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ENGINEERING MECHANICS LECTURE NOTES:

Topic:IntroductionoftheConceptofForce.

CHANGEINPOSITION:

Toknowforcewell,firstwehavetounderstandwhatdowemeanbyChange.Whatdoesitmeanwhenwesaythepositionofthebodyhasbeenchanged?
Wheneverwefindthestateofobjectbecomesdifferentthanthatofthesameobjectbeforesometimesayt,thenwesaythatthereexistsachangeinthe
stateoftheobject.Supposethechangeoccursinthepositionofthebody.Buttofindtheinitialpositionofabody,weneedacoordinatesystem.

THECAUSEOFCHANGE:

Ithasbeenseenthattoinducedachangeortomakeachangeinthepositionofanobjectwemusthavetochangetheenergypossessbythebody.To
transferenergyintotheobjectweshallhavetoapplyFORCEonthebody.ThereforeForceistheagencythatmakesachangeinpositionofabody.

THECONCLUSION:GALILEO'SLAWOFINERTIAORNEWTON'SFIRSTLAWOFMOTION.

So,ifthereisnoforceonanobjectthepositionoftheobjectwon'tchangewithrespecttotime.Itmeansifabodyatrestwouldremainatrestandabodyat
uniformmotionwouldremaininasteadymotion.ThislawisknownasGalileo'sLawofInertiaorNewton'sfirstlawofmotion.

Topic:FORCESYSTEM

Q:WHATISAFORCESYSTEM?CLASSIFYTHEMWITHEXAMPLES.

ANSWER:

Aforcesystemmaybedefinedasasystemwheremorethanoneforceactonthebody.Itmeansthatwhenevermultipleforces
actonabody,wetermtheforcesasaforcesystem.Wecanfurtherclassifyforcesystemintodifferentsubcategoriesdependinguponthenatureofforces

andthepointofapplicationoftheforces.

Differenttypesofforcesystem:

(i)COPLANARFORCES:

Iftwoormoreforcesrestonaplane,thentheyarecalledcoplanarforces.Therearemanywaysinwhichforcescanbemanipulated.Itisofteneasierto
workwithalarge,complicatedsystemofforcesbyreducingitaneverdecreasingnumberofsmallerproblems.Thisiscalledthe"resolution"offorcesor
forcesystems.Thisisonewaytosimplifywhatmayotherwiseseemtobeanimpossiblesystemofforcesactingonabody.Certainsystemsofforcesare
easiertoresolvethanothers.Coplanarforcesystemshavealltheforcesactingininoneplane.Theymaybeconcurrent,parallel,nonconcurrentornon
parallel.Allofthesesystemscanberesolvedbyusinggraphicstaticsoralgebra.

(ii)CONCURRENTFORCES:

AconcurrentcoplanarforcesystemisasystemoftwoormoreforceswhoselinesofactionALLintersectatacommonpoint.However,allofthe
individualvectorsmightnotactuallybeincontactwiththecommonpoint.Thesearethemostsimpleforcesystemstoresolvewithanyoneofmany
graphicaloralgebraicoptions.Ifthelineofactionsoftwoormoreforcespassesthroughacertainpointsimultaneouslythentheyarecalledconcurrent
forces.Concurrentforcesmayormaynotbecoplanar.

(iii)LIKEFORCES:

Aparallelcoplanarforcesystemconsistsoftwoormoreforceswhoselinesofactionareallparalleltooneanother.Thisiscommonlythesituationwhen
simplebeamsareanalyzedundergravityloads.Thesecanbesolvedgraphically,butarecombinedmosteasilyusingalgebraicmethods.Ifthelinesof
actionoftwoormoreforcesareparalleltoeachother,theyarecalledparallelforcesandiftheirdirectionsaresame,thentheyarecalledLIKEFORCES.

(iv)UNLIKEFORCES:

Iftheparallelforcesaresuchthattheirdirectionsareoppositetoeachother,thentheyaretermedas"UNLIKEFORCE".

Formorenotesonforcesystemclickhere

(v)NONCOPLANARFORCES:

Thelastillustrationisofa"nonconcurrentandnonparallelsystem".Thisconsistsofanumberofvectorsthatdonotmeetatasinglepointandnoneof
themareparallel.Thesesystemsareessentiallyajumbleofforcesandtakeconsiderablecaretoresolve.

Q.)WHATISFORCEADDITION?WHATARETHEOPERATIONSOFFORCE?

