INTRODUCTION

2.1 LITERATURE REVIEW AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

Literature Review
A lot has been said, written, and demonstrated about the inadequacies in solid waste management and its
associated problems. According to a United Nations Conference on Human Settlement report, one third to
one-half of solid waste generated within most cities in low- and middle-income countries, of which
Ghana is no exception, are not collected. They usually end up as illegal dumps on streets, open spaces,
and waste lands (UNCHS 1996).
Despite the importance of adequate solid waste management to the urban environment, the performance
of many city authorities in this respect leaves much to be desired. According to Malombe (1993),
irregular services rendered to producers of refuse by municipal councils compel them to find ways of
disposing of refuse. He observed that the main methods adopted by the producers are burning,
composting, or indiscriminate dumping.
This is very pertinent in Ghana where waste management services are largely inefficient and ineffective.
It is estimated that about 83% of the population dump their refuse in either authorised or unauthorised
sites in their neighbourhood, and due to weak capacity to handle solid waste, unsanitary conditions are
created (Benneh, Songsore, Nabila, Amuzu, Tutua, & Yaugyuorn, 1993).
Although these weaknesses have been attributed to lack of logistics and financial management, peoples
attitudes towards waste management should not be ignored (Nze 1978). He outlined several factors,
which have conspired to promote the massive build up of urban garbage and waste. Nze noted that they
resulted from inadequate and deficient infrastructure, inadequate structures for environmental
administration, lopsided planning pastures and disregard for basic aesthetics, industrial and commercial

growth, and other human factors. According to him, urban wastes in Nigeria are regarded as non
resources having at best a nuisance value and therefore not surprising that an equally negative posture
has been adopted in managing wastes from urban concentrations in the country.
Navez-Bounchaire (1993), stated that the management of household refuse is tied to perceptions and
socio-cultural practices which result in modes of appropriation of space which are greatly differenced
according to whether the space is private or public. This is relevant to the study, because the area has
diverse socio-cultural practices, as the population is heterogeneous.
To Sule (1981), the main cause of the problem of Nigerian citys poor environmental condition can be
ascribed to improper management of solid wastes and the lack of seriousness in the enforcement of solid
waste disposal code. This is very pertinent in Ghana where the enforcement of the solid waste disposal
code is not effective at the local levels.
Karley (1993), in an article entitled, Solid Waste and Pollution, in the Daily Graphics (October 9, 1993)
identified the main problem facing Ghana as the lack of suitable sites for disposal of solid waste, of which
we attribute to the failure of social and economic development to keep pace with the natural population
increase and rural-urban migration. This is an undeniable fact, because Teshie residential area in Accra is
seriously facing that problem due to poor planning, lack of logistics, and poor attitudes towards solid
waste handling.
Benneh et al. (1993) observed that residential domestic waste forms the bulk of all sources of solid waste
produced in urban areas. These household wastes are known to have high densities with high moisture
content and the organic component of solid wastes, which properly accounts for about 70% to 90%, while
tins, cans and paper are probably responsible for about 5% to 10% of the total waste produced. They
further argued that because the capacity to handle all of the household waste generated is still weak, about
83% of the population dump refuse in either authorised or unauthorised sites in their neighbourhood

which creates unsanitary conditions. They also argued that insufficient communal facilities can lead to
open defecation along beaches, drains, and open spaces and the tendency for faecal materials to become
intermixed with household refuse.
This view expressed by Benneh et al. (1993) is relevant to the study because areas like Nima,Teshie,
Mamobi, and Chockor are densely populated and are low-income areas. They are also not served with
adequate sanitary facilities. These inadequacies lead to indiscriminate disposal of refuse into drains,
gutters,and waterways, and to open defecation in these areas. Benneh et al. proposed the involvement of
local groups in solid waste management side by side the operations of governmental agencies.
According to Stirrup (1965), the method of refuse disposal must be related to the nature of the community
served, its financial capacity, the type of materials arsing, climatic conditions, the desirability of utilising
materials in certain instances compared with the imperative need to utilise them in order to assist in the
provision of vital raw materials. The effectiveness of the selected system will be determined in relation to
the immediate disposal requirements and the need to cater to the conditions likely to arise from planned
future developments in the area.
According to Songsore (1992), solid waste management has remained one of the intractable problems
with the Accra Metropolitan Assembly (AMA). His argument supports the fact that waste producers
generate large volumes of wastes but do not dispose of waste in an acceptable manner. This is important
to the study because peoples attitudes towards waste management are questionable. With the
establishment of the Waste Management Department (WMD) of Metropolitan and Municipal Assemblies,
the public tends to have the view that the departments should be solely responsible for managing wastes.
He further observed that indiscriminate disposal of waste has resulted in the clogging of the few built
drainage channels and natural watercourses with garbage and silt, which are not removed regularly. This
argument is not peculiar to AMA alone, the problem reflects the situation in most urban areas. The city of
Accra for instance has been engulfed in refuse, with drains and gutters mostly choked with rubbish.

