Heat Transfer Design

Conduction Heat Transfer

Dr. Rajashekhar Pendyala
Chemical Engineering Department
University Teknologi PETRONAS

Instructional Objectives
Explain Fouriers law for steady state one dimensional heat
conduction
Explain conduction in different geometries, and derive the
corresponding temperature distributions and heat transfer
rates
Introduce the concept of thermal resistance for heat flow in
analogous to electrical resistance for current flow
Explain the heat transfer estimations for combined
conduction and convection
Explain the concept of conduction shape factors in estimating
the rate of heat transfer
Explain transient conduction

Introduction
Although heat transfer and temperature are closely related,
they are of a different nature.
Temperature has only magnitude. It is a scalar quantity.
Heat transfer has direction as well as magnitude. It is a vector
quantity.
We work with a coordinate system and indicate direction with
plus or minus signs.

Introduction
Driving Force
For all transfer processes (momentum, heat,
and mass), the basic rate equation is:
driving force
rate of a transfer process
resistance

The driving force for any form of heat transfer

is the temperature difference
The larger the temperature difference, the
larger the rate of heat transfer

Introduction
Three prime coordinate systems:
rectangular T(x, y, z, t)
cylindrical T(r, , z, t)
spherical T(r, , , t).

Introduction
Steady versus Transient Heat Transfer
Steady implies no change with
time at any point within the
medium.
Transient implies variation with
time or time dependence.
In the special case of variation
with time but not with position,
the temperature of the medium
changes uniformly with time.
Such heat transfer systems are
called lumped systems.

Introduction
Multidimensional Heat Transfer
Heat transfer problems are also classified as being:
one-dimensional
two dimensional
three-dimensional

In the most general case, heat transfer through a medium is

three-dimensional. However, some problems can be
classified as two- or one-dimensional depending on the
relative magnitudes of heat transfer rates in different
directions and the level of accuracy desired.

Introduction
Multidimensional Heat Transfer
One-dimensional if the temperature in the medium varies in
one direction only and thus heat is transferred in one
direction, and the variation of temperature and thus heat
transfer in other directions are negligible or zero
Two-dimensional if the temperature in a medium, in some
cases, varies mainly in two primary directions, and the
variation of temperature in the third direction (and thus heat
transfer in that direction) is negligible.

Introduction
Multidimensional Heat Transfer

Two-dimensional heat
transfer in a long rectangular
bar.

Heat transfer through the window

of a house can be taken to be
one-dimensional.

Steady-state Heat Conduction

The rate of heat conduction through a medium in a specified
direction is expressed by Fouriers law of heat conduction for
one-dimensional heat conduction as:

Heat is conducted in the

direction of decreasing
temperature, and thus the
temperature gradient is
negative when heat is
conducted in the positive xdirection.

The temperature gradient dT/dx is

the slope of the temperature
curve on a T-x diagram.

Heat Conduction
Heat Generation
Examples:
electrical energy being converted to heat at a rate
of I2R
fuel elements of nuclear reactors
exothermic chemical reactions
Heat generation is a volumetric phenomenon.
The rate of heat generation unit: W/m3 or Btu/hft3.
The rate of heat generation in a medium may vary
with time as well as position within the medium.

Heat Conduction
Heat Generation

Heat is generated in the heating

coils of an electric range as a result
of the conversion of electrical
energy to heat

The absorption of solar radiation by

water can be treated as heat
generation

Heat Conduction
One-Dimensional Heat Conduction
Equation
Consider heat conduction through a large plane wall such as the
wall of a house, the glass of a single pane window, the metal plate
at the bottom of a pressing iron, a cast-iron steam pipe, a
cylindrical nuclear fuel element, an electrical resistance wire, the
wall of a spherical container, or a spherical metal ball that is being
quenched or tempered.

Heat conduction in these and many other geometries can be

approximated as being one-dimensional since heat conduction
through these geometries is dominant in one direction and
negligible in other directions

Heat Conduction
Heat Conduction Equation in a Large Plane Wall

One-dimensional heat
conduction
through a volume element
in a large plane wall.

