SEATING

SIGHTLINES
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SEATING
SIGHTLINES
CONVERSION OF TERRACING
SEAT TYPES

C o n trib u to rs

Rod Sheard
Ernest Atherden
Tony Sherratt
E d ito r

Simon Inglis
T e c h n ic a l E d ito r a n d I l lu s t r a t o r

Maritz Vandenberg

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ASSOCIATION

Contributors
Introduction-

I CONTENTS

1.0

What are viewing standards for seated spectators?

1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4

How are sightlines calculated?

C Values
Angle of rake
Riser heights

2 .0

How can existing terraces be adapted for seating?

2.1
2.2
2 .3
2 .4
2 .5
2 .6
2.7
2.8

Every case is different

How can terraces be reprofiled to provide good sightlines?
Ground conditions
How will the conversion affect capacity?
Numbers v. comfort
How will the conversion affect the layout of gangways?
How will the conversion affect the layout of turnstiles and exits?
Conversion costs

10

3 .0

What seat dimensions are required?

3 .1
3.2
3 .3
3.4

The seatway, or clearway

Seating row depth
Useful seat depth
Seat width

4 .0

How many seats can be installed between aisles?

4 .1

Current guidelines

5.0

W hat types of seating are available?-------------------------------15

5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4

Bench seats
One-piece seats without backs
One-piece seats with backs
Tip-up seats

--------------------- 13

15

6 .0

What types of seat frame are available?------------------------ 17

6 .1
6.2
6 .3
6 .4

Top tread or nose fixed seats

Tread or floor fixed seats
Riser fixed seats
Tread and riser fixed seats

7.0

What materials and finishes are advised?------------------------ 18

7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5

Seat materials
Seat frame materials
Seat frame finishes
Durability of finishes in different locations
Fixings

8 .0

What colour seats should you choose?-------------------------- 20

8 .1
8 .2
8 .3

Stability
Cost
Colour mixing

9 .0

What flame retardancy standards are required?--------------- 20

9 .1
9 .2

Current standards
Design factors

1 0 .0

Are there any other factors to consider?-

10 .1
10.2
10.3
10.4
10.5
10 .6
10.7
10 .8
10 .9
1 0 .1 0
10 .11
10 .12

Seat strength
Drainage
Ease of cleaning
Vandal-proof fixings
Ability to number seats
After sales service and maintenance contracts
Press box seating
Comfort and event usage
Retractable and demountable seating
Costs
Football Trust grants
Schemes for Football League clubs

21

For ease of reference, a checklist of the

main points in this publication appears
on page 23
For information on how the FSADC can
help you contact professional advisors,
seat manufacturers and suppliers,
see page 24
For information on future FSADC
publications see page 24

The FSADC would like to thank members o f its Architects

Working Pa,rty for assistance in compiling this booklet:
Geraint John (FSADC and Sports Council), Terry Ward
(Husband Design Group) and Stuart Wallace (Miller
Partnership). Additional contributions were made by B ill
Gilson, Duncan MacLean and Jay Parrish. The Courwil is
particularly indebted to the following for their specialised
contributions to the three main sections:
Sightlines: R od Sh ea rd Dip Arch ARIBA ARAIA is a
partner with the Lobb Partnersh ip. He was architect for
Watfords Stanley Rous Stand, in 1986 and Twickenham s
South Stand in 1981. He has also designed a number o f major
qmndsta.vds, stadia,, racecourses and sports facilities in
B ritain and overseas (including Silverstone, New Delhi and
Kuala Lumpur). Other commissions ham taken Sheard to _
sports and recreation centres in Jersey, Goa, UAE, Australia
and Taiwan. A regular speaker and writer on aspects o f
stadium design, he has also been involved with, the IAI(S
European Stadium working party, particularly on matters o f
crowd safety. Examples o f his award winning work ham been
exhibited at the Royal Academy o f Arts, and Sheard is now a
member o f the FSADCs Architects Working Party.
Conversion o f terracing: E rn est A th erd en Dip Arch RIBA is
Senior Partner withAlherden Fuller. Awarded the Rome
Scholarship in Architecture in 1960 he spent time in Italy
studying the noted stadia o f Pierluigi Nervi, before designing
his first grandstand at Manchester Racecourse in 1961. In
1963 Atherden began the first phase o f Old Traffords redevel
opment (in which he was largely responsible for incorporating
the first executive boxes a t a European football ground), and
remains closely involved with the stadium to this day. He has
also designed stands for Wolves (1980), Tottenham (1981) and
Liverpool (1991), and has overseen safety work at Liverpool
and Everton. In 1986Atherden was appointed by Wembley
Stadium to undertake refurbishment o f the stadium. He is also
a member o f the FSADCs Architects Working Party.
Seat types: Tony S h e rra tt BSc represents the British
Association o f Spectator Equipment Suppliers (BASES), a
trade association allied to the B ritish Sports and Allied
Industries Federation. Widely experienced in the manufacture
and design o f stadium seating, he is Managing Director of
Iiille Auditorium Seating Limited, based near Warrington,
and during the last 17 years has been involved at over 30
football grounds. A constant advocate o f quality seating,
Sherratt most recently oversaw the installa tion o f more than
40,000 seats a t Twickenham and Lords.
------------

FI O\ JO\ JT1URr VAT

J SITADT
A
J J IJ
kJ 1 XXLVIX
A T W T Q n i T V TW QTPAT
J

A I ) V llO U J a I

The Football Stadia Advisory Design Council was established

in August 1990 on the recommendation o f Lord Justice Taylor
^
pm d ed j ointiy by fjie Football League and the Football

Association. Its aim, in publishing booklets such as this and

JJJu O lvX L N
by developing further research, is to encourage improvements
r \ T T ~ \ T H TT in standards and a greater awareness o f stadium design. For
( j | I j more information about the FSADC please refer to page 24.

[J

Welcome to the first in a series o f FSADC information booklets

on specialised aspects of stadium design for football
As no-one in the the industry m il need reminding, seating is
one of the principal issues facing football throughout Europe
du ring the 1990s, and while it is not for the FSADC to comment
upon the current debate surrounding the issue, the Council 'is
fully aware o f the difficulties many Football League clubs face
in implementing the Taylor Report1.
A League survey conducted in early 1991 found that some
852,000 seats w ill be required by the 92 clubs in order to con
vert their grou nds to all-seaters. Countless more seats w ill no
doubt be needed in the non-League sector.
Yet even before the Taylor Reports publication in 1990 the
ratio o f seats:standing places was already changing, largely
owing - it is true - to the reduction in terrace capacities, but also
to an increase in the number o f seats provided.
This is particularly true among First Division clubs. In Dec
ember 1990 seats fo m ed an average o f 51.5% o f capacity in the
First Division, compared with 41.6% for the same clubs in 1982.
Comparative figures show a m e in the Second Division from
23% in 1982 to 34.5% in 1990, in the Third Division from 19%
to 29%, and in the Fourth Division from 14.3% to 23%.
The provision of more seating raises a number of other issues,
not least the need at many grounds to build new multi-tiered
stands to maintain reasonable capacity levels and the require
ment to cover seats placed on existing terraces. Both these issues
w ill be tackled in forthcoming FSADC information booklets.
Apart from the obvious problem o f funding the installation of
seats, there appear to be two further dilemmas.
Firstly, the FSADC recognises that for many clubs there is a
conflict between the need to provide as many seats as possible so as not to lose capacity - and the need to provide comfortable
seating. Compromise is inevitable, but it should only ever be as
the result of considered judgm ent by professional advisors.
Uncomfortable or poorly installed seating is less likely to
receive the approval o f supporters, and may even contribute to a
higher level o f damages and ill-behaviour, whereas experience
suggests that the most hardened sceptic can be won over by the
provision o f a comfortable, unhindered view o f the action.
Secondly, experience shorvs repeatedly that although adopting
cheap solutions for seating might seem attractive in the short
term it w ill ultimately prove to be a false economy. This applies
not only to the choice of seat itself but also to the seat frame, its
fixin gs and the preparation o f the seat tread.
This first booklet therefore seeks to guide clubs, architects and
other interested parties through the basics of three main aspects
o f the subject:
viewing standards for seated spectators
the conversion o f terradng to seating
an examination o f available seat types
Each section has been written by experts in the field, taking
into amount the logistical problems facing clubs, but at the same
time recommending, wherever possible, that high standards be
achieved,
For easy reference a summary of recommendations appears on
page 23, follo wed on page 24 by information on how the FSADC
can help with farther advice.
Both the FSADC, and BA SES - which represents the seat
suppliers - hope that the information in this booklet will be of
value to clubs in all sectors o f football, League and non-League,
and welcome any enquiries, comments or suggestions for this, or
any future publications.