A.)Forceisavectorquantity.Ithasmagnitudeandaswellasdirection.Likeothervectorstwoforcescanbeadded,oraforcecanbesubstitutedfrom
anotherforce,ormaybeaforcecanbemultipliedbyscalarsaswellasanothervector.Unlikescalarquantities,twovectorcan'tbeaddedarithmatically,
theymustbegeometricallyadded.Supposewehaveaforce10kNactingonaparticletowardseast,andsupposeanotherforceof10kNisactingtowards
north.Weknowthat10kgmass+10kgmass=20kgmass,buthereforcesof10kNtowardseastand10kNtowardsnorth,whenaddedproducesa
resultantofmagnitude=10*sqrt(2)=14.14kN.

Toaddtwoforcesactingonaplaneweuse
(i)Triangle'sLawand
(ii)ParalellogramLaw.

Incaseofmorethantwoforcesexist,thenweuseforceresolutionmethodtofindtheresultant.

clickonthequestiontogettheanswer

QUESTION:WHATISARESULTANTOFAFORCESYSTEM?

ANSWER:Wehavealreadydiscussedaboutadditionoftwoforcesonaplanebyeither
(i)Triangle'sLawor
(ii)ParalellogramLaw.

Formorethantwovectorsweuse

(iii)PolygonLawofForceAddition.
(iv)ForceResolutionMethod.

TheresultantofaforcesystemistheForcewhichproducessameeffectasthecombinedforcesoftheforcesystemwoulddo.Soifwereplaceallthe
combinedforcesoftheforcesystemwoulddo.Soifwereplaceallcomponentsoftheforcebytheresultantforce,thentherewillbenochangeineffect.

TheResultantofaforcesystemisavectoradditionofallthecomponentsoftheforcesystem.Themagnitudeaswellasdirectionofaresultantcanbe
measuredthroughanalyticalmethod.AlmostanysystemofknownforcescanberesolvedintoasingleforcecalledaresultantforceorsimplyaResultant.
Theresultantisarepresentativeforcewhichhasthesameeffectonthebodyasthegroupofforcesitreplaces.(Acoupleisanexceptiontothis)It,asone
singleforce,canrepresentanynumberofforcesandisveryusefulwhenresolvingmultiplegroupsofforces.Onecanprogressivelyresolvepairsorsmall
groupsofforcesintoresultants.Thenanotherresultantoftheresultantscanbefoundandsoonuntilalloftheforceshavebeencombinedintooneforce.
Thisisonewaytosavetimewiththetedious"bookkeeping"involvedwithalargenumberofindividualforces.Resultantscanbedeterminedboth
graphicallyandalgebraically.

TheParallelogramMethodandtheTriangleMethodareusedtofindtheresultantofaforcesystem.Itisimportanttonotethatforanygivensystemof
forces,thereisonlyoneresultant.

Q:WHATISACOMPONENTOFAFORCE?WHATISFORCERESOLUTION?

ANSWER:Itisoftenconvenienttodecomposeasingleforceintotwodistinctforces.Theseforces,whenactingtogether,havethesameexternaleffecton
abodyastheoriginalforce.Theyareknownascomponents.Findingthecomponentsofaforcecanbeviewedastheconverseoffindingaresultant.There
areaninfinitenumberofcomponentstoanysingleforce.And,thecorrectchoiceofthepairtorepresentaforcedependsuponthemostconvenient
geometry.Forsimplicity,themostconvenientisoftenthecoordinateaxisofastructure.

AforcecanberepresentedasapairofcomponentsthatcorrespondwiththeXandYaxis.Theseareknownastherectangularcomponentsofaforce.
Rectangularcomponentscanbethoughtofasthetwosidesofarightanglewhichareatninetydegreestoeachother.Theresultantofthesecomponentsis
thehypotenuseofthetriangle.Therectangularcomponentsforanyforcecanbefoundwithtrigonometricalrelationships:

componentofaforceFalongXaxisisFx=Fcosand
componentalongYaxisisFy=Fsin.

numericals

EXTRANOTE:Whenforcesarebeingrepresentedasvectors,itisimportanttoshouldshowacleardistinctionbetweenaresultantanditscomponents.
Theresultantcouldbeshownwithcolororasadashedlineandthecomponentsassolidlines,orviceversa.NEVERrepresenttheresultantinthesame
graphicwayasitscomponents.

TheStepstofindaResultantofaforcesystem:(forconcurrentforces)

STEP1:

RESOLVEALLTHECOMPONENTFORCESALONGXAXISANDYAXIS.

