Dhanvantari College of Engineering, Nashik

Meteorology Quality Control

T.E. Mechanical
SEM - II
Chapter 4

LIMITS, FITS, GAUGES

INTERCHANGEABILITY
When only a few assemblies are to be made, the correct fits between the parts are made
by controlling thee sizes while machining the parts by matching them with their mating parts.
The actual sizes of parts may vary from assembly to assembly to such an extent that a given
part can fit only in its own assembly.
Such a method of manufacture takes more time and will therefore increase the cost.
There
re will also be problems when parts need to be replaced. Modern production therefore is
based on the concept of interchangeability. When one component will assemble properly with
any mating component, both being chosen at random, then this is interchangeable
interchangea
manufacture. It is the uniformity of size of the components produced which ensures
interchangeability.

TOLERANCE
Uniformity of size is needed to ensure inerhangeability.. The question now is
uniformity to what degree of accuracy ? The answer is fo
found
und by examining the fact that a
given pair of mating parts functions quite satisfactorily even when the allowance is changed
from a certain minimum value to other maximum value. This flexibility can be utillised for
economizing the production by allowing the component sizes to very to such an extent that
the allowance limits are not crossed. Thus each component is specified with minimum and
maximum limits. The difference between the minimum and maximum limits is termed as
Tolerance.

Fig. 4.1: Limits, tolerance and allowance

Tolerance may be specified on one side of the size e.g. 25 mm. + 0.00 which is
called as unilateral tolerance. Alternatively the 0.01

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tolerance can be specified on both sides of the size e.g. 25 mm. 0.01 which is called
bilateral tolerance.
Fig. 4.1 shows tolerances on hole and shaft and its effect on the allowance.

HOLE BASIS AND SHAFT BASIS

The limit system covered in IS 919 is a general system convering wide variety
of holes and shafts. Manufacturing
Manufacturing organization may adopt their own systems. The various
fits may be obtained by keeping the hole constant and varying the shaft sizes; or by keeping
the shaft size constant and varying the hole sizes. When the hole size is kept constant it is
termed as Hole basis system; and likewise if shaft size is kept constant it is termed as shaft
basis system. All modern limit systems employ the hole bases because in production of
holes fixed sized tools like reamers, drills etc. are used and varying sizes oof holes is not as
easy as varying the sizes of shafts.

LIMIT GAUGES
In quantity production a simple, yet effective method for checking the size of components is
by using limit

Fig. 4.5 : Limit gauges

gauge. Figure 4.5 shows two gauges. A plug gauge is used for checking holes. The Go end
of the plug gauge is made of the size of lower limit of hole; and the No
No-Go end of the size
of upper limit of the hole. It can be easily seen that if the Go end ggoes
oes into a hole but the
No-Go
Go end does not go, then the hole lies within limits. For gauging of shafts rings of
limiting sizes may be used; these are called as ring gauges. Snap gauges also can be used for
shafts. A snap gauge is shown in Fig. 4.5. Apart from sizes of holes and shafts, limit gauges
can be designed for checking gaps, widths of groves, lengths of jobs and in fact any
dimension of a component which is specified with a tolerance. No
No-go
go ends of plug gauges
most of the times will not enter the holes and thus wear less and hence are made shorter than
the go ends.

TAYLORS PRINCIPLE OF LIMIT GAUGING

This well known principle states that Go gauges should be of full from whereas the
No go gauges should check only one dimension at a time.

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Fig. 4.6: Illustration for Taylors principle

Fig. 4.6 (a) shows a rectangular recess with its tolerance zone. The full form go gauge
is shown at (b) which will be as per Taylors principle. It will ensure fitting. If the right
angles at the corners are in error, the go gauge will not enter even if the length and width are
within limits; rightly rejecting the component. For the no go gauge two separate pin gauges
need to be used as shown at (c). If a full form no go gauge is used the gauge wil
will not enter a
recess which is within limits for width but way outside limits for length; giving false
conclusion that the recess is within its upper limits.

