MPPT based Solar Photo-Voltaic Module

A mini project submitted in partial fulfillment of the

requirements for the Degree of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
In

Electrical Engineering
By
Durgesh Pandey
(1101020019)
Bhalendu Tiwari
(1101020015)
Avinash Pathak
(1101020012)
Prateekchhit Pandey
(1101020033)
Under the supervision of
Mr. Ashish Tripathi

United college of engineering and research

TABLE OF CONTENTS
S.no.

Name of content

Page no.

1.

Abstract

-------------------------- 4

2.

Introduction

-------------------------- 5

3.

Literature survey

-------------------------- 6

4.

Objective

-------------------------- 7

5.

Solar energy

-------------------------- 7

6.

Distribution of solar radiation

-------------------------- 7

7.

Photovoltaic cell

-------------------------- 8

8.

Photovoltaic array

-------------------------- 9

9.

Photovoltaic module

-------------------------- 9

10.

Modeling of solar cell

-------------------------- 10

11.

Effect of variation of solar radiation -------------------------- 11

12.

Effect of variation of temperature

-------------------------- 13

13.

MPPT algorithms

-------------------------- 14

13.1

An overview of MPPT

-------------------------- 14

13.2

Different MPPT techniques

-------------------------- 14

13.3

Implemented methods

-------------------------- 14

13.3.1

Perturb and observe method

-------------------------- 14

13.3.2

Incremental conductance method

-------------------------- 15

Other methods

-------------------------- 15

13.4.1

Parasitic capacitance

-------------------------- 15

13.4.2

Voltage control maximum point

-------------------------- 16

13.4

Tracker
13.4.3

Current controlled maximum power -------------------------- 16

Point tracker

14.
14.1

Buck converter

-------------------------- 17

Inductor selection

-------------------------- 18

14.2

Output capacitor selection

-------------------------- 19

14.3

Input capacitor selection

-------------------------- 21

14.4

Diode selection

-------------------------- 22

14.5

MOSFET selection

-------------------------- 23

Software options

-------------------------- 25

Reasons of using PSPICE

-------------------------- 25

16.

PSPICE

-------------------------- 26

17.

PSpice circuit model

-------------------------- 26

18.

Simulation results

-------------------------- 29

19.

Component used

-------------------------- 33

19.1

Resistor

-------------------------- 33

19.2

Capacitor

-------------------------- 33

19.3

PWM

-------------------------- 33

19.4

BJT

-------------------------- 33

19.5

MOSFET

-------------------------- 34

19.6

Free wheeling diode

-------------------------- 34

19.7

Zener diode

-------------------------- 34

References

-------------------------- 36

15.
15.1

20.

1. ABSTRACT
Renewable energy sources play an important role in electricity generation. Various
renewable energy sources like wind, solar, geothermal, ocean thermal and biomass can be
used for generation of electricity and for meeting our daily energy needs. Energy from the
sun is the best option for electricity generation as it is available everywhere and is free to
harness. On an average the sunshine hour in India is about 6hrs annually also the sun
shine shines in India for about 9 months in a year. Electricity from the sun can be
generated through the Solar Photovoltaic Modules (SPV). The SPV comes in various
power output to meet the load requirement. Maximization of power from a solar photo
voltaic module (SPV) is of special interest as the efficiency of the SPV module is very
low.
A maximum Power Tracker is used for extracting the maximum power from the SPV
module. The present work describes the Maximum Power Point Tracker (MPPT) for the
SPV module connected to a battery which is used as a load. A Microcontroller is to be
used for control of the MPPT algorithm. Maximum power point tracking (MPPT) is used
in photovoltaic (PV) systems to maximize the photovoltaic array output power,
irrespective of the temperature and irradiation conditions and of the load electrical
characteristics. A new MPPT system is to be developed, consisting of a Buck-type dc/dc
converter, which is controlled by a microcontroller-based unit. The resulting system has
high-efficiency, lower-cost and can be easily modified to handle more energy sources
(e.g., wind-generators).