INTRODUCTION
1. Inquiry by Lord
Justice Taylor into the
Hillsborough Stadium
Disaster, Final Report,
HMSO Cm 962,
London, Januaiy 1990

1.0 WHAT ARE VIEWING STANDARDS FOR

SEATED SPECTATORS?
It goes without saying that every person
attending a football match should be able to
enjoy an unobstructed view of the event he
or she has paid to see. Unfortunately in
many cases that is an elusive goal, given
the stadium infrastructures we have inherit
ed from previous generations.
However, there can be no excuse for instal
ling new seating which does not meet mini
mum viewing standards. By this, we do not
mean the removal of physical obstructions.
Viewing standards in this case refers to
the ability of the seated spectator to see a
predetermined focal point (on the pitch) over
the top of the head of the spectators sitting
immediately in front. This viewing standard
is often referred to as the 'sightline'.
(Note: Sightlines should not be confused
with viewing distances, the measurement
of how far the spectator is from certain
parts of the pitch. These will be examined in
forthcoming FSADC information booklets.)
It is patently self-defeating to invest in
high-quality seating if spectators cannot see
the game fully and in comfort. And yet false
calculations have often been made by inex
perienced architects and builders, some
times at great cost to the clients and
considerable irritation to the supporters.
The FSADC therefore strongly advises that
clubs employ experienced professionals for
these important calculations, and that
computer analysis is the best way to
perform the task accurately2.

1.1 How are sightlines calculated?

There is a simple mathematical calculation
to work out the sightlines for seated specta
tors, but it becomes complicated once one
realises that the calculation must be made
for every row of seating and for every vari
able which the design throws up, such as
variations in the rake of the stand, the cur
vature of a particular corner, or the height
and depth of the concrete treads and risers.
The basis of the calculation is explained in
Diagram 1 (see next page), which shows
how the formula is derived from simple
trigonometry. The essentials are as follows:

1.2 C Values
An accepted international standard of the
distance between the centre of the eye and
the top of the head is 120mm. This mea
surement is referred to as the C value.
Research by NASA in the USA found that
for 95 per cent of American adult males the
distance between the centre of the eye and
the top of the head is 127mm or less, and
in 5 per cent of adult males 104mm or less.
In some sporting venues, for example

racecourses, where hats are often worn, the

C1value is sometimes increased to 150mm
or even 200mm to ensure good sightlines.
But at a cricket ground, where the action
seldom comes close to the stands, a C
value of 90mm to the outer area of the play
ing field might be acceptable. This is
because we have a tendency to tilt our
heads backwards slightly as the action
moves closer towards us, thus reducing the
distance between the centre of the eye and
the top of our head to only 90mm.
At a football match the action moves to all
parts of the pitch, so ideally every football
stadium would be designed to provide a C
value of 120mm to all parts of the pitch.
But, as Diagram 2 (see next page) illus
trates, a higher C value has consequences
for the rake (or angle) of the stand and its
height, a particular problem for larger stadia,
especially multi-tiered designs. As a result,
in some areas of large stadia it is difficult to
achieve a C value greater than 60mm.
Diagram 3 (page 9) shows how bringing
the touchline nearer to a stand, while main
taining a 'C' value of 120mm, affects the
height of the stand.

1.3 Angle of Rake

The angle of rake is the measurement of
how steeply or gently the stand or terrace
slopes down towards the touchline, and
since this is an important element in
creating good sightlines it is worth under
standing. We will, however, be referring to
the rake of stands in future FSADC publica
tions concerned with stand design.
The ideal football ground would have as
many spectators as close to the action as
possible, but that would entail very steeply
raked stands. Italian codes of practice sug
gest that a stadium rake can be as steep as
41 degrees, and rakes of over 35 degrees
are to be found in North American stadia.
In the UK, however, the angle of rake is
determined by safety limits for staircases.
Before its abolition the GLC set a limit of 35
degrees for stands within its jurisdiction.
The Green Guide currently recommends a
rake of no more than 34 degrees, but this
may be increased if additional compensatory
measures are provided (see Green Guide3
para. 182 pp 38-9).
Rakes of more than 34 degrees can
induce a vertigo effect, and it is noticeable
that in the steeper Italian stadia, handrails
are provided in front of each seat. Shallower
rakes are usually found on lower tiers, with
the upper decks of stands being steeper in
order to accommodate more spectators
closer to the pitch with an acceptable
standard of view.

2. The FSADC is
compiling a register
of professionals with
experience of or
interest in stadium
design. For details of
how to use the
register, please see
page 24.

3. Green Guide - the

Guide to Safety at
Sports Grounds,
HMSO 1990.

Diagram 1. Viewing standards for seated spectators - illustrations of terms

'C' Values
150mm: Excellent
viewing standards

Point of Focus
D = Distance to point of focus
R = Height to point of focus

\z___
V

VALUE

A\

120mm: Veiy good

90mm: Reasonable.
This should be the
minimum for newly
constructed seated
areas
60mm: Below
minimum standards,
only acceptable in
certain sections of
very large stadia.
Spectators will only
be able to see
between heads of
people in front.

RISER HEIGHT
4/
TREAD DEPTH
or Seating
Row Depth

To determine the riser height required for a desired 'C' value, use the calculation
cited on page 9 opposite

Diagram 2. The effect of changing 'C' values

C = 150
6 metres

C = 120
C = 90
C = 60

POINT OF FOCUS - typically near touchline

Notice how higher 'C' values raise the level required at the rear of the stand

The vertigo effect in such upper tiers can

be lessened by reducing the number of rows
in that tier, ie. the steeper the rake, the
shorter the run of treads should be.
Diagram 4 (see below) shows how the
height of a stand is affected by the change
in height of the first row of seats, when at
the same time trying to maintain a C value
of 120mm.