TYPES OF FITS
By specifying limits of sizes for holes and shafts it is possible to obtain any desi
desired fit
between the two .
To obtain a clearance fit the lower limit of hold is made larger than or equal to the
upper limit of the shaft.
To obtain the Interference fit the lower limit of shaft is made larger than or equal to
the upper limit of the hole.
In between these two classes lies a group of fits called as Transition fits . In this the
smallest shaft will fit with a clearance into the largest hole, whereas the largest shaft will fit
with an interference into the smallest hole. These three classes of fits are shown in Fig. 4.2.

Fig. 4.2: Types of fits

Fundamental tolerance unit : This quantity is denoted by i and its value is calculated using
the imperical formula i = 0.45
+ 0.001 D. This gives the value of i in microns. D is
the geometric mean of the end values of a diameter step. Value of D in mm. is to be used in
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the formula. Thus to get the value of i for 25 mm, D =

= 23.2 mm. and i = 0.45
+ 0.001 23.2 = 1.3 microns. The various grades of tolerance are multiples of this
fundamental tolerance unit.

Chapter - 5

COMPARATORS

COMPARATORS
Comparators are instruments for indicating the difference in size between the work
piece and standard. This difference is magnified and indicated by a display system such as a
pointer moving on a scale or a digital readout. A comparator should be able to record
r
variations of one micron. Comparators may be vertical or horizontal, the vertical types being
common.

MECHANICAL COMPARATORS
1. Sigma Comparator : Fig. 5.2 shows schematically the arrangement in a Sigma mechanical
comparator. A vertical bar A, carrying the measuring plunger B is mounted on two flat steel
springs C and D, the form of the spring can be seen at (b). The portions E and F are fixed to
supports and G is fixed to the bar A. These springs provide a frictionless straight line
movement for the barr A. Such a mounting

Fig. 5.2 : Schematic sketch of Sigma comparator system

becomes possible as the total movement required is only about 0.5 mm. The bar
carries a knife edge contact piece H. J and K are pivoted light metal arms pivoted by a
crossed stripped hinge as shown at (c). Distance of the contact piece H from the pivot of J
and K can be adjusted to obtain varied magnification, making possible the use of same basic
units for making comparators of different magnifications. J and K carry between their
extremeties a thin metal strip L wound around the spindle of the pointer M. In addition, the
pointer spindle carries an aluminium disc which rotates in the field of a magnet and provides
damping for movement. Standard models of this comparato
comparatorr are available with
magnifications from 300 to 5000 in six choices with scale ranges from 0.03 to 0.5 mm.

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Merits and demerits of mechanical comparators:

Merits:
1. Mechanical comparators do not require any external sources of energy and as such
they are unaffected by variations in such external energy sources.
2. These are of robust construction and compact designs.
3. As they are independent of power supply they are portable.
4. The simple linear scales are easy to read.
Demerits:
1. There are too many moving parts which create problems due to friction.
2. Wear of moving parts affects accuracy.
3. Inertia of moving part makes the instruments sensitive to vibrations.
4. Range is limited as the pointer moves over a fixed scale.
5. The pointer-scale system used can cause parallax errors.

Merits / Demerits of Optical Comparators:

Merits:
1. There are very few moving parts and as such problems of friction and wear are
reduced.
2. Higher range even at high magnification is possible as the scale moves past the index.
3. The beam of light provides a weightless optical lever and hence the inertia of the
system is considerably reduced.
Demerits:
1. Heat from the source of light may cause change in setting of the zero position.
2. Electrical supply is required.
3. The eye-piece type instruments cause strain on the operator.
4. The projection type instruments occupy large space.

PNEUMATIC COMPARATORS (SOLEX GAUGE)

The pneumatic gauging system are based on the principle that if air under constant pressure
escapes by passing through two orifices, the air pressure in the space between them is
dependent on the cross sectional
area of the orifices. If one of them is kept uniform then the pressure will vary according to the
size of the other.
Fig. 5.5 shows the essentials of the well known solex air gauging

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Fig. 5.5: Solex pneumatic comparator

system. Compressed air entering at D expands in E and maintains a constant pressure
equal to the water head H; excess air escaping as bubbles. Air from E passes through control
jet A, along the tube connecting to the instrument and finally escapes through the jet B. The
pressure between A and B will depend on the orifice at B i.e. on the gap d. This pressure
maintains a head h between liquid in the manometer tube C and the main chamber, so that the
scale on this tube may be calibrated to indicate differences in gap d. change in d of 0.002 mm
changes h, 3 to 20 mm.
The method may be used for gauging parts such as bores when a loosely fitting plug
having two or more nozzles is inserted in the bore. In process gauging for operations like
grinding is also done using these principles.

