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TempleArchitectureDevalayaVastuPartOne(1
of9)
07SEP
AgamaandTemplearchitecture

TheAgamaliteratureincludestheShilpaShastra,whichcoversarchitectureandiconography.
TheaspectsoftempleconstructionaredealtinDevalayaVastu;andPrathimadealswiththe
iconography.Sometimes,thetermShipaisalsousedtodenotetheartofsculpting;buthere
Shipareferstothepracticeofthetechnique,whileShastrareferstoitsprinciples.
TheworshipdealtwiththeAgamanecessarilyinvolvesworshipworthyimages.Theritualsand
sequenceselaboratedintheAgamatextsareinthecontextofsuchworshipworthyimage,
whichnecessarilyhastobecontainedinashrine.Thebasicideaisthatatemplemustbebuiltfor
theicon,andnotanicongotreadyforthetemples,foratempleisonlyanoutgrowthoftheicon,
anexpandedimageoftheicon.Andaniconismeaningfulonlyinthecontextofashrinethatis
worthytohouseit.ThatishowtheAgamaliteraturemakesitspresencefeltintheShilpaSastra,
Architecture.Theiconanditsform;thetempleanditsstructure;andtheritualsandtheir
details,thusgetinterrelated.Further,theIndiantemplesshouldbeviewedinthegeneral
frameworkoftempleculture,whichincludenotonlyreligiousandphilosophicalaspectsbut
social,aestheticandeconomicaspectsalso.
ElaboraterulesarelaidoutintheAgamasforSilpa,describingthequalityrequirementsofthe
placeswheretemplesaretobebuilt,thekindofimagestobeinstalled,thematerialsfromwhich
theyaretobemade,theirdimensions,proportions,aircirculation,lightinginthetemple
complexetc.TheManasaraandSilpasaraaresomeoftheworksdealingwiththeserules.The
ritualsfollowedinworshipserviceseachdayatthetemplealsofollowruleslaidoutinthe
Agamas.

Whiledescribingtheessentialrequirementsforaplaceofpilgrimage,ShipaShatrasofthe
Agamaselaborateontherequirementsofthetemplesite;buildingmaterials;dimensions,
directionsandorientationsofthetemplestructures;theimageanditsspecifications.The
principalelementsthatareinvolvedareSthala(templesite);Teertha(Templetank)
andMurthy(theidol).Atemplecouldalsobeassociatedwithatree,calledtheSthalaVriksham.
***
TheGuptaAgemarkedtheadventofavibrantperiodofbuildingandsculptingactivities.The
textsofthisperiodsuchastheArthashastraofKautilyaandMatsyaPuranaincludedchapterson
thearchitectureofthewayofsummary.Bytheendoftheperiod,theartandcraftflourished;
andbranchedintodifferentschoolsofarchitecturalthought;butallbasedoncommon
underlyingprinciples.TheseprinciplesarenowpartofVastushastra,thescienceofarchitectural
designandconstruction..ItisexplainedthatthetermVastuisderivedfromVasumeaningthe
Earthprinciple(prithvi).ThisplanetisVastuandwhateverthatiscreatedisVastuandallobjects
ofearthareVastu.
Duringthemedievalperiod,vastbodyofSanskritreferences,independentarchitecturalmanuals
werewritten,withoutreservation,andscatteredacrossthecountry.Apparently,someattempts
weremadetoclassifyandevaluatetheircontentsinasystematicway.Ofthemanysuch
attemptsthattriedtobringaboutorderandcoherenceinthevarioustheoriesandprinciplesof
templeconstruction,themostwellknowncompilationsareManasaraandMayamata.Theyare
thestandardtextsonVastuShastra,andtheycodifythetheoreticalaspectsofalltypesof
constructions;butspecificallyoftempleconstruction.Thesetextsdealwiththewholerangeof
architecturalscienceincludingtopicssuchassoiltestingtechniques,orientation,measuresand
proportion,divination,astrologyandceremoniesassociatedwiththeconstructionofbuildings.
Manasaraisacomprehensivetreatyonarchitectureandiconography.Itrepresentsthe
universalityofVastutraditionandincludestheiconographyofJainandBuddhistimages.The
workistreatedasasourcebookandconsultedbyall.
TheMayamatatoooccupiesanimportantposition.ItisageneraltreatiseonVastushastra;andis
atextofSouthernIndia.ItisregardedapartofShaivaliteratureandmightbelongtotheChola
periodwhentemplearchitecturereacheditspeak.ItisthebestknownworkonVastu.Thework
iscoherentandwellstructured.ItdefinesVastuasthearrangementofspace,anywhere,wherein
immortalsandmortalslive.
ThesesubjectsareintertwinedwithAstrology.TheVastuTextsbelievethatVigraha(iconor
imageofthedeity)iscloselyrelatedtoGraha(planets).ThetermGrahaliterallymeansthatwhich
attractsorreceives;andVigrahaisthatwhichtransmits.Itisbelievedthattheidolsreceivepower
fromtheplanets;andtransmitthepowersoreceived.Itnotmerelyisasymbolismbutalsoone
thatprovideslogicforplacementofvariousdeitiesintheirrespectivequartersanddirections.
ThetextsthatarecollectivelycalledVastuShastrahavetheiroriginintheSutras,Puranasand
Agamas;besidestheTantricliteratureandtheBrhatSamhita.TheVastutextsclassifythetemple
intothreebasicstructures:Nagara,DravidaandVesara.Theyemploy,respectively,thesquare,
octagonandtheapseorcircleintheirplan.Thesethreestylesdonotpertainstrictlytothree
differentregionsbutarethreeschoolsoftemplearchitecture.Thevesara,forinstance,which
prevailedmostlyinwesternDeccanandsouthKarnataka,wasaderivationfromtheapsidal
chapelsoftheearlyBuddhistperiodwhichtheBrahmanicalfaithadoptedandvastlyimproved.

