GEOL3010/5017 Ore Deposits

Unit Introduction
Dr Kirsten Rempel
Department of Applied Geology
Western Australian School of Mines
Applied Geology

Unit Information
Unit Coordinator:

Dr Kirsten Rempel

Bentley office hours:

Mondays, 3 - 4 PM and Thursdays, 12 - 1 PM

Office:
312.209
Phone:
9266 4376
email: kirsten.rempel@curtin.edu.au

Blackboard is another place to

look for information

Online Resources
A.K.A. the Blackboard site
Unit Outline - Please read carefully
Materials: lecture notes, practicals, iLectures,
supplementary resources
Announcements: important information about the unit
(exam formats, assignment tips, deadlines...)
Quizzes - instant feedback on your understanding
Links to online textbooks and other readings

BB is updated regularly check in often!

Reference Materials
Recommended texts:
online resource or bookshop
Evans, A.M., 1993. Ore Geology and Industrial Minerals:
An Introduction. Blackwell Scientific, 390 p. (3rd edition)
Robb, L., 2004. Introduction to Ore-forming Processes.
Blackwell Scientific, 373 p.

Practical work:
Collins, P.L.F., 1997. Ore Petrology Reference Manual.
(on blackboard)
Equipment for examining/describing ore samples
(e.g., hand lens, hardness scribe, magnet, etc)

Tuition
Lectures - both of these:
Monday
Thursday

11:00 - 12:00
10:00 - 11:00

201-332
401-001

* iLectures should be available, but not guaranteed!

Practicals (Bentley) - one of these:
Monday
Tuesday
Tuesday
Tuesday

12:00 - 13:00
08:00 - 10:00
12:00 - 14:00
14:00 - 16:00

312-202

* You can normally attend any practical session, but priority goes
to those registered. The practical exam must be written during
your registered session.
Attendance in practicals is expected & necessary

Assessment
Practical component
Practical exercises & test

40%

Ore petrology exercises *

(20%)

Ore petrology practical test

(20%)

Theory component
Literature review assignment

20%

Theory (written) examination

40%

- only 3 selected exercises will be marked Lab exercises: Submitted to 3rd-year assignment box
Lit review: Submitted on Blackboard

Unit Requirements
Unit completion requirements
Achieve at least 50% for the unit
At least 40% in both theory & practical components
Complete all practicals and assignments, even if late

Submission of assigned work

Due dates are on your unit outline & will be announced
Late submission penalised by -10% per day
Extensions for medical & serious personal situations only

Tuition Plan (weeks 1-9)

Week Start Date

Lecture/Lab and Topic

L = Lecture; P = Practical
L1: Introduction; Ore deposit morphology & architecture, terminology
P1 Bentley: Introduction to ore petrology & microscopy (not assessed)
L2: Ore deposit models, ore-forming processes (genesis) & classification
L3: Magmatic deposits I. Orthomagmatic Cr, disseminated PGE & Fe-Ti-V
P2 Bentley: Magmatic deposits I - Chromite & PGE (Cumulates)
L4: Magmatic deposits II. Ni sulphide deposits; liquid immiscibility
P1-P2 Kalgoorlie: Introduction to ore petrology, Magmatic deposits I
L5: Magmatic deposits III. Diamonds & carbonatites (REE deposits)
P3 Bentley: Magmatic deposits II - Massive Ni-Cu sulphide ores
L6: Hydrothermal ore-forming processes, systems & environments
L7: Rare metal pegmatites (magmatic-hydrothermal transition)
P4 Bentley: Magmatic deposits II - Massive Ni-Cu sulphide ores, contd.
L8: Intro to hydrothermal alteration
P3-P4 Kalgoorlie: Magmatic deposits II - Massive Ni-Cu sulphide ores
L9: Orogenic greenstone-hosted gold deposits
P5 Bentley: Hydrothermal deposits I - Epithermal gold
L10: Research methods I. Stable isotopes (S, C, O, H; applications)

1.

2 March

2.

9 March

3.

16 March

4.

23 March

5.

30 March

6.
7.

6 April

TUITION-FREE WEEK

13 April

TUITION-FREE WEEK

8.
9.

20 April

27 April

L11: Research methods II. Fluid inclusions and applications to ore deposits
P6 Bentley: Hydrothermal deposits II - Orogenic gold deposits
L12: Methods III. Resource & reserve estimation, JORC code
P5-P6 Kalgoorlie: Hydrothermal deposits II - Orogenic gold deposits
No Monday lecture or Bentley practical (ANZAC Day)
L13: Epithermal Au-Ag vein deposits (subvolcanic-volcanic environments)

Assessments
Lit review
assignment
issued

P2 due (Bentley)

P2 due (Kal)

P3-P4 due
(Bentley)

P5 due (Bentley)
P3-P4 due (Kal)

Tuition Plan (weeks 10-17)

10.

