UNIT 1

INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH

What is research
Research comprises "creative work undertaken on a systematic basis in order to increase the stock
of knowledge, including knowledge of man, culture and society, and the use of this stock of knowledge to
devise new applications. It is used to establish or confirm facts, reaffirm the results of previous work, solve
new or existing problems, support theorems, or develop new theories. A research project may also be an
expansion on past work in the field. To test the validity of instruments, procedures, or experiments, research
may replicate elements of prior projects, or the project as a whole. The primary purposes of basic
research (as opposed to applied research) are documentation, discovery, interpretation, or the research and
development (R&D) of methods and systems for the advancement of humanknowledge. Approaches to
research depend on epistemologies, which vary considerably both within and between humanities and
sciences. There are several forms of research: scientific, humanities, artistic, economic, social,
business, marketing, practitioner research, etc.

Definiton of research
Systematic investigative process employed to increase or revise current knowledge by discovering
new facts. It is divided into two general categories: (1) Basic research is inquiry aimed at
increasing scientific knowledge, and (2) Applied research is effort aimed at using basic research for
solving problems or developing new processes, products, or techniques.

Nature of Research

It strives to be objective and logical

It is based on observable experience or empirical experience.
It is characterized by patient and unhurried activity
It demand accurate observations, reservations and descriptions.
It is direction towards the solution of the problem.
It is carefully recorded and reported.
It requires expertise.
It involves gathering data from primary or first hand sources or using existing data for new
purpose.

SCOPE AND SIGNIFICANCE OF RESEARCH

i. Decision-making tool: Whenever a decision is to be made, marketing research
becomes necessary in the corporate world. The degree of dependence on research
is based on the cost of decisions. If the cost of decision is high, the dependence on
research is high, and vice versa.
ii. Facilitates large- scale production: The MR helps large scale enterprises in the
areas of production to determine:
(a) What to produce?
(b) How much to produce?
(c) When to produce?
iii. To determine the pattern of consumption: The consumption patterns vary from

place to place and time to time. The MR helps in identifying the consumption
pattern and also the availability of consumer credit in that particular place.
MR helps the marketer to identify:

Consumption pattern
Brand loyalty
Consumer behavior
Market trends, etc.

iv. Complex market: In a complex and dynamic environment, the role of MR is very
vital. MR acts as a bridge between the consumer and the purchaser. This is because
MR enables the management to know the need of the customer, the about demand
for the product and helps the producer to anticipate the changes in the market.
v. Problem-solving: The MR focuses on both short range and long range decisions
and helps in making decisions with respect to the 4ps of marketing, namely, product,
price, place and promotion.
vi. Distribution: The MR helps the manufacturer to decide about the channel, media,
logistics planning so that its customers and distributors are benefited. Based on the
study of MR, suitable distributors, retailers, wholesalers and agents are selected by
the company for distributing their products.
vii. Sales promotion: The MR helps in effective sales promotion. It enlightens the
manufacturer with regard to the method of sales promotion to be undertaken,
such as advertising, personal selling, publicity etc. It also helps in understanding the
attitude of the customers and helps how to design the advertisement in line with prevailing attitudes.

What is Ontology and what is Epistemology?

Ontology is the nature of reality (Hudson and Ozanne, 1988) and the epistemology can be
defined as the relationship between the researcher and the reality (Carson et al., 2001) or how
this reality is captured or known.
There are two dominant ontological and epistemological traditions/ideologies:
1) Positivism
2) Interpretive.
Positivism:
The positivist ontology believes that the world is external (Carson et al., 1988) and that there is
a single objective reality to any research phenomenon or situation regardless of the
researchers perspective or belief (Hudson and Ozanne, 1988).

Positivist researchers remain detached from the participants of the research by creating a
distance, which is important in remaining emotionally neutral to make clear distinctions between
reason and feeling (Carson et al., 2001).
They also maintain a clear distinction between science and personal experience and fact and
value judgment. It is also important in positivist research to seek objectivity and use consistently
rational and logical approaches to research (Carson et al., 2001).
Statistical and mathematical techniques are central to positivist research, which adheres to
specifically structured research techniques to uncover single and objective reality (Carson et al.,
2001).
The goal of positivist researchers is to make time and context free generalizations. They believe
this is possible because human actions can be explained as a result of real causes that
temporarily precedes their behaviour and the researcher and his research subjects are
independent and do not influence each other (Hudson and Ozanne, 1988).
Accordingly, positivist researchers also attempt to remain detached from the participants of the
research by creating distance between themselves and the participants.
Especially, this is an important step in remaining emotionally neutral to make clear distinctions
between reason and feeling as well as between science and personal experience.
Positivists also claim it is important to clearly distinguish between fact and value judgement. As
positivist researchers they seek objectivity and use consistently rational and logical approaches
to research (Carson et al. 2001; Hudson and Ozanne 1988).