Edmunson (1981), in his study on refuse management in Kumasi, pointed out that most sites used for
refuse dump are chosen without taking into consideration the distance to be covered by residents. Thus,
he recommended that sanitary sites should be cited close to waste generators. Adelaide (1995) also
observed that disposal sites in Accra are situated quite a distance away from inhabitants or sellers. Thus,
one cannot dispute the fact that long distance disposal sites discourage inhabitants and sellers from
making use of them. They therefore resort to littering their surroundings. This might be a factor in the
poor sanitation in Teshie. He also argues that inhabitants, sellers, shoppers, and industrialists dispose of
waste on the street, into troughs, and at other unauthorised places. He attributes these unacceptable habits
of indiscriminately disposing of waste to the publics lack of waste disposal culture as well as inadequacy
of waste disposal facilities. This testifies to the importance of attitude in waste management issues.
Furthermore, Cotton and Ali (1993) found that a major obstacle to the provision of latrines in some urban
areas is the small size of the plot allocated for the purpose. They observed that lack of knowledge on the
part of householders, unaffordability of household toilets, and several other factors are the main cause of
lack of household latrines. This is not different in Ghanaian context, where most of the low-income
settlements in the urban centres are unplanned. The study of Asamoah (1998) revealed that lack of
adequate sanitary facilities results in indiscriminate dumping of refuse and defecation at places not
designated for such purposes. He suggested that big containers should be provided at specific intervals in
the Kumasi Metropolis.
Abrokwah (1998) observed that ignorance, negligence, lack of law to punish sanitary offenders, and low
level of technology in waste management are the major causes of waste management problems in
Kumasi. Accra is no different from these observations. He suggested that awareness should be created
among residents to manage household refuse and educate them on the hazards that ill-disposed waste
could pose to the environment and to themselves.

According to Agbola (1993), cultural derivatives, beliefs, perceptions and attitudes are learned response
sets. They can therefore be modified or changed through education. This points to the fact that peoples
unconcerned attitudes towards solid waste can be changed for the better through education. According to
Pacey (1990), formal education for women is a pre-requisite for change in sanitation behaviour.
Abankwa (1998) found that households of high income and single dwelling units generate an average dry
refuse of three kilograms per day, while the low income and compound dwelling units generate about five
kilograms. Of the five kilograms of refuse in the low income units, garbage constitutes four point two five
kilograms, and rubbish constitutes zero point five kilograms. The wastes invariably consist of items like
vegetables and tuber remains. This is relevant to the study for the fact that the area is a low-income
settlement.
This high generation of waste tells us how source reduction as a waste management method is important.
Gourlay (1992) argued that by focusing on the production process itself, examining where wastes are
generated, and exploring how they can be reduced, even simple measures, such as separating wastes so
that they can be reused more easily, using different raw materials or replacing non-biodegradable products
with biodegradable ones, can help achieve large waste reduction results. He also claimed that the greater
part of present waste arises not because the producer does not want it, but he fails to use it, or at least use
it in such quantities that waste is inevitable. This argument places emphasis on recycling and conversion
of waste as important solid waste management practices.
According to Stirrup (1965), pulverization and grinding are means of reducing the volume of waste, or
they are used to prepare refuse for final disposal processes. He further stressed that in some instances a
threefold problem could be overcome by the use of composting. Thus, the feeding of impoverished soils,
disposal of large portions of the refuse, and the disposal of sewage sludge can be realised through
composting. Moreover, Stirrup claimed that the major advantage of incineration are complete destruction
of combustible and organic matter, reduction of bulk, the ability to operate under hygienic conditions free

from interference by the type of weather conditions that would affect disposal by tipping and the
possibility of using residual heat from the furnaces. The solid waste management system of Ghana, and
for that matter Accra, lacks most of these advantages due to the inability to afford incinerators. Gourlay
(1992) observed that in larger cities, collection and disposal of solid waste is a municipal responsibility
but the actual business of disposal is often contracted out to private firms.