2. INTRODUCTION
Solar panels generate power by using the photovoltaic effect: electrons are transferred
between different energy bands in the atom by means of irradiation. The solar panel has a
characteristic p-v characteristic where a global maximum is present. This means that for a
different operating point of the solar panel, a different output power is obtained. The
maximum power is obtained when the solar panel operates at the voltage where the
global maximum of the p-v characteristic is present. Therefore, only for one specific
operating point, the maximum power output is obtained from the solar panel. This point
in the p-v characteristic is called the Maximum Power Point (MPP). This MPP changes
when the irradiation and temperature changes or when the solar panel is partially shaded.
To track the constantly changing MPP a device is needed, this device is called the
Maximum Power Point Tracker (MPPT). The MPPT consists of two main parts, a
microcontroller to track the MPP and a converter to convert the generated voltage to a
desired level for the load. An algorithm runs on the microcontroller to track the MPP.
There are a lot of different algorithms to track the MPP, but they all do not work in fast
changing levels of irradiance or when the solar panel is partially shaded. This is a
problem for us, so it is important for us that the MPP is tracked in an environment where
there are fast changing levels of irradiance and the solar panel is partially shaded. In this
thesis, we explore different options to solve these problems. Our goal is to implement the
most efficient algorithm that works in fast changing levels of irradiance and when the
solar panels are partially shaded. Especially the efficiency of the algorithm is important,
because we want to make an MPPT with a very high efficiency. Furthermore, the
implementation complexity of the algorithm should not be too high and it must be
executable on a microcontroller.

3. LITERATURE SURVEY

The topic of solar energy utilization has been looked upon by many researchers all
around the globe. It has been known that solar cell operates at very low efficiency and
thus a better control mechanism is required to increase the efficiency of the solar cell.
In this field researchers have developed what are now called the Maximum Power
Point Tracking (MPPT) algorithms.

Mummadi Veerachary has given a detailed report on the use of a SEPIC converter in
the field of photovoltaic power control. In his report he utilized a two-input converter
for accomplishing the maximum power extraction from the solar cell.

M. G. Villalva in his both reports has presented a comprehensive method to model a

solar cell using Simulink or by writing a code. His results are quite similar to the
nature of the solar cell output plots.

P. S. Revankar has even included the variation of suns inclination to track down the
maximum possible power from the incoming solar radiations. The control mechanism
alters the position of the panel such that the incoming solar radiations are always
perpendicular to the panels.

M. Berrera has compared seven different algorithms for maximum power point
tracking using two different solar irradiation functions to depict the variation of the
output power in both cases using the MPPT algorithms and optimized MPPT
algorithms.

Ramos Hernanz has successfully depicted the modeling of a solar cell and the
variation of the current-voltage curve and the power-voltage curve due the solar
irradiation changes and the change in ambient temperature.

4. OBJECTIVE
The basic objective would be to study MPPT and successfully implement the MPPT
algorithms either in code form or using the Simulink models. Modeling the converter and
the solar cell in Simulink and interfacing both with the MPPT algorithm to obtain the
maximum power point operation would be of prime importance.

5. SOLAR ENERGY
It is a non-conventional type of energy. Solar energy has been harnessed by humans since
ancient times using a variety of technologies. The secondary solar-powered resources
such as tidal wave and wind power, hydro power and biomass, are account for most of
the readily available non-conventional type of energy source on earth. But only a small
fraction of the available solar energy is used. Solar powered electrical generation relies
on photovoltaic system and heat engines. Solar energy's uses are limited by human
creativity. To harvest the solar energy, the most common way is to use photovoltaic
panels which will receive photon energy from sun and convert it into electrical energy.
Solar technologies are broadly classified as either passive solar or active solar energy
depending on the way the solar energy may detain, convert and distributed. Active solar
techniques include the use of PV panels and solar thermal collectors to strap up solar
energy. Passive solar techniques include orientation and selecting materials with
favorable thermal mass or light dispersing properties and design spaces that naturally
circulate air .Solar energy has a vast area of application such as electricity generation for
distribution, heating ,water pumping, lightening building, crop drying etc.

6. DISTRIBUTION OF SOLAR RADIATION

The solar radiation receives by earth is about 174 peta watts (PW) of incoming solar
radiation at the upper atmosphere orbit and Approximately 30% is reflected back to space
and only 89 PW is absorbed by oceans and land masses. The spectrum of solar light at the
Earth's surface is generally spread across the visible and near-infrared reason with a small

part in the near-ultraviolet. The total solar energy absorbed by Earth's atmosphere, oceans
and land masses is approximately 3,850,000 EJ per year.