When a high pressure system iiss used the water manometer is not suitable as a
measuring device. Pressures may be 200 to 300 kN/m2 and a pressure gauge with a pointer
moving on a calibrated scale may be used.

Merits / Demerits of Pneumatic Gauging

Merits :
1. The gauging member is not in direct contact with the work.
2. There are almost no moving parts.
3. The measuring pressure is small.
4. Indicating and measuring can be at different places.
5. Taper and ovality of bores can be easily detected.
6. The method is self
self-cleaning
cleaning due to the continuous flow of air through the jets and this
makes the method ideal to be used on shop floor for on line controls.

7. The gauging head is self-aligning

self
in the bores.
8. Cost is low.
9. There is no wear as the
the gauging member is not in direct contact with the work.

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Demerits:
1. Elaborate auxiliary equipment such as air filters, pressure gauges, regulators needed.
2. Non uniformity of scale is a peculiar aspect of air gauging as the variation of back
pressure is linear over only a small range of the orifice size variation.
3. Water column manometers are not very clear to read and meniscus errors
erro are caused.
4. The water manometer type is not easily portable.
5. Different gauging heads are needed for different jobs.

The LVDT : The linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) is a very popular device
for converting

Fig. 5.7: LVDT

a very popular device for converting a mechanical displacement into electrical signal which
can be magnified to obtain readings. It consists of three coils (Fig. 5.7) P, S1 and S2 wound
around the insulated body. The primary coil P is connected to the mains. The secondary coils
S1 and S2 are connected together in series but in opposition to each other. Thus when the core
iss centered in the centre, the voltage induced in each secondary coil will be identical and 180
degrees out of phase and the net output will be zero. As the core is moved the mutual
inductance of the two secondary coils is changed upsetting the balance and this gives signal
which is further magnified. LVDT probes are pen like probes, come in various sizes and with
suitable circuitary. The magnifications can be changed. Digital readouts are commonly
provided with LVDT probes and readings to 0.1 micron are qui
quite
te common.

Merits / Demerits of electrical comparators

Merits:
1. Measuring units can be remote from indicating units.
2. Several magnifications are easily possible.
3. Compact sizes of the probes are available.
Demerits:
1. External source of energy is needed.
2. Heating of coils can cause zero drifts.

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GAUGE LENGTH INTERFEROMETER

Fig. 6.9: Gauge length Interferometer

This is an instrument for the absolute measurement of slip gauges. The optical system is
shown in Fig. 6.9. The light source is mercury of cadmium lamp. Each of these lamps gives
four wavelengths. Cadmium gives red, green, blue and violet whereas mercury ggives two
yellows, green and violet. The pivoted constant deviation prism can be rotated to preset
positions to bring each wavelength in to operation. The condensing lens focuses the light and
sends it through a slit which is further converted into a parall
parallel
el beam by the collimating lens.
This beam is split into a parallel beam by the collimating lens. This beam is split into beams
of constituent wavelengths by the prism; one of which is selected to be sent almost vertically
on the gauge and base of the inst
instrument.
rument. Light reflected from the top of the gauge and base
returns along a path slightly inclined to the incident path so that it is focused not on the slit
but on a prism and then into the eye
eye-piece.
piece. The optical flat is adjustable for inclination in two
planes,
lanes, so that the pitch and direction of the interference fringes may be set to the best
position. The gauge coming to this instrument will be absolutely flat and parallel and hence
the bands on the gauge top and the base will be of the same pitch and direction,
dir
but relatively
displaced from each other. It is this displacement which is recorded for each colour ; as a
surface by applying pressure on the optical flat at various points and observing the change in
the pattern of bands.