Thesethreeschoolshavegivenrisetoaboutfortyfivebasicvarietiesoftemplestypes.Theytoo
havetheirmanyvariations;andthusthestylesoftemplearchitectureinIndiaarequitediverse
andvirtuallyunlimited.
Amongthemanytraditionsinherited(parampara)inIndia,thetraditionofVishwakarmais
unique.Themodeoftransmissionofknowledgeofthiscommunityisbothoralandpractical;
anditstheoriesconstructaholisticuniverseofthoughtandunderstanding.Therigorand
disciplinerequiredtocreateobjectsthatdefytimeandpersistbeyondgenerationsofartists,has
imbuedthistraditionwithtremendoussenseofpurpose,andzealtomaintainthepurityand
sensitivityofitstraditions;andtocarryitforward.Thishasenabledthemtoprotectthepurity
oftheartandskillswithoutfallingpreytothemarketanditsdynamics.
****
Itisvirtuallyimpossibletostatewhenthecustomofbuildingstylizedtemplestookholdinour
country.
TheRigVedaiscenteredonhomeandworshipathome.Thereisnotmuchemphasisontemple
worship.ThetermemployedinGrihyasutras(Ashvalayana1.12.1;andparashara3.11.10)to
denoteatemplewasChaithya,whichliterallymeans,pilingup;aspilingupofthefirealter
,agni_chitifrombricks(asinagnichayana).Thisperhapssuggeststhatchaityaimpliedpilingup
brickstoformashrine.Thisisconsistentwiththeviewthattheearliesttempleswererelatively
simplepiledbrickstructures.
TheuseofthetermChaithyatodenoteaplaceofworshipappearstohavebeeninvoguefor
quitealongperiodaftertheVedicage.InMahabharata,theRishiLomaharshamentionsto
YudhistirathatthetirthaontheArchikahillisaplacewheretherearechaithyasforthe33gods
(MBh3.125).HealsoadvisesPandavastovisittheChaithyasonthebanksoftheNarmada(MBh
3.121).
MahabharataoftenreferstoChaithyasasbeingclosetoYupas(chaithyupanikatabhumi);Yupa
beingthespotwhereamajoryajnawasperformed.Itispossiblethatsmallshrineswereerected
ontheYupasitetocommemoratetheYajna.
RamayanatoomentionsthatMeghanada,thesonofRavana,triedtoperformaYajnainatemple
locatedintheNikhumbagrove.
ZarathustrademandsfromAhurMazdaTellme,]canIuproottheidolfromthisassemblythat
setupbytheangrasandthekarpanas?Atanothertime,theEmperorXerxes,afollowerof
ZarathustradeclaresIdestroyedthistempleofdaevas.

