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Geometry: Connections (Cline)

Introduction to Categorical Logic

Contrary to what some teachers claim, there are good arguments and there are bad
arguments and we can tell the difference. When we base our arguments on logic and evidence,
we make good arguments. If our logic is poor or if our evidence is weak, then we make bad
arguments. Critical thinking is knowing the difference between the two.
Unfortunately, the human brain is not very good at making good arguments. As a result, it is
necessary to study how to build good arguments, that is, to study logic. Formal argumentation,
or logic, has been studied in school for the last two and one-half thousand years. In logic, we
study how to think, not what to think.
When you build an argument, it is helpful to write it out as a formal argument. The most
basic argument form is called a Barbara.
All A is B
All B is C
Therefore All A is C

All B is C
All A is B
Therefore All A is C

The ancient Greeks

like to write it like
this, and we still do,
today.

This is basic mathematics. And if the math or structure of an argument works, then we say that
the argument is valid. It is a great way to check to make sure that we are thinking clearly. An
argument is either valid or invalid. Just as a woman is either pregnant or not pregnant, you
cannot be somewhere in-between.
When you are building an argument, it is often helpful to start with your conclusion. First,
identify your A-Term and your C-Term. Next, ask why it is true. This is your B-Term or
middle term. Then, substitute your A, B, and C terms into your argument (just like you
would in an equation in mathematics) and double check to make sure that it is valid.
After we check to see if it is valid (if the math works), we are ready to look to see if the
premises are true. When we ask if the premises are true we use the word sound. Are the
premises sound (true)? Yes or no.
Unfortunately, our arguments are not usually as good as we thought they were. This is why
writing out your argument is so important. It is a great way to see if it really makes sense. It
is like going to the doctor and taking an x-ray of your argument. Does you argument work? Is
it sick? Does it have any broken bones? If so, we have work to do.
First, make sure that your argument is valid. Then, look to see if your premises are true. In
particular, pay attention to the B-Term (also called the middle term), which connects your
A-Term and your C-Term. Or to put it a bit differently, it explains why the conclusion is true.
If the premises are not true, then it may be necessary to find a new middle term. If they are
almost true, then adjust you A, B, and C terms until the premises are true. Easier said than
done. But, this is the most important step in building a good argument. Building a good
argument, or a strong argument, takes time and effort.

Making an Argument
1. Write the BARBARA structure (use Greek form):

Geometry: Connections (Cline)

Premise #1
Premise #2 ________________________

Conclusion

2. Build an argument using the A, B, & C terms provided.

A = humans

B = animals

C = things that are mortal

Premise #1
Premise #2 _________________________
Conclusion

A = homework assignments

B = things that are made by teachers
C = things that are boring

Premise #1
Premise #2 _________________________
Conclusion

A = SAS students


B =things/people that study hard
C = intelligent

Premise #1
Premise #2 _________________________
Conclusion

3. Find the link (B) that can lead to the given conclusion:
P1 All ________________________________are in Shanghai.



B
C
P2 All members of our class are _______________________________.

A


B
C All members of our class are in Shanghai.


A


C
P1 All ____________________________________are thoughts.



B
C
P2 All dreams are ____________________________________.
A

B
C All dreams are thoughts.

A

C

Geometry: Connections (Cline)

4. Create an argument that concludes

a) All Mondays are things that make me depressed.




b) All people who were born in Seoul are Asian.




c) All dogs are things that make good pets.




Sound and Valid Arguments:
Any argument that follows the BARBARA structure properly, MUST be a valid argument
for example:
P1 All birds are things that can fly.

B C
P2 All penguins are birds.
A B
C All penguins are things that can fly

A

C
This argument is VALID. That means that if we accept both Premise 1 (P1) and Premise 2 (P2)
to be true, then the conclusion (C) must be true as well.

However!
Youre probably thinking that there is something wrong with this argument.
PENGUINS CANT FLY!!
sowhere did we go wrong?

Geometry: Connections (Cline)

Look at the two premises: are they both TRUE?

- NO. It is not true that all birds can fly. Our first premise is FALSE.
So even though this argument is VALID, it is not SOUND.
An argument is UNSOUND if the conclusion is based on one or more false premises.