Heat Conduction

the change in the energy content of the element

and the rate of heat generation within the element
can be expressed as

Heat Conduction
Substituting into initial Equation

Dividing by Ax gives

Taking the limit as x 0 and t 0 yields

Heat Conduction
Variable conductivity:

Constant conductivity:

where the property k/C is the thermal diffusivity of the material

and represents how fast heat propagates through a material

Steady-state:
Transient, no heat generation:
Steady-state, no heat generation:

Heat Conduction
Heat Conduction Equation in a Long Cylinder

One-dimensional heat conduction through a volume

element in a long cylinder

Heat Conduction
Heat Conduction Equation in a Long Cylinder

the change in the energy content of the element

and the rate of heat generation within the element
can be expressed as

Heat Conduction
Substituting into initial Equation

Dividing by Ar gives

Taking the limit as r 0 and t 0 yields

Heat Conduction
Variable conductivity:

Constant conductivity:

Steady-state:
Transient, no heat generation:
Steady-state, no heat generation:

Heat Conduction
Heat Conduction Equation in a Sphere
Variable conductivity:

Constant conductivity:

Steady-state:
Transient, no heat generation:
Steady-state, no heat generation:

or

Heat Conduction
Combined One-Dimensional Heat Conduction
Equation
An examination of the one-dimensional transient heat conduction
equations for the plane wall, cylinder, and sphere reveals that all
three equations can be expressed in a compact form as

n = 0 for a plane wall

n = 1 for a cylinder

n = 2 for a sphere
In the case of a plane wall, it is customary to replace the variable r by x.
This equation can be simplified for steady-state or no heat generation
cases as described before.

General Heat Conduction Equation

Rectangular Coordinates

Three-dimensional heat conduction through a rectangular

volume element

General Heat Conduction Equation

the change in the energy content of the element

and the rate of heat generation within the element
can be expressed as

General Heat Conduction Equation

Substituting into initial Equation

Dividing by xyz gives

Taking the limit as x, y, z and t 0 yields

General Heat Conduction Equation

Similarly for the other terms

and

General Heat Conduction Equation

Variable thermal conductivity:

Constant thermal conductivity :

Fourier-Biot equation
again = k/C is the thermal diffusivity
Steady-state:

Poisson equation

Transient, no heat generation:

Diffusion equation
Steady-state, no heat generation:

Laplace
equation

General Heat Conduction Equation

Cylindrical Coordinates
Relations between the coordinates of a point in rectangular and
cylindrical coordinate systems:

A differential volume element in

cylindrical coordinates

General Heat Conduction Equation

Spherical Coordinates
Relations between the coordinates of a point in rectangular and
spherical coordinate systems:

A differential volume element in

spherical coordinates

Boundary and Initial Conditions

Specified Temperature Boundary Condition

Specified Heat Flux Boundary Condition

Boundary and Initial Conditions

Convection Boundary Condition

Convection boundary
conditions on the two surfaces
of a plane wall

Boundary and Initial Conditions

Radiation Boundary Condition

Radiation boundary conditions on both

surfaces of a plane wall

Boundary and Initial Conditions

Interface Boundary Conditions

Boundary conditions at the interface of two

bodies in perfect contact

Boundary and Initial Conditions

Generalized Boundary Conditions

Conduction in Flat Wall of Slab

Heat flow through a wall is considered
one-dimensional when the temperature
of the wall varies in one direction only
Fouriers law of heat conduction for
the wall
Integrating from x=0, where T(0)=T1, to
x=L, where T(L)=T2

Under steady conditions, the

temperature distribution in a
plane wall is a straight line

Conduction in Flat Wall of Slab

Example: Calculate the heat loss per m2 surface area
for an insulating wall composed of 25.4-mm-thick
fiber insulating board, where inside temp is 352.7 K
and the outside temp is 297.1 K. The thermal
conductivity k of fiber insulating board = 0.048 W/m K.
Solution:
q

k
T1 T2 0.048 (352.7 297.1) 105.1 W m 2
x2 x1
0.0254

Thermal Resistance Concept

Conduction resistance of the wall
Thermal resistance of the wall against
heat conduction.

where

Heat flow

Electric current flow

Thermal resistance of a medium

depends on the geometry and
the thermal properties of the
medium.
For electric current flow
where

is the electric resistance

Analogy between thermal

and electrical resistance
concepts

Thermal Resistance Concept

Convection Resistance

where

Convection resistance of the

surface: Thermal resistance of the
surface against heat convection.

Thermal Resistance Concept

Radiation Resistance

where

is the radiation resistance

is the radiation heat transfer coefficient

Thermal Resistance Concept

Combined Heat Transfer Coefficient

the radiation effect can

properly be accounted for
by replacing h in the
convection resistance
relation by
A surface exposed to the
surrounding air involves
convection and radiation
simultaneously

Thermal Resistance Network

The thermal resistance network for heat transfer through a
plane wall subjected to convection on both sides and the
electrical analogy

Combined
convection and
conduction in
the wall

Thermal Resistance Network

where
The rate of steady heat transfer between two surfaces is equal to the temperature
difference divided by the total thermal resistance between those two surfaces

Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient

It is sometimes convenient to express heat transfer through
a medium in an analogous manner to Newtons law of
cooling as
where

is the overall heat transfer coefficient.

