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Ans. When a vapour is in contact with the surface whose temperature t5 is lower than the
saturation temperature that corresponding to the vapour pressure then the gaseous or vapour
phase changes to liquid state with the liberation of heat from the vapour. This process is called
condensation and the heat flow during condensation process takes place from vapour to the
surface.
promoters inhibit wetting and promote drop wise condensation. Common examples of promoters
areSilicons, Teflons, waxes and fatty acids.
Q. 5.4. Prove that average heat transfer coefficient is 4 / 3 times the local heat transfer
coefficient at trailing edge of plate during laminar film condensation on tl vertical
plate/Based on Nusselt theory of laminar film condensation on vertical plate prove that
average heat transfer coefficient = 4 / 3 times local heat transfer coefficient at trailing edge.
State assumptions made in the above derivation.
Ans. Assumptions
1. Liquid film is in good thermal contact with the cooling surface and therefore temperature at
the inside of the film is taken equal to the surface temperature
The condensate film is so thin that a linear temperature variation exit between the plate surface
and vapour conditions.
2. Further temperature at the outer surface of the film is taken equal to the saturation temperature
3. The physical parameters like thermal conductivity k density p dynamic viscosity of the
condensate film are independent of temperature.
4. The condensing vapour is entirely clean and free from gases.
5. Radiation between vapour and liquid film is neglected.
6. Horizontal component of velocity at any point in liquid film and the curvature of film is
neglected
7. Inertia forces appearing in the condensate film are neglected.
Upon simplification,
Integrating twice
Therefore the velocity distribution through the film is prescribed by the following
parabolic relationship
The mean flow the velocity V of the liquid film at a distance x from the top edge
can be determined from the expression.
The mass flow is thus a function of x; this is so because the film thickness 6 is
essentially dependent upon x.
An increase in the mass flow rate of condensation during downward flow of condensate from x
to x + dx can be worked out by differentiating equation IV with
respect to x or d.
Heat flux : The heat rate into the film, dQ, equal the rate of energy release due to
condensation at the surface. Thus,
Evidently the film thickness increases as the fourth root of distance down the surfaces; the
increase is rather rapid at the upper end of tt vertical surface and slow there after.
Film heat transfer coefficient: Nusselt had presumed that heat flow from the vapour to the
surface is by conduction through the liquid film, i.e.,
Where Ii is the local heat transfer coefficient. It follows from these experiment that
Thus at a definite point on the heat transfer surface, the film coefficient h is directly proportional
to thermal conductivity k and inversely proportional to thickness of film 6 at that point.
Substituting the value of film thickness 6 from equation (VIII)
Undoubtedly the rate of condensation heat transfer is higher at the upper end of the plate than at
the lower end.
By integrating the local value of conductance (equation X) over the entire length l of the plate,
we get the average heat transfer coefficient;
where h1 is the local heat transfer coefficient at the lower edge of the plate.
Then it follows from equation (IX) that
where 6(l) is the film thickness at the lower end of the plate. Obviously the average
heat transfer coefficient is 4/3 times the local heat transfer coefficient at the trailing
edge of the plate.
Equation (XII) is usually written in the form,
The Nusselt solution derived above is an approximate one because of the assumptions admitted
in the statement of the problem. Experimental results have shown that the Nusselt equation is
conservative, it yields results which are approximately 20% lower than the measured values.
Accordingly, use of a value of 1.13 in place of the coefficient 0.943 has been recommended by
Mc. Adams.
The transition from laminar to turbulent flow occurs at a critical Reynold no of 1800. When
turbulence sets in, the condensate film nv longer offers high thermal resistance and so it results in
increased convective coefficients. Kirkbride suggested the following correlation for the average
heat transfer coefficient:
In the turbulent region, the average film coefficient increases with distance 1 because of the
eddies which promote convection.
For Re > 1800
(ii) Banks of horizontal tubes: For a vertical tier of n-horizontal tubes, the average convection
coefficient for film condensation is
where the equivalent tube diameter D, of the tube bank is the sum of outside-tube
diameter in a vertical column of the tube bank pattern.