IfaforceFactsonanobjectatananglewiththepositiveXaxis,thenitscomponentalongXaxisis Fx=Fcos,andthatalongYaxisisFy=Fsin.

STEP2:

AddalltheXcomponentsorHorizontalcomponentsanditisdenotedbyFx.AddalltheYcomponentsanddenoteitasFy.

STEP3:

MAGNITUDEOFTHERESULTANTRwillbeequaltothesquarerootofthesumofsquareofFxandFy.

STEP4:

DIRECTIONOFTHERESULTANT()

equalstothetaninverseof(Fx/Fy).

EQUILIBRANT:

Anyconcurrentsetofforces,notinequilibrium,canbeputintoastateofequilibriumbyasingleforce.ThisforceiscalledtheEquilibrant.Itisequalin
magnitude,oppositeinsenseandcolinearwiththeresultant.Whenthisforceisaddedtotheforcesystem,thesumofalloftheforcesisequaltozero.A
nonconcurrentoraparallelforcesystemcanactuallybeinequilibriumwithrespecttoalloftheforces,butnotbeinequilibriumwithrespecttomoments.

[EXTRANOTE:GraphicStaticsandgraphicalmethodsofforceresolutionweredevelopedbeforetheturnofthecenturybyKarlCulmann.Theywerethe
onlymethodsofstructuralanalysisformanyyears.Thesemethodscanhelptodevelopanintuitiveunderstandingoftheactionoftheforces.Today,the
AlgebraicMethodisconsideredtobemoreapplicabletostructuraldesign.Despitethis,graphicalmethodsareaveryeasywaytogetaquickanswerfora
structuraldesignproblemandcanaidinthedeterminationofstructuralform.]

QUESTION:WHATISSTATICEQUILIBRIUM?
Whataretheconditionsofstaticequilibriumfor
(i)concurrentforcesystem
(i)coplanarnonconcurrentforcesystem?

Ans:Abodyissaidtobeinequilibriumwhenthereisnochangeinpositionaswellasnorotationexistonthebody.Sotobeinequilibriumprocess,there
mustnotbeanykindofmotionsietheremustnotbeanykindoftranslationalmotionaswellasrotationalmotion.

Wealsoknowthattohavealineartranslationalmotionweneedanetforceactingontheobjecttowardsthedirectionofmotion,againtoinduceanany
kindofrotationalmotion,anetmomentmustexistsactingonthebody.Furtheritcanbesaidthatanykindofcomplexmotioncanberesolvedintoa
translationalmotioncoupledwitharotatingmotion.

Thereforeabodysubjectedtoaforcesystemwouldbeatrestifandonlyifthenetforceaswellasthenetmomentonthebodybezero.Thereforethe
generalconditionofanysystemtobeinstaticequilibriumwehavetosatisfytwoconditions

(i)Netforceonthebodymustbezeroie,Fi=0;
(ii)Netmomentonthebodymustbezeroie,Mo=0.

NowwecanapplythesegeneralconditionstodifferenttypesofForceSystem.

So,forConcurrentforcesystem,theequilibriumconditionsareasfollows
(i)Fx=0;(ii)Fy=0
andforcoplanarnonconcurrentforcesystem,theequilibriumconditionsareasfollows
(i)Fx=0;(ii)Fy=0;(iii)Mi=0

MOMENTONAPLANE:

Foraforcesystemthetotalresultantmomentaboutanyarbitrarypointduetotheindividualforcesareequaltothemomentproducedbytheresultantabout
thesamepoint.Nowifthesystemisatequilibriumcondition,thentheresultantforcewouldbezero.Hence,themomentproducedbytheresultantabout
anyarbitrarypointiszero.Incaseofcoplanar&concurrentforcesystem,astheforcesareconcurrenti.e.eachoftheforcepassesthroughacommonpoint,
hencemomentsproducebythesethreeforcesabouttheconcurrentpointwouldbezero.Butincaseofnonconcurrentforcesthetotalmomentswouldbe
zeroonlywhenthebodyisinequilibrium.

WhatisMomentumofaMass?

Momentumisaphysicalquantity.Itisassociatedwithmotion.Infactanyobjectinmotionissaidtohaveamomentum.Amassatastaticequilibrium
doeshaveazerovalue.Asithasadirectionaswellasmagnitude,itisavectorquantity.Themagnitudeofmomentumofanobjectisequaltothemassof
theobjectmultipliedbythemagnitudeoftheobject'svelocity.Itisdenotedby(P).Hence,P=mV
wherem=massoftheobjectandV=velocityoftheobject.Therefore,thedirectionofmomentumwillbethedirectionofvelocityitself.