For a unit area, the overall heat transfer coefficient is

equal to the inverse of the total thermal resistance.
Note: We do not need to know the surface temperatures of the
wall in order to evaluate the rate of steady heat transfer through
it. All we need to know is the convection heat transfer
coefficients, thermal conductivity of wall and the fluid
temperatures on both sides of the wall

Multilayer Plane Walls

where

Example: Heat gain through a Single Pane Window

Consider a 0.8 m high and 1.5 m wide glass window with a
thickness of 8 mm and a thermal conductivity, k = 0.78 W/mC.
Determine the steady rate of heat transfer through this glass
window and the temperature of its inner surface for a day during
which the room is maintained at 20C while the temperature of
the outdoors is 30C. Take the heat transfer coefficients on the
inner and outer surfaces of the window to be h1 = 10 W/m2C and
h2 = 40 W/m2C, which includes the effects of radiation.
Solution:

The steady rate of heat transfer

through the window

Example: Heat gain through a Single Pane Window

Since all three resistances are in series,
the total resistance is

= (30-20)/0.1127
= 887.31 W

Generalized Thermal Resistance Networks

where

Generalized Thermal Resistance Networks

Conduction in Various Geometries

Cylinder
Heat is lost from a hot water pipe
to the air outside in the radial
direction
The temperature of the pipe
depends on one direction only (the
radial r-direction) and can be
expressed as T = T(r)
Heat transfer through the pipe can
be modeled as steady and onedimensional

Rewriting Fouriers law

with distance dr instead of dx,
dT
dr
Heat transfer area, A 2rL
r
T2
Q 2 dr

k dT

2L r1 r
T1
q k

Q k

2L
T1 T2
ln(r2 / r1 )

multiplyin g numerator and denominato r by (r2 r1 ),

2L(r2 r1 ) T1 T2
T T
T1 T2
T T
Q k
kAlm 1 2
1 2
ln(r2 / r1 ) (r2 r1 )
r2 r1 (r2 r1 ) /( kAlm )
R
where Alm
and R

(2Lr2 ) (2Lr1 )
A2 A1

ln(2Lr2 / 2Lr1 ) ln( A2 / A1 )

r2 r1 ln(r2 / r1 )

kAlm
2kL

Example: A thick-walled cylindrical tubing of hard rubber

having inside radius 5 mm and outside radius 20 mm is
being used as a cooling coil in a bath. Ice water is flowing
rapidly inside, and the inside wall temp is 274.9 K. The
outside surface temp is 297.1 K. A total of 14.65 W must
be removed from the bath by the cooling coil. How many
m of tubing are needed? The thermal conductivity of hard
rubber is given as 0.151 W/m K.
Solution:
2L(r2 r1 ) T1 T2

Qk
ln(r2 / r1 ) (r2 r1 )

14.65 (0.151)
L 0.964 m

2L(0.005 0.02) 297.1 274.9

ln(0.005 / 0.02) 0.02 0.005

Conduction in Various Geometries

Sphere

Considering the area of sphere as

, substitute in
Fouriers law and integrate to get heat transfer in spheres

Multilayer Cylinders

k A
kA
k A
Q 1 1 lm (T1 T2 ) 2 2 lm (T2 T3 ) 3 3 lm (T3 T4 )
r2 r1
r3 r2
r4 r3

Combined Convection and Conduction and Overall Coefficients

Combined convection and conduction in the cylinders

i
h

wh

wc

Combined Convection and Conduction and Overall Coefficients

Using the procedure, the overall heat transfer rate is
Q

Th Tc
T Tc
h
1 / hi Ai ( ro ri ) / kAlm 1 / ho Ao
R

Q UATm U i Ai Tm U o Ao Tm
where Tm Th Tc ,

ln( Do / Di )
1
1
1
1
1

UA U i Ai U o Ao hi Ai
2 k L
ho Ao

Ai , Ao inside and outside heat transfer areas

U i , U o overall heat transfer coeficints based on inside and outside
surface areas
hi , ho inside (tube - side) convection coefficint and
outside (shell - side) convection coefficint
Alm log mean area of the metal tube wall
Di , Do ( ri , ro ) inside and outside diameters (radii) of the tube
K thermal conductivi ty of the tube wall
L tube length of heat exchanger