Interpretivism:
The position of interpretivism in relation to ontology and epistemology is that interpretivists
believe the reality is multiple and relative (Hudson and Ozanne, 1988).
Lincoln and Guba (1985) explain that these multiple realities also depend on other systems for
meanings, which make it even more difficult to interpret in terms of fixed realities (Neuman,
2000).
The knowledge acquired in this discipline is socially constructed rather than objectively
determined (Carson et al., 2001, p.5) and perceived (Hirschman, 1985, Berger and Luckman,
1967, p. 3: in Hudson and Ozanne, 1988).
Interpretivists avoid rigid structural frameworks such as in positivist research and adopt a more
personal and flexible research structures (Carson et al., 2001) which are receptive to capturing
meanings in human interaction (Black, 2006) and make sense of what is perceived as reality
(Carson et al., 2001).
They believe the researcher and his informants are interdependent and mutually interactive
(Hudson and Ozanne, 1988). The interpretivist researcher enters the field with some sort of
prior insight of the research context but assumes that this is insufficient in developing a fixed
research design due to complex,
multiple and unpredictable nature of what is perceived as reality (Hudson and Ozanne, 1988).

The researcher remains open to new knowledge throughout the study and lets it develop with
the help of informants. The use of such an emergent and collaborative approach is consistent
with the interpretivist belief that humans have the ability to adapt, and that no one can gain prior
knowledge of time and context bound social realities (Hudson and Ozanne, 1988).

Therefore, the goal of interpretivist research is to understand and interpret the meanings in
human behaviour rather than to generalize and predict causes and effects (Neuman, 2000;
Hudson and Ozanne, 1988).
For an interpretivist researcher it is important to understand motives, meanings, reasons and
other subjective experiences which are time and context bound (Hudson and Ozanne, 1988;
Neuman, 2000).
The following table summarizes the differences between the two research paradigms:
Ontology and epistemological differences of positivism and interpretive
(Adopted from Carson et al. 2001, p. 6)

Ontology

Positivist

Interpretivist

Nature of being/ nature of the

world

Have direct access to real world

No direct access to real world

Reality

Single external reality

No single external reality

Epistemology
Possible to obtain hard, secure
objective knowledge
Grounds of knowledge/
relationship between reality and
research

Research focus on generalization and

abstraction
Thought governed by hypotheses and
stated theories

Understood through perceived knowledge

Research focuses on the specific and concrete
Seeking to understand specific context

Methodology
Focus of research

Role of the researcher

Concentrates on description and

explanation
Detached, external observer

Clear distinction between reason and

feeling
Aim to discover external reality rather
than creating the object of study
Strive to use rational, consistent,
verbal, logical approach
Seek to maintain clear distinction
between facts and value judgments
Distinction between science and
personal experience
Techniques used by researcher

Concentrates on understanding and interpretation

Researchers want to experience what they are
studying
Allow feeling and reason to govern actions
Partially create what is studied, the meaning of
phenomena
Use of pre-understanding is important
Distinction between facts and value judgments less
clear
Accept influence from both science and personal
experience
Primarily non-quantitative

Formalized statistical and mathematical

methods predominant

DEDUCTIVE AND INDUCTIVE RESEARCH

A deductive approach is concerned with developing a hypothesis (or hypotheses) based on

existing theory, and then designing a research strategy to test the hypothesis (Wilson, 2010,
p.7)
Deductive approach can be explained by the means of hypotheses, which can be derived from
the propositions of the theory. In other words, deductive approach is concerned with deducting
conclusions from premises or propositions. Deduction begins with an expected pattern that is
tested against observations, whereas induction begins with observations and seeks to find a
pattern within them (Babbie, 2010, p.52).

It has been stated that deductive means reasoning from the particular to the general. If a
causal relationship or link seems to be implied by a particular theory or case example, it might
be true in many cases. A deductive design might test to see if this relationship or link did obtain
on more general circumstances (Gulati, 2009, p.42).
In other words, when a deductive approach is being followed in the research the author
formulates a set of hypotheses that need to be tested. Then, through implementation of relevant
methodology the study is going to prove formulated hypotheses right or wrong.