3)WHATAREDIFFERENTTYPESOFJOINTS?Discussthemindetails.

Answer:TheConceptsofJoints.InEngineeringterminologyanyforcecarryinglinearmemberiscalledaslinks.Linkscanbeattachedtoeachotherbythe
fastenersorjoints.Hence,wecansaytopreventtherelativemotionbetweentwolinkscompletelyorpartiallyweusefastenersorjoints.

Basicallytherearethreetypesofjointswhichweshalldiscussandtheyarenamedas,
(i)pin/hingedjoints,(ii)rollerjointsand(iii)fixedjoints.

Theyareclassifiedaccordingtothedegreesoffreedomofthelinkstheywouldallow.Likeapinorhingejointisconsistedoftwolinksjoinedbythe
insertionofapinatthepivothole.Apinjointdoesn'tallowverticalorhorizontalrelativevelocitiesbetweenthetwolinks.

Forbetterunderstandingofthemechanismofpinjointwewouldliketomakeasimplesttypeofpinjoints.Supposewewouldtaketwolinksandmake
holesatoneoftheendsofeachlink.Nowifweinsertaboltthroughtheholesofboththelinks,thenwhatwegetisanexampleofpin/hingejoints.

Apinjointalthoughrestrictsanykindofhorizontalorverticaldisplacementbuttheycannotrestrictrotationaboutanaxispassingthroughthehole,in
clockwiseoranticlockwisedirection.Henceitprovidestworeactionsoneverticalandonehorizontaltorestrictanykindofmovementalongthat
direction.

4)WHATISMOMENT?Differentiatebetweenmoment,torqueandcouple.AlsostateandproveVARIGNON'stheoremofmoments.

WheneverweapplyforceonarigidbodyatapointotherthanitsCenterofMass,thebodyexhibitarotationalmotionaboutthecenterofmassotherthana
translationalmotion.Whereasthetranslationalmotionisthereduetotheapplicationofforceontheobject,therotationalmotionisthereduetoeccentric
applicationofforceatapointawayfromthecenterofmass.Butifweapplyforceatthecenterofthemass,thennorotationaltendencyhasbeenobserved.
Itisalsoobservedthatthelongeristhedistancebetweenthecenterofmassandthepointofapplicationofforce,largeristhemagnitudeofrotation.The
physicalquantitythatisresponsibleformotionistermedasMoment.ItisdenotedbyMandMisavectorquantityasithasdirection,eitherclockwiseor
anticlockwise.So,ifaforceFactatapointddistancefromthecenterofmass,thenthetotalmomentproducedaboutthecenterofmassisthevectorcross
productofthepositionvectoroftheforce,andtheforceitself.

M=dXF()

Therefore,sameforcewouldproducedifferentmagnitudesofrevolutionrateandasrateofrevolutiondependsuponMoment,itshouldproducedifferent
magnitudesofMoments.Theaxisaboutwhichaforcetriestorotateanobject,iscalledcenterofrotationaswellasitistheaxisofmomentalso.Tofind
themomentproducedbyaforceaboutapoint(O)intheplane,weneedtomultiplythemagnitudeoftheforceandtheperpendiculardistanceofthelineof
actionoftheforcefromthepoint(O).

WHATISCENTROID?EXPLAINITINYOURWORDS.

ThewordCentroidisusedtodenotethecenterofacertainarea.But,thenonemayquestion,whatdoesitmeanwhenwesayaparticularpoint,sayGisthe

centroidofaspecificarea.Weshallexplaintheconceptsusingfigurestomakethepointcrystalclear!
Supposeina3DcoordinatesystemwetakealaminaonXYplane.

LetthetotalareaAbedividedinto(n)numbersofpartsanddenotethemasA1,A2,A3,.....An.Let'stakeanelementalarea(Ai)isat(Xi)distancefromY
axis,andat(Yi)fromXaxis.

Hence,themomentoftheareaAiaboutXaxisisAiYiandaboutYaxisthemomentwillbeAiXi.So,thetotalmoment(M)ofthetotalarea(A)willbethe
totalsumofthesetinymoments.Now,weshallintroduceanabstractideathatifallthearea(A)isconcentratedatapoint(P)whosecoordinates
are(x,y)sothatitproducethesameeffectonthesurroundingsheretheeffectsaremomentsaboutXaxisandYaxis.