7. PHOTOVOLTAIC CELL
In 1954 Bell labs Chopin, Fuller, Pearson fabricated PV cell with efficiency of 6%.In
1958 PV cell was used as a backup power source in satellite Vanguard-1. This extended
the life of satellite for about 6 years .A photovoltaic cell is the basic device that converts
solar radiation into electricity which is made of semiconductor materials, such as silicon.
For solar cells, a thin semiconductor wafer is specially treated to form an electric field,
positive on one side and negative on the other. When light energy strikes the solar cell,
electrons are knocked loose from the atoms in the semiconductor material. If electrical
conductors are attached to the positive and negative sides, forming an electrical circuit,
the electrons can be captured in the form of an electric current that is, electricity. This
electricity can then be used to power a load. A PV cell can either be circular or square in
construction.

1. Photovoltaic cell

8. PHOTOVOLTAIC ARRAY
The power that one module can produce is not sufficient to meet the requirements of
home or business. Most PV arrays use an inverter to convert the DC power into
alternating current that can power the motors, loads, lights etc. The modules in a PV array
are usually first connected in series to obtain the desired voltages, the individual modules
are then connected in parallel to allow the system to produce more current.

2. Photovoltaic array

9. PHOTOVOLTAIC MODULE
Cells are arranged in a frame to form a module. The several PV cells are connected in
series (for high voltage) and in parallel (for high current) to form a PV module for desired
output. Separate diodes may be needed to avoid reverse currents, in case of partial or total
shading, and at night. The p-n junctions of mono-crystalline silicon cells may have
adequate reverse current characteristics and these are not necessary. Reverse currents
waste power and can also lead to overheating of shaded cells. Solar cells become less

efficient at higher temperatures and installers try to provide good ventilation behind solar
panels .Each PV cell is rated for 0.5 0.7 volt and a current of 30mA/cm2. Based on the
manufacturing process they are classified as:
Poly crystalline: efficiency of 12%.
Amorphous: efficiency of 6-8%
Life of crystalline cells is in the range of 25 years
Whereas for amorphous cells it is in the range of 5years

10. MODELLING OF SOLAR CELL

A solar cell is the building block of a solar panel. A photovoltaic module is formed by
connecting many solar cells in series and parallel. Considering only a single solar cell; it
can be modeled by utilizing a current source, a diode and two resistors. This model is
known as a single diode model of solar cell. Two diode models are also available but only
single diode model is considered here.

3. Single diode model of a solar cell

In this model we consider a current source (I) along with a diode and series resistance
(Rs). The shunt resistance (RSH) in parallel is very high, has a negligible effect and can
be neglected.
The output current from the photovoltaic array is
I=Isc Id
Id= Io (eqVd/kT - 1)

10

Where Io is the reverse saturation current of the diode, q is the electron charge, Vd is the
voltage across the diode, k is Boltzmann constant (1.38 * 10-19 J/K) and T is the junction
temperature in Kelvin (K)
From eq. 3.1 and 3.2
I = Isc Io (eqVd/kT - 1)
Using suitable approximations,
I = Isc Io (eq((V+IRs)/nkT) - 1)
Where, I is the photovoltaic cell current, V is the PV cell voltage, T is the temperature (in
Kelvin) and n is the diode ideality factor In order to model the solar panel accurately we
can use two diode model but in our project our scope of study is limited to the single
diode model. Also, the shunt resistance is very high and can be neglected during the
course of our study.
an

4. P-V I-V curve of a solar cell at given temperature d solar irradiation

11

11. EFFECT OF VARIATION OF SOLAR IRRADIATION

The P-V and I-V curves of a solar cell are highly dependent on the solar irradiation
values. The solar irradiation as a result of the environmental changes keeps on
fluctuating, but control mechanisms are available that can track this change and can alter
the working of the solar cell to meet the required load demands. Higher is the solar
irradiation, higher would be the solar input to the solar cell and hence power magnitude
would increase for the same voltage value. With increase in the solar irradiation the open
circuit voltage increases. This is due to the fact that, when more sunlight incidents on to
the solar cell, the electrons are supplied with higher excitation energy, thereby increasing
the electron mobility and thus more power is generated.

5. Variation of P-V curve with solar irradiation

12

6. Variation of I-V curve with solar irradiation

12. EFFECT OF VARIATION OF TEMPERATURE

On the contrary the temperature increase around the solar cell has a negative impact on
the power generation capability. Increase in temperature is accompanied by a decrease in
the open circuit voltage value. Increase in temperature causes increase in the band gap of
the material and thus more energy is required to cross this barrier. Thus the efficiency of
the solar cell is reduced.

