|xy|
|x|
|y|
x/y
x
y
=
+
|x/y|
|x|
|y|
(A.5)
(A.6)
For products of powers functions such as xm y n , the relative error can be determined using
xm y n
x
y
= |m|
+ |n|
(A.7)
m
n
|x y |
|x|
|y|
The previous operations can be summarized as follows
function
xy
x
xm y n
log x
error
x + y
( x
y
x
|xm y n | |m|
|x| + |n| |y|
log x
For general functions that are combinations of the above, carefully determine the
error for each operation, following the normal order of operations. For example,
to determine the error in z(x y) where z , x, and y all have associated errors one
can:
1. Calculate the error in the temporary value t1 = x y using the rule for
subtraction.
2. Calculate the error in the product zt1 using the rule for products.
As an alternative, to determine a statistical estimation of the error propagation
for a general function F of measured values (x, y, . . .) with associated errors of
(x , y , . . .) respectively, we can estimate the function error F using
(
)2 (
)2
F
F
F =
x +
y + . . .
(A.8)
x
y
or in keeping with the simplied error analysis

F
F

y + . . .
F =
x +
x
y
(A.9)
Note that this may produce slightly dierent values than the previous methods but
is acceptable given that we are at best providing an estimate of the errors.
42
Ryerson University
A.2
Winter 2009
Barometer Corrections
Corrections for Hg barometers by temperature are listed below (CRC 1988) for
both SI and BG units.
Temp.
[F ]
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
23
-0.024
-0.045
-0.065
-0.086
-0.107
-0.127
-0.148
24
-0.025
-0.046
-0.068
-0.090
-0.111
-0.133
-0.154
25
-0.026
-0.048
-0.071
-0.094
-0.116
-0.138
-0.161
Observed height in [in]

26
27
28
-0.027 -0.028 -0.029
-0.050 -0.052 -0.054
-0.074 -0.077 -0.080
-0.097 -0.101 -0.105
-0.121 -0.125 -0.130
-0.144 -0.150 -0.155
-0.167 -0.174 -0.180
29
-0.030
-0.056
-0.082
-0.109
-0.135
-0.161
-0.187
30
-0.031
-0.058
-0.085
-0.112
-0.139
-0.166
-0.193
31
-0.032
-0.060
-0.088
-0.116
-0.144
-0.172
-0.200
Table A.1: Temperature correction for Hg and brass barometers in BG units. Corrections in [in].
Temp.
[C]
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
620
-0.51
-1.01
-1.52
-2.02
-2.52
-3.02
-3.52
640
0.52
-1.04
-1.56
-2.08
-2.60
-3.12
-3.64
660
-0.54
-1.08
-1.61
-2.15
-2.68
-3.22
-3.75
Observed height in [mm]

680
700
720
-0.56
-0.57
-0.59
-1.11
-1.14
-1.17
-1.66
-1.71
-1.76
-2.21
-2.28
-2.34
-2.277
-2.85
-2.93
-3.32
-3.41
-3.51
-3.86
-3.98
-4.09
740
-0.60
-1.21
-1.81
-2.41
-3.01
-3.61
-4.21
760
-0.62
-1.24
-1.86
-2.47
-3.09
-3.71
-4.32
Table A.2: Temperature correction for Hg and brass barometers in SI units. Corrections in [mm].
43
780
-0.64
-1.27
-1.91
-2.54
-3.17
-3.80
-4.43
GNU Free Documentation

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AER 423: Applied Thermodynamics

and Heat Transfer

Copyright December 18, 2008 J. V. Lassaline

4 Thermal Conductivity and Contact Resistance

5 Forced Convection From a Cylinder in Cross Flow

5.5 Calculations and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

A Errors and Corrections

GNU Free Documentation License

5.1 Constants of Eq. 5.1 from Hilpert (1933). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

A.1 Temperature correction for Hg and brass barometers in BG units.

3.1 A gas turbine schematic with Brayton cycle approximation. . [. . . ].

4.1 One-dimensional heat conduction along a composite bar. . . . . . . 19

6.1 Temperature distribution of a cooling cylinder as a function of radius and time. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

mass ow rate, [kg/s]

temperature dierence, [K]

relating to free stream conditions

Organization of This Book

You are reminded that all of the required course-specic written

Appl. Thermo. & Heat Transfer

group member contributes equally. In the event of an unresolvable conict,

Appl. Thermo. & Heat Transfer

Conclusions Provide a brief summary of your experiment and results.

Appl. Thermo. & Heat Transfer

The technical writing of lab reports is expected to be of high quality and

Appl. Thermo. & Heat Transfer

The objective of this lab is to demonstrate the laws governing compressible ow

Consider a nozzle formed from a convergent-divergent duct as in Fig. 2.1 drawing

Appl. Thermo. & Heat Transfer

Figure 2.2: Nozzle test rig schematic

is considered to be choked. Reducing pb further has no eect upon the conditions

To determine the theoretical mass ow rate m

Appl. Thermo. & Heat Transfer

air speed using

Appl. Thermo. & Heat Transfer

2. Open back pressure valve V7 completely.

Calculations and Discussion

Appl. Thermo. & Heat Transfer

Appl. Thermo. & Heat Transfer

Approximate error in manometer

Appl. Thermo. & Heat Transfer

A gas turbine engine, whether used to produce thrust or shaft work,

Appl. Thermo. & Heat Transfer

Appl. Thermo. & Heat Transfer

Calculations and Discussions

b ) from the dynamometer

where the load W is in [lbf ] and speed N is in [rpm].

Calculate the mass ow rate of air m

Appl. Thermo. & Heat Transfer

oil with a specic gravity of 0.827. The quantity p/pa is a dimensionless

1 [inH2 O ] = 0.0362 [psi]

c is the compressor power and W

How does this compare to the previous thermal eciency calculation?

Appl. Thermo. & Heat Transfer

Appl. Thermo. & Heat Transfer

Thermal Conductivity and

chapter is based upon the work of D. Naylor (Naylor 2001).

Appl. Thermo. & Heat Transfer

which can be rearranged to solve for hi.

Measurements will be made using the Cussons Thermal ConAll dimensions

Appl. Thermo. & Heat Transfer

Calculations and Discussion

Using appropriately averaged cooling water temperature readings, calculate

Appl. Thermo. & Heat Transfer

Appl. Thermo. & Heat Transfer