Faculty of Engineering

University of Wollongong

APPLIED FINITE ELEMENT

ANALYSIS FOR CIVIL ENGINEERS
CIVL491/980
Course Notes for Part 1

A/Prof Alex Remennikov

Autumn Semester 2014

LECTURE 1
The objective of this Lecture is to introduce you to basic concepts in finite element
formulation. The main topics in this session will include the following:

Solution of engineering problems

Numerical methods
A brief history of the Finite Element Method (FEM)
Basic steps in the Finite Element Method
Verification of results
Understanding the problem

Learning objectives:
At the end of this session, you should be:

1.1

Aware of the aims and content of the course

Aware of the course resources and their location
Aware of the assessment procedure
Familiar with basic steps required to perform finite element analysis
Familiar with the role of finite element analysis in the engineering design
cycle
Aware that a good understanding of the fundamental concepts of the finite
element method will benefit you by enabling to use STRAND7 more
effectively.

INTRODUCTION

The finite element method is a numerical procedure that can be used to obtain
solutions to a large class of engineering problems involving stress analysis, heat
transfer, and fluid flow. This course is designed to help you gain a clear
understanding of the fundamental concepts of finite element modelling. Having a
clear understanding of the basic concepts will enable you to use general-purpose
finite element software, such as STRAND7 and SpaceGass, more effectively.
Practical use of these computer packages is an integral part of this course. The
relevant basic theory behind each fundamental concept will be discussed first. The
discussion is followed by examples that are solved manually and then the results
are verified against your findings from finite element analysis (FEA). It is our hope
that this course will serve as a starting point for future design engineers who are
beginning to get involved in finite element modelling and need to know the
underlying concepts of FEA.

1.2

ENGINNERING PROBLEMS

In general, engineering problems are mathematical models of physical situations.

Mathematical models are represented by differential equations with a set of

corresponding boundary and initial conditions. The differential equations are

derived by applying the fundamental laws and principles of nature (conservation of
mass, conservation of momentum) to an analysed system. These governing
equations represent balance of mass, force, or energy. The analytical solutions are
composed of two parts: (1) a homogenous solution and (2) a particular solution. In
any given engineering problem, there are two sets of parameters that influence the
way in which a system behaves. First, there are parameters that provide
information regarding the natural behaviour of a given system. These parameters
include physical properties such as elasticity, thermal conductivity, and viscosity.
Table 1.1 below gives the physical properties that are required to characterise the
natural characteristics of various engineering systems.

Table 1.1

Problem Type

Physical Properties That

Characterise a System

Modulus of elasticity, E

Modulus of elasticity, E

Modulus of elasticity, E;
Moment of inertia, I

Thermal conductivity, K

On the other hand, there are parameters that produce disturbances in a system.
Examples of these parameters include external forces, moments, temperature
difference across a medium, and pressure difference in fluid mechanics. These
types of parameters are shown in Table 1.2.
Table 1.2
Problem Type
Solid Mechanics

Parameters causing disturbances

in engineering systems
External forces and moments;
support excitation; support
settlement

Heat Transfer

Temperature difference; heat input

Fluid Flow

Pressure difference; rate of flow

Electrical Network

Voltage difference

The system characteristics as shown in Table 1.1 dictate the natural behaviour of a
system, and they always appear in the homogenous part of the solution of a
governing differential equation. In contrast, the parameters that cause the
disturbances appear in the particular solution. It is important to understand the role
of these parameters in finite element modelling in terms of their respective
appearances in stiffness and load (or forcing) matrices. The system characteristics
will always show up in the stiffness matrix or resistance matrix, whereas the
disturbance parameters will always appear in the load matrix.