TheBuddhistandJaintextsmentionofacertainchaithyaofDeviShasti,consortofKumara,at
Vishala.Jaintexts,inparticular,mentionthechaithyasofSkandainSavasthi;ofShulapani
(Rudra)andofYakshiniPurnabhadra.
ThereforebyaboutsixhundredBC,thechiathyaswerequitecommon.Theywereperhapssmall
sizedconstructions(usuallyofbrick)surroundedbygrovesofashvatthaoraudumbaratrees.
TheMauryaperioddescribedintheArthashastra,hadchaithyasforanumberofDevisand
Devas,suchasIndra,kumara,Rudra,andAparajitaetc.Adescriptionofthechaityaofgoddess
kaumarisuggeststhatithadmultipleAvaranas,oneenclosingtheotherandtheouterAvarana
havingacirculararch.BythetimeoftheMauryas,thechaithyasappearedtohavesteadily
gainedimportance,andbecomeanintegralaspectofcitylife.However,thereisnothingto
suggestthattheywerelargestructuresliketheclassicalHindutemplesthatweretofollowlater.
ByaboutfirstcenturyBC,theBuddhistplacesofcongregationeitherascavescarvedintorocks
orasfreestandingstructures,cametobeknownasChaithya_grihas.Thesewerepatternedafter
theshrinesofVishnu,withtheformofthefirealtarbeingplacedontheraisedplatforminthe
apseofthechaithyahall.Thetermchaithyalatercametoincreasinglyassociatedwiththe
Buddhiststupasorplacesofworship.
ItwasperhapsduringtheperiodoftheImperialGuptasthataHindutemplecametobe
regularlyaddressedasDevalaya,theabodeofGods.Theoldestofthesurvivingstructural
shrinesdatebacktothethirdorevenfourthcenturyA.D.Theyaremadeofbricks.
Someofthethemmightperhapsbeentemporarystructures,erectedonoccasionsofcommunity
worship.Thecanonicalconceptofpavilion(mantapa)suggeststhattheymighthavebeen
pavilionstoaccommodatethosewhogatheredtoparticipateintheworshipritual.Itisonlylater
thatstructurestendedtobepermanentbigger.
TheearliesttemplesinnorthandcentralIndiawhichhavesurvivedthevagariesoftimebelong
totheGuptaperiod,320650A.D.;suchasthetemplesatSanchi,Tigawa(nearJabalpurin
MadhyaPradesh),Bhumara(inMadhyaPradesh),Nachna(Rajasthan)andDeogarh(near
Jhansi,UttarPradesh).Theyconsistofasquare,darksanctumwithasmall,pillaredporchin
front,bothcoveredwithflatroofs.ThebricktempleatBhitargaon;andtheVishnutempleat
Deogarh,builtentirelyofstone,both,haveasquaresanctum,butinsteadofaflatroofthereisa
pyramidalsuperstructure(sikhara).
Therockcuttempleandmonasterytraditionalsocontinuedinthisperiod,notablyinwestern
India,wheretheexcavationsespeciallyatAjantaacquireextremerichnessandmagnificence.
ThetemplegroupsatAiholeandPattadakalinNorthKarnatakadatebacktoabout5thcentury,
andseemtorepresentearlyattemptstoexperimentwithseveralstylesandtoevolvean
acceptableandastandardregionalformat.Here,templesofthenorthernandthesouthernstyles
arefoundnexttoeachother.Besides,Badami,thecapitaloftheEarlyChalukyas,whoruled
muchofKarnatakainthe6thto8thcenturies,isknownforitsancientcavetemplescarvedoutof
thesandstonehillsaboveit.

