COSMOS AND MOTION: SEMESTER ONE

Focus Point One: The universe is held together by gravity.

-Distinguish between the terms mass and weight.
-Define gravitational attraction as a force that exists between any two
bodies that have mass.
-Calculate acceleration due to gravity on the surface of the earth and
other planets in the solar system
Mass is defined as the property of a body that causes it to have weight in
a gravitational field. Can be measured in kilograms, grams etc. Weight is a
measure of the force needed to support an object in a neutral
gravitational field. This can be measured in Newtons.
Gravitational attraction exists between any two bodies that have mass
and is a fundamental force (other such forces are electromagnetic and
nuclear). It causes objects to be attracted towards each other and the
magnitude of this force between two bodies is related to the mass and the
distance. The Universal law of gravitation was devised by Isaac Newton
and can be represented by:

Where F= force measured in newtons, m= mass measured in kilograms, d or r =

distance in metres and G is the Universal Gravitational constant of 6.67 time 10
negative eleven.
The value of G is very small so gravity is only noticeable when at least one object
with a very large mass is involved. Close to the surface of the Earth, when an
object is allowed to fall, it moves in a straight line towards the centre of the
Earth. The further the object falls, the faster it moves, thus it is accelerating. The
value of acceleration, if the effects of air resistance are ignored, is a constant
regardless of the mass of the object that is falling. The acceleration due to
gravity on any planet can be calculated using the following formula:

Where M= mass of planet and r= radius of planet and G= universal Gravitational

constant.
The rate of acceleration due to gravity has been accurately measured to be 9.8
ms (power of negative 2)
If the
1.
2.
3.
4.

force of gravity between objects had:

The separation double the force would be quartered.
The separation halved the force would quadruple.
One mass doubled, the mass would have twice the pull of gravity.
One mass doubled and one mass halved the gravity would stay the same.

ASK about One over distance squared.

Focus Point Two: Travel to the other parts of the solar system uses rockets and
gravity.
-Identify Newtons three laws of motion and examples.

-Apply Newtons laws to explain how a rocket works.

-Define speed, acceleration and force.
-Solve problems using the equations of motion.
Isaac Newton came up with three laws of motion, and these were:
1. A body persists in a state of rest or uniform motion unless acted on
by an external unbalanced force. Often called the law of inertia.
2. The relationship between an objects mass m, and its acceleration a
is represented in the equation F=ma, the greater the mass of an
object accelerating the greater the force needed to accelerate the
object. Acceleration is produced when a force acts on a mass and
can involve a change of direction as well as speed.
3. For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction. So, for
every force there is a reaction equal in size and opposite in
direction. Remember Georgia and Cat on the chairs.
Newtons third law of motion is used to assist the movement of a rocket.
The rockets action is to push down against the ground with its powerful
engine. The equal and opposite reaction is the rocket is pushed upwards
off the ground.
Speed is defined as the rate of motion, or rather, the rate of change of
distance.
V (av) = d/t
Where V (av) = average speed, d= total distance travelled and t= total
time taken to travel distance. Instantaneous speed is the speed at one
instant in time.
Velocity is the speed of a body in a given direction, viz a change in
displacement over time where displacement is the distance from a given
point in a given direction. Velocity should include a distance in metres and
a direction. Acceleration is defined as the rate of change of velocity. It can
involve a change in magnitude or direction, and is written as ms (-2).
A (av) =
v/
t
Where a (av) = average acceleration, triangle v= change in velocity of the
body and triangle t= change in time over which the change in velocity
took place.
Alternatively one may write:
A (av) = (v-u)/t
Where a(av)= average acceleration, v= final velocity of the body, u=
initial velocity of the body and t= time over which the change took place.
A force is a push or pull which can cause an object with mass to change its
velocity.

Problems can be solved using the equations of motion. The equation for
acceleration can be rearranged as:
V= u+at; U= v-at; T=v-u/ a
To find final velocity, initial velocity and time over which a change took
place.
SEE CORE SCIENCE TEXTBOOK
Focus Point Three: Our knowledge of the universe is based mainly on
the interpretation of electromagnetic radiation that arrives on earth.
-Review the nature of electromagnetic radiation.
-Describe how waves can be reflected and refracted and relate this to the
working of optical and radio telescopes.
-Describe difficulties that telescopes encounter in gathering information
from the universe including absorption by atmosphere, light pollution,
immensity of the distances, loss of intensity with distance.
Unlike a mechanical wave in which the particles in a medium are
disturbed, electromagnetic waves do not require a medium for their
propagation. They involve the propagation of oscillating electric and
magnetic fields and are transverse waves. A transverse wave is a moving
wave that consists of oscillations occurring perpendicular to the direction
of energy transfer. It the wave is moving horizontally, its oscillations will
move vertically. They travel at their highest velocity in a vacuum while
they move slightly slower through matter. Electromagnetic waves vary in
their frequencies and wavelengths although their velocities are the same
in a vacuum. The collection of different frequency waves is the
electromagnetic spectrum and is seen below:

Band Name
Radio/TV

Microwave
Infrared

Visible light

Ultraviolet
X-Rays

Gamma Rays

Wavelength
(approx.)
100Km-10m

Sources
Waves
Radio/TV
transmitters

of Uses of Waves

Radio/TV
communication,
radio astronomy
and telescopes.
10mm-0.1mm
Radar
Satellite
transmitters,
communication,
microwave ovens
cooking food
0.1 mm-0.001 mm Electric radiators
Heating rooms,
medical heat
treatments, night
vision systems.
400 nm-700 nm
Stars,
electric Human vision,
lamps
photosynthesis,
photography,
astronomy
400 nm-1 nm
UV lamps, stars
UV astronomy,
sterilization
1 nm- 0.001 nm
X-ray tubes, black
Medical
holes
radiography
(diagnosis and
treatment, flaws in
structural
materials, x-ray
astronomy
0.01 nm- 0.0001 Radioactive
Sterilization, killing

nm

minerals

cancer cells.

Astronomers use various bands of the electromagnetic spectrum to

investigate the universe. For example:
Radio waves are used in radio telescopes. These are large dishes
(such as those in Parkes) that collect radio waves from space. The
weak radio signals are amplified and analyzed. Radio astronomy is
used to observe objects that emit mainly radio waves rather than
visible lights such as dark nebulae (very dense interstellar cloud
that obscures light), quasars (very energetic and distant galaxy with
high red shift and a galactic nucleus), and pulsars (rotating stars
that emit beams of electromagnetic radiation). They also observe
clouds of hydrogen in deep space.
Infrared waves are used in telescopes and their spectrometers to
detect objects that are too cool to emit visible light, measure the
temperature of the atmosphere of the solar system planets and
determine the temperature of the background radiation in deep
space.
Visible Light allows for ground based optical telescopes and
spectrometers as well as space telescopes such as the Hubble.
These are used to observe and measure optical sources such as
planets, comets, stars and galaxies; measure the red shift of space
objects such as galaxies to determine the extent of the expansion of
the universe. They also allow for measurement of the colour and
temperature of stars.
It is important to note that ground based astronomy is faced with many
difficulties. These include:
i. Earths
Atmosphere:
The
atmosphere
absorbs
various
components of the electromagnetic spectrum. Infrared, UV and XRays are significantly absorbed by the atmosphere. Visible light is
scattered and refracted by the atmosphere and clear images are
hard to obtain. Locating telescopes on high mountains and using
modern adaptive optics slightly improves the quality of the signals
detected.
ii.
Light Pollution: Cities emit a large amount of visible light at night
so telescopes are mainly built where there is little visible light
pollution.
iii.
Radio Wave Pollution: Mobile phones, microwave sources and
satellite TV transmissions make it difficult for radio astronomers to
detect weak radio signals from space.
iv.
Solar Storms: Solar Flares release bursts of electromagnetic
radiation that interfere with other electromagnetic sources in space.
v.
Optical systems in Telescopes: Lenses and mirrors in telescopes
produce some degree of distortion of images. Telescopes are limited
by their resolution. Resolution is the ability of an optical system to
distinguish between two close objects.

Ground based astronomy is also affected by the immense distance over

which electromagnetic radiation information has to travel and the loss of
data over this distance.
There are two types of telescopes, radio and optical. Optical telescopes
can be of two types, reflecting and refracting.
Radio telescopes can detect and collect data on radio sources. These
telescopes generally have a wide parabolic dish shape and are placed far
major population centers, usually in valleys to shield them from EMI.
(Optical telescopes are placed on high mountain tops.) A notable
development came with radio interferometry. This involves arrays of
parabolic dishes being widely separated and connected with cables,
optical fibers etc. This increases the total signal collected and increases
resolution. Basically means combining the images from the different
telescopes.