2.2 Sources and types of solid wastes

Solid waste is generated from various sources. These sources relate to the different land uses in a community. Tchobanoglous et
al (1993) classify the sources of solid waste in a community as;

a. Residential. This consists of combustible and non-combustible solid wastes from residential areas. It contains materials such
as food waste (garbage), paper, corrugated cardboard, plastics, textiles, and rubber, leather, wood, and yard wastes. The noncombustible (inorganic) part consists of items such as glass, crockery, tins, cans, aluminum, ferrous metals and dirt. A great
portion of the residential waste are putrescible, that is wastes which decompose quickly, especially in warm weather. These
putrescible wastes come from the handling, preparation, cooking and eating of foods. Tchobanoglous et al (1993)also identified
bulky items, consumer electronics, batteries, oil and tires as special residential wastes which are collected separately. According
to them, bulky items include large worn-out or broken down items such as furniture, lamps, bookcases, filing cabinets, and
other similar items.

b. Commercial. This refers to sources that are similar to those from residential sources, except for those related to cooking and
eating.

c. Institutional, the generators of this source of wastes include government offices, schools, hospitals, and prisons. They added
that most hospitals medical wastes are handled separately from the rest of the solid wastes stream.

d. Another source of waste they mentioned is the wastes from demolition and construction activities. This results from the
repair of individual residences, commercial buildings, and other structures. It may also include wastes from razed buildings,
broken-out streets, sidewalks, and bridges.

e. Municipal services, other waste from street sweepings, roadside litter, municipal litter containers, landscaping and tree
trimmings, catch basin debris, dead animals and abandoned vehicles are categorized as wastes from municipal services.

f. Other sources of wastes include treatment plant wastes, industrial solid wastes, and agricultural wastes.

2.3 Solid Waste Management and Sanitation in Teshie, Accra.

Under this section, this study seeks to address some important case studies that have direct impartation on
Teshie. This study is based on past experience and works in relation to solid waste disposal in Accra.
Accra like other neighboring African cities is urbanizing rapidly. According to the World Bank (2002) ;
Ministry of Local Government (1992), the rates of urban population growth over the last four decades
have been between 4.2 and 5.6 percent. Accras population had increased from 450,000 in 1960 to 1.3
million in the 1984 census (Ghana Government 1984). However in 1990, Accra had an estimate of 1.6
million people, and according to the latest census it stands at 2.2 million( Ghana Population and Housing
Census 2010).
According to Benneh et al(1993), there is relation between the solid waste management practices and the
cleanliness in the various residential areas of Accra. Solid waste collection in Accra has not only been the
responsibility of the AMA, but also other organizations such as the EPA, NDPC. The problems in this
particular domain of solid waste management are overwhelming and deserve swift action.