1.4 Riser heights

Viewing standards will be affected by the
riser height of each seating row. In small,
single-tiered stands the riser height will be
constant.
In large and multi-tiered stand the riser
heights should be varied, in order to provide
optimum sightlines for each seat.
For ease of construction designers often
divide the tier into facets (ie. several rows
treated as one), adjusting the riser height
slightly between facets. The difference
between each facets riser height may vary
by only a few mms, but the overall effect on
viewing standards can be quite significant.
The following calculation is used to deter
mine the riser height:

Diagram 5.
Worked example of
calculation for riser
height

= (R t C) X (D -I) _ r
D

Where:
N=
R=
C=
D=

riser height
height between eye and point of focus
viewing standard, ie. the C value
distance from eye to point of focus
(typically the near touchline)
T = tread depth, ie. depth of seating row
Using a typical set of figures (see
Diagram 5), this is how the calculation looks
in practice. Note that this calculation must
be done for every row. (All measurements in
mm):
N = (6 .00 0 + 120) x (20 .0 00 + 8 0 0 ) _ nnn
Note that th e figures
R, D & T for position A

20,000
therefore:

^ _ (6,120) x (20,800) _ @qoo

20,000
therefore:

N = 6 ,3 6 4 .8 - 6,0 0 0

therefore:

N = 364.8m m

Diagram 3. The effect of bringing the point of focus nearer to a stand

6m

'C = 1 2 0

9m

Jfk.

9.2m
7.3m

Moving the point of focus 3m nearer the first

row adds 1.9m to height at rear

POINT OF FOCUS

Diagram 4. The effect of raising the height

of the first row of seats

13m
11.1m

6m

POINT OF FOCUS

34 degree rake

9.2m

Raising the first row provides better viewing

standards, but also has the effect of adding
to the height at rear

are used to determ ine

the riser height N for
position B

2.0 HOW CAN EXISTING TERRACES BE ADAPTED

FOR SEATING?
It should be stressed that the conversion of
standing to seated accommodation is not
confined simply to putting seats onto exist
ing terraces, be they timber or concrete.
Many other factors have to be considered if
the new seating is to conform with all the
necessary criteria (such as correct sight
lines, rakes, gangways etc.)
Clubs intending to embark upon a conver
sion project of this nature should consult
with the local licensing authority (that is the
authority responsible for the issue of the
Safety Certificate under the Safety of Sports
Grounds Act 1975 or the Fire Safety and
Safety of Places of Sport Act 1987).
There should also be an input from the
police and fire authority prior to any con
struction work being undertaken.
It is also important to note that in order to
qualify for grant aid, certain other criteria
must be met.

4. Details from the

Football Trust,
Walkden House,
10 Metton Street,
London NW12EJ.
Tel. 071 388 4504

The Football Trust must be notified with

an accurate estimate and description of
works, followed by three competitive tenders
and approval by the Trust before work
starts4.
The proposed scheme must fall into the
Trusts designated category for funding,
although the conversion of terraces from
standing to seating normally does.
Guidance from the Football Trust should
be sought in any event.

2.1 Eveiy case is different

Convenient though it would be if hard and
fast rules could be laid down for the conver
sion of standing accommodation to seats,
the truth is that conditions vary enormously
from one venue to another.
The following sections seek to cover some
of the most common situations.

2.2 How can terraces be reprofiled to

provide good sightlines?
There are four basic ways to reprofile an
existing terrace to prepare it for seating.
Each one is primarily geared towards pro
viding adequate viewing standards for
seated spectators.
It must be stressed that high standards of
finishing, especially when using concrete,
are absolutely essential for trouble-free seat
installation and subsequent maintenance of
the seats.

10

Note also that because of the reduction in

capacity from standing to seating, the live
load on the terrace or on the stands struc
tural members will also be reduced.

1. If sub-soil conditions allow - ie. the

ground can bear the weight - the terraces
can be reprofiled with mass concrete. (See
Diagram 6 opposite page).
2. Pre-cast concrete units can be used to
the same effect, but solid foundations will
still be required, and there may be lead-in
times to consider (ie. the units will need to
be ordered in advance).
3. Should the existing terrace not be
considered suitable to carry the imposed
dead load of mass or pre-cast concrete, or
where the terrace is very narrow (such as
the enclosure area in front of an old stand),
or where the stand is unlikely to be retained
for much longer, it may be simpler and
cheaper to reprofile using other methods.
These may include the following:
a. lightweight concrete: there are various
methods of producing lightweight concrete,
for example, creating air voids in the con
crete, omitting fine aggregate or adding a
foaming agent to the mix. The most readily
used method is to use lightweight aggre
gate, such as blast furnace slag or fly ash.
b. polystyrene blocks: used more com
monly for building up roadway embank
ments, this method involves creating a brick
or blockwork grid, filling the voids with
specially cut polystyrene blocks (thereby
reducing the dead load) then laying concrete
on top. It is more expensive than using
mass concrete, being more labour intensive.
c. steel plates or GRP (Glass Reinforced
Plastic) terrace units: these can be formed
to provide the required terrace profile and
supported on either a temporary or perma
nent steel substructure fixed upon the exist
ing standing terrace.
4. If the concrete is in prime condition and
the treads and risers allow the new seats to
be bolted directly onto the existing concrete,
the required sightlines can be achieved by
adjusting the height of the seatings metal
underframe.
This is by far the cheapest method of con
verting terraces and providing good sight
lines, but it should only be treated as a last
resort or as a way of simply fine-tuning the
conversion work.
Adjustment should only take place within
the comfortable seating height range.
BASES advises that the British Standard for
seat heights is 445m m s, but it would be
acceptable to vary this within the range
4 4 0 - 460m m s to enable sightlines to be
improved.

Diagram 6. Reprofiling terraces using mass concrete

Existing barrier removed

Riser fixed
tip-up seats
New barrier
Existing
barrier
removed

- *. '
' ; -a%jji
New seated terrace. 'r - ^
1----1---------

Existing
seated
terrace

Existing standing
terrace

I----New drainage channel

2.3 Ground conditions

2.5 Numbers v. comfort

A considerable number of standing terraces

are built on filled ground, the result of a
cut and fill process undertaken when the
stadium was first laid out. Other terraces
have been formed by the dumping of ash,
building rubble, or tube excavations at some
London venues. Some clubs with such bank
ing have found that the sub-soil conditions
are inadequate for remodelling or for adding
roofs.
The surfaces of these terraces also
causes concern. Invariably they are covered
in weak concrete, asphalt, paving slabs or a
combination of materials.
In severe cases, prolonged neglect has
meant these terraces are beyond economic
repair and certainly totally unsuitable for
fixing seats upon.

The two would seem to be mutually

exclusive. Clubs obviously desire maximum
comfort levels. Ultimately a responsible
compromise will have to be reached to
satisfy safety requirements, but it should
not be forgotten that comfortable seating is
more likely to be favourably received (arid
possibly even treated) by sceptics, and that
uncomfortable spectators may not give the
new seats a second chance.

The FSADC strongly urges clubs with

filled banks o f terracing to carry out a thor
ough ground investigation in conjunction
with a Consulting Structural Engineer to
determine the nature of the sub-soil and
establish the load bearing capacity.
Where land fill sites have been used, a
geo-technical expert should also be consulted
to advise on ground contamination prob
lems such as methane gas or toxicity levels
(which could have a detrimental effect on
subsequent concrete constructions).

2.6 How will the conversion affect the

layout of gangways?
Although the numbers will be reduced for
that section of the stadium (see Section
2.4), it is unlikely that there will be suffi
cient access points or vomitories to serve
individual gangways.