COMPARISON OF END GAUGES BY OPTICAL FLATS:

An experimental method of comparing two end gauges more of academic interest than
of any practical value is shown in figure 6.4. The master gauge and the gauge under test
having their ends perfectly flat and parallel, differ in length byy the amount H shown, which
may be a few microns. The experiment aims at finding the value of H. The master and the
gauge are wrung on to a perfectly flat lapped base. The optical flat is placed in good contact
but not wrung to the gauge tops. The orientation
orientation of the flat is adjusted till pattern of bands
parallel to the sides of the gauges is obtained. The distance L is noted down and

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Fig. 6.4: Comparison of end gauges

The pitch / of the bands is found by counting the total number of bands on the gauge
faces. As each band represents a air gap change of , the value of H will be

. Whether

the length of the gauge is more or less than the master can be found by observing the change
in the pitch of the bands on the two gauges when a little pressure is applied at the centre of
the flat. In the situation shown in the figure, such pres
pressure
sure will decrease the wedge angle with
master and increase it with the gauge, thereby making the bands on the master wider and
those on the gauge narrower.

FLATNESS INTERFEROMETER
Fig. 5 shows the optical system of a flatness interferometer. Mercury vapour lamp is
used as the source of light. The light passes through a condensing lens which focuses it and
sends it through a pin hole. Before the pin hole a colour filter is used to obtain pure

Fig. 6.5: Flatness Interferometer

Monochromatic light Further a collimation lens sends a parallel beam through an
optical flat on the base. Light reflected from the base is reflected by the semireflector and is
viewed by the eye- piece. The optical flat is adjustable for inclination in two planes so that
th
the pitch and direction of the interference fringes may be set to the best position. The base is
rotatable. With mercury vapour lamp fringes can be obtained over a distance of up to 25 mm
and hence for gauges up to this length fringes from the lapped ba
base
se as well as from the top of
the gauge can be viewed simultaneously. The gauge is wrung to the base and the flatness and
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parallelism of the faces of the gauge can be judged by comparing the relative pitch and
inclination of the fringes on top of the gauge and those on the base. Figure 6.6 shows
interference

Fig. 6.6: Fringe patterns by flatness interferometer

band patterns for four gauges. At (a) the pitch and direction of the bands on the base and
gauge are same indicating a perfectly flat and parallel gauge. At (b) through the direction of
bands is same, the pitch is different indicating a taper along the longer edge of the gauge. At
(c)

Chapter 6

INTERFEROMETRY

Fig. 6.3: Interference band patterns

Fig. 6.3 shows interference band patterns on various surfaces. the spherical surface
can be concave or convex and a little pressure on the optical flat at the centre will spread the
bands outwards in a convex surface. If can readily be seen from Fig. 6.2 that if the angle of
the wedge decreases,
reases, the distance between the bands increases.

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Chapter 8

GEAR MEASUREMENT

SOURCES OF ERRORS IN MANUFACTURING GEARS

The teeth of gears are produced either by a reproduction method or by a generating method.
With the first method the cutting tool is a formed involute cutter which forms the gear
teeth profiles by reproducing the shape of the cutter itself. Each tooth space of the gear is cut
independently of the other tooth spaces.
In gear generation, the cutting tool, e.g. a hob, forms the profiles of several teeth
simultaneously during constant relative motion of the tool and blank.
The main sources of errors when gears are machined by reproduction method are
incorrect profile of the cutting tool :
incorrect positioning of the tool in relation to the work ;
incorrect indexing of the bank.
Sources of error when gears are generated are

1. errors in the manufacturing of the cutting tool.

