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Artificial Satellites
Article title: Artificial Satellites
Website title: NASA
URL: http://www.nasa.gov/worldbook/artificial_satellites_worldbook.html
Date updated: 29th November 2007
An artificial satellite is a manufactured object that continuously orbits Earth or some other body in space. Most artificial satellites orbit
Earth. People use them to study the universe, help forecast the weather, transfer telephone calls over the oceans, assist in the
navigation of ships and aircraft, monitor crops and other resources, and support military activities.
Artificial satellites also have orbited the moon, the sun, asteroids, and the planets Venus, Mars, and Jupiter. Such satellites mainly
gather information about the bodies they orbit.
Piloted spacecraft in orbit, such as space capsules, space shuttle orbiters, and space stations, are also considered artificial satellites.
So, too, are orbiting pieces of "space junk," such as burned-out rocket boosters and empty fuel tanks that have not fallen to Earth. But
this article does not deal with these kinds of artificial satellites.
Artificial satellites differ from natural satellites, natural objects that orbit a planet. Earth's moon is a natural satellite.
The Soviet Union launched the first artificial satellite, Sputnik 1, in 1957. Since then, the United States and about 40 other countries
have developed, launched, and operated satellites. Today, about 3,000 useful satellites and 6,000 pieces of space junk are orbiting
Earth.
Satellite orbits
Satellite orbits have a variety of shapes. Some are circular, while others are highly elliptical (egg-shaped). Orbits also vary in altitude.
Some circular orbits, for example, are just above the atmosphere at an altitude of about 155 miles (250 kilometers), while others are
more than 20,000 miles (32,200 kilometers) above Earth. The greater the altitude, the longer the orbital period -- the time it takes a
satellite to complete one orbit.
A satellite remains in orbit because of a balance between the satellite's velocity (speed at which it would travel in a straight line) and
the gravitational force between the satellite and Earth. Were it not for the pull of gravity, a satellite's velocity would send it flying away
from Earth in a straight line. But were it not for velocity, gravity would pull a satellite back to Earth.
To help understand the balance between gravity and velocity, consider what happens when a small weight is attached to a string and
swung in a circle. If the string were to break, the weight would fly off in a straight line. However, the string acts like gravity, keeping the
weight in its orbit. The weight and string can also show the relationship between a satellite's altitude and its orbital period. A long string
is like a high altitude. The weight takes a relatively long time to complete one circle. A short string is like a low altitude. The weight has
a relatively short orbital period.
Many types of orbits exist, but most artificial satellites orbiting Earth travel in one of four types: (1) high altitude, geosynchronous; (2)
medium altitude, (3) sun-synchronous, polar; and (4) low altitude. Most orbits of these four types are circular.
A high altitude, geosynchronous orbit lies above the equator at an altitude of about 22,300 miles (35,900 kilometers). A satellite in this
orbit travels around Earth's axis in exactly the same time, and in the same direction, as Earth rotates about its axis. Thus, as seen
from Earth, the satellite always appears at the same place in the sky overhead. To boost a satellite into this orbit requires a large,
powerful launch vehicle.
A medium altitude orbit has an altitude of about 12,400 miles (20,000 kilometers) and an orbital period of 12 hours. The orbit is outside
Earth's atmosphere and is thus very stable. Radio signals sent from a satellite at medium altitude can be received over a large area of
Earth's surface. The stability and wide coverage of the orbit make it ideal for navigation satellites.
A sun-synchronous, polar orbit has a fairly low altitude and passes almost directly over the North and South poles. A slow drift of the
orbit's position is coordinated with Earth's movement around the sun in such a way that the satellite always crosses the equator at the
same local time on Earth. Because the satellite flies over all latitudes, its instruments can gather information on almost the entire
surface of Earth. One example of this type of orbit is that of the TERRA Earth Observing System's NOAA-H satellite. This satellite
studies how natural cycles and human activities affect Earth's climate. The altitude of its orbit is 438 miles (705 kilometers), and the
orbital period is 99 minutes. When the satellite crosses the equator, the local time is always either 10:30 a.m. or 10:30 p.m.