Diagram 7. Reprofiling terraces

using concrete infill on treads

2.4 How will the conversion affect

capacity?
Calculations will vary from stadium to
stadium, but from a survey of twelve recent
conversions it has been found that new
seats can be provided in lieu of standing at
the ratio of approximately 1:2 (ie. a terrace
holding 5 ,000 standing spectators will
accommddate 2 ,5 00 seats).

Concrete infill to alternate

s te p s to form new seating
terrace

For riser fixing

the concrete
riser height must
be at least
200mm. See
section 6.3

Note that the provision of more access

points, such as vomitories, is preferable to
the use of lateral gangways, which take up
considerably more space, thus adding to the
reduction in capacity.
Nevertheless, a system of lateral gang
ways may be necessary to achieve an even
distribution of spectators.
Each of these lateral gangways may in
turn serve a number of radial gangways, and
they will need to be of sufficient width to
accommodate the cumulative capacity of all
spectators using this circulation route.
Where possible, avoid a situation where
seats are provided on one side of a gang
way only, as this is not an efficient use of
circulation space.
Diagram 8 (below) shows two relatively
modern terraces which have been converted
and illustrate how radial gangways are fed
either from the front or rear.
Note however that although front lateral
gangways can sometimes assist in satisfy
ing the Green Guide para 3 08 (which recom
mends walkways between the pitch and ter
race), the movement of people along this
gangway during a match can lead to ill feel
ing from spectators in the front rows.
There will be more detailed information
concerning circulation within stadia in future
FSADC booklets.

2.7 How will the conversion affect the

layout of turnstiles and exits?
The numbers of turnstiles and exit widths
should not be a cause for concern because

there is likely to be an overprovision due to

the reduction in spectator capacity.
However, the location of these facilities
can be critical in establishing a satisfactory
circulation pattern for spectators, especially
on large areas of terracing, where entrances
and exits are sometimes grouped in
strategic positions.
It may be necessary in certain circum
stances to consider relocating turnstiles
and exits to achieve a more even distribu
tion relative to the proposed seating layout,
in order to avoid unacceptably long travel
distances and reduce potential bottlenecks
and funnelling.

2.8 Conversion costs

Because ground conditions vary so much it
is impossible to provide an accurate guide
to conversion costs.
A Football League survey showed that
among twelve clubs to have installed seat
ing on former terraced areas during 1990,
the costs (including ground preparation, new
barriers, seat purchase etc) ranged from
approximately 1 8 per seat, where basic
seats were installed on existing terracing,
up to 101 where a whole new turnstile and
entry system had also to be provided for
greater safety.
The majority of costs fell within the 35 75 cost bracket.
Note that the Football Trust provides grant
aid at 75 per cent o f approved expenditure,
up to a ceiling o f 7 0 per seat installation
costs (see Section 10.11).

Diagram 8. Examples of lateral gangway layouts on newly converted terraces

Vomitory

Gangway-

Lateral walkway at front

Vomitory

Lateral walkway at rear

Gangway

12

Diagram 9. Illustration of terms and measurements for tip-up seats

4

Seat width
measured
/-'b e tw e e n
seat
centres

Riser height

A Seat down dimension

B Seatway or Clearway
C Tipped dimension

- F

D Useful seat depth

E Seat back overhang
F Seating row depth
or Tread depth

Seatway
or
Clearway
Seating row
depth or
Tread depth

3.0 WHAT SEAT DIMENSIONS ARE REQUIRED?

The Green Guide covers the subject of seat
ing dimensions on pages 39-40. While
appreciating that clubs wish to install as
many seats as is safely practical, the FSADC
advises that certain minimum dimensions
are too small for comfort, and fall some way
below other international standards. See
Diagram 9 above for an explanation of terms.

3.1 The seatway, or clearway

As can be seen from Diagrams 9 and 10,
the measurement between the foremost
projection of the seat (if a tip-up seat, in the
tipped up position) and the back of the seat
in front is called the 'seatway'. The Green
Guide uses the term 'clearway'. This mea
surement is important for two reasons.
The seatway is the passage along which
spectators and other personnel must
squeeze past other spectators. Obviously,
the narrower the seatway the more difficult
it is to pass by.
A narrow seatway also creates problems
for the occupier of the seat, not only when
standing up to allow others to pass, but
also when sitting.
The Green Guide recommends a minimum
clearway of 305m m . For non tip-up seats,
however, the FSADC recommends a pre
ferred minimum of 400m m

If installing seats with armrests, the pro

jection of the armrests should not lessen the
the 305mm minimum seatway measurement.

Note that in Scotland, different criteria

apply. The Scottish Building Regulations
(E2.63) state that in rows of up to 1 1 seats
with one gangway or 2 2 seats with two
gangways, the minimum seatway must be
400m m . In longer rows the minimum
increases to 500m m . (See also Section 4.)

Diagram 10.
Dimensions for
bench seats
Minimum seating row depth
recommended 700mm.

3.2 Seating row depth

As can be seen from Diagram 9, the depth
of the 'seating row is the depth of the
terrace tread on which the seat is placed.
The Green Guide advises a minimum
seating row depth of 610mm (which
includes the minimum 305mm seatway).
However, the Green Guide goes on to
recommend that for comfort the seating row
depth should be 760mm.
BASES5 recommends the following mini
mum seating row depths and seatway
dimensions. (Note that the seating row
depth always includes the measurement for
the seatway.)
Row depth inc. Seatway
Bench or tractor type
Fixed seat with back
Tip-up seat with back

700mm
900mm
760mm

400mm
400mm
305mm

BASES recommends that for new

construction, wherever the option exists,
clubs aim for a row depth measuring at
least 760mm, and 800m m if at all possible.

Minimum seatway
recommended
400mm

5. BASES {British
Association of
Spectator Equipment
Suppliers),
23 Brighton Road,'
South Croydon,
CR2 6EA.
Tel. 0816811 242.

13

3.3 Useful seat depth

Diagram 11. Sections showing how measurements can
vary between different types of tip-up seats
Example 1. Tip-up seat with a tipped dimension of 320mm, a
seat-down dimension of 500mm and a back overhang of 100mm:

100

320
^ 5 0 0 ^ ^ S e a tw a y ) ^ I

N ^ d e p t f f 3' /

K-

e r r '.

/ _ S e a t i n g ro u t\
depth

Seating Row Depth Seatway Useful Seat Depth

525
305
625
560
340
660
660
440
760*
* FSADC recommended standard

Example 2. Tip-up seat with a tipped dimension of 210mm, a

seat-down dimension of 470mm and a back overhang of 70mm:
70

210
4

Seat way ^

Useful seat
'depth

c:

c:

i
Seating row
depth

Seating Row Depth Seatway Useful Seat Depth

555
415
625
590
450
660
690
550
760*
* FSADC recommended standard

(The equivalent recommendations for

seating row depths in Germany and the USA
are 800mm and 762mm respectively. In
Australia the State of Victoria stipulates a
seating row depth of 850mm.
There is another reason for recommend
ing a seating row depth of 760 - 800mm.
Where riser heights go above 380mm,
which will occur in stadia holding more than
approximately 20,000 spectators, a tread
depth of 760mm or more allows two steps
of 190mm risers to be placed in the aisle
(see Diagram 12 right).