2. errors in positioning the tool in relation to the work.
3. Errors in relative motion of the tool and bank during generating operation.

a)
b)
c)
d)

Tool makers microscope

The tool makers microscope may be used for:
Measuring the distance between two points on work, by measuring the table travel necessary
to bring the second point to the position previously occupied by the first.
Comparison of thread forms with master profiles enlarged in the eyepiece and measurement
of pitch and effective diameter.
Measurement of angles using the protractor eye piece.
Comparison of an enlarged projected image with a magnified scaled tracing fixed to the
screen i.e. using it like a profile projector.
Optical Profile Projector
By using lenses and beams of light, profiles of small shapes can be magnified. The
enlarged image can be compared with accurate drawings made to the scale of magnification.
Such a comparison can reveal any deviations in the sizes and contours of the objects and to
get a numerical assessment of such deviations, measurements can be made on the enlarged
shadow. The measured dimensions on the shadow will then have to be divided by the
multiplication factor. The projection apparatus used for this purpose is termed as an optical
profile projector.
The essential features of a profile projector are that it should not distort the features in
the process of magnification, the magnification should be accurately as stated and that there

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should be maximum latitude in holding and adjusting the work piece and examining the
projected shadow.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

QUALITY CONTROL
Once the design of quality has been specified the actual manufacturing process will
start as per the specification. The term quality control can be defined as the control of various
factors that affect the quality. It mainly depends on working conditions, type of labour,
measuring instruments, material, tools, machines and skill required.
Quality control denotes all those activities which are directed to maintain and improve
quality such as
Setting of quality targets.
Appraisal of conformance.
Taking corrective action where any deviation is noticed.
Planning for improvements in quality.
Functional efficiency.
Ease of installation and operation.
Reliability and maintainability.
Appearance and safety.

OBJECTIVES OF QUALITY CONTROL

1. To produce optimum quality at economic rate.

2. To ensure satisfaction of customers with products and services of higher quality.
3. Develop a procedure for good vendor and vendee relations.
4. To improve quality and productivity.
5. Evaluation of quality standards of incoming material, product, WIP and outgoing product.
6. Judging the conformity of the process.
7. Developing quality consciousness within the organization.
8. Reduction in scrap and work.
9. Few customer complaints.
10. Reduction in inspection.

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PART II
QUALITY CONTROL
Chapter 1

CONCEPT OF QUALITY

WHAT IS QUALITY
Quality is a relative term and used with reference to the end use of the product.
Quality generally signifies the Degree of its excellence . The quality of a product can be
defined as Fitness for the purpose. The component is said to possess good quality, if it
works well for which it is designed. The quality is also defined as Grade . The distinguish
features of the product are appearance, test, maintainability, performance and reliability.
In any organization, quality involves all department and all groups of personnel.
The idea can be represented as shown in figure.
Producer

Deisgn

Cutomer

Requirement

Manufacturing

Testing

Fig. 1.1

TOTAL QUALITY CONTROL

It is an effective system for integrating the quality development, quality maintenance

and quality improvement efforts of various groups in an organization, so as to enable
production and service at most economical rates which allow for full customer satisfaction.
The two basic responsibilities of total control functions may be stated as :
1. To assist and assure optimum quality costs for the products.
2. To provide quality assurance for the products.
The quality control function fulfills these responsibilities through its sub functions such as
quality control engineering, process control engineering and quality information equipment
engineering.
The quality control engineering does the quality planning which establishes the basic
framework of the entire quality control system. The process control engineering mainly
includes inspection, testing and shop floor control. The quality information equipment
engineering designs and develops the inspection and testing equipments for obtaining these
process control measurement:

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Quality manager

Quality cost
analysis

Market quality
research

Quality engineering

Quality
Planning

Standards
& specification

Inward material
quality control

Quality control

Test
equipment
design

Process
control

Inspection
& testing

PLANNING THROUGH TRIAL LOTS

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Whenever a manufacture may desire to introduce a new product in the market, this activity
involve new design, new functional features, cost, manufacturing process, skill required,
demand, tools required and work holding devices. In such a case it is necessary to plan for
trial lots before going for mass production.
Trial lot is used to ensure following purposes.
To locate deficiencies in the manufacturing process.
Performance of all the functions of the product for which it is designed.
Assess overall product performance
It should be easy to operate and handle.
It should be safe.
Cost should be economical.

QUALITY MINDNESS
It is a state of mind in which the awareness of quality is constantly present.
It will give the desired result with less risk and minimum time. Quality awareness should be
present with the upper management, intermediate levels, supervisory stage and the workers.
This will help the company to achieve the required results and will get good reputation in the
market.
To get good results, the company should give training to all the employees either (1)
on job training (2) classroom training (3) conferences (4) seminars (5) and make available the
latest industrial journals.