Optical telescopes are used to gather and focus light mainly from the
visible part of the electromagnetic spectrum. The basic scheme is that the
convex or concave mirror is used to gather the incoming light and focuses
that light onto a focal plane where it forms a real image that can be
viewed or recorded through an eyepiece which acts as a magnifying glass.
Reflecting Telescopes:

A reflecting telescope uses a curved mirror to focus light. Light from

distant objects, such as stars and galaxies, enters the telescope in parallel
rays. These rays are reflected from the concave objective mirror to a
diagonal flat mirror. This mirror reflects the light from the side of the
telescope to an eyepiece lense which magnifies the image.
Refracting Telescopes:

The simplest refracting telescope has two convex lenses which are thicker
in the middle. The lense closest to the object is the objective lense. This
lense collects light from a distant light source and brings it to focus as an
upside-down image within the telescope tube. The eyepiece lense forms
an image that remains inverted. More complex refracting telescopes
include an extra lense to flip the image.

Focus Point Four: Electromagnetic radiation from the universe can be

used to determine the size and temperature of stars and their distance to
the Earth.
-Relate temperature to wavelength of radiation emitted from hot bodies.
-Explain how the colour of a star can be used to estimate its surface
temperature.
One way astronomers can learn about a star is by analyzing its light. They
do this by transferring light from a telescope through a spectroscope. By
comparing and analyzing patterns in the spectra of stars, astronomers can
infer star compositions and temperatures.

Another way to study starlight is by examining the intensity of light

emitted as various wavelengths. The intensity of light can be shown in a
graphical representation of a spectrum. The graphical spectra show
intensity on the y-axis and wavelength along the x-axis. The wavelength
reported at the peak is where the star emits the highest amount of energy.
The peak emission wavelength is related to the stars colour.
The colors of stars are directly related to their temperatures. From coolest
to hottest, stars appear red, orange, yellow, white and blue. The peak
emission wavelength determines a stars colour, and colour indicates
temperature so peak emission wavelength (PEW!) determines colour. Note
below that the brightest colour corresponds to the PEW(!). Studies of
stellar spectra allow astronomers to develop and refine models of stellar
evolutionthe processes by which stars of different sizes are formed, live
and die.
Focus Point Five: Stars are part of a dynamic universe and change over
time.

-Describe the sequence of stellar evolution and relate different pathways

to mass (nebula-protostar-main sequence-red giant/supergiant-white
dwarf/black hole/neutron star-brown dwarf.
-Classify stars using a HR diagram
-Extract information from HR diagram and recognize the following groupsmain sequence, red giants, white dwarfs, and supergiant.
Stellar Evolution is the process by which a star undergoes a series of
radical changes during its lifetime. Depending on the mass of the star, this
ranges from only a few million years to a trillion. Stellar Evolution was not
studied by observing the lifetime of a single star (impossible), but rather
by observing numerous stars and simulating stellar structure with
computer models.
When the universe came into existence, around 14 billion years ago, the
only elements were hydrogen, helium and traces of lithium, beryllium and
boron. The heavier elements did not yet exist. Heavy elements are
produced by nucleosynthesis, the fusion of nuclei deep inside stars that
releases energy. The outflow of energy from the central regions of a star
provides the pressure necessary to keep the star from collapsing inwards.
A star collapses when the fuel deep inside it is used
up and the energy flow from the core stops. Nuclear
reactions outside the core cause the star to expand
outwards in the red giant phase before it begins its
inevitable collapse. If the star is about the same
mass as our sun, it will become a white dwarf. If it is
more massive, it will undergo a supernova
explosion and leave behind (NOT BECOME) a
neutron star. If the collapsing core of the star is
very great, it will collapse inwards and form a
gravitational warp in space; a black hole.

Stars are formed in giant clouds of dust and gas and progress through
their normal life as balls of gas heated by thermonuclear reactions in their
cores. Depending on their mass, they reach the end of their evolution as a
white dwarf, neutron star or black hole. The cycle begins anew as an
expanding super shell from one or more supernovas can trigger the
formation of a new generation of stars. Brown dwarfs have a mass only a
small percentage of that of the sun so they never evolve.
SEE SHEET FOR DIAGRAM OF STELLAR EVOLUTION
The Hertzsprung-Russel diagram (HR diagram) plots luminosity or
absolute magnitute as a function of temperature or colour for stars. It also
demonstrates stellar evolution.