4 May

11.

11 May

12.

13.

14.

15.
16.
17.

18 May

25 May

1 June

8 June
15 June
22 June

L14: Porphyry Cu-Mo and Cu-Au deposits (granitic-subvolcanic

environments)
P7 Bentley: Hydrothermal deposits II - Orogenic gold deposits, contd.
L15: Granophile Sn-W deposits (veins, greisens, skarns)
P7-P8 Kalgoorlie: Hydrothermal deposits III - VMS and SEDEX deposits
L16: Volcanic-hosted massive sulphide (VMS) Zn-Cu-Pb-Ag-Au deposits
P8 Bentley: Hydrothermal deposits III - VMS and SEDEX deposits
L17: Sedimentary exhalative (SEDEX) shale-hosted Pb-Zn-Ag deposits
L18: Sediment-hosted base metal deposits: Mississippi-Valley Type (MVT)
Pb-Zn
P9 Bentley: Hydrothermal deposits III - VMS and SEDEX deposits, contd
L19: Stratiform Cu deposits (SCD), uranium deposits
P9-P10 Kalgoorlie: Hydrothermal deposits I, BIFs & iron ore
L20: Iron ore deposits: Banded iron formations (BIFs)
P10 Bentley: BIFs & iron ore
L21: Secondary and supergene enrichment processes: Al, Au, Ni laterites,
placer gold deposits
L22: Metallogeny & plate tectonics: Metallogenic provinces and epochs;
plate tectonics and ore processes
P11 Bentley: Practical test (during scheduled prac sessions)
L23: Review session
P11 Kalgoorlie: Review and practical test (during scheduled prac
sessions)

Study Week
Exam Week 1
Exam Week 2

P5-P6 due (Kal)

P6-P7 due
(Bentley)
Lit review
assignment due
(Bentley & Kal)
P7-P8 due (Kal)
P8-P9 due
(Bentley)

P10 due (Bentley)

P9-P10 due (Kal)
Practical Test
(Bentley & Kal)

Theory Exam

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GEOL3010/5017 Ore Deposits

ORE DEPOSIT GEOLOGY

Morphology & Terminology

Dr Kirsten Rempel
Department of Applied Geology
Western Australian School of Mines

Additional Reading

Robb, L., 2005 Introduction: terminology,

classification (p. 1-15)
Evans, A.M., 1993 Ch. 2: deposit
morphology (p. 26-38)

LECTURE OUTLINE

What is economic geology?

Mineral resources
Mineral/ore deposit nomenclature
Descriptive terminology
Ore genesis

ECONOMIC GEOLOGY
Study of geologic bodies and materials that can be
used profitably
e.g., fossil fuels, metals, non-metallic minerals, water
Application of geologic knowledge and theory to...
Understanding the origin of mineral (ore) deposits
Search for mineral (ore) deposits
Use of the Earths resources

Economic Geology
Integration of numerous aspects of geosciences
Scientific Aspects
Geological studies
Ore deposit models
Exploration models

ECONOMIC
GEOLOGY
Applied Aspects
Mineral exploration
Mining
Mineral economics
Ore beneficiation
Metallurgy

Geological mapping
Structural geology
Petrology (igneous/meta)
Sedimentology
Mineralogy
Geochemistry
Hydrology
Regolith
Exploration geophysics
Exploration geochemistry

MINERAL RESOURCES
Earth Resources
Mineral
Resources

Fuel (energy)
Resources

Crystalline
substances
(e.g., minerals)

Non-crystalline
substances
(e.g., coal, petroleum)

Economic quantity concentrated in specific

geological settings

Mineral Resources
Earth Resources
Fuel (energy)
Resources

Mineral
Resources
Metallic
Mineral
Resources

Industrial
Mineral
Resources

Mineral Resources
Metallic mineral resources
Source of metals within minerals
Ore deposits are mined for the metals that they
contain and that can be extracted by industrial
processes
Examples:
Chalcopyrite (CuFeS2) is mined for its copper
Sphalerite (Zn,Fe)S is mined for its zinc
Cassiterite (SnO2) is mined for its tin
Rutile (TiO2) & ilmenite (FeTiO3) for titanium

ORE DEPOSIT NOMENCLATURE

Definitions and terms

Mineral deposit
Ore deposit (ore body)
Ore
Ore minerals
Gangue
Descriptive terminology