A low altitude orbit is just above Earth's atmosphere, where there is almost no air to cause drag on the spacecraft and reduce its
speed. Less energy is required to launch a satellite into this type of orbit than into any other orbit. Satellites that point toward deep
space and provide scientific information generally operate in this type of orbit. The Hubble Space Telescope, for example, operates at
an altitude of about 380 miles (610 kilometers), with an orbital period of 97 minutes.
Types of artificial satellites
Artificial satellites are classified according to their mission. There are six main types of artificial satellites: (1) scientific research, (2)
weather, (3) communications, (4) navigation, (5) Earth observing, and (6) military.

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Scientific research satellites gather data for scientific analysis. These satellites are usually designed to perform one of three kinds of
missions. (1) Some gather information about the composition and effects of the space near Earth. They may be placed in any of
various orbits, depending on the type of measurements they are to make. (2) Other satellites record changes in Earth and its
atmosphere. Many of them travel in sun-synchronous, polar orbits. (3) Still others observe planets, stars, and other distant objects.
Most of these satellites operate in low altitude orbits. Scientific research satellites also orbit other planets, the moon, and the sun.
Weather satellites help scientists study weather patterns and forecast the weather. Weather satellites observe the atmospheric
conditions over large areas.
Some weather satellites travel in a sun-synchronous, polar orbit, from which they make close, detailed observations of weather over
the entire Earth. Their instruments measure cloud cover, temperature, air pressure, precipitation, and the chemical composition of the
atmosphere. Because these satellites always observe Earth at the same local time of day, scientists can easily compare weather data
collected under constant sunlight conditions. The network of weather satellites in these orbits also function as a search and rescue
system. They are equipped to detect distress signals from all commercial, and many private, planes and ships.
Other weather satellites are placed in high altitude, geosynchronous orbits. From these orbits, they can always observe weather
activity over nearly half the surface of Earth at the same time. These satellites photograph changing cloud formations. They also
produce infrared images, which show the amount of heat coming from Earth and the clouds.
Communications satellites serve as relay stations, receiving radio signals from one location and transmitting them to another. A
communications satellite can relay several television programs or many thousands of telephone calls at once. Communications
satellites are usually put in a high altitude, geosynchronous orbit over a ground station. A ground station has a large dish antenna for
transmitting and receiving radio signals. Sometimes, a group of low orbit communications satellites arranged in a network, called a
constellation, work together by relaying information to each other and to users on the ground. Countries and commercial
organizations, such as television broadcasters and telephone companies, use these satellites continuously.
Navigation satellites enable operators of aircraft, ships, and land vehicles anywhere on Earth to determine their locations with great
accuracy. Hikers and other people on foot can also use the satellites for this purpose. The satellites send out radio signals that are
picked up by a computerized receiver carried on a vehicle or held in the hand.
Navigation satellites operate in networks, and signals from a network can reach receivers anywhere on Earth. The receiver calculates
its distance from at least three satellites whose signals it has received. It uses this information to determine its location.
Earth observing satellites are used to map and monitor our planet's resources and ever-changing chemical life cycles. They follow
sun-synchronous, polar orbits. Under constant, consistent illumination from the sun, they take pictures in different colors of visible light
and non-visible radiation. Computers on Earth combine and analyze the pictures. Scientists use Earth observing satellites to locate
mineral deposits, to determine the location and size of freshwater supplies, to identify sources of pollution and study its effects, and to
detect the spread of disease in crops and forests.
Military satellites include weather, communications, navigation, and Earth observing satellites used for military purposes. Some
military satellites -- often called "spy satellites" -- can detect the launch of missiles, the course of ships at sea, and the movement of
military equipment on the ground.