Beiske (2007) informs that deductive research approach explores a known theory or
phenomenon and tests if that theory is valid in a given circumstances. The deductive approach
follows the path of logic most closely. The reasoning starts with a theory and leads to a new
hypothesis. This hypothesis is put to the test by confronting it with observations that either lead
to a confirmation or a rejection of the hypothesis (Snieder and Larner, 2009, p.16).
Moreover, deductive reasoning can be explained as reasoning from the general to the
particular (Pelissier, 2008, p.3), whereas inductive reasoning is the opposite. In other words,
deductive approach involves formulation of hypotheses and their subjection to testing during the
research process, while inductive studies do not deal with hypotheses in any ways.
Generally, studies using deductive approach follow the following stages:
1. Deducing hypothesis from theory
2. Formulating hypothesis in operational terms and proposing relationships between two
specific variables
3. Testing hypothesis with the application of relevant method(s)
4. Examining the outcome of the test, and thus confirming or rejecting the theory.
5. Modifying theory in instances when hypothesis is not confirmed.
Alternative to deductive approach is inductive approach, and the following table guides the
choice of specific approach depending on circumstances:

Deductive approach preferred

Inductive approach preferred

Wealth of literature

Abundance of sources

Scarcity of sources

Time availability

Short time available to complete the

study

There is no shortage of time to

compete the study

Risk

To avoid risk

Risk is accepted, no theory may

emerge at all

Inductive approach starts with the observations and theories are formulated towards the end of
the research and as a result of observations (Goddard and Melville, 2004). Inductive research
involves the search for pattern from observation and the development of explanations
theories for those patterns through series of hypotheses (Bernard, 2011, p.7). In other words,
no theories would apply in inductive studies at the beginning of the research and the researcher
is free in terms of altering the direction for the study after the research process had
commenced.

Neuman (2003, p.51) affirms inductive research to begin with detailed observations of the
world, which moves towards more abstract generalisations and ideas. In other words, when
following inductive approach, beginning with a topic, a researcher tends to develop empirical
generalisations and identify preliminary relationships as he progresses through his research.

Inductive approach essentially reverses the process found in deductive research (Lancaster,
2005, p.25). Specifically, no hypotheses can be found at the initial stages of the research and
the researcher is not sure about the type and nature of the research findings until the study is
completed.

In inductive approach there is no theory at the beginning point of the research, and theories
may evolve as a result of the research:

It is noted that inductive reasoning is often referred to as a bottom-up approach to knowing, in

which the researcher uses observations to build an abstraction or to describe a picture of the
phenomenon that is being studied (Lodico et al, 2010, p.10). In other words, in inductive
studies no known theories or patterns need to be tested during the research process.

Inductive reasoning is based on learning from experience. Patterns, resemblances and

regularities in experience (premises) are observed in order to reach conclusions (or to generate
theory).

Here is an example:

My nephew borrowed $100 last June but he did not pay back until September as he had
promised (PREMISE). Then he assured me that he will pay back until Christmas but he didnt
(PREMISE). He also failed in to keep his promise to pay back in March (PREMISE). I reckon I
have to face the facts. My nephew is never going to pay me back (CONCLUSION).

Generally, adoption of inductive approach is associated with qualitative methods of data

collection and data analysis, whereas deductive approach is perceived to be related to
quantitative methods. The following table illustrates such a classification from a broad
perspective:

Type of reasoning

Concepts associated with

quantitative methods

Concepts associated with qualitative

methods

Deduction

Induction
Subjectivity

Objectivity

Meaning

Causation
Type of question

Pre-specified

Open-ended

Type of analysis

Outcome-oriented

Process-oriented

Numerical estimation
Statistical inference

Narrative description
Constant comparison

However, the statement above is not absolute, and in some instances inductive approach can
be adopted to conduct a quantitative research as well. The following table illustrates patterns of
data analysis according to type of research and research approach.

Qualitative

Quantitative

Inductive

Grounded theory

Exploratory data analysis

Deductive

Qualitative comparative analysis

Structural equation modeling

When writing a dissertation in business studies it is compulsory to specify the approach of are
adopting. It is good to include a table comparing inductive and deductive approaches as the
one below and discuss the impacts of your choice of inductive approach on selection of primary
data collection methods and research process.

Attribute
Direction
Focus

Spatial scales

Deductive

Inductive

Top-Down

Bottom-Up

Prediction changes,
validating theoretical construct,
focus in mean behavior, testing
assumptions and hypotheses,
constructing most likely future

Understanding dynamics,
robustness, emergence, resilience,
focus on individual behavior,
constructing alterative futures

Single

Multiple

(one landscape, one resolution)

(multiple landscape, one resolution)

Temporal scales

Multiple

Multiple

(deterministic)

(stochastic)

Single

Multiple

(homogenous preferences)

(heterogeneous preferences)

Single

Single or multiple

(core aggregation scale)

(one or more aggregation scales)

High Low

Low-High

(one likely future)

(many likely futures)

Low

High

(group or partial attributes)

(individual or group attributes)

Cognitive scales

Aggregation scales

Predictive vs. Stochastic

accuracy

Data intensity

Source: Alexandridis (2006)