TheschoolofarchitectureinSouthIndiaseemstohaveevolvedfromtheearliestBuddhist
shrineswhichwerebothrockcutandstructural.Thelaterrockcuttempleswhichbelongto
5thor6thcenturyA.D.weremostlyBrahmanicalorJain,patronizedbythreegreatruling
dynastiesofthesouth,namelythePallavasofKanchiintheeast,theCalukyasofBadamiinthe
8thcenturyA.D,theRastrakutasofMalkhedcametopowerandtheymadegreatcontributions
tothedevelopmentofsouthIndiantemplearchitecture.TheKailasanathatempleatEllora
belongstothisperiod.
Thenextthousandyears(from600to1600A.D.)witnessedaphenomenalgrowthintemple
architecture.ThefirstintheseriesofSouthernorDravidianarchitecturewasinitiatedbythe
Pallavas(600900A.D.)TherockcuttemplesatMahabalipuram(oftherathatype)andthe
structuraltemplesliketheshoretempleatMahabalipuramandtheKailasanathaandVaikuntha
PerumaltemplesinKancheepuram(700800A.D.)arethebestrepresentationsofthePallava
style.TheKailasanatha(datingalittlelaterthantheShoreTemple),withitsstately
superstructureandsubsidiaryshrinesattachedtothewallsisagreatcontraction.Another
splendidtempleatKanchipuramistheVaikunthaPerumal(mid8thcentury),whichhasan
interestingarrangementofthreesanctums,oneabovetheother,encasedwithinthebodyofthe
superstructure.TheTalapurisvaratempleatPanamalaiisanotherexcellentexample.The
PallavaslaidthefoundationsoftheDravidianschoolwhichblossomedduringtheCholas,the
Pandyas,theVijayanagarkingsandtheNayaks.
MostimportantofalargenumberofunpretentiousandbeautifulshrinesthatdottheTamil
countrysidearetheVijayalayaColisvaratempleatNarttamalai(mid9thcentury),withits
circularsanctum,sphericalcupola,andmassive,plainwalls;thetwinshrinescalled
AgastyisvaraandColisvara,atKilaiyur(late9thcentury);andthesplendidgroupoftwo
temples(originallythree)knownastheMuvarkovil,atKodumbalur(c.875).

TheVijayalayaColisvaratemple,withitsfirstandsecondthala(base)ofthevimanamsquarein
shape,thethirdincircular(vasara)andthegrivaandSikhiraalsoincircularshape;isa
forerunnerofthemagnificenttempleatGangaikondacholapurambuiltbyRajendraChola.The
vimanaisafinemixtureofNagaraandVesarastyles.
Thesesimplebeginningsledrapidly(inaboutacentury)tograndeurandstyle.Thetemples,
nowbuiltofstone,werehuge,morecomplexandornatewithsculptures.Dravidianarchitecture
reacheditsgloryduringtheCholaperiod(9001200A.D.).Amongthemostmagnificentofthe
CholatemplesistheBrhadishvaratempleatTanjorewithits66metrehighvimana,thetallestof
itskind.ThelaterPandyanswhosucceededtheCholasimprovedontheCholasbyintroducing
elaborateornamentationandhugesculpturalimages,manypillaredhalls,newannexestothe
shrineandtowers(gopurams)onthegateways.ThemightytemplecomplexesofMaduraiand
SrirangamsetapatternfortheVijayanagarbuilders(13501565A.D.)whofollowedthe
Dravidiantradition.ThePampapatiVirupakshaandVitthalatemplesinHampiarestanding
examplesofthisperiod.TheNayaksofMaduraiwhosucceededtheVijayanagarkings(1600
1750A.D.)madetheDravidiantemplecomplexevenmoreelaboratebymakingthegopurams
verytallandornateandaddingpillaredcorridorswithinthetemplelongcompound.