The life and death of a satellite
Building a satellite
Every satellite carries special instruments that enable it to perform its mission. For example, a satellite that studies the universe has a
telescope. A satellite that helps forecast the weather carries cameras to track the movement of clouds.
In addition to such mission-specific instruments, all satellites have basic subsystems, groups of devices that help the instruments work
together and keep the satellite operating. For example, a power subsystem generates, stores, and distributes a satellite's electric
power. This subsystem may include panels of solar cells that gather energy from the sun. Command and data handling subsystems
consist of computers that gather and process data from the instruments and execute commands from Earth.
A satellite's instruments and subsystems are designed, built, and tested individually. Workers install them on the satellite one at a time
until the satellite is complete. Then the satellite is tested under conditions like those that the satellite will encounter during launch and
while in space. If the satellite passes all tests, it is ready to be launched.
Launching the satellite
Space shuttles carry some satellites into space, but most satellites are launched by rockets that fall into the ocean after their fuel is
spent. Many satellites require minor adjustments of their orbit before they begin to perform their function. Built-in rockets called
thrusters make these adjustments. Once a satellite is placed into a stable orbit, it can remain there for a long time without further
adjustment.
Performing the mission

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Most satellites operate are directed from a control center on Earth. Computers and human operators at the control center monitor the
satellite's position, send instructions to its computers, and retrieve information that the satellite has gathered. The control center
communicates with the satellite by radio. Ground stations within the satellite's range send and receive the radio signals.
A satellite does not usually receive constant direction from its control center. It is like an orbiting robot. It controls its solar panels to
keep them pointed toward the sun and keeps its antennas ready to receive commands. Its instruments automatically collect
information.
Satellites in a high altitude, geosynchronous orbit are always in contact with Earth. Ground stations can contact satellites in low orbits
as often as 12 times a day. During each contact, the satellite transmits information and receives instructions. Each contact must be
completed during the time the satellite passes overhead -- about 10 minutes.
If some part of a satellite breaks down, but the satellite remains capable of doing useful work, the satellite owner usually will continue
to operate it. In some cases, ground controllers can repair or reprogram the satellite. In rare instances, space shuttle crews have
retrieved and repaired satellites in space. If the satellite can no longer perform usefully and cannot be repaired or reprogrammed,
operators from the control center will send a signal to shut it off.
Falling from orbit
A satellite remains in orbit until its velocity decreases and gravitational force pulls it down into a relatively dense part of the
atmosphere. A satellite slows down due to occasional impact with air molecules in the upper atmosphere and the gentle pressure of
the sun's energy. When the gravitational force pulls the satellite down far enough into the atmosphere, the satellite rapidly compresses
the air in front of it. This air becomes so hot that most or all of the satellite burns up.
Where do satellites orbit?
Article title: Where do satellites orbit?
Website title: BNSC
URL: http://www.bnsc.gov.uk/5956.aspx
Date updated: 22nd August 2008
A satellite can be launched into many different types of orbit, depending on its purpose. The majority use one of the following orbits
but it should be noted that the distances that define each orbit vary from source to source.
Low Earth Orbit
Most satellites are placed in Low Earth Orbit (LEO) between 200 and 2,000 km above the Earth. They travel at around 27,000 km per
hour and make one revolution of the Earth every 90 minutes.
Earth observation satellites often use the Sun synchronous orbit, travelling over the North and South Poles, which enables them to
see most of the Earth's surface over time.
Medium Earth Orbit
A Medium Earth Orbit is the region between 2,000 km and approximately 35,000 km and is used by the various Global Navigation
Satellite Systems (GNSS).
The European Galileo satellite navigation system will reside there as well as the existing American Global Positioning System and the
Russian Glonass. Many other satellites pass through this region either operationally or during deployment.
Geosynchronous Earth Orbit
A Geosynchronous Orbit is when a satellite passes the same points on Earth during repeat orbits.