THE TYPES OF RESEARCH

There are different types of research.
Exploratory Research
This type of research is carried out at the very beginning when the problem is not clear
or is vague. In exploratory research, all possible reasons which are very obvious are
eliminated, thereby directing the research to proceed further with limited options.
Sales decline in a company may be due to:
(1) Inefficient service
(2) Improper price
(3) Inefficient sales force
(4) Ineffective promotion
(5) Improper quality
The research executives must examine such questions to identify the most useful avenues

for further research. Preliminary investigation of this type is called exploratory research.
Expert surveys, focus groups, case studies and observation methods are used to conduct
the exploratory survey.
Descriptive Research
The main purpose of descriptive research is to describe the state of view as it exists at
present. Simply stated, it is a fact finding investigation. In descriptive research, definite
conclusions can be arrived at, but it does not establish a cause and effect relationship.
This type of research tries to describe the characteristics of the respondent in relation to
a particular product.

Descriptive research deals with demographic characteristics of the consumer. For

example, trends in the consumption of soft drink with respect to socio-economic

characteristics such as age, family, income, education level etc. Another example
can be the degree of viewing TV channels, its variation with age, income level,
profession of respondent as well as time of viewing. Hence, the degree of use of
TV to different types of respondents will be of importance to the researcher. There
are three types of players who will decide the usage of TV : (a) Television
manufacturers, (b) Broadcasting agency of the programme, (c) Viewers. Therefore,
research pertaining to any one of the following can be conducted:

The manufacturer can come out with facilities which will make the television more

user-friendly. Some of the facilities are (a) Remote control, (b) Child lock,
(c) Different models for different income groups, (d) Internet compatibility etc.,
(e) Wall mounting etc.

Similarly, broadcasting agencies can come out with programmes, which can suit

different age groups and income.

Ultimately, the viewers who use the TV must be aware of the programmes appearing

in different channels and can plan their viewing schedule accordingly.

Descriptive research deals with specific predictions, for example, sales of a

companys product during the next three years, i.e., forecasting.

Descriptive research is also used to estimate the proportion of population who

behave in a certain way. Example: Why do middle income groups go to Food

World to buy their products?
A study can be commissioned by a manufacturing company to find out various facilities
that can be provided in television sets based on the above discussion.
Similarly, studies can be conducted by broadcasting stations to find out the degree of
utility of TV programmes. Example: The following hypothesis may be formulated about
the programmes:

The programmes in various channels are useful by way of entertainment to the

viewers.

Viewers feel that TV is a boon for their children in improving their knowledge

especially, fiction and cartoon programmes.

Applied Research
Applied research aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem faced by any business
organization. This research deals with real life situations. Example: Why have sales
decreased during the last quarter? Market research is an example of applied research.
Applied research has a practical problem-solving emphasis. It brings out many new facts.
Examples:
1. Use of fibre glass body for cars instead of metal.
2. To develop a new market for the product.
Pure/Fundamental Research or Basic Research
Gathering knowledge for knowledges sake is known as basic research. It is not directly
involved with practical problems. It does not have any commercial potential. There is no
intention to apply this research in practice. Tata Institute of Fundamental Research
conducts such studies. Example: Theory of Relativity (by Einstein).
Conceptual Research

This is generally used by philosophers. It is related to some abstract idea or theory. In

this type of research, the researcher should collect the data to prove or disapprove his
hypothesis. The various ideologies or isms are examples of conceptual research.
Causal Research
Causal research is conducted to determine the cause and effect relationship between
the two variables.
Example: Effect of advertisement on sales.
Historical Research
The name itself indicates the meaning of the research. Historical study is a study of past
records and data in order to understand the future trends and development of the
organisation or market. There is no direct observation. The research has to depend on
the conclusions or inferences drawn in the past.
For example, investors in the share market study the past records or prices of shares
which he/she intends to buy. Studying the share prices of a particular company enables
the investor to take decision whether to invest in the shares of a company.
Crime branch police/CBI officers study the past records or the history of the criminals
and terrorists in order to arrive at some conclusions.
The main objective of this study is to derive explanation and generalization from the past
trends in order to understand the present and anticipate the future.
There are however, certain shortcomings of Historical Research:
1. Reliability and adequacy information is subjective and open to question
2. Accuracy of measurement of events is doubtful.
3. Verification of records are difficult.
Ex-post Facto Research
In this type of research, an examination of relationship that exists between independent
and dependent variable is studied. We may call this empirical research. In this method,
the researcher has no control over an independent variable. Ex-post facto literally means
from what is done afterwards. In this research, a variable A is observed. Thereafter,
the researcher tries to find a causal variable B which caused A. It is quite possible

that B might not have been caused A. In this type of analysis, there is no scope for
the researcher to manipulate the variable. The researcher can only report what has
happened and what is happening.
Action Research
This type of research is undertaken by direct action. Action research is conducted to
solve a problem. Example: Test marketing a product is an example of action research.
Initially, the geographical location is identified. A target sample is selected from among
the population. Samples are distributed to selected samples and feedback is obtained
from the respondent. This method is most common for industrial products, where a trial
is a must before regular usage of the product.
Evaluation Research
This is an example of applied research. This research is conducted to find out how well
a planned programme is implemented. Therefore, evaluation research deals with
evaluating the performance or assessment of a project. Example: Rural Employment
Programme Evaluation or Success of Midday Meal Programme.
Library Research
This is done to gather secondary data. This includes notes from the past data or review
of the reports already conducted. This is a convenient method whereby both manpower
and time are saved.
RESEARCH APPROACHES