1.3

NUMERICAL METHODS

There are many practical engineering problems for which we cannot obtain exact
solutions. This inability to obtain an exact solution may be attributed to either the
complex nature of governing differential equations or the difficulties that arise from
dealing with the boundary and initial conditions. To deal with such problems, we
resort to numerical approximations. In contrast to analytical solutions, which show
the exact behaviour of a system at any point within the system, numerical solutions
approximate exact solutions only at discrete points, called nodes. At this point, it is
recommended to dig out and look at the Lecture Notes for CIVL392 Engineering
Computing 2.
The first step of any numerical procedure is discretisation. This process divides the
medium of interest into a number of small subregions and nodes. There are two
common classes of numerical methods:
1. finite difference methods, and
2. finite element methods
With finite difference methods, the differential equation is written for each node,
and the derivatives are replaced by finite difference equations. This approach

results in a set of simultaneous linear equations. Although finite difference methods

are easy to understand and employ in simple problems, they become difficult to
apply to problems with complex geometries or complex boundary conditions.
In contrast, the finite element method uses integral formulations rather that finite
difference equations to create a system of algebraic equations. Moreover, an
approximate continuous function is assumed to represent the solution for each
element. The complete solution is then generated by connecting or assembling the
individual solutions, allowing for continuity at the interelemental boundaries.
Classification of structural analysis techniques in relation to the methods employed
is demonstrated in Figure 1.1:

Structural Analysis

Analytical
Methods

Numerical
Methods

Differential Equations
Methods

Energy
Methods

Finite
Difference
Method
Figure 1.1

Numerical
Integration
Method

Discrete Element
Methods

Stiffness
Method

Flexibility
Method

Classification of structural analysis techniques

Discrete element methods (matrix method) assume the structure consists of a finite
number of elements joined at nodes. The behaviour of a single element is analysed
using the basic methods of structural analysis or energy methods, allowing the
contributions of all the elements to be assembled together to give a set of
simultaneous equations, which can be solved using matrix algebra. This method
can readily deal with complex structures and is ideally suited for computer
programming.
Matrix methods may be further classified for discrete (or skeletal) structures as:

The flexibility (force) method that solves for the internal forces in terms of
unknown displacements.

The stiffness (displacement) method that solves for the displacements in

terms of unknown forces.

The finite element method may be thought of as being numerical integration

technique, which is simply an extension of the stiffness matrix method to
continuous structures, which was developed in the late 1940s and early 1950s, at
the same time as the emergence of the digital computer.

1.4

A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE FINITE ELEMENT METHOD

Finite Element Method was first developed in 1943 by R.Courant, who utilised the
Ritz method of numerical analysis and minimisation of variational calculus to obtain
approximate solutions to vibration problems. The next significant step in the
utilisation of finite element methods was taken by Boeing in the 1950s when
Boeing, followed by others, used triangular stress elements to model airplane
wings. Yet, it was not until 1960 that R.Clough made the term finite element
popular. During the 1960s, investigators began to apply the finite element method
to other areas of engineering, such as heat transfer and seepage flow problems.
Zienkewicz wrote the first book entirely devoted to the finite element method in
1967.
By early 1970s, FEA was limited to expensive mainframe computers generally
owned by the aeronautics, automotive, defence, and nuclear industries. Since the
rapid decline in the cost of computers and the phenomenal increase in computing
power, FEA has been developed to an incredible precision. Present day
supercomputers are now able to produce accurate results for all kinds of
engineering problems.

1.5

WHAT IS FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS?

FEA constitutes a part of the overall engineering design cycle. Figure 1.2 shows
how finite element analysis fits in the design cycle, with computer aided design and
with manufacturing and testing. FEA includes a computer model of a material or
design that is stressed and analysed for specific results. It is used for new product
design as well as for refinement of existing products.
There are generally two types of analysis that are used in industry: 2-D modelling,
and 3-D modelling. While 2-D modelling conserves simplicity and allows the
analysis to be performed on a relatively slow computer, it tends to yield less
accurate results. 3-D modelling, however, produces more accurate results while
sacrificing the ability to run on all but the fastest computers effectively. Depending
on the nature of a problem at hand, FEA can be linear or non-linear. Linear
systems are far less complex and generally do not take into account plastic
deformation. Non-linear systems do account for plastic deformation, and many also
capable of testing a material all the way to fracture.
FEA has become a solution to the task of predicting failure due to unknown
stresses by showing critical areas in a material and allowing designers to see all of
the theoretical stresses within the object. This method of product design and testing

is far superior to the manufacturing costs, which would accrue if each sample was
actually built and tested.