There is a third, crucial dimension which

affects the comfort of seated spectators.
BASES call this dimension the 'useful seat
depth. This is the horizontal distance
between the back of the seat, measured at
seat height, and the rear of the back of the
seat in front (see Diagrams 10 and 11).
The New Metric Handbook (ed. P.Tutt and
D.Adler, Butterworth 1990) found that 90
per cent of males in the 18-40 age group
measure between 568 - 660mm from the
rear of the buttocks to the front of the knee.
The average measurement is cited as
614mm.
In order to cater comfortably for the
majority of spectators therefore - and note
that average sizes are gradually increasing conditions should ideally allow for the provi
sion of a 'useful seat depth' of at least
660mms.
Another factor affecting the 'useful seat
depth' is the height of the riser, since the
position of the knees can be affected by the
height of the back of the seat in front. Riser
heights of up to 200mm or over 400mm do
not usually cause problems, as the knees
either fit inside the back of the seat in
front, or remain above it.
Before purchasing, check all dimensions
with the seat manufacturers because, as
Diagram 11 illustrates, the varying dimen
sions of different seat models will affect the
'useful seat depth created on different
seating row depths.

3.4 Seat width

Seat widths are often expressed in terms of
the distance between two seat centres (see
Diagram 9). The minimum width, according
to the Green Guide, should be 460mm if the
seat has no arms. BASES adds that where
seat-for-seat replacement is being consid
ered, a width of 450mm is acceptable.
The Green Guide minimum for seats with
arms is 500mm. BASES consider that
490mm is acceptable.
Note that when calculating the length of a
row of seats, allowance must be made for
the end of row supporting posts.
For example, ten seats at 460mm
centres require 4600mm plus approximately
75mm (depending on type of seat chosen).

Diagram 12. Riser heights and aisle

steps
Aisle steps
\

Terrace riser

...

Seating row
^ depth ^

4.0 HOW MANY SEATS CAN BE INSTALLED

BETWEEN AISLES?
4.1 Current guidelines
The Green Guide states in para 187: the
number of seats in a row should not normal
ly exceed
a. 14 where there is a gangway at one end
only
b. 28

where there is a gangway at both

ends

The FSADC endorses these figures.

BASES suggest in addition that BS 5588

Part 6 19916 should be the guide where
escape route distances are taken into con
sideration.
Note that in Scotland the number of seats
between aisles has a direct bearing on the
minimum seatway measurement (see
Section 3.1).

6. BS 5588 Part 6
1991: 'Fire precau
tions in the design,
construction and use
of buildings'. HMSO
1991.

(It is interesting to note that this figure of

28 seats per row compares with 22 in the
USA and Australia, 48 in Italy and 96 in
Germany. In English theatres the maximum
is 22 seats per row.)

5.0 WHAT TYPES OF SEATING ARE AVAILABLE?

Ideally clubs should opt for the highest
quality of seat type they can afford.
Practically, however, it may be necessary
to install different seat types in different
parts of the stadium.

5.1 Bench seats

Continuous bench seating without a back
support was sometimes used to provide
cheap seating in British football grounds
before the 1980s and is common at older
stadia in Europe. It usually consists of solid
concrete forms or wooden planks placed on
concrete plinths.
Nowadays, in order to qualify for current
grants from the Football Trust, bench seat
ing must have individual indents to identify
each seating position.
Modern versions, sometimes called multi
ple seats, are available in aluminium or
moulded GRP (Glass Reinforced Plastic),
with, if necessary, a metal underframe
which can be fixed directly onto the terrace.
This type of seating is cheap, easy to clean
the actual seat (though harder to clean
around the underframe) and some would
argue that it is safer because it allows spec
tators to step over the seats in the event of
an emergency.
However, it is also easier for spectators
to stand on bench seats (which in itself is a
danger) and therefore the seat material and
metal frame must be more robust.
Seating of this type should only be consid
ered for the cheapest areas of admission.

5.2 One-piece seats without backs

Individual seats without backs - sometimes
called tractor seats - are available for fix
ing directly onto the terrace tread.
Sometimes an additional metalwork
understructure is necessary to achieve the
correct seat height.

5.3 One-piece seats with backs

As with tractor seats, these can be fixed
directly onto the terrace tread or placed
upon a metal understructure.
They have no moving parts and are there
fore easier to maintain than tip-up seats
with a back.
However one-piece seats with backs take
up considerably more room than either
backless or tip-up seats, requiring a 'seat
ing row depth' of 900mm compared with the
recommended 760mm for tip-up seats (see
Section 3.2, page 14).
In common with tractor seats, these types
are more likely to be stood upon by specta
tors, so they must be strong, but they are
also easy to clean and are cheaper per unit.

5.4 Tip-up seats

This is the most common form of seating in
places of public entertainment and, as a
survey of Football League clubs showed in
1991 (see Introduction), it is also the pre
ferred type of seating at major football
stadia.
This is because tip-up seats take up less
space, are easier to clean around, and allow
spectators, the police and first-aid person
nel to pass more freely along rows, a vital
consideration during an emergency. Tip-up
seats are also less likely to be stood upon
during a game.
A further advantage is that individual
seats can be upgraded by the addition of
fixed cushioning, thus allowing you to pro
vide greater comfort without major outlay.
Note that some manufacturers of tip-up
seats use the same mouldings for both the
seat and the seat back, which can lead to
lower costs and simpler replacement and
maintenance procedures (although some
people may judge there to be a slight loss
of comfort).

J.

Tip-up seats can be supplied either with indi

vidual fixings or linked together using com
mon supporting posts, fixed either to the ter
race tread or to the terrace riser (see
Sections 6.2 - 6.4).
There is a choice of three types of tip-up
arrangement:
1. the spectator must manually
raise the seat after use
2. the seat is counterweighted to
raise automatically
3. the seat is spring-loaded to
raise automatically

The second type is likely to be more prac

tical for general stadium usage. The first
type is not recommended because some
safety officers may determine that the mini
mum 'seatway' of 305mm (see Section 3.1)
be measured when the seat is in the down
position, whereas for types 2 and 3 the
measurement is made with the seat in the
up position (see Green Guide p.39).
When choosing a tip-up seat, examine the
pivot arrangement for noise, ease of use,
and the materials used.
A plastic stop (to prevent the seat drop
ping down) and a nylon pivot bush elimi
nates metal-to-metal contact and thus
reduces the chance of corrosion.

Diagram 13. Different seat types, frames

and methods of fixing

J
C ~ _ "

Front tread or
nose fixedseats
-f T-

Tread fixed seats-

c:
-

J
c:~

Riser fixed seats-

Tread and riser fixed seats

16

6.0 WHAT TYPES OF SEAT FRAMES ARE AVAILABLE?

The choice of seat must be made in con
junction with the choice of seat frame (ie. its
supporting structure).
Time, money and effort could well be saved
by choosing a type of frame which, when
being installed, requires the least amount of
modification work to an existing stand or
terrace.
Obviously space and money will be saved
by installing rows of seats on linked frames
rather than using individual frames for each
seat, but if the terrace on which the seating
is being installed is curved or angled some
individual frames or short-run linked frames
will be necessary.
Diagram 13 on the opposite page shows
how different seat types can be supported
and fixed in the following ways:

6.1 Front tread fixing

Front tread fixing is when the seat pan is
attached directly to the leading edge of the
terrace's concrete tread.
Seats can also be shaped to hug the nos
ing of the terrace.
A concrete step of up to 400mm high is
required to provide a comfortable sitting
position, but lower heights can be supple
mented by the addition of a shallow support
ing understructure.
This type of fixing is most commonly found
in the sunnier climes of Southern Europe
and Latin America, where the stadium ter
races were already designed for spectators
to sit directly upon the concrete.
Note that front tread or nose fixed seats
require a seatway of 400mm compared
with 305mm for tip-up seats. (Section 3.1).