Geostationary orbit
A Geostationary Orbit is where the satellite sits directly over the equator, performing a circular orbit approximately 36,000 km above
the Earth.
At this height, if the satellite matches the speed and direction of the spin of our planet, it will always be in the same place in the sky.
Some weather satellites and communications satellites are placed in this type of orbit because they can provide continuous coverage
of the same area.
Highly Elliptical Orbit

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A Highly Elliptical Orbit is a satellite orbiting above 35,786 km but with a low perigee of about 1,000 km (the point where it is closest to
the Earth). These are popular orbits for Earth Observation satellites and astronomical observatories.
How Satellite Benefits Society
Article title: How Satellite Benefits Society
Website title: St. Marys College Preparatory High School
URL: http://www.smgaels.org/physics/97/JDIORIO.HTM
Date updated: 1st October 2008
Satellites are used almost everyday by everyone. Even though you can't see it, there will probably be one traveling above you today.
Satellites are used for many things such as communication, oceanography, astronomy, surveillance, and a variety of other
things as well . They help many scientists get a perceptive view at all kinds of objects anywhere in the world.
Communications
Communication satellites work non-stop 24 hours a day to keep the entire world linked together. Until recently NASA had been the
only one's launching satellites, but now many private companies are benefiting from what a satellite can do. Once a
satellite becomes geosynchronous, rotates with the earth orbit, a satellite is ready to work. It then beams messages to a
ground station, the ground station receives these messages by using a device called a transponder. Which interrupts the
message and then distributes it. By doing this satellite stations can than transport telephone service, data, or television
transmissions to almost anywhere. These communication satellites are used for things like an overseas phone call or
beaming 150 channels into your living room.
New advancements look to focus on packing more information into frequencies, because virtually all frequency transmitters are being
used. And this would allow more and more companies to transport all types of data.
Oceanography
Another use for satellites is in the field of oceanography. In 1798, the first three oceanography satellites went out ( Tirus, Nimbus 7,
Seasat) and although they didn't do much they led the way to huge discoveries (Robinson 34). Now marine scientists and
marine biologist are able to detect almost everything that goes on in the ocean. They use satellites to detect the oceans
affect on environment, analyze wave patterns, monitor marine surface life, analyze ocean tendencies and currents, and get
a complete synoptic view of the ocean. These things help them tell you what the water will be like, and help them find out
about ocean life.
Astronomy
Astronomy satellites are mostly new technology. These satellites are mounted on earth-orbiting satellites or on deep space probes,
and therefore can give us an unobstructed view with out the earth's atmosphere interfering. These satellites carry detectors
to record electromagnetic radiation at wavelengths shorter than visible light (McGraw-Hill 41). Many different satellite
astronomy techniques are used, one of the more prevalent ones is ultraviolet. Evolving in the 1940's, when Lyman Spitzer
pointed out that the Earth's atmosphere is opaque to ultraviolet light. Out of ultraviolet developed solar ultraviolet , with a
deeper space base it uses low and high spectral lines, to determine radiation on an object throughout the solar
atmosphere. X-ray satellites are all used, it looks at x-ray emission from the sun and stars.
Surveillance
Lastly, an interesting satellite use is in the field of surveillance or spy satellites. There are four kinds of major satellites (White 100).
The most commonly used one, reconnaissance use cameras to take pictures of a particular place from up above. They
also have radar and infrared detectors so they can detect things in the dark or things that are covered by something or
camouflage. Most of Russia's reconnaissance are known as COSMOS, the U.S. first one was called Big Bird. Ocean
Surveillance satellites are used to search for ships or submarines. They can spot nuclear vessels. And new advancements
may allow them to scan the depths of the ocean. Early warning and "Elint" satellites are primarily used by the armed forces.