TheHoysalas(11001300A.D.)whoruledtheKannadacountryimprovedontheChalukyanstyle
bybuildingextremelyornate,finelychiseled,intricatelysculpturedtemplesmountedonstar
shapedpedestals.TheHoysalatemplesarenotedforthedelicatelycarvedsculpturesinthe
walls,depressedceilings,latheturnedpillarsinavarietyoffancifulshapes;andfully
sculpturedvimanas.Theexteriorisalmosttotallycoveredwithsculpture,thewallsdecorated
withseveralbandsofornamentalmotifsandanarrativerelief.Amongthemorefamousofthese
temples,whichareclassifiedundertheVesarastyle,arethetwinHoysalesvaratempleat
Halebid,theChennaKesavatempleatBelur(1117),theAmrtesvaratempleatAmritpur(1196),
andtheKesava(trikuta)templeatSomnathpur(1268).

Inthenorth,themajordevelopmentsinHindutemplearchitecturewereinOrissa(7501250
A.D.)andCentralIndia(9501050A.D.)asalsoRajasthan(10thand11thCenturyA.D.)and
Gujarat(11th13thCenturyA.D.).ThetemplesofLingaraja(Bhubaneswar),Jagannatha(Puri)
andSurya(Konarak)representtheKalinganagarastyle.Thegreatestcentreofthisschoolisthe
ancientcityofBhubaneswar,whichhasalmost100examplesofthestyle,bothgreatandsmall,
rangingfromthe7thtothe13thcentury.Themostmagnificentstructure,however,isthegreat
Lingarajatemple(11thcentury),anachievementofKalingaarchitectureinfullflower.
ThemostfamousofallKalingatemples,however,isthecolossalbuildingatKonarak,builtby
theChandellas,dedicatedtoSurya,thesungod.Thetempleanditsaccompanyinghallare
conceivedintheformofagreatchariotdrawnbyhorses.

TheSuryatempleatModhera(Gujarat)andothertempleatMt.AbubuiltbytheSolankishave
theirowndistinctfeaturesinCentralIndianarchitecture.Bengalwithitstemplesbuiltinbricks
andterracottatilesandKeralawithitstempleshavinguniqueroofstructuresuitedtotheheavy
rainfalloftheregiondevelopedtheirownspecialstyles.
HindutempleswerebuiltoutsideIndiatoo.TheearliestofsuchtemplesarefoundinJava;for
instancetheShivatemplesatDiengandIdongSongobuiltbythekingsofSailendradynasty(
6th9thcentury).ThegroupoftemplesofLaraJonggrangatParanbanam(9thto10thcentury)is
amagnificentexampleofHindutemplearchitecture.Othermajortemplesare:thetemple
complexatPanataran(Java)builtbythekingsofMajapahitdynasty(14century);therockcut
templefacadesatTampaksiringofBali(11thcentury);theMothertempleatBeshakhofBali
(14thcentury);theChenLatemplesatSamborPreiKukinCambodia(7th6thcentury);the
templesofBanteaySreiatAngkor(10thcentury)andthecelebratedAngkorVattemplecomplex
(12thcentury)builtbySuryaVarmanII.

Sources:
PicturesfromInternet
DevalayaVastu

ByProf.SKRRao
EncyclopaediaBritannica
http://www.britannica.com/dday/print?articleId=109585&fullArticle=true&tocId=65333
(http://www.britannica.com/dday/print?articleId=109585&fullArticle=true&tocId=65333)
TempleandTownship
VastuPurusha
Mandala
TempleLayout
PartsoftheTemple
Iconography
Normsand
Measurements

2Comments
PostedbysreenivasaraosonSeptember7,2012inTempleArchitecture
Tags:Agama,TempleArchitecture,templeworship

2responsestoTempleArchitectureDevalayaVastuPartOne
(1of9)
Pingback:ASimpleGuidetoTemplesandIdolWorship|ASRKHaven
sreenivasaraos
November10,2014at2:50pm
DearASRK
Thankyouforthevisitandtheappreciation.
Pleasedoreadtheotherarticlesinthesei=ries;asalsotheonesontheothersubjects.
Regards

Reply

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