6.2. Tread or floor fixing

Tread or floor fixing is when the seats
frame is attached directly onto the terrace
floor.
This method has the disadvantage of mak
ing it harder to sweep litter from under the
seat. A longer supporting seat post is also
required, and this must be sufficiently
strong to withstand the pressure of specta
tors pushing the seat from behind.
It has also been found with tread or floor
fixed seats that the actual fixings are sus
ceptible to corrosion where poor drainage
allows water to collect on the terrace floor.
This is a particular failing where older, or
poorly maintained terracing is not upgraded
before seats are installed, or where new
concrete has been laid unsatisfactorily.

6.3 Riser fixing

This is the preferred method for fixing tip-up
seats. In this case the seat frame is bolted
to the riser of the terrace, leaving the floor
clear for spectators to step back into and for
litter clearance. However, you can only use
this method of fixing if the terrace riser is
sufficiently high - ie. a minimum of 160mm
for wood risers and 200mm for concrete.

6.4 Combined tread and riser fixing

Where terrace risers are not quite high
enough for riser fixings alone, for example
between 150-200mm in concrete, there is a
compromise version available whereby the
seat fixings are attached to both the riser
and the tread.

17

7.0 WHAT MATERIALS AND FINISHES ARE ADVISED?

For the seat, its supporting frame and its
fixings, a careful choice of materials is
strongly advised. You should take into
account how much wear and tear seats in
certain parts of the stadium are likely to
suffer, how exposed the seats will be to the
elements, and whether it is cost-effective in
the long-term to opt for the cheaper types.
Less robust seating may cost less but
subsequent unit replacement and ongoing
maintenance problems may soon wipe out
the intitial saving.
The material of the seat frame and its
finish are more important than the material
of the seat itself. Choosing high quality fin
ishing can extend the life of the metalwork
by up to five times, and it is far cheaper to
replace the seat than the metalwork. High
quality, well maintained frames may last for
2 0 years or more, whereas it is almost
certain that the seats and backs will need
to be replaced within that period.
The durability of the seat itself depends
on the material chosen.

7.1 Seat materials

The principle materials available for modern
seating are Polypropylene (the most com
mon), Polyethylene, Polyamide (Nylon), PVC
and GRP (Glass Reinforced Plastic).
However, many football and sports
grounds still use wooden seating extensive
ly, and in a few cases metal seating.
Table 1 opposite offers a brief summary of
the advantages and disadvantage of each
material.

7.2 Seat frame materials

These are invariably metallic, usually fabri
cated steelwork, although cast aluminium is
available at a premium price. Technological
advances have resulted in the development
of moulded plastic seat frames, and it is
possible that in time these will become
widely used. At present however the FSADC
is unable to comment on the durability or
performance of this material.

7.3 Seat frame finishes

Apart from the material, the most important
factor is the finish, because this can seri
ously affect the long-term durability of the
seat structure.
A number of finishes for metallic frames
are available, with 'life expectancy to first

maintenance' varying from 1- 20 years,

dependent on location.
There are three recommended finishes:
1. Electrostatically coated nylon powder
2. Hot dip galvanising to BS 729
3. Electrostatically coated nylon powder on
grit blasted, hot-dipped galvanising
Finishes 2 and 3 should be specified
where weathering is likely to occur. Finish 1
could be used at the rear of stands, where
the seats will be more sheltered from the
elements.
Finish 3 is the most expensive and should
be carried out to BS 729, using high quality
steel. The nylon coating adds resistance to
U.V. rays, acid rain, salt and heavy impact.
(An equivalent to nylon coating is acceptable
providing it is shown to be both technically
sound, using the accelerated weathering
test to BS 5466 Part 1, and it forms a bond
to the metalwork which will not peel off if its
surface is broken.)
In both cases, check to find out if a
means of economically maintaining the
metalwork is available,
Note that cheaper finishes are more sus
ceptible to cracking, chipping, rust formation
and peeling, and are much harder to repair.

7.4 Durability of finishes in different

locations
The geographical location of your stadium
will affect the durability of the seat frame.
The weather in inland locations, for
example, will be less damaging to the
metalwork than in humid, damp, polluted or
coastal regions.
Minimum guarantees to first maintenance
of five years on plastic/nylon-coated metal
work, eight years on galvanised metalwork
and ten years on nylon-coated galvanising
should be expected.

7.5 Fixings
The seat frame should be bolted to the con
crete with rustproof fixings. Stainless steel
bolts and fastenings are preferable. They
add little to the cost but considerably
enhance the seats long-term appearance
and ease of maintenance.
Note also the advice in Section 6.2 re:
corrosion of fixings.

TABLE 1. SEAT MATERIALS

In the UK, the most commonly used material for stadium seating is Polypropylene with UV (ultra-violet stabilizers) and absorbers (see first column).
A number of other materials available on the market are compared in the table below, compiled by BASES. Wood and metal are still used, but have
been excluded as they are both uneconomic when compared to plastics. It should be noted that the figures given for the 'raw material cost factor'
are for information only, and do not necessarily reflect unit costs to the buyer.

U.V
Polypropylene

U .V./Fire Retardancy
Polypropylene

U.V. High Density

Polyethylene

Polyamide
(Nylon)

P.V.C
Compound

G.R.P.

Raw material cost

factor

1.0

1.4

1.2

3.2

1.8

approx. 7.0

Availability

Readily available

Limited

Readily available

Limited

Limited

Limited

Colour Range

Very Good

Good

Very Good

Limited

Limited

Very Good

Volume Manufacture

Very Good

Good

Very Good

Good

Good

Very Poor

Flame Retardancy
to BS 5 8 5 2

Ignition Source 0

Ignition Source 7

Ignition Source 0

Selfextinguishes

Selfextinguishes

Selfextinguishes

Reaction to low
temperatures (-5 C)

Brittle

Brittle

Very Good

Very Good

Very Good

Very Good

Reaction to high
tem peratures(+50 C)

Very Good

Very Good

Good

Very Good

Very Good

Very Good

Reclamation and
Recycling

Easy

Moderate

Easy

Moderate

Specialised

None

W eatherabllity

Good

Good

Good

Very Good

Very Good

Very Good

Deformation

Recovers

Recovers

Poor

N/A

N/A

N/A

Number o f years in
production

27

04

20+

19

01

25+

8.0 WHAT COLOUR SEATS SHOULD YOU CHOOSE?

This is obviously a matter of choice, but it
maybe worth considering a few technical quali
ties and different approaches.

8.1 Stability

7. For further
details refer to
BS 1006: B01C 'Blue
Wool Standards'.

Every manufacturer has its own range of

colours, but some colours are more suscepti
ble to fading when exposed to ultra-violet rays
(bright sunlight) and other extremes of weath
er, such as acid rain.
Two factors which affect colour stability are
the colour pigment itself and the level of addi
tives in the mouldings.
To ensure that the best colour pigments are
chosen for the location in question, light fast
ness (ie. resistance to fading) is measured on
what is called a Blue Wool Scale7. A perfor
mance of 7 or 8 on this scale should indicate
that a colour pigment will not fade too rapidly.
To ensure that the colour will last even
longer - although no guarantees can be given
because conditions vary, even within the
same stadium - additives are necessary,
namely UV stabilizer and absorber.
Full strength colours (eg. red, blue, black
and green) are more stable than pastel varia
tions (such as pink and sky blue). Vet sky blue
has excellent anti-glare characteristics under
floodlight.
Clubs who include black in their team
colours may be interested to note that of all
the colours, black is the best for colour stabili
ty and for weatherability. Yellow and orange
are not good for stability.