For n-tubes in a vertical column of the tube bank pattern, De = nD where I) is the
diameter of a single tube in the bank.
A reduction in the film coefficient with increasing n may be attributed to an irrease in the average
film thickness for each successive tube due to accumuIatioi of drip from the upper tubes.
Obviously it is advantageous to stagger the tubes (Fig. 5) as the accumulation of drip from the
upper rows is at least partially offset by the splashing effects, i.e., by the agitation caused by the
drip as it falls from o tube to another.
Ans. Boiling is the convective heat transfer process that involves a phase change from liquid to
vapour state. Boiling is achieved when the temperature of the surface over which liquid flows is
maintained at a temperature above the saturation temperature of the liquid Applications of
boiling process
1. Production of steam in nuclear and steam power plants for generation and for industrial
processes and space heating.
2. Absorption of heat in refrigeration and air conditioning system.
3. Distillation and refining of liquids.
4. Dehydration and drying of foods and materials.
(b) Bubbles forms on heated surface but gets condensed in the liquid after detatching from the
surface.
(c) Bubbles form, break away from the heated surface and do not condense in the liquid surface.
These bubbles rise to liquid surface and are directly expelled to vapour space and that helps rapid
evaporation.
The nucleation boiling is thus characterised by formation of bubbles at the nucleation sites and
the bubble agitation induces considerable fluid mixing and that promotes substantial increase in
heat flux and the boiling heat transfer coefficient
3. Film boiling : The bubble formation is very rapid leading to the formation of blanket over the
heating surface thereby preventing the incoming fresh liquid from taking their place. The bubbles
eventually coalesce to form a vapour film which covers the surface completely. Insulating effect
of the vapour film (due to its low thermal conductivity) overshadows the beneficial effect of
liquid agitation and consequently the heat flux drops with growth in temperature excess. With in
the temperature range 50 <At < 150, conditions oscillate between nucleate and film boiling and
this phase is referred to as unstable film boiling or partial film boiling. Eventually the
temperature difference (t t) becomes so large that radiant heat flux becomes significant and
heat flux curve begins to rise upward with increasing temperature excess. That marks the region
of stable film boiling. The phenomena of stable film boiling is referred to as Leidenfrost effect.
2. Bubble grows in size and pushes the layer of superheated liquid away from the heated surface.
3. Top of the bubble comes in contact with the cooler liquid which has the tendency to arrest the
bubble growth.
4. Bubble grows to a size where it looses more heat to cooler liquid than it gains by conduction
from the heated surface and so it begins to collapse.
5. As the bubble collapses, the cooler liquid gains velocity to fill in the bubble volume.
6. Bubble suffers a total collapse and the inertia of cooler liquid bring it into contact with 11w
heating surface.
7. Eventually the cooler liquid gets heated above the saturation temperature and another cycle of
bubble form formation and collapse begins.
The burnout point corresponds to the point of maximum heat flux on the boiling curve
and the transition from nucleate to film boiling occurs at burnout point.
The maximum heat flux corresponding to burnout point is called critical heat flux and the
corresponding temperature excess is termed as critical temperature difference.
The boiling process remains in unstable state beyond the burnout point.
With increase in temperature excess the heat That decreases and this process is continued
until a point is reached where boiling conditions gets stabilized and is in equilibrium, but
at that point temperature excess is so high that surface temperature exceeds the
temperature limit of wall material and burnout (structural damage and failure) fo wall
occurs.
Q. 5.11. Derive the equilibrium relationship between the bubble radius and amount of
super heat.
Ans. Consider a spherical bubble with various forces acting on it.
Let
= vapour pressure inside the bubble
= liquid pressure surrounding the bubble
= Temperature of vapour corresponding to vapour pressure
= Temperature of liquid surrounding the bubble
= Saturation temperature of vapour inside the bubble
= Effective gas constant for vapour
= Latent heat of vaporisation.