These basically protect countries from sneak attacks, and can be used to detect if other countries are building or storing
nuclear warheads. Elint is the basic spy satellite it picks up radio transmissions, and maps location of countries defense
bases. It is the most important military satellite because it does not let another country to put together an attack without
another country knowing.
Conclusion
As you can see satellites are an integral part of everyday life. They have thousands of uses and perform it without most ever being
seen. Just think now how many satellite dishes you have seen on top of a house and that's just one aspect. Satellites are becoming
more and more advanced every year and will lead the way into the 21st century
Types of Orbits
Article title: Types of orbit
Website title: Iowa State University

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URL: http://www.polaris.iastate.edu/EveningStar/Unit4/unit4_sub3.htm
Date updated: 2nd October 2008
What we have just described in the previous section is how a satellite orbits the Earth - it is just like the baseball that goes all the way
around the Earth. Let's look at that in more detail.
Low Earth Orbits
Most satellites, the International Space Station, the Space Shuttle, and the Hubble Space Telescope are all in Low Earth Orbit
(commonly called "LEO"). This orbit is almost identical to our previous baseball orbiting example, except that it is high enough to miss
all the mountains and also high enough that atmospheric drag won't bring it right back home again.
Advantages and Disadvantages of LEO
Low Earth Orbit is used for things that we want to visit often with the Space Shuttle, like the Hubble Space Telescope and the
International Space Station. This is convenient for installing new instruments, fixing things that are broken, and inspecting damage. It
is also about the only way we can have people go up, do experiments, and return in a relatively short time.
There are two disadvantages to having things so close, however. The first is that there is still some atmospheric drag. Even though
the amount of atmosphere is far too little to breath, there is enough to place a small amount of drag on the satellite or other object. As
a result, over time these objects slow down and their orbits slowly decay. Simply put, the satellite or spacecraft slows down and this
allows the influence of gravity to pull the object towards the Earth.
The second disadvantage has to do with how quickly a satellite in LEO goes around the Earth. As you can imagine, a satellite
traveling 18,000 miles per hour or faster does not spend very long over any one part of the Earth at a given time. So what happens if
we want a satellite to spend all of its time over just one part of the Earth? For instance, a weather satellite wouldn't be very effective
for us in North America if it didn't have a long dwell time over us. (Dwell time = the time a satellite sits over one part of the globe.) Also,
a communications satellite wouldn't work very well for us in North American if it spent most of its time over Africa or Asia.
There are two ways to accomplish this. One solution is to put a satellite in a highly elliptical orbit and the other is to place the satellite
in a geosynchronous orbit.
Geostationary Satellites Frequently Asked Questions
Article Title: Geostationary Satellites Frequently Asked Questions
Website Title: Dundee Satellite Receiving Station
URL: http://www.sat.dundee.ac.uk/pdusfaq.html#adv
Date updated: 19th September 2008
What are the advantages/disadvantages of Geostationary Satellites for remote imaging?
As they are positioned at such a high altitude the spatial resolution (ie amount of detail shown) of their images (typically 2.5 Km per
pixel) tends to be not as good as some polar orbiting satellites (typically 1 Km to 50m per pixel) which are much closer to the earth.
However the advantage of their great height is that they can view the whole earth disk below them, rather than a small subsection,
and they can scan the same area very frequently (typically every 30-60 minutes). This makes them ideal for meteorological
applications.
One big problem with Geostationary satellites is that since they are always positioned above the equator they can't see the north or
south poles and are of limited use for latitudes greater than 60-70 degrees north or south. The further from the equator the lower the
spatial resolution of each pixel and the greater the possibility of being hidden by the earth's curvature. So, for a typical Meteosat
image a pixel near the equator may represent a 2.5Km square on the ground, but a pixel positioned for example in Northern Europe
may represent 10Km on the ground and therefore provide less information (such as temperature, vegetation, wind speed, albedo, etc)
per square metre. Move your house to a nice sunny spot on the equator and you'll get maximum value from your local geostationary
satellite!