8.2 Cost
Costs vary according to colour. Choosing a

non-standard colour may lead to delays in

delivery and a premium being charged.
Similarly, you may have to pay more if you
order smaller quantities.
Members of the Football League should
refer to Section 10.12 to find out more about
the Leagues plans for bulk purchase.

8.3 Colour mixing

Apart from the now common use of multi
coloured seats to spell out a clubs name, dif
ferent seat colours can be used to differenti
ate between blocks in the same stand. This
may be considered a useful aid for ticketing
and signage. A disadvantage of this system is
that if the stadium is only half full the different
colours detract from the overall impression of
the stadium.
In several large stadia in Europe and the
USA the same seat colour has been provided
throughout, to create a unified, and often dig
nified image overall. Very often this single
colour is a neutral one - such as grey - so that
the spectators provide the colour, rather than
the seats. Very light colours, however, can be
hard on the eye if there is only a small crowd.
In Sweden, where attendances can be low,
one stadium has used random colour seats
(mainly blue, orange, red and yellow), which
uncannily gives the speckled appearance of
a full stand, even when few people are in
attendance!
Note also the comments of one manager
who complained that during reserve games,
from his position in the dug-out he was unable
to distinguish his own players against the
backdrop of the empty seats, since the seats
and players shirts matched exactly.

9.0 WHAT FLAME RETARDANCY STANDARDS

ARE REQUIRED?
Unfortunately Fire Officers interpret flame
retardancy to different standards throughout
the country, so clubs should be sure to
establish what standards apply before pur
chasing seats. Note also that not only the
material of the seat but also its design
affects the standard of flame retardance.

9.1 Current standards

20

A minimum Ignition Source 0 of BS 5852

Part 1 should be acceptable, especially
where the seats are attached to concrete.
Upholstered seating should comply with
Ignition Source 5 of BS 5852 Part 2 , as
stated in the Green Guide, para 184.
There are plastic products available which
meet the higher flame retardancy standards
of Ignition Source 5 of BS 5852 Part 2 and
which also have colour stability against UV
rays and weather. At present, however, the

choice of colours is limited in these materi

als and there is a price premium to pay.
Note also that some fire officers believe
that the use of flame retardant additives
means that when the seat does finally ignite
it can produce dangerous toxic fumes,
including bromides and carbon monoxide.
Check with your Fire Officer first.

9.2 Design factors

Some manufacturers feel that when it
comes to testing for flame retardance the
design of the seat itself is at least as criti
cal as the material used. Double skin forms
(ie. blow moulded) with rounded or smooth
edges are, according to this view, preferable
to those with plain edges. Again however,
there is a price to pay. Blow moulded seats
are 50-100% more expensive than conven
tional injection moulded seats.

10.0 ARE THERE ANY OTHER FACTORS TO CONSIDER?

So far we have covered the main points
which must considered before purchasing
seats for outdoor stadia.
Here are some other factors worth taking
into account.

10.1 Seat strength

There may be a minority of spectators who
abuse the new seating you install in certain
parts of the stadium. It is vital, therefore,
that you feel confident that your chosen
seat model has been rigorously tested.
It has been learnt from experience that
manufacturers' tests tend to be unrealistic
and do not simulate the heavy usage to
which stadium seats are often subjected.
One standard to look for is that of the
Furniture Industry Research Association
(FIRA) 8.
Seats deemed suitable for use in a stadi
um environment should have satisfied
FIRAs test strength requirements, which are
based on BS 487 5 Part 1 to rating 5,

10.2 Drainage
Fixed seats exposed to the elements will
collect rain water unless provided with drain
holes or shaped in such a way as to drain
automatically.

10.3 Ease of cleaning

The fewer fixings, the easier it will be to
clean under the seats. But the finish of the
seat itself is also a factor. Textured sur
faces will be harder to keep clean, while
smooth surfaces can show scratchmarks.

10.6 After sales service and

maintenance contracts
Most reputable manufacturers will offer
these, or will be able to advise groundstaff
on seat maintenance. Clubs should also
consider how many extra seats and parts to
keep in reserve, especially if non-standard
colours have been chosen.

10.7 Press box seating

Several ranges of seats available can be
supplied with integrated writing shelves or
tablets for use in the press box.
However, before purchasing it would be
worth contacting your regular press box
users to determine how much space they
may need for computers, monitors, tele
phones etc.
It is hoped to deal more fully with media
facilities in future FSADC publications.
Note that the requirement for a minimum
seatway of 305mm applies in this case to
the distance between the rearmost projec
tion of the shelf and the front of the seat
(see Diagram 14 below).

8. FIRA, Maxwell
House, Stevenage,
Herts, SGI 2EW.
Tel. 0438 313433

Diagram 14. Press box seating options

Seatway must be min. 305mm

Free-standing shelf
Integrated
shelf

10.4 Vandal-proof fixings

cr.
No seat is totally vandal proof, but obviously
the fewer vulnerable points the better.
Self-tipping seats make it harder for the
seat to be stood upon. A robust frame under
the seat shell will also minimise damages.
It may be a false economy to provide
cheaper seats in those areas of the stadium
where vandalism may occur.

10.5 Ability to number seats

In order to qualify for Football Trust grants,
individual seats must be identifiable. It is
therefore important to use a system of
numbering which will be easily read and,
being within a recessed disc, will stand up
to regular wear and tear.
No painting of numbers should be
required with a modern seating system.
Check also if the seating system has any
facility for row numbers or letters to be
attached to the end seat, if required.

10.8 Comfort and event usage

Upholstered versions of standard seats are
widely available, while some clubs may wish
to upgrade their existing standard seating
with the addition of back pads and cushions
or full covers.
Armrests cannot usually be added to exist
ing standard seats.
If the stadium is to be used for events
other than football - for example, pop
concerts, American football, public gather
ings - it may be worth considering higher
grade seats in sections where customers
will sit for a longer period than 90 minutes,
perhaps at higher admission prices.

21

10.9 Retractable and demountable

seating
This is unlikely to be an issue for most
clubs. However, retractable and demount
able seating is widely used in North America
and in indoor arenas, and clubs may find it
worthwhile to investigate their use, for exam
ple for placing over athletics tracks, or in
front of stands being rebuilt.
Note that the addition of temporary seat
ing must not compromise the viewing stan
dards of existing stands or terraces.

10.10 Costs
It is impossible for the FSADC to provide a
comprehensive or accurate list of prices for
different types of seating, but a list of sup
pliers of stadium seating is available from
the FSADC office. See page 24 for details.

10.11 Football Trust Grants

The Football Trust has made the following
statement on its policy concerning grants for
seating:
'The Football Trust offers grant aid on
seating, as with all its grant schemes, on
the lowest approved tender received.
That does not mean, however, that only
the cheapest solutions should be sought. It
is for the football club to select appropriate
companies from whom to secure quotations.
The Trust expects that in making their
choice clubs will have regard to the quality
and value for money represented by the
product.
'The Trust wishes to see good quality,
comfortable seating installed at football
grounds. For this reason it has set its level
of support for approved expenditure on
sealing at 75% and, following an investiga
tion by its nominated surveyors, fixed a

ceiling of 70 for each individual seat

installed. This includes the cost of the seat
and any other approved work required for
installation.
As with all projects related to the imple
mentation of the Taylor Report, the Trust
expects clubs to take into account the
requirements of the Football Licensing
Authority and the advice of the FSADC.