ASK SUN TO EXPLAIN CETTE DIAGRAM

Focus Point Six: Our understanding of the nature of the universe has
changed over time and the latest theory is the big bang.
-Outline the features of nebulae, stars, galaxies, planets, quasars, black
holes
-Identify and describe the main features of the big bang theory
-Recall the main features of a scientific theory and a law
-Outline evidence for the Big Bang Theory
-Outline some previously accepted ideas about the origin of the universe
and explain why they were replaced by the Big Bang Theory
Nebulae: A nebulae is an interstellar cloud of dust, hydrogen, helium gas
and plasma. They often form in star-forming regions. In these regions the
clouds of dust clump together to form larger masses, which attract further
matter and eventually become stars. The remaining objects form
planetary system objects (This is believed.)
Stars: A star is a massive luminous ball of plasma held together by gravity.
For most of its life, a star exists on energy produced by thermonuclear
fusion and they vary widely on size and temperature. See more before.
Galaxy: A galaxy is a massive gravitationally bound system that consists
of stars and stellar remnants, a medium of gas and dust, and an important
but poorly understood component dubbed dark matter (This cannot be
detected from its radiation, but from its gravitational effects on visible
radiation). Historically, galaxies are categorized according to shape, and
these include elliptical, spiral and peculiar galaxies. Galaxies may contain
planets, stars and other planetary system objects.
Planets: A planet is, by definition, a celestial body orbiting a star or stellar
remnant that is massive enough to be rounded by its own gravity, not
massive enough to cause thermonuclear fusion and has cleared the
surrounding area of space litter (not actually a word, the correct term is
planetisimals). All planets revolve around stars, have varying degrees of
axial tilt, rotate around invisible axis in their centre and have cleared their
neighborhood. Larger planets have larger atmospheres.
Quasars: Quasars are powerfully energetic and distant galaxies with an
active galactic nucleus and show a very high red shift. It follows that
quasars are very ancient and they radiate at high rates. They are believed
to be massive black holes in the centers of galaxies.
Black Holes: A black hole is a region of space in which the gravitational
field is so powerful that nothing, including light, can escape. A black hole
has a surface called an event horizon through which objects can fall but
not escape. It is called black as it absorbs all light and reflects nothing.
As, for example, gases fall into a black hole they emit large amounts of

radiation and become very hot, making it possible to detect black holes
from earth.
Other useful terms include:
Hypothesis: A hypothesis is a limited statement regarding cause and
effect in a specific situation and can be tested by experimentation and
observation or by statistical analysis of the probabilities from the data
obtained. The outcome of the test should be unknown so the results can
provide data regarding the validity of the hypothesis.
Model: A model is used for situations when the hypothesis has a limitation
in its validity. It is by no means a representation of the true nature of the
subject but is useful in determining features and so on.
Law: A statement of fact meant to describe in concise terms, an action or
set of actions. It is generally accepted to be both true and universal and
can sometimes be expressed as a single mathematical equation. They
must be simple, universal and absolute.
Theory: An explanation of a set of related observations or evens based
upon proven hypotheses and verified multiple times by detached
researchers. It is more complex and dynamic than a law and explains an
entire group of related phenomena. Components of it can be changed or
improved upon without changing the overall truth of the theory as a
whole.
SEE SHEETS FOR SCIENTIFIC METHOD
The Big Bang model had its beginnings with Edwin Hubbles discovery that
everything in the universe is moving away from everything else or
expanding in every direction. This is known as Hubbles law. It follows
that there was a time when the universe was an infinitesimally small
point. It was not an explosion IN the universe but rather OF the universe.
The evidence for the Big Bang is as follows:
1. The first line of evidence is the expansion of the universe. It is to be
noted the universe must have been always expanding as there is no
mechanism which could accomplish a transition from shrinking to
expanding on a universal scale.
2. The second part of the evidence is Cosmic Microwave Background
Radiation (CMB) which is left over from the first light in the
universe and is a very strong indication that the Big Bang occurred.
3. The third pillar lies in the abundance of different elements in the
universe. The Big Bang theory predicts certain amounts of hydrogen
and helium and observations have recorded almost exactly these
amounts.
4. The fourth piece is red shift, phenomena which occurs when
electromagnetic radiation is shifted towards the less energetic end
of the electromagnetic spectrum. It is defined as an increase in the

wavelength of radiation received compared to the wavelength

emitted. Conversely, a decrease is called blue shift. Red shift occurs
when a light source moves away from an observer further proving
that the universe is expanding.
Another theory proposed as an alternative to the Big Bang theory was the
Steady State theory which asserted that although the universe was
expanding, it did not change its look over time. For this to work, new
matter would have to be formed which contradicted the law of
conservation of matter. It removed the need for the universe to have a
beginning. The steady state theory claims that CMB arose from light from
ancient stars scattered by galactic dust, however this does not comply as
CMB is very smooth making it difficult to explain how it arose from point
sources. After the Steady State Theory was rejected, it was altered to be
the basis for another theory known as the quasi-steady state theory which
postulates a lot of smaller big bangs occurring over time.