5)Whatarebeams?Classifythemproperly.Whatissupportreactions?

BEAM:Abeamisastructuregenerallyahorizontalstructureonrigidsupportsanditcarriesmainlyverticalloads.Therefore,beamsareakindofload
bearingstructures.

Dependinguponthetypesofsupportsbeamscanbeclassifiedintodifferentcategories.

CANTILEVERBEAMS:

Abeamcanbeatstableequilibriumwithasinglefixedsupportatoneendandtheotherendremainsfree,whichiscalledasthefreeendwhiletheother
endisknownasfixedend.ThiskindofbeamisknownasCantileverbeam.Thefixedjointatthefixedendproducesahorizontal,averticalreactionsand
areactionmomentatthefixedend.

SIMPLYSUPPORTEDBEAM:

Abeamsupportedasjustrestingfreelyonthewallsorcolumnsatitsbothendsisknownassimplysupportedbeam.Therewillbetwoverticallyupward
reactionsattheendsofasimplysupportedbeam.Asimplysupportedbeamcannotresistanyhorizontalloadcomponent.

OVERHANGINGBEAM:

Abeamhavingitsendportionorboththeendportionsextendedintheformofacantileverbeyondthesupportorsupportsiscalledasoverhanging
beam.

Abovethosebeamsarestaticallydeterminate.Itmeansthatthosebeamscanbeanalysedapplyingtheconditionsofequilibrium.Wecandeterminethe
valuesoftheunknownreactions.

Therearebeamswhichcannotbeanalysedapplyingtheconditionsofequilibriumofcoplanarforces.Thesebeamsarealsoknownasstatically
indeterminatestructures.

Thosetypesofbeamscanbeclassifiedas,

FixedbeamsandContinuousbeams.

FixedBeam:Abeamhavingtwofixedjointsatthebothendsiscalledfixedbeam.

ContinuousBeam:Thebeamwhichisatrestonmorethantwosupportsiscalledascontinuousbeam.

6)Statecoulomb'slawofdryfriction.Explainthefollowingterms
(i)coefficientsofstaticanddynamicfriction
(ii)angleoffriction
(iii)angleofrepose
(iv)limitingfriction

CONCEPTSOFFRICTION......:

Whenevertwobodiesareincontactwitheachother,theyexertaforceRtoeachother.TheforceRiscalledasContactReaction.Thereexistsanatural
phenomenonassociatedwithtwobodiesincontact.Ithasbeenseenthatwhenthetwobodiesareinstaticconditionrelativetoeachother,everything
remainsasnormalphenomenonasthereexisttwoequalandoppositenormalreactionwillactatthecontactsurface.But,wheneverwetrytomakea
relativemotionbetweenthosetwobodies,anamazingthingoccurs,a"phantomforce"suddenlypopsupbetweenthebodiesactingonthecontactsurface
whosesolepurposeofcreationistoopposeanyrelativemotionbetweenthosetwoobjects.Althoughtheexactreasonsbehindthegenerationofthisforce

isnotknown,butthereexiststwoseparatemodelsoforiginoffriction,noneofthemareconfirmed,althoughbothofthemareusedtoexplainthemost
possiblereasonbehindthesuddengenerationofthisoppositeforceorwemayevencallitResistanceForce.But,onethingissurelyconfirmedfromthe
standardmodelofparticlephysicsandthatisbetweenfourtypesoffundamentalforces,onlyelectromagneticforceisresponsibleforthegenerationof
frictionalforce.

7)(i)WhatisShearForceandBendingMoment?
(ii)WhatdoyouunderstandbySFDandBMD?

Ans:VerticalforcesthatactonahorizontalbeamismainlytermedasShearForce.Whereasmomentsproducedbythoseforcesonthebeamis
statetheworkingproceduretodrawthem.

8)Whatisfreebodydiagram(FBD)?Explainwithanexample.

9)Whatispointofcontraflexure?

10)Whatisthedifferencebetweentrussandframes?
Explaindifferenttypesoftrusswithproperillustration.

11)Whatissimplestressandstrain?Comparethestressstraingraphsforductileandbrittlematerials.

12)Whatisstrainenergyandresilience.explainimpactloading?Provethatforthesameloading,stressinducedduetoimpactloadingistwiceof
thestressinducedduetograduallyappliedload.

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