7. Variation of P-V curve with temperature

13

8. Variation of I-V with temperature

13. MAXIMUM POWER POINT TRACKING ALGORITHMS

13.1 An overview of Maximum Power Point Tracking
A typical solar panel converts only 30 to 40 percent of the incident solar irradiation into
electrical energy. Maximum power point tracking technique is used to improve the
efficiency of the solar panel.
According to Maximum Power Transfer theorem, the power output of a circuit is
maximum when the Thevenin impedance of the circuit (source impedance) matches with
the load impedance. Hence our problem of tracking the maximum power point reduces to
an impedance matching problem.
In the source side we are using a boost convertor connected to a solar panel in order to
enhance the output voltage so that it can be used for different applications like motor
load. By changing the duty cycle of the buck converter appropriately we can match the
source impedance with that of the load impedance.

14

13.2 Different MPPT techniques

Different algorithms help to track the maximum power point of the solar pv module
automatically. The various algorithms used are:
a) Perturb and Observe.
b) Incremental Conductance.
c) Parasitic Capacitance.
d) Voltage Based Peak Power Tracking.
e) Current Based peak power Tracking
13.3 Implemented Method
13.3.1 Perturb and Observe method - In this algorithm a slight perturbation is
introduced in the system. Due to this perturbation the power of the module changes. If the
power increases due to the perturbation then the perturbation is continued in that
direction. After the peak power is reached the power at the next instant decreases and
hence after that the perturbation reverses.

When the steady state is reached the algorithm oscillates around the maximum point. In
order to keep the power variation small the perturbation size is kept very small. The
algorithm is developed in such a manner that it sets a reference voltage of the module
corresponding to the maximum voltage of the module. A Microcontroller then acts
moving the operating point of the module to that particular voltage level. It is observed
that there some power loss due to this perturbation also the fails to track the power under
fast varying atmospheric conditions. But still this algorithm is very popular and simple.

13.3.2 Incremental conductance method

The incremental conductance can determine that the MPPT has reached the MPP and stop
perturbing the operating point. If this condition is not met, the direction in which the
MPPT operating point must be perturbed can be calculated using the relationship between
dl/dV and - I/V. This relationship is derived from the fact that dP/dV is negative when the
15

MPPT is to the right of the MPP and positive when it is to the left of the MPP. This
algorithm has disadvantages over perturb and observe in that it can determine when the
MPPT has reached the MPP, where perturb and observe oscillates around the MPP. Also,
incremental conductance can track rapidly increasing and decreasing irradiance
conditions with higher accuracy than perturb and observe. One disadvantage of this
algorithm is the increased complexity when compared to perturb and observe method.
13.4 Others Method
13.4.1 Parasitic capacitances: - The parasitic capacitance method is a refinement of
incremental conductance method that takes into account the parasitic capacitances of the
solar cells in the PV array. Parasitic capacitance uses the switching ripple of the MPPT to
perturb the array. To account for the parasitic capacitance, the average ripple in the array
power and voltage, generated by the switching frequency, are measured using a series of
filters and multipliers and then used to calculate the array conductance. The incremental
conductance algorithm is then used to determine the direction to move the operating point
of the MPPT. One disadvantage of this algorithm is that the parasitic capacitance in each
module is very small, and will only come into play in large PV arrays where several
module strings are connected in parallel. Also, the DC-DC converter has a sizable input
capacitor used filter out small ripple in the array power. This capacitor may mask the
overall effects of the parasitic capacitance of the PV array.
13.4.2 Voltage control maximum point tracker: - It is assumed that a maximum power
point of a particular solar PV module lies at about 0.75 times the open circuit voltage of
the module. So by measuring the open circuit voltage a reference voltage can be
generated and feed forward voltage control scheme can be implemented to bring the solar
pv module voltage to the point of maximum power. One problem of this technique is the
open circuit voltage of the module varies with the temperature. So as the temperature
increases the module open circuit voltage changes and we have to measure the open
circuit voltage of the module very often. Hence the load must be disconnected from the
module to measure open circuit voltage. Due to which the power during that instant will
not be utilize.
16

13.4.3 Current control maximum power point tracker:- The maximum power of the
module lies at the point which is at about 0.9 times the short circuit current of the
module. In order to measure this point the module or array is short-circuited. And then by
using the current mode control the module current is adjusted to the value which is
approx 0.9 times the short circuit current. The problem with this method is that a high
power resistor is required which can stain the short-circuit current. The module has to be
short circuited to measure the short circuit current as it goes on varying with the changes
in isolation level.