The research questions posed above express a need for learning more about the
dominant concepts of enterprise modeling as a research domain. Hence,
a qualitative research approach based on observations, document studies and
interviews taken from real world modeling projects is argued for in order to meet the
research objectives. However, a few alternative research approaches will also be
discussed.
Four alternative approaches

From literature and discussions on various traditions and approaches to "good"

research (Denzin and Lincoln, 1994; Johannessen, 1992; Miles and Huberman,
1994; Strauss and Corbin, 1990; Walsham, 1995), four potential research strategies
have been considered for the research project:

Logical theoretical research

Quantitative, experimental research
Qualitative, observational research
Participatory action research

Below, a brief discussion of how each strategy could have been applied is provided.
The various approaches can to some degree be combined in the same research
project. However, the fundamental views on human inquiry and science underlying
them differ in many respects and extensive combination is not common. Figure 1.1
provides an illustration of the four approaches adapted to the needs of this project.

Figure 1.1: Four alternative research approaches

None of the research strategies are considered to be unconditionally superior or
inferior to the others -- they all have qualities that make them preferable for some
purposes and research problems.
Alternative A: Logical, theoretical research
By a logical theoretical research approach is meant formal deduction of logical
consequences from a set of initial assumptions (axioms). If the axioms are true and
the rules are logically sound, the consequences are true as well.
This mode of research may be appropriate for formal sciences as exemplified by
mathematics and parts of computer science. But the concern in this project is
practical enterprise modeling and the study of real world projects. A logical
theoretical approach would not draw upon the benefits of empirical work. Also,
according to Hirschheim et al. (1995:195, italics added),
"data modeling is first and foremost a social and organizational activity and very little,
if anything (except consulting folklore) is known how data modeling is exercised in
practice and what its impacts are on organizations, their information systems
management, and business operations."
Enterprise modeling and data modeling are closely related activities (as will be
discussed in chapter 3), and although the quite pessimistic assessment cited above
must be taken with a pinch of salt, lack of knowledge about actual practice is
assumed to be a valid claim within enterprise modeling as well.

Alternative B: Quantitative, experimental research

A quantitative, experimental approach to doing research is within the classical
scientific paradigm of natural, "hard" sciences like physics. The scientific method
implies postulating hypotheses, doing quantitative experiments, and then either
sustain or reject the hypotheses based on statistical analysis of the measured data
(verification or falsification of hypotheses). The scientific method may be claimed to
be the "best" research approach in relatively well known areas of research and when
natural laws can be assumed to exist (in the sense that phenomena are repeatable
and to some degree controllable). Even if there are indefinitely many theories
explaining a given set of data, experiments may be repeated and theories can be
verified (or rather, the confidence in theories may increase).
To be able to propose fruitful hypotheses, one must have a well developed
understanding of the research area. In addition, in order to gain statistically reliable
results, the number of samples must be large (for survey studies, in the range 40 and
up, according to Galtung, 1967). Both these requirements suggest looking for other
research instruments: A well developed understanding of enterprise modeling
practice is not widely available (at least not according to Hirschheim et al., loc. cit.),
and the access to directly comparable projects is limited. There have also been
some critique of adoption of the scientific method as an approach to research on
social systems, at least unmodified. See e.g. (Guba and Lincoln, 1994) for a
discussion.

One perspective on quantitative research is as counting. Correlation between

variables are estimated using statistical devices. However, in order for counting
to be meaningful, one must also know that the variables counted are
meaningful in the given setting. Hence, quantitative research requires well
developed understanding of a domain in advance in order to judge if variables
are meaningful.

Alternative C: Qualitative, observational research

Qualitative, observational studies refer to traditions that base their research upon
qualitative data (as opposed to quantitative research) and do not actively and
purposely manipulate the phenomenon under investigation. Grounded theory
studies (Strauss and Corbin, 1994; Strauss and Corbin, 1990)
and ethnographic methods (Atkinson and Hammersley, 1994) are examples of this
mode of research.
Through close contact with the research field in question for a prolonged period of
time, the researcher develops a profound understanding and (as claimed for
grounded theory studies) becomes able to formulate a conceptually rich theory
explaining the phenomenon under investigation. Contact with the field of research
may be based on interviews, observations, or analysis of documents and other
artifacts. In addition, literature studies are performed to the extent required to

develop sensitivity in observation and interpretation.