CONCEPT
CAD
DESIGN
CAE
ANALYSIS

TESTING
CAM
MANUFACTURING
Figure 1.2

1.6

The Engineering Design Cycle

BASIC STEPS IN THE FINITE ELEMENT METHOD

The basic steps involved in any finite element analysis consist of the following:
Pre-processing Phase
1. Create and discretise the solution domain into finite elements; that is,
subdivide the problem into nodes and elements.
2. Assume a shape function to represent the physical behaviour of an element;
that is, an approximate continuous function is assumed to represent the
solution of an element.
3. Develop equations for an element.
4. Assemble the elements to represent the entire problem. Construct the global
stiffness matrix.
5. Apply boundary conditions, initial conditions, and loading.
Solution Phase
6. Solve a set of linear or non-linear algebraic simultaneous equations to obtain
nodal results, such as nodal displacements or nodal temperatures in a heat
transfer problem.
Post-processing Phase

7. Obtain other important information. At this point, the analyst may be

interested in values of principal stresses, axial forces and bending moments,
damage distribution, etc.
In a large software package the analysis portion is accompanied by the preprocessor and post-processor portions of the software. There also exist standalone pre- and post-processors (e.g., FEMAP, PATRAN, TrueGrid, HyperMesh)
that can communicate with other large programs (e.g., NASTRAN, ANSYS,
ABAQUS). Specific procedures of pre and post are different in different
programs. Learning to use them is often a matter of trial, assisted by tutorials,
manuals, and on-line documentation. Fluency with pre- and post-processors is
helpful to the user but is unrelated to the accuracy of FE results produced.

1.7

VERIFICATION OF RESULTS

In recent years, the use of finite element analysis as a design tool has grown
rapidly. Easy-to-use finite element analysis packages such as STRAND7 have
become a common tool in hands of design engineers. Unfortunately, many
engineers without the proper training or solid understanding of the underlying
concepts have been using finite element analysis. Engineers who use finite
element analysis must understand the limitations of the finite element procedures.
There are various sources of error that can contribute to incorrect results. They
include:
1. Wrong input data, such as physical properties and dimensions
This mistake can be corrected by simply listing and verifying physical
properties and coordinates of nodes before processing any further with the
analyses.
2. Selecting inappropriate types of elements
Understanding the underlying theory will benefit you the most in this respect.
You need to fully grasp the limitations of a given type of element and
understand to which type of problems it applies.
3. Poor element shape and size after meshing
This area is very important part of any finite element analysis. Inappropriate
element shape and size will influence the accuracy of your results. It is
important that the user understands the principles of developing a suitable
finite element mesh and the mesh refinement techniques.
4. Applying wrong boundary conditions and loads
This step is usually the most difficult aspect of FE modelling. It involves
taking an actual problem and estimating the loading and the appropriate
boundary conditions for a finite element model. This step requires good
judgement and some experience.
You must always find ways to check your results. While experimental testing of
your model may be the best way to do it, it may be expensive or time consuming.
Indeed experimenting with mesh density and distribution, element type etc. may be
an important part of the verification process. You should always start by applying

equilibrium conditions to different portions of a model to ensure that the physical

laws are not violated. For example, for static models, the sum of the forces acting
on a free body diagram of your model must be zero. This concept will allow you to
check for the accuracy of computed internal forces and reactions. You may
consider defining and mapping stresses along an arbitrary cross section and
integrating this information. The resultant internal forces computed in this way must
balance against external forces. One of the lectures in this course will be devoted
entirely to verifying the results of your finite element models.

1.7

IMPORTANCE OF UNDERSTANDING THE PROBLEM

You can save a lot of time and money if you first spend a little time with a piece of
paper and a pencil trying to understand the problem you are planning to analyse.
Before starting finite element modelling using a computer, try to develop a feel for
the problem. A good engineer would try to intuitively predict structural behaviour
and ask such questions as: Is the problem linear or non-linear? Is the material
under axial loading? Is the body under bending moments or twisting moments or
their combination? Do you need to worry about buckling? Can we approximate the
behaviour of the material with a two-dimensional model? If you choose to employ
FEA, back-of-the-envelope calculations will greatly enhance your understanding
of the problem, in turn helping you to develop a good, reasonable finite element
model.

Figure 1.3

Example of a good finite element mesh