14. BUCK-CONVERTER

9. Buck Converter Power Stage

Step down (buck) switching converters are integral to modern electronics. They can
convert a voltage source (typically 8 V to 25 V) into a lower regulated voltage
(typically 0.5 V to 5 V). Step down converters transfer small packets of energy
using a switch, a diode, an inductor and several capacitors. Though substantially
larger and noisier than their linear-regulator counterparts, buck converters offer
higher efficiency in most cases.

17

Despite their widespread use, buck-converter designs can pose challenges to both
novice and intermediate power-supply designers because almost all of the rules of
thumb and some of the calculations governing their design are hard to find. And
though some of the calculations are readily available in IC data sheets, even these
calculations are occasionally reprinted with errors. In this article, all of the design
information required to design a buck converter is conveniently collected in one
place.
Buck-converter manufacturers often specify a typical application circuit to help
engineers quickly design a working prototype, which in turn often specifies
component values and part numbers. What they rarely provide is a detailed
description of how the components are selected. Suppose a customer uses the exact
circuit provided. When a critical component becomes obsolete or a cheaper
substitute is needed, the customer is usually without a method for selecting an
equivalent component.
This article covers only one step down regulator topology one with a fixed
switching frequency, pulse width modulation (PWM) and operation in the
continuous-current mode (CCM). The principles discussed can be applied to other
topologies, but the equations do not apply directly to other topologies. To highlight
the intricacies of step-down converter design, we present an example that includes
a detailed analysis for calculating the various component values. Four design
parameters are required: input-voltage range, regulated output voltage, maximum
output current and the converter's switching frequency.
14.1 INDUCTOR SELECTION
Calculating the inductor value is most critical in designing a step down switching
converter. First, assume the converter is in CCM, which is usually the case. CCM implies
that the inductor does not fully discharge during the switch-off time. The following
equations assume an ideal switch (zero on-resistance, infinite off-resistance and zero
switching time) and an ideal diode:

18

Where fSW is the buck-converter switching frequency and LIR is the inductor-current ratio
expressed as a percentage of IOUT (e.g., for a 300-mAp-p ripple current with a 1-A output,
LIR = 0.3 A/1 A = 0.3 LIR).An LIR of 0.3 represents a good tradeoff between efficiency
and load-transient response. Increasing the LIR constant allowing more inductor ripple
current quickens the load-transient response, and decreasing the LIR constant
thereby reducing the inductor ripple current slows the load-transient response.
Peak current through the inductor determines the inductor's required saturation-current
rating, which in turn dictates the approximate size of the inductor. Saturating the inductor
core decreases the converter efficiency, while increasing the temperatures of the inductor,
the MOSFET and the diode. You can calculate the inductor's peak operating current as
follows:

These equations yield a calculated inductance of 2.91 H (LIR = 0.3). Select an available
value that is close to the calculated value, such as a 2.8 H, and make sure that its
saturation-current rating is higher than the calculated peak current (IPEAK = 8.09 A).
Choose a saturation-current rating that's large enough (10 A in this case) to compensate
for circuit tolerances and the difference between actual and calculated component values.
An acceptable margin for this purpose, while limiting the inductor's physical size, is 20%
above the calculated rating.
Inductors of this size and current rating typically have a maximum dc resistance range
(DCR) of 5 m to 8 m. To minimize power loss, choose an inductor with the lowest
19

possible DCR. Although data sheet specifications vary among vendors, always use the
maximum DCR specification for design purposes rather than the typical value, because
the maximum is a guaranteed worst-case component specification.
Selected inductor = 1 mH.
14.2 OUTPUT CAPACITOR SELECTION
Output capacitance is required to minimize the voltage overshoot and ripple present at the
output of a step-down converter. Large overshoots are caused by insufficient output
capacitance, and large voltage ripple is caused by insufficient capacitance as well as a
high equivalent-series resistance (ESR) in the output capacitor. The maximum allowed
output-voltage overshoot and ripple are usually specified at the time of design. Thus, to
meet the ripple specification for a step down converter circuit, you must include an
output capacitor with ample capacitance and low ESR.
The problem of overshoot, in which the output-voltage overshoots its regulated value
when a full load is suddenly removed from the output, requires that the output capacitor
be large enough to prevent stored inductor energy from launching the output above the
specified maximum output voltage. Output-voltage overshoot can be calculated using the
following equation:

Rearranging Eq. 2 yields:

Where CO equals output capacitance and V equals maximum output-voltage overshoot.