According to Adelaide(1995), ineffective land use policy and lack of effective enforcement of building
permits allows haphazard housing development, hereby reinforcing and perpetuating the collection of
waste collection problems. Also Adelaide(1995) says that lack of decent housing, congestion of and
overcrowding also generate filth. Accra is said to be growing at a rate of 4.1 percent per annum, which is
more higher than the national average percent of 2.3 (Ghana Statistical Service, 2000) is also responsible
for the increase in volume of waste generation. The nature of the solid waste is changing due to
development-related changes in consumption patterns (Doan, 1997). For example, in Accra, consumers
have begun to make extensive use of both polythene bags and other plastic stuffs, which create a whole
new category of waste and its linked to disposal problem (Benneh et al.,1993).
Solid waste collection services cover fewer than 20 percent of residents and much waste is disposed off in
open heaps, which are left uncollected over a period of time or drainage channels that become blocked.
According to Economic Commission from Africa (2006), only 30% percent of the populations in Accra
are connected to the central sewage system.
Urban households mostly depend on public latrines where long queues and the unhygienic conditions are
problematic for slum occupants. Ghana Living Standard Survey (GLSS), in 1998-99, about 78 percent of
families living in urban areas such as those living in Teshie had access to a latrines. According to a study
organized in 1993 it was found out that 13 out of 16 diseases in Accra are associated to poor housing,
sanitation problems, contaminated water and lack of waste disposal facilities.(Ghana Health
Service,1995).
Taylor et al.,2002 stated that inadequate access to water, sanitation and hygiene facilities is closely
associated to poverty since the urban poor and less educated are the most likely to lack access to basic
environmental health facilities and services. Inadequate access to facilities, poor sanitation, specifically in
the low-income areas, where the bulk of the labour force lives, has numerous health impacts on residents.
It is estimated that about 67% of adult deaths residing in most filthy residential areas in Accra could have

been avoided had they lived in neat and healthy areas. (United Nations Centre for Human Settlements ,
2001).
Also a study organized by Stephen in 1996, on morality differentials by age for infectious, respiratory and
circulatory disease in Accra revealed that people living in very deplorable socio-economic and
environmental conditions were at a higher risk of death. According to McGranahan et al., 1999, because
of the inability in securing the facilities and services which support a healthy living environment and the
poor are vulnerable to a range of environment related diseases.
The storage of solid waste in plastic bags outside the home is a serious health problem as scavenging
animals such as cats, dogs, goats can tear the bags and scatter the refuse (Thomas et al., 1999). Over 82%
of respondents do not have home collection of solid waste. Only 14.3% of households have door to door
collection of solid waste, while the rest dispose off their waste at communal collection of solid waste,
while the rest dispose off their waste at communal collection points, in available open spaces or in
waterways. The poor are the least served with home collection of solid waste and safe disposal facilities
than their wealthy counterparts.(Ledzokuku-Krowor Municipal Assembly)
According to Boadi& Kuitumen(2003), services for the rich are usually undertaken by the Waste
Department and private collection firms, home collection services for the poor is mainly undertaken by
waste carriers such who usually collect household waste for a fee.
Whereas the greater percentage of poor and medium wealth households dispose their solid waste at
communal collection bins, the collection efficiencies in poor neighborhood often lag behind medium
wealth areas (Boadi & Kuitunen, 2003).
Waste bins are mostly located in the midst of residential areas and this poses health threats to people who
live close to collection points because of infrequent removals and rapid decay of organic waste. Some
poor neighborhoods face lots of problems of infrequent removals of waste bins and this causes these

households to dispose of solid waste in open spaces, and about 12.7% of poor households solid waste
disposal in empty yards and waterways is on a high among households who store waste in plastic bags. A
likely cause of indiscriminate disposal of waste in the open could be associated to low level of
educational attainment. Drainage channels which are located in poor neighborhoods are mostly choked
with solid waste and this creates unsanitary environments and breeding grounds for pest and parasites.

2.3.1 Problem With Improper Solid Waste Disposal

Despite the present concerns of individuals and the government about waste management in Ghana,
Teshie, one of the many suburbs of Accra, is still faced with serious solid waste management problems.
From observation, domestic and municipal solid wastes are commonly found in Teshie. Municipal wastes
are the trash from commercial establishments, small industries, and households. These include tins,
plastic products, and polythene bags. These form the greater part of the waste observed on the streets, in
gutters, and the back of houses in Nima.
Containers for storing solid wastes in homes include old buckets, baskets, plastic containers, boxes, sacks,
and even polythene bags, which in most cases have no lids. Hence, the wastes are even spread around
before they get to the sanitary sites. Solid waste, when treated well, can be turned into a resource, but the
greater part of wastes generated in Nima seem not to undergo any treatment before their final disposal.
They are left in piles for weeks to create unsanitary scenes that smell bad and, worst of all, create
diseases. Solid wastes generated in Nima are most often disposed of in open dumps, gutters, and at the
back of houses probably due to the inadequate solid waste management equipment or the long distances
to the sanitary sites. People also leave their wastes in piles for days before they finally get to the sanitary
sites for disposal.