10.12 Schemes for Football League

clubs
Football League clubs should already be
aware of a plan to bulk-purchase certain
items, including seats. For further informa
tion on this scheme contact:
Football League Services Division,
Stadium House,
Two Rivers,
Station Lane,
Witney,
Oxon. 0X8 6BH
Tel. 09 9 3 776633.
Fax. 0993 706505
Help towards the cost of converting terraces
to seated areas (although not the cost of
the seats themselves) is also available from
the Jewson Family Enclosure Grant scheme.
To qualify for aid, the seated area must be
part of a family enclosure, and the building
materials must be purchased from a branch
of Jewsons. For further details contact:
Steve Sutherland,
Commercial and Marketing Dept.,
Football League,
Winchester House,
259-269 Old Marylebone Road,
London NW1 5RA
Tel. 071 224 9944
Fax. 071 723 2792

>1

11. SUMMARY OF POINTS

1. Viewing standards
The FSADC recommends these be calcu
lated by experienced professionals. A 'C'
value of 120mm is ideal, with a minimum of
90mm for new constructions. The angle of
rake should not exceed 3 4 . Riser heights
need to be carefully calculated for each row,
according to the given formula.

2. Adapting terraces for seating

Consult Football Trust and local licensing
authority first. Choose method of reprofil
ing, taking into account ground conditions
and budget. Expect terrace capacity to be
halved, but don't ignore comfort.
Vomitories, gangways, turnstiles and exits
may need to be adapted. Costs are likely
to fall between 35-75 per seat.

3. Seat dimensions
Seatway, or clearway, should be minimum
of 305mm for tip-up seats, 400mm for fixed
seats. In Scotland these dimensions may
need to be increased. Seating row depth
should be at least 760mm for new construc
tions. Different models of tip-up seats
have different dimensions, thus affecting
the resultant seatway dimension and useful
seat dimension. Average male in sitting
position measures 614mm from front of
knee to rear of buttocks. BASES recom
mends therefore a minimum useful seat
dimension of 660mm. Seat width should
be minimum 460mm (or 490mm with arms).

ease of cleaning, but require risers of

160mm (wood) and 200mm (concrete).
Tread fixed seats harder to clean and sus
ceptible to corrosion. Front tread fixing
needs riser of up to 400mm or shallow
understructure.

7. Materials and finishes

Material and finish of seat frame far more
important than material of seat. Most
common seat material is Polypropylene with
ultra-violet stabilisers and absorbers. Nylon,
PVC and GRP more durable. Most durable
but costliest finish for seat frame is electro
statically coated nylon powder on grit-blast
ed, hot-dipped galvanised metal.
Nylon coating onto steel may be accept
able for seat frames in a dry environment
(not humid or damp) and under cover, away
from sunlight and rain. Seat frame fixings
should be stainless steel.

8. Colour
Colour stability against UV rays and weath
er extremes is affected by the choice of
colour pigment and the level of additives in
the moulding. Colour should be fade-resistant to 7 or 8 on the Blue Wool Scale.
Non-standard colours are more costly.

9. Flame retardancy standards

Minimum ignition source 0 of BS 5852
Part 1 should be acceptable, or if uphol
stered ignition source 5 of BS 5852 Part 2.
Always check with local Fire Officer first.

4. Numbers of seats per row

10. Other factors
No more than 14 if gangway at one end
only, 28 if gangways at both ends.

5. Seat types
Tip-up design with counterweighted seat,
plastic pivot and nylon pivot bush prefer
able. Bench seats only suitable for cheap
est areas of admission and must have indi
vidual indent to qualify for grant aid.
One piece seats with or without backs
economical, but former take up more room.

6. Seat frames
Linked frames cheaper than individual.
Riser fixed seat frames preferable for

Seat should conform to the Furniture

Industry Research Association (FIRA)
Strength Test, based on BS 4875 part 1 to
rating 5 - suitable for use in stadium envi
ronment. Seat should drain automatically,
be easy to clean, have vandal-proof fixings
and a numeral indent. The range of seat
ing should be adaptable for use in press
boxes, and where necessary, to offer com
fort for other event usage. Grants are
available from the Football Trust, and for
Football League clubs from the Jewson
Family Initiative Scheme. Football League
clubs may wish to consider the Bulk
Purchase Scheme being run by the FL
Services Division.

23

FOOTBALL STADIA
ADVISORY DESIGN
COUNCIL
'...to provide an authoritative source of knowledge for all those involved in the design
and construction of stadia...'
Report of th e Technical Working Party for Lord Justice Taylors Final Report

Serving the needs of football

In August 1990 the Football Association and the Football League combined to implement
Lord Justice Taylor's recommendation that an Advisory Design Council be set up. The
Council's aim is to encourage higher standards of stadium design, promote wider
knowledge and foster research
The Council's Chairman is Gwilym Roberts CBE, F.Eng., Chairman of Acer Group Ltd
and a past President of the Institution of Civil Engineers.
The five members are: Prof. Leonard Maunder OBE, F.Eng. (Dept, of Mechanical
Engineering, University of Newcastle), Dr. Chris Nicholson PhD, C.Eng, MIM (Deputy
Director at the Research & Laboratory Services Division, Health and Safety Executive),
Geraint John (Chief Architect & Head of Technical Unit for Sport at the Sports Council),
Alan Butterfield FRICS, FIHT, ACI Arb (Senior Partner at George Corderoy & Co) and
Simon Inglis (journalist, author and member of the Football Licensing Authority).
The Council's Executive Officer is Christine Gausden, MCIOB, to whom all enquiries
should be made at the address below.
The Council is privileged to draw upon the expertise of experienced individuals who
form both its Architects Working Party and Engineers Working Party. Both groups will play
a leading role in the drawing up of future publications, as will numerous other experts
and organisations whose support for the FSADC's aims is greatly appreciated.

Publications
If you would like to receive notice of all FSADC publications, or would like to order
further copies of this booklet, please apply in writing to the Executive Officer. Cheques
for 1 2 .5 0 (inc. p&p) should be made payable to the FSADC.
Forthcoming titles for 1991 include the following topics:
Feasibility Studies
Turf Systems
Stadia Costs

Communication Systems Toilets

Roofing Steelwork
Police Facilities
Appointment of Professional Advisors
Planning Regulations and Applications
Legal Issues

The FSADC is also drawing up a selective Bibliography, comprising references to major

publications, journals, papers, standards and regulations relating to football stadia and
their design. Publication is planned for Autumn 1991.

Register
The FSADC is in the process of compiling a register of consultants, manufacturers and
suppliers with experience of, or interest in, all stages of stadium design, listed under
their areas of specialisation. Extracts from this register will be freely available, on
request, to all members of the Football League and Football Association. Outside bodies
will be asked to pay a search fee.
If you wish your company to be included on the FSADC register and have not yet
received registration forms, please contact the Executive Officer at the address below.

24

The Football Stadia Advisory Design Council,

Winchester House,259 - 269 Old Marylebone Road,
London NW1 5RA
Tel. 0 7 1 2 2 4 9944
Fax. 071 723 2792