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The principle force for meeting the quality lies not in the gauges, instruments or other
facilities for inspection i.e. it lies in the state of mind of persons working in the organization
from top executive to the down worker. Quality awareness can be developed only when
employees have got job satisfaction and the top management is committed to quality.
Motivating people to work for quality is an important aspect of quality mindness.
The various factors necessary for quality mindness are
(1) Recognition (2) Advancement
(3) Achievement
(4) Responsibility
(5) Work for the company.

QUALITY AUDIT
Quality audit is an independent evaluation of various aspects of quality performance. It is a
survey of the quality system of an entire plant. OR It is an appraisal of the whole quality
control. Quality audit may be conducted periodically or only when occasion demands, due to
existence of quality problem.

Purpose of Audit
Corrective action is taken with respect to deviation.
Opportunities for improvement.
There is conformance to specification.
Preparations for attaining quality system.
Customer quality complaints.
Adequacy of gauges and test equipments used.
Rejection rate of the product.
Procedure for vendors capacity verification.
Completeness and clarity of the manufacturing drawings and specifications and procedure for
their updating.
10. To evaluate own quality performance.
The quality audit must be independent of the established inspection and process control.
Audit result should be properly documented and forwarded to the quality manager as well as
to the concerned divisions and sections of the company. Any discrepancies revealed in the
audit should be rectified within a reasonable period. Quality audit should be treated as a tool
to help in improving the quality of a product and not for witch-hunting and punitive action.
Effective quality audit requires active co-operation of all departments and sections
concerned with quality of product. The audit team consists Company President as a chairman
outside consultants and members of the section.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

POLICES TO BE OBSERVED DURING AUDITING

1. Discovery of causes Auditor should investigate major deficiencies in order to determine the
cause.
2. Recommendation and remedies.
3. Avoid atmosphere of blame.
4. Verification of facts.
5. Audit should be done on scheduled basis.

QUALITY BUDGET
Budget is a tool used by the management for planning programming and control of business
activities.
Budget represents the financial requirements of different sections of the business during a
given period.
Quality budget may be defined as an estimate of future expenditure required to meet
the quality requirements.
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The various phases involved are:

1. Planning phase : Forecast the expenditure such as distribution cost, production cost, material
requirement availability of resources.
2. Cost reduction phase : In this phase all the planned activities are critically examined. By
observing the last years budget, some changes can be done in the planned activities. It is
possible to reduce the cost.
3. Cost control phase : In this phase there is a comparison done on the budget estimate and the
actual expenditure.

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN VALUE OF QUALITY AND COST OF QUALITY

It can be seen from the coast curve, that as the quality of a product is improved,
improved the
cost ends to rise at an increasing rate. On the other hand, the value curve shows as opposite
tendency, in that, the value of the price which the customer is willing to pay for improved
quality increases at a decreasing rate. The difference between tthe
he value and the cost of
product at any particular quality level, represents quality contribution.

Fig.

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Chapter 3
QUALITY MANAGEMENT
Total quality management The modern concept
The basic aim is maximum user satisfaction at minimum cost. It has been realized that
inspection alone cannot build quality into a product unless quality has been designed and
manufactured into it. Therefore awareness must begin at the very conception of the product
and continue during the various stages of its development and and manufacture and even
during its usage, to provide feedback from the users which is very essential for quality
improvement. The quality of products in a company is determined by the philosophy,
commitment and the quality policy of the top management and the extent to which this policy
can be put into actual practice.
The effectiveness of TQM concept requires proper organizational frame work through
which quality programmes are implemented. TQM is basically a management function,
involving direction by top management and co-ordination of all quality related activities
throughout the company.
TQM deals with the product in its totality. Quality is determined by the combined
efforts of various departments such as design, engineering, purchase, production and
inspection.

1.
2.
3.