Ore evaluation
Host structures
Ore morphology
Ore textures
Genetic processes

Ore Deposit Nomenclature

Mineral deposit
Mass of naturally occurring mineral material (metal ores
or non-metallic minerals) potentially of economic value
Abnormal abundance of metallic or non-metallic
minerals in the crust
Geological entity

Ore deposit (ore body)

Continuous well-defined mass of material of sufficient
mineral content to make extraction economically
feasible
Highly anomalous concentration of (metallic) minerals

Ore Deposit Nomenclature

Classification as an ore deposit depends on:

Geological factors (e.g., deposit morphology)

Mining parameters (e.g., mining method)
Metallurgical factors & processing techniques
Economic factors (e.g., market value of commodity)
Social & environmental factors
Governmental & legal factors
Political factors (royalties & political stability)

Ore Deposit Nomenclature

Ore
Mass of rock containing an ore mineral, or aggregate
of ore minerals, that can be mined and extracted
economically (i.e., at a profit)

Ore mineral
Mineral(s) in the ore that is(are) economically desirable
for the contained metal
e.g., hematite (Fe), pentlandite (Ni), gold

Gangue (pronounced gang)

Those minerals that occur with the ore minerals but
which have no value (for a particular deposit)
e.g., quartz, calcite, pyrite... Hematite, pentlandite, gold?

Ore Deposit Nomenclature

Ore minerals *
I

Native elements

gold, silver, bismuth, platinoids,

diamonds

II

Sulphides (sulphosalts)

galena, sphalerite, chalcopyrite

pyrite, pyrrhotite, molybdenite

III

Oxides (hydroxides)

magnetite, hematite, cassiterite,

tantalite, rutile, ilmenite, goethite,
chromite

IV

Halides

halite, sylvite

Carbonates, Nitrates, Borates azurite, malachite

VI

Sulphates, Molybdates,
Tungstates (WO4)

scheelite, wolframite

VII Phosphates

monazite (Ca,La,Th)PO4

VIII Silicates

spodumene, Li-mica (lepidolite)

* Refer to lists of ore minerals in Robb (2005), introduction

EVALUATION TERMINOLOGY
Terms used in evaluation of ore deposits:

Mineralisation/ore
Host rock (country rock, wall rock)
Waste (waste rock)
Grade

Concentration of a metal or mineral in the ore

Cut-off grade

Lowest grade of ore that can mined & treated economically

Mineral Resources & Ore Reserves

Quantity of ore available to be mined at a specific grade

Strict criteria apply to the use of these terms

Evaluation Terminology
Ore =
ore minerals
+ gangue
+ waste rock

Waste =
additional
rock removed
during mining
of the ore

Example: Gold in quartz-pyrite vein

Open pit

Host rock
Stope outline
(mining cavity)

Ore
ore minerals
+ gangue
+ waste

Waste
(rock removed from
stope during mining)
Drive

Host rock

Evaluation Terminology
Development drive in ore

Host rock
Waste
(waste rock
removed with ore)

Host rock

Bendigo gold mine, Victoria

Photo: Bendigo Mining NL

MORPHOLOGY TERMINOLOGY
Morphology terms
Describe overall shape (morphology) of a mineral/ore
deposit, in relation to its host rocks
Fundamental ore deposit shapes:

1. Concordant
parallel with primary structures
in the enclosing rocks
2. Discordant
cut across primary structures in
the enclosing rocks

Morphology Terminology
Fundamental shapes:
Concordant
Stratabound = entirely within a single
stratigraphic unit (irregular in shape)
Stratiform = parallel to lithological layering
Discordant
Tabular = veins, fissures, shear zones
Tubular = shoot, pipe, chimney, manto
Irregular = disseminated, stockwork
Replacement (regular irregular)

Morphology Terminology
Example: Concordant deposits
Concordant & stratabound

Concordant & stratiform

Source: Evans (1987)

Stratiform Pb-Zn mineralisation

at Silvermines, Ireland

Source: GSC/National Resources Canada

Morphology Terminology
Example: Discordant deposits
Discordant & tabular
Llallagua tin
vein system
(cassiterite),
Bolivia

Source: Evans (1987)

Vein Swarm, Filon Maestro, Spain

Source: (Ormonde
Evans (1987) Mining)

Morphology Terminology
Example: Discordant deposits
Discordant & tubular

Vulcan tin pipe,

Herberton,
Queensland

Solution-collapse
breccia pipe,
Colorado Plateau
Source: Evans (1987)
Source: USGS (2004)