Various forces acting on the spherical bubble are:
(ii) The surface tension a of the vapour liquid interface acts on the interface length 2rr and the
surface tension force equals 2irru.
Under equilibrium conditions, the pressure force is balanced by the surface tension
force. Thus
The vapour may be approximated as a perfect gas for which the Clayperon equation
is:
Considering a non-condenseble gas inside the bubble exerting a pressure Pgi then
This is the equilibrium relationship between the bubble radius and the amount of
Water heat.
The bubble diameter Db at the time of detachment from the surface can be worked
mat from the relation proposed by Fritz:
where fi is the angle of contact and the empirical coastant Cd has the value 0.0148
water bubbles.
Substituting
= h1 x 1.152
i.e., there is an increase of 15.2% in the convection coefficient.
Example 5.2. (a) A plate condenser was designed to be kept vertical. How would the
condensatioe coefficient be effected if due to site constraints, it has to be kept at 600 to the
horizontal?
(b) A plate condenser of dimensions 1 x b has been designed to be kept with side 1 in the
vertical position. However due to oversight during erection and installation, it was fixed
with side b vertical. How would this affect the heat transfer ? Assume laminar conditions
and same thermo-physical properties in both cases and take b = 1/2.
(c) Determine the length of a 25 cm outer diameter tube if the condensate formed on the
surface of the tube is to be same whether it is kept vertical horizontal.
For inclined flat surfaces, the gravity acceleration g is replaced by g sin 6 where 8
is the inclination angle with the horizontal. Then
Comments : The condensation coefficient and accordingly heat flow increases when the shorter
side is kept vertical. For better condensation, the condensers should be installed with shorter side
vertical.
(c) For laminar film, condensation on a vertical tube
For equal amount of condensation, the heat transfer rate and accordingly
condensation coefficient should be same for the horizontal and vertical orientations. In that case
Example 5.3. (a) For condensing conditions, compare the condensation rate
when a 6.5 cm diameter and 1.25 m long pipe is kept (1) horizontally and (ii) vertically.
Assume that other conditions remain same.
(b) For condensing conditions, compare the values of convective heat transfer coefficients
over a pipe of diameter with that of two pipes having the same total circumference when (i)
both pipes are horizontal and parallel and (ii) the pipes lie one over the other. Assume that
other conditions remain same.
Solution. (a) For vertical position
Obviously horizontal positioning provides 61% more heat transfer. This may be
attributed to larger film thickness with increase in length. Accordingly condensers are generally
of horizontal type.
(b) The average heat transfer coefficient for vapour condensation on a horizontal tube is given by
= 100C
= 571.55cm = 5.72 m .
Example 5.5 Saturated steam at atmospheric pressure condenses on the outer surface of a
vertical tube of lngth 1 m and outer diameter 75 mm. The tube wall is maintained at a
uniform surface temperature of 40 C by the flow of cooling water inside the tube. Estimate
the steam condensation rate and the heat transfer rate to the tube. What water flow rate
will result in 0.5C temperature difference of water between the outlet and inlet of pipe ?
Also calculate the flow Reynolds number to check the assumption of laminar flow
conditions.
Solution. For saturated vapour at atmospheric pressure,
= 2.354 x m = 0.2354 mm
The average heat transfer coefficient is,
i.
Heat transfer,
ans
Example 5.6. A 0.5 m square plate is exposed to dry saturated steam at 0.08 bar. If surface
of the plate is to be maintained at 18.5 C, make calculation for the (a) film thickness, local
heat transfer coefficient and mean flow velocity of condensate at 25 cm from the top of
plate, (b) average heat transfer coefficient for the entire plate and (c) total steam
condensate rate and the total heat transfer rate to the plate.
What change, if any, would result in the average heat transfer coefficient if the
plate is inclined at 60C to the vertical plane?
Solution. For saturated vapour at 0.08 bar
2 = 30C the