Objective of quality circle

To improve quality and productivity of products.
To promote consciousness among workers about quality, safety and cost of production.
To give opportunity to the employees to learn new techniques of identifying technical
problems.
4. To improve employee motivation.
5. To allow employees to solve problems in their work area, thereby giving job satisfaction.
6. To inspire more effective team work and develop leadership among some potential
employees.
7. To develop a proper problem solving methodology within the company.
8. To develop healthy relationship between supervisors and subordinates.
9. To increase employees loyalty and commitment towards the company.
10. Recognition for proper achievements.

1.
2.
3.

Limitations of quality circles

Quality circle is not an agency for diverting its own problems by the management.
A large investment of money and time is required.
Employees who mainly depends on their supervisors for direction who lost their initiative and
feel uncomfortable.
4. Over expectation of some employees who are excited initially may turn to disappointment
afterwards.
5. Control of quality circle activities is difficult.
6. There should be positive attitude from all the members to solve quality related problems.
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7. Quality circle is not a substitute for the main tasks of the management.

Chapter 4
FUNDAMENTALS OF STATISTICAL CONCEPTS

TYPE OF VARIATION
The various reasons for variations are
i.
Poor raw material.
ii.
Machine vibrations.
iii.
Tool wear.
iv.
Faulty work holding devices.
v.
Carelessness and attitude of operator.
vi.
Measurement errors.
vii.
Working conditions.
viii.
Weather conditions.
ix.
Skill required.
The difference between the chance cause and assignable cause is as follows.
Chance cause
1. This cause occurs by chance.
2. In this there is minute amount of
variation.
3. These variations are difficult to
trace and uneconomical to
eliminate.
4. Within random variation process is
stable to use sampling procedures.
5.
Examples
such
as
slight
vibrations in machine hardness
variation in material variation in
raw material.

6.
Follow
variation.

statistical

law

of

Assignable cause
1.
This occur due to individual
errors.
2. In this there is small and
large amount of variation.
3. These can be easily traced
and economical to
eliminate.
4. Variation process is not
stable to use sampling
procedure.
5. Examples such as faulty
setup careless, poorly trained
workers, faulty figs and fixture
different working conditions,
difference of skill among
worker.
6. Do not follow any statistical
Law of variation.

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Dhanvantari College of Engineering, Nashik

GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION

Histogram : It is a vertical bar chart of frequency distribution values of varying

characteristic are shown on horizontal or X axis and the frequency of occurrence on vertical
or Y axis.
Y

X
Resistance
Fig. 4.1 : Histogram of resistance
Frequency polygon: It consists of a series of straight lines joining small circles
which are plotted at cell midpoints with a height proportional to frequency. The frequency
polygon can generally be used to better advantage if two or more distributions are plotted on
the same diagram.

Frequency

Frequency polygon
Fig. 4.3

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Dhanvantari College of Engineering, Nashik

Chapter 5
STATISTICAL QUALITY CONTROL

BENEFIT OF SQC
a) Better quality level
b) Uniformity in quality
c) Better utilization of resources like man, machines and manpower.
d) Less scrap and rework
e) Better inspection
f) Improved producer and consumer relations
g) Improvement in employees morale
h) Easy detection of faults
i) Increased productivity
j) Creating quality awareness in employees.

Process capability : It is defined as the minimum tolerance which must be provided for a
process in statistical control in order to ensure that variation in size within the permissible
limits.
The data of process control is very much useful for quality control department.
a) To decide specification limit.
b) Selection of alternate machines and process.
c) To find out rejection areas.
d) Selection of machine to use for a specific process.
e) To determine shift in the process tendency.
The procedure to calculate process capability.
1) Calculate the average 
X and Range R of each sample.
2) Calculate the grand average 
X. This measures the centring of the process.
3) Calculate the control limits and Plot 
X and R charts.

4) Calculate the process capability 66 = 6  .

CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD SAMPLING PLAN

1. Simplicity of operation
2. Economy of inspection
3. Easy to draw samples
4. Testing effort and duration for test.
5. The plan should be flexible enough to reflect changes in size, quality of product
submitted and any other factor.
6. The plan should protect both the supplier and consumer.
7. The availability of inspection and personnel and facilities.
8. Administrative expenses
9. Difficulty in training inspectors to use sampling plans.

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