20

Setting the maximum output-voltage overshoot to 100 mV and solving Eq. 3 yields a
calculated output capacitance of 442 F. Adding the typical capacitor-value tolerance
(20%) gives a practical value for output capacitance of approximately 530 F. The closest
standard value is 560 F. Output ripple due to the capacitance alone is given by:

ESR of the output capacitor dominates the output-voltage ripple. The amount can be
calculated as follows:

Be aware that choosing a capacitor with very low ESR may cause the power converter to
be unstable. The factors that affect stability vary from IC to IC, so when choosing an
output capacitor, be sure to read the data sheet and pay special attention to sections
dealing with converter stability.
Adding the output-voltage ripple due to capacitance value (the first term in Eq. 4) and the
output-capacitor ESR (the second term in Eq. 4) yields the total output-voltage ripple for
the step-down converter:

A decent step down converter usually achieves an output-voltage ripple of less than 2%
(40 mV in our case). For a 560-F output capacitance, Eq. 5 yields 19.8 m for the
maximum calculated ESR. Therefore, choose a capacitor with ESR that's lower than 19.8

21

m and a capacitance that's equal to or greater than 560 F. To achieve an equivalent

ESR value less than 19.8 m, you can connect multiple low-ESR capacitors in parallel.
14.3 Input Capacitor Selection
The input capacitor's ripple-current rating dictates its value and physical size, and the
following equation calculates the amount of ripple current the input capacitor must be
able to handle:

Plots ripple current for the capacitor (shown as a multiple of the output current) against
the input voltage of the buck converter (shown as a ratio of output voltage to input
voltage). The worst case occurs when VIN = 2VOUT (VOUT/VIN = 0.5), yielding IOUTMAX / 2
for the worst-case ripple-current rating.
The input capacitance required for a step-down converter depends on the impedance of
the input power source. For common laboratory power supplies, 10 F to 22 F of
capacitance per ampere of output current is usually sufficient. Given the design
parameters you can calculate the input-ripple current as 3.16 A. You then can start with
40 F in total input capacitance and can adjust that value according to subsequent test
results.
Tantalum capacitors are a poor choice for input capacitors. They usually fail short,
meaning the failed capacitor creates a short circuit across its terminals and thereby raises
the possibility of a fire hazard. Ceramic or aluminum-electrolytic capacitors are preferred
because they don't have this failure mode.
Ceramic capacitors are the better choice when pc-board area or component height is
limited, but ceramics may cause your circuit to produce an audible buzz. This highpitched noise is caused by physical vibration of the ceramic capacitor against the pc
board as a result of the capacitor's ferroelectric properties and piezo phenomena reacting
to the voltage ripple. Polymer capacitors can alleviate this problem. Polymer capacitors
also fail short, but they are much more robust than tantalums, and therefore are suitable
as input capacitors.

22

14.4 DIODE SELECTION

Power dissipation is the limiting factor when choosing a diode. The worst-case average
power can be calculated as follows:

Where VD is the voltage drop across the diode at the given output current IOUT MAX.
(Typical values are 0.7 V for a silicon diode and 0.3 V for a Schottky diode.) Ensure that
the selected diode will be able to dissipate that much power. For reliable operation over
the input-voltage range, you must also ensure that the reverse-repetitive maximum
voltage is greater than the maximum input voltage (VRRM VINMAX). The diode's
forward-current specification must meet or exceed the maximum output current (i.e.,
IFAV IOUTMAX).
14.5 MOSFET SELECTION
Selecting a MOSFET can be daunting, so engineers often avoid that task by choosing a
regulator IC with an internal MOSFET. Unfortunately, most manufacturers find it cost
prohibitive to integrate a large MOSFET with a dc-dc controller in the same package, so
power converters with integrated MOSFETs typically specify maximum output currents
no greater than 3 A to 6 A. For larger output currents, the only alternative is usually an
external MOSFET.
The maximum junction temperature (TJMAX) and maximum ambient temperature
(TAMAX) for the external MOSFET must be known before you can select a suitable
device. TJMAX should not exceed 115C to 120C and TAMAX should not exceed 60C.
A 60C maximum ambient temperature may seem high, but step down converter circuits
are typically housed in a chassis where such ambient temperatures are not unusual. You
can calculate a maximum allowable temperature rise for the MOSFET as follows:

23

Inserting the values mentioned above for TJMAX and TAMAX into Eq. 7 yields a
maximum MOSFET temperature rise of 55C. The maximum power dissipated in the
MOSFET can be calculated from the allowable maximum rise in MOSFET temperature:

The type of MOSFET package and the amount of pc-board copper connected to it affect
the MOSFET's junction-to-ambient thermal resistance (JA). When JA is not specified in
the data sheet, 62C/W serves as a good estimate for a standard SO-8 package (wire-bond
interconnect, without an exposed paddle), mounted on 1 in.2 of 1-oz pc-board copper.
There exists no inverse linear relationship between a jA value and the amount of copper
connected to the device, and the benefit of decreasing the JA value quickly dwindles for
circuits that include more than 1 sq in. of pc-board copper. Using JA = 62C/W in Eq. 8
yields a maximum allowable dissipated power in the MOSFET of approximately 0.89 W.
Power dissipation in the MOSFET is caused by on-resistance and switching losses. Onresistance loss can be calculated as:

Because most data sheets specify the maximum on-resistance only at 25C, you may have
to estimate the value of on-resistance at TJHOT. As a rule of thumb, a temperature
coefficient of 0.5%/C provides a good indicator for maximum on-resistance at any given
temperature. Thus, the hot on-resistance is calculated as:

Assuming the on-resistance loss is approximately 60% of the total MOSFET losses, you
can substitute in Eq. 10 and rearrange to yield Eq. 11, the maximum allowable onresistance at 25C:

24

Switching losses constitute a smaller portion of the MOSFET's power dissipation, but
they still must be taken into account. The following switching-loss calculation provides
only a rough estimate, and therefore is no substitute for evaluation in the lab, preferably a
test that includes a thermocouple mounted on P1 as a sanity check.

Where CRSS is the reverse-transfer capacitance of P1, IGATE is the peak gate-drive
source/sink current of the controller and P1 is the high-side MOSFET.
Assuming a gate drive of 1 A (obtained from the gate driver/ controller data sheet) and a
reverse-transfer capacitance of 300 pF (obtained from the MOSFET data sheet), Eq. 11
yields a maximum RDS(ON)25C of approximately 26.2 m. Recalculating and summing
the on-resistance losses and the switching losses yields a net dissipated power of 0.676
W. Using this figure, you can calculate for the MOSFET a maximum temperature rise of
101C, which is within the acceptable temperature range.
Necessary Parameters of the Power Stage
The following four parameters are needed to calculate the power stage:
1. Input voltage: VIN = 25V approx.
2. Nominal output voltage: VOUT = 15 V approx
3. Maximum output current: IOUT(max) = 1.5A - 2A
4. Integrated circuit used to build the buck converter. This is necessary because some
parameters for the calculations must be derived from the data sheet. If these parameters
are known, the power stage can be calculated.

15. SOFTWARE OPTIONS

1. MATLAB
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2. PSpice
3. Allspice
4. Simulink

15.1 REASON OF USING PSPICE

1. PSpice allows multiple plots to be viewed simultaneously, such as voltage, power,
etc. Also, specific points, such as a voltage at a certain time, can be selected and
marked on the output plot in PSpice
2. PSpice contains libraries full of specific components with manufacturer
specifications. These components are included so the user may obtain realistic
simulation results,
3. Very simple to represent any electrical circuit, in particular power-electronic
circuits and a wide library of commercial electric components are available.