A qualitative research approach can be used to develop the understanding

required for evaluating if a variable is relevant or not to a given problem
situation. Compared to the perspective on quantitative research as counting,
qualitative research can be seen as proposing which variables to count.

Alternative D: Participatory action research

Participatory action research (Reason, 1994; van Meel, 1993:13ff) refers to a set of
approaches to research on social systems in which the researcher actively engage in
the process under investigation (the actors of the social system being studied can be
considered as co-researchers). The work of van Meel (ibid.) exemplifies this
approach to research: First, an initial case study is performed for identification of
problems, followed by theory development and implementation of a prototype
information system. Finally, the prototype is employed in another full-scale project
where the researcher participates and reflects upon the use of the prototype with the
actors that are studied.
This approach to validation of results is interesting, but somewhat questioned by
more traditional scientists. Walsham (1995:77) points out the problems of being
perceived to have a personal stake in the researched project, and reporting on one's
own role within the project as particularly challenging problems of participatory action
research.

A possible adaptation of an action research strategy would be to investigate a

few initial enterprise modeling projects, propose a method for enterprise
modeling, and apply this in another full-scale project. The principal problems of
this approach would be to trace (hopefully) successful outcomes back to the
use of the method and to know what would be the situation without the method
(as there is no control project).

From a more pragmatic point of view, in order to follow a participatory action

research strategy one needs access to real world projects being willing to try out the
proposed framework for enterprise modeling in practice. This was not considered
practically attainable with the resources and time frame of the current research
project.
RESEARCH METHODS VERSUS METHADOLOGY

It seems appropriate at this juncture to explain the difference between research methods and
research
methodology. Research methods may be understood as all those methods/techniques that are
used

for conduction of research. Research methods or techniques*, thus, refer to the methods the
researchers
*At times, a distinction is also made between research techniques and research methods. Research techniques
refer to
the behaviour and instruments we use in performing research operations such as making observations, recording
data,
techniques of processing data and the like. Research methods refer to the behaviour and instruments used in
selecting and
constructing research technique. For instance, the difference between methods and techniques of data collection
can better
be understood from the details given in the following chart

From what has been stated above, we can say that methods are more general. It is the methods that generate
techniques.However, in practice, the two terms are taken as interchangeable and when we talk of research
methods we do, by implication, include research techniques within their compass.

use in performing research operations. In other words, all those methods which are used by the
researcher during the course of studying his research problem are termed as research
methods. Since the object of research, particularly the applied research, it to arrive at a solution
for a given problem, the available data and the unknown aspects of the problem have to be
related to each other to make a solution possible. Keeping this in view, research methods can
be put into the following three groups:
1. In the first group we include those methods which are concerned with the collection of data.
These methods will be used where the data already available are not sufficient to arrive at the
required solution;
2. The second group consists of those statistical techniques which are used for establishing
relationships between the data and the unknowns;

3. The third group consists of those methods which are used to evaluate the accuracy of the
results obtained.
Research methods falling in the above stated last two groups are generally taken as the
analytical tools of research.
Research methodology is a way to systematically solve the research problem. It may be
understood as a science of studying how research is done scientifically. In it we study the
various steps that are generally adopted by a researcher in studying his research problem
along with the logic behind them. It is necessary for the researcher to know not only the
research methods/techniques but also the methodology. Researchers not only need to know
how to develop certain indices or tests, how to calculate the mean, the mode, the median or the
standard deviation or chi-square, how to apply particular research techniques, but they also
need to know which of these methods or techniques, are relevant and which are not, and what
would they mean and indicate and why. Researchers also need to understand the assumptions
underlying various techniques and they need to know the criteria by which they can decide that
certain techniques and procedures will be applicable to certain problems and others will not. All
this means that it is necessary for the researcher to design his methodology for his problem as
the same may differ from problem to problem. For example, an architect, who designs a
building, has to consciously evaluate the basis of his decisions, i.e., he has to evaluate why and
on what basis he selects particular size, number and location of doors, windows and ventilators,
uses particular materials and not others and the like. Similarly, in research the scientist has to
expose the research decisions to evaluation before they are implemented. He has to specify
very clearly and precisely what decisions he selects and why he selects them so that they can
be evaluated by others also. From what has been stated above, we can say that research
methodology has many dimensions and research methods do constitute a part of the research
methodology. The scope of research methodology is wider than that of research methods.
Thus, when we talk of research methodology we not only talk of the research methods but also
consider the logic behind the methods we use in the context of our research study and explain
why we are using a particular method or technique and why we are not using others so that
research results are capable of being evaluated either by the researcher himself or by others.
Why a research study has been undertaken, how the research problem has been defined, in
what way and why the hypothesis has been formulated, what data have been collected and
what particular method has been adopted, why particular technique of analysing data has been
used and a host of similar other questions are usually answered when we talk of research
methodology concerning a research problem or study.
Steps in conducting research
Research is often conducted using the hourglass model structure of research. The hourglass
model starts with a broad spectrum for research, focusing in on the required information
through the method of the project (like the neck of the hourglass), then expands the research in
the form of discussion and results. The major steps in conducting research are:

Identification of research problem

Literature review
Specifying the purpose of research
Determine specific research questions
Specification of a Conceptual framework - Usually a set of hypotheses
Choice of a methodology (for data collection)
Data collection

Analyzing and interpreting the data

Reporting and evaluating research
Communicating the research findings and, possibly, recommendations

The steps generally represent the overall process, however they should be viewed as an everchanging iterative process rather than a fixed set of steps.Most researches begin with a general
statement of the problem, or rather, the purpose for engaging in the study.The literature review
identifies flaws or holes in previous research which provides justification for the study. Often, a
literature review is conducted in a given subject area before a research question is identified. A
gap in the current literature, as identified by a researcher, then engenders a research question.
The research question may be parallel to the hypothesis. The hypothesis is the supposition to
be tested. The researcher(s) collects data to test the hypothesis. The researcher(s) then
analyzes and interprets the data via a variety of statistical methods, engaging in what is known
as Empirical research. The results of the data analysis in confirming or failing to reject the Null
hypothesis are then reported and evaluated. At the end the researcher may discuss avenues
for further research.
Rudolph Rummel says, "... no researcher should accept any one or two tests as definitive. It is
only when a range of tests are consistent over many kinds of data, researchers, and methods
can one have confidence in the results."

Steps of the research process

This is an excerpt from Applied Research and Evaluation Methods in Recreation By Diane
C. Blankenship.
Scientific research involves a systematic process that focuses on being objective and gathering a
multitude of information for analysis so that the researcher can come to a conclusion. This
process is used in all research and evaluation projects, regardless of the research method
(scientific method of inquiry, evaluation research, or action research). The process focuses on
testing hunches or ideas in a park and recreation setting through a systematic process. In this
process, the study is documented in such a way that another individual can conduct the same
study again. This is referred to as replicating the study. Any research done without documenting
the study so that others can review the process and results is not an investigation using the
scientific research process. The scientific research process is a multiple-step process where the
steps are interlinked with the other steps in the process. If changes are made in one step of the
process, the researcher must review all the other steps to ensure that the changes are reflected
throughout the process. Parks and recreation professionals are often involved in conducting
research or evaluation projects within the agency. These professionals need to understand the
eight steps of the research process as they apply to conducting a study. Table 2.4 lists the steps
of the research process and provides an example of each step for a sample research study.
Step 1: Identify the Problem
The first step in the process is to identify a problem or develop a research question. The research
problem may be something the agency identifies as a problem, some knowledge or information
that is needed by the agency, or the desire to identify a recreation trend nationally. In the example
in table 2.4, the problem that the agency has identified is childhood obesity, which is a local
problem and concern within the community. This serves as the focus of the study.

Step 2: Review the Literature

Now that the problem has been identified, the researcher must learn more about the topic under
investigation. To do this, the researcher must review the literature related to the research problem.
This step provides foundational knowledge about the problem area. The review of literature also
educates the researcher about what studies have been conducted in the past, how these studies
were conducted, and the conclusions in the problem area. In the obesity study, the review of
literature enables the programmer to discover horrifying statistics related to the long-term effects
of childhood obesity in terms of health issues, death rates, and projected medical costs. In
addition, the programmer finds several articles and information from the Centers for Disease
Control and Prevention that describe the benefits of walking 10,000 steps a day. The information
discovered during this step helps the programmer fully understand the magnitude of the problem,
recognize the future consequences of obesity, and identify a strategy to combat obesity (i.e.,
walking).
Step 3: Clarify the Problem
Many times the initial problem identified in the first step of the process is too large or broad in
scope. In step 3 of the process, the researcher clarifies the problem and narrows the scope of the
study. This can only be done after the literature has been reviewed. The knowledge gained
through the review of literature guides the researcher in clarifying and narrowing the research
project. In the example, the programmer has identified childhood obesity as the problem and the
purpose of the study. This topic is very broad and could be studied based on genetics, family
environment, diet, exercise, self-confidence, leisure activities, or health issues. All of these areas
cannot be investigated in a single study; therefore, the problem and purpose of the study must be
more clearly defined. The programmer has decided that the purpose of the study is to determine if
walking 10,000 steps a day for three days a week will improve the individuals health. This
purpose is more narrowly focused and researchable than the original problem.
Step 4: Clearly Define Terms and Concepts
Terms and concepts are words or phrases used in the purpose statement of the study or the
description of the study. These items need to be specifically defined as they apply to the study.
Terms or concepts often have different definitions depending on who is reading the study. To
minimize confusion about what the terms and phrases mean, the researcher must specifically
define them for the study. In the obesity study, the concept of individuals health can be defined
in hundreds of ways, such as physical, mental, emotional, or spiritual health. For this study, the
individuals health is defined as physical health. The concept of physical health may also be
defined and measured in many ways. In this case, the programmer decides to more narrowly
define individual health to refer to the areas of weight, percentage of body fat, and cholesterol.
By defining the terms or concepts more narrowly, the scope of the study is more manageable for
the programmer, making it easier to collect the necessary data for the study. This also makes the
concepts more understandable to the reader.
Step 5: Define the Population
Research projects can focus on a specific group of people, facilities, park development, employee
evaluations, programs, financial status, marketing efforts, or the integration of technology into the
operations. For example, if a researcher wants to examine a specific group of people in the
community, the study could examine a specific age group, males or females, people living in a
specific geographic area, or a specific ethnic group. Literally thousands of options are available to
the researcher to specifically identify the group to study. The research problem and the purpose of
the study assist the researcher in identifying the group to involve in the study. In research terms,