Critical Thickness of Insulation

We know that adding more insulation to a wall always
decreases heat transfer. The thicker the insulation, the
lower the heat transfer rate. This is expected, since the
heat transfer area A is constant, and adding insulation
always increases the thermal resistance of the wall
without increasing the convection resistance.
Adding insulation to a cylindrical pipe or a spherical
shell, however, is a different matter. The additional
insulation increases the conduction resistance of the
insulation layer but decreases the convection resistance
of the surface because of the increase in the outer
surface area for convection

Critical Thickness of Insulation

T2

At steady state,

kAlm

Q
(T1 T2 ) hA0 (T2 T )
r2 r1

As the thickness of insulation, r2-r1, increases, T2

decreases, but outside area Ao increases.

Critical Thickness of Insulation

Combining the two rate equations,
The effect of insulation thickness on Q is,

2L(T1 T )

Q
ln(r2 / r1 ) 1

k
r2 h

dQ 2L(T1 T )(1 / r2 k 1 / r22 h)

2
dr2
ln(r2 / r1 ) 1

k
r
h
2

The critical thickness is given by,

dQ 2L(T1 T )(1 / r2 k 1 / r22 h)
k

0 (r2 ) critical
2
dr2
h
ln(r2 / r1 ) 1

k
r
h
2

Conduction Shape Factors

So far, we have considered heat transfer in simple geometries such as large
plane walls, long cylinders, and spheres.
This is because heat transfer in such geometries can be approximated as onedimensional.
But many problems encountered in practice are two- or three-dimensional
and involve rather complicated geometries for which no simple solutions are
available.
An important class of heat transfer problems for which simple solutions are
obtained encompasses those involving two surfaces maintained at constant
temperatures T1 and T2.
The steady rate of heat transfer between these two surfaces is expressed as

Q Sk (T1 T2 )
S: conduction shape factor
k: thermal conductivity of the medium between the surfaces
The conduction shape factor depends on the geometry of the system only
Conduction shape factors are applicable only when heat transfer between
the two surfaces is by conduction.

Transient Conduction

Copper ball

Roast beef

A small copper ball can be modeled as a lumped system,

but a roast beef cannot

Transient Conduction
Lumped parameter model

Rate of heat flow into the Rate of increase of

solid of volume V through internal energy of the solid

boundary surfaces A
of volume V

By writing appropriate mathematical expression for each term

dT (t )
AhT T (t ) c pV
dt

dT (t )
Ah
T (t ) T 0 for t > 0

dt
c pV
subject to the initial condition T (t ) T0 for t 0

For convenienc e in the analysis

define temperature (t) T (t ) T
and m

Ah
c pV

(1)

d (t )
m (t ) 0
dt

for t 0

(2)

initial condition (t ) T0 T 0 for t 0

Equation (2) is an ordinary differential equation for (t) and its

general solution is given as

(t ) Ce mt
Application of initial condition gives integration constant C=0

(t ) T (t ) T

e mt
0
T0 T

T (t ) T
e
T0 T

Ah

c pV

For the lumped parameter model to be valid, internal

conduction must be much faster than convection from the
surface
Solid :
Internal conduction resistance Ls / k s A hLs

External convection resistance

1 / hA
ks
Stirred tank :
Internal convection resistance 1 / hinternal A
h

External convection resistance

1 / hA
hinternal
Volume V
Ls Characteristic Length

Area
A

Biot Number

hLs
Bi
ks

For a plate, cylinder, or a sphere

Bi 0.1
is a reasonable condition for the
application of the lumped model

Example
Quenching of a Steel Plate
A steel plate 1 cm thick is taken from a furnace at 600C and
quenched in a bath of oil at 30C. If the heat transfer
coefficient is estimated to be 400 W/m2 K, how long will it
take for the plate to cool to 100C? Take k, , and c for the
steel as 50 W/m K, 7800 kg/m3, and 450 J/kg K,
Respectively.

7800kg/m3

References
1. Cengel, A. Y. and Ghajar, J. A., Heat and Mass
Transfer: Fundamentals and Applications, 4th
Ed. McGraw Hill 2011.
2. Holman, J. P. Heat Transfer, 10th Ed., McGraw
Hill, 2009.
3. F. P. Incropera, D. P. Dewitt, T. L. Bergman, A.
S. Lavine. Fundamentals of Heat and Mass
Transfer, 6th Ed. Wiley, 2007.