Morphology Terminology
Example: Discordant deposits
Discordant & irregular

Stockwork vein network & alteration

Golden Cross deposit, NZ
Photo: D. Arne

Morphology Terminology
Controls on Ore Deposit Morphology:
Commonly some physical factor (bedding, layering
faults, fractures)
Deposits in...
sedimentary rocks

controlled by bedding

volcanic rocks

controlled by bedding/layering

igneous rocks

irregular in shape, or
controlled by internal layering
or intrusion margin

metamorphic rocks controlled by deformational

structures (folds, faults, shear
zones) or metamorphic
structures (foliations)

Morphology Terminology
Controls on Ore Deposit Morphology, contd
Mineral deposits usually connected with some form
of natural trap, which can control the shape
Primary control (syn-mineralisation)
Ore body forms during accumulation of the host rock
(sedimentary, volcanic, igneous)
Example: topography trapping heavy minerals in a
stream bed
Lithological control (pre-mineralisation)
Ore body confined to specific strata
Example: skarn deposit in carbonate rocks

Morphology Terminology
Controls on Ore Deposit Morphology, contd
Structural control (syn or pre-mineralisation)
(may be referred to as 'ground preparation')

Ore body shape may be controlled by

pre-existing features/structures
features that develop during a mineralising event
large & small scale structures (can also control the
distribution of minerals)
Faults, joints (open fractures) and folds may control the
overall shape of an ore body
Example: stockwork deposit (irregular system of fissures
filled with minerals)

STRUCTURAL TERMINOLOGY
Describe the structural setting and relationships of an
ore deposit to the host rock (on a deposit-scale)
Footwall
Hanging wall

Open pit

Host rock

Lode

Lode
gold in quartz-pyrite vein

Shoot
Stringer
Pinch and swell
Host rock
Drive

Structural Terminology
Pinch & swell and ore shoots:
Pinch & swell develops when
fractures cut across rocks of
different competencies

Ore shoots are zones with an orebearing structure that are much
thicker or higher grade than the
remainder of the structure

TEXTURAL TERMINOLOGY
Describe internal texture of components making up an
ore deposit (macroscale)

Breccia
Vein single, sheeted, ladder, saddle
Stockwork intersecting sets of veins
Disseminated
Massive
Bedded
Banded
Crustiform banding
Comb texture
Cockscomb texture
Vuggy

Textural Terminology
Breccia ores
Fault-controlled breccia ore, Pillara Zn-Pb mine, WA

Orebody

Fault
Photo: D. Arne

Brecciated ore, Kapok, WA

Textural Terminology
Vein deposits

Sheeted veins
Cadia Hill NSW (Corbett 2002)
Sheeted vein swarm
Bendigo Gold mine, Vic
Photo: Bendigo Mining

Textural Terminology
Vein deposits
Vein Stockwork: network of pyrrhotite-pyrite-chalcopyrite
veins in basalt. Windy Craggy, Canada. Images: GSC, NRC

Stacked saddle reefs:

Dufferin deposit, Nova Scotia

Image: GSC/NRC

Textural Terminology
Massive ore
Massive Ni-sulphide ore,
Kambalda

Disseminated ore

Disseminated
Ni-sulphide ore,
Mt. Keith
photo: CSIRO

Textural Terminology
Bedded ore

Bedded, folded and offset sulphide ore,

Howards Pass deposit, Canada

Bedded and offset sulphide ore,

Tom deposit, Canada

Photo: GSC, NRC

Photo: GSC, NRC

Textural Terminology
Open space fill textures
Crustiform quartz,
Empire Vein, NZ

Crustiform quartz, NZ

Textural Terminology
Open space fill textures

Dolostone

Galena
Calcite

Internal sediment

Colloform
sphalerite
Banded replacement
ore, Cadjebut mine

ORE GENESIS
Ore genesis:
Origin or mechanism of formation of an ore (mineral)
deposit

Fundamental genetic types of ore deposit:

based on timing relationship between deposit & host rocks

Syngenetic

Ore deposits that form at the same time as the host rock
Epigenetic

Ore deposits that form some time after the host rock

In this lecture...
Economic geology uses a lot of new terminology,
applied to a variety of features:
1) Ore evaluation
- resource and reserve, ore vs. waste
2) Ore morphology
- concordant vs. discordant
- stratabound vs. strataform

3) Host structures
- hangingwall vs. footwall, pinch & swell
4) Ore textures
- massive vs disseminated, open space filling
5) Genetic processes
- syngenetic vs. epigenetic