the group to involve in the study is always called the population. Defining the population assists
the researcher in several ways. First, it narrows the scope of the study from a very large
population to one that is manageable. Second, the population identifies the group that the
researchers efforts will be focused on within the study. This helps ensure that the researcher
stays on the right path during the study. Finally, by defining the population, the researcher
identifies the group that the results will apply to at the conclusion of the study. In the example in
table 2.4, the programmer has identified the population of the study as children ages 10 to 12
years. This narrower population makes the study more manageable in terms of time and
resources.
Step 6: Develop the Instrumentation Plan
The plan for the study is referred to as the instrumentation plan. The instrumentation plan serves
as the road map for the entire study, specifying who will participate in the study; how, when, and
where data will be collected; and the content of the program. This plan is composed of numerous
decisions and considerations that are addressed in chapter 8 of this text. In the obesity study, the
researcher has decided to have the children participate in a walking program for six months. The
group of participants is called the sample, which is a smaller group selected from the population
specified for the study. The study cannot possibly include every 10- to 12-year-old child in the
community, so a smaller group is used to represent the population. The researcher develops the
plan for the walking program, indicating what data will be collected, when and how the data will be
collected, who will collect the data, and how the data will be analyzed. The instrumentation plan
specifies all the steps that must be completed for the study. This ensures that the programmer has
carefully thought through all these decisions and that she provides a step-by-step plan to be
followed in the study.
Step 7: Collect Data
Once the instrumentation plan is completed, the actual study begins with the collection of data.
The collection of data is a critical step in providing the information needed to answer the research
question. Every study includes the collection of some type of datawhether it is from the literature
or from subjectsto answer the research question. Data can be collected in the form of words on
a survey, with a questionnaire, through observations, or from the literature. In the obesity study,
the programmers will be collecting data on the defined variables: weight, percentage of body fat,
cholesterol levels, and the number of days the person walked a total of 10,000 steps during the
class.
The researcher collects these data at the first session and at the last session of the program.
These two sets of data are necessary to determine the effect of the walking program on weight,
body fat, and cholesterol level. Once the data are collected on the variables, the researcher is
ready to move to the final step of the process, which is the data analysis.
Step 8: Analyze the Data
All the time, effort, and resources dedicated to steps 1 through 7 of the research process
culminate in this final step. The researcher finally has data to analyze so that the research
question can be answered. In the instrumentation plan, the researcher specified how the data will
be analyzed. The researcher now analyzes the data according to the plan. The results of this
analysis are then reviewed and summarized in a manner directly related to the research
questions. In the obesity study, the researcher compares the measurements of weight,
percentage of body fat, and cholesterol that were taken at the first meeting of the subjects to the
measurements of the same variables at the final program session. These two sets of data will be
analyzed to determine if there was a difference between the first measurement and the second

measurement for each individual in the program. Then, the data will be analyzed to determine if
the differences are statistically significant. If the differences are statistically significant, the study
validates the theory that was the focus of the study. The results of the study also provide valuable
information about one strategy to combat childhood obesity in the community.
As you have probably concluded, conducting studies using the eight steps of the scientific
research process requires you to dedicate time and effort to the planning process. You cannot
conduct a study using the scientific research process when time is limited or the study is done at
the last minute. Researchers who do this conduct studies that result in either false conclusions or
conclusions that are not of any value to the organization.
This is an excerpt from Applied Research and Evaluation Methods in Recreation.