16. PSPICE
SPICE stands for Simulation Program with Integrated Circuit Emphasis. SPICE is an
analogue (originally) circuit simulator that was developed at the University of California
at Berkeley. PSpice is one of the many commercial SPICE derivatives, and has been
developed by MicroSim Corporation (now taken over by Cadence =>ORCAD).
PSpice's strong point is that it helps the user simulate the circuit design graphically on the
computer before building a physical circuit. Hence, the designer can make any necessary
changes on the prototype without modifying any hardware. As soon as the test design is
completed, PSpice can help one run a check on it before deciding to commit you to
building a hardware model. Hence, PSpice allows one to check the operability of the
circuit model in real life simulations to validate its viability (Nilsson & Riedel). Since all
the tests, designs and modifications are made over a terminal; the designer can save a lot
of money that would have otherwise been spent on the building of models and modifying
them. SPICE is used to fine tune the design process, not to replace it. Although
approximate first-cut circuit designs can often be made by hand, an exact analysis of
circuit behavior is sometimes required. A complicated IC design, for example, must be
perfected before it is actually fabricated, since fabrication to accommodate even minor
design changes is costly.
In such situations, SPICE can provide valuable assistance in testing a tentative design
before it is actually fabricated.
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17. PSPICE Circuit Model

The following PSPICE model is made for the simulation of the circuit.
It consists of the Buck Converter, whose switching is given through a Common Emitter
amplifier. We use a Voltage Regulator LM7812 to give the Voltage to the Collector of the
amplifier. A Zener Diode D1N5245 (V=12V) is placed across the n-MOS IRFZ10. nMOS IRFZ10 has the rating of 60V, 10A.

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10. PSPICE Circuit Model for the Power Circuit

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The MOSFET allows current from the battery to pass through it, but when it allows
current to pass through it is governed by the pulse width modulator (PWM). The PWM
creates pulses, and the high section of these pulses turns on the MOSFET. The longer the
MOSFET is turned on, the more is the output voltage. Thus, by varying the duty cycle, it
is possible to vary the output voltage. Due to the properties of the load and the
characteristics of inductance, a freewheeling diode allows the output current to continue
even when it is not drawing any current from the source. This is illustrated in the timing
diagram below.

11. Load Current Waveform

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18. SIMULATION RESULT

The input voltage is 20V.
0Duty cycle is 0.2
The simulation result is shown in the following graph:

12. Simulation result for Duty Cycle 0.2

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Input Voltage 20V

Duty Cycle 0.8

13. Simulation result for Duty Cycle 0.8

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14.1 Wave form1: Vout2

14.2Waveform 2 : PWM input

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15.1 Waveform 1: Vout1

15.2 Waveform 2: PWM input

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19. COMPONENT USED

19.1 RESISTORS
A Resistor is a two-terminal electronic component designed to oppose an electric current
by producing a voltage drop between its terminals in proportion to the current, that is, in
accordance with Ohm's law:
V = IR
Resistors are used as part of electrical networks and electronic circuits. They are
extremely commonplace in most electronic equipment. Practical resistors can be made of
various compounds and films, as well as resistance wire (wire made of a high-resistivity
alloy, such as nickel/chrome).
19.2 CAPACITORS
Capacitors store electric charge. They are used with resistors in timing circuits because it
takes time for a capacitor to fill with charge. They are used to smooth varying DC
supplies by acting as a reservoir of charge. They are also used in filter circuits because
capacitors easily pass AC (changing) signals but they block DC (constant) signals.
19.3 PULSE WIDTH MODULATOR
The purpose of the pulse width modulator (PWM) is to provide a gating signal to the
MOSFET to turn it on and off. The PWM creates a square pulse whose duty cycle (time
in high state divided by its period) is varied so as to control the output voltage.
19.4 BJT
The current output of the PWM was not enough to properly turn on the MOSFET, so we
added a high current BJT to amplify the current from the PWM. The BJT used is
Q2N2222a.

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19.5 MOSFET
The MOSFET in our circuit acts as a switch. It allows current to flow through it for
certain periods of time. These periods are controlled by the PWM current waveforms that
flow to the gate of the MOSFET. The MOSFET conducts for the high portion of the
gating signal, and does not conduct for the low portion of the gating signal. The higher
he duty cycle of these input waves, the longer the MOSFET acts as a closed switch,
connecting the source to the load. The MOSFET used is IRFZ10.
19.6 FREE WHEELING DIODE
The freewheeling diode has a unique function in the circuit. It ensures that the output
voltage during each "off" time, allotted by the MOSFET, is equal to 0 V. It achieves this
by acting as a sink for the load. That is, when the MOSFET stops conducting, the current
stored in the inductance discharges itself through the load and the diode. The observed
effect is that the load continues operation despite drawing no current from the battery.
The diode used is MUR805.
19.7 ZENER DIODE
The MOSFET in our design is to be protected. It has Zener diodes to limit the voltage
levels between the gate and the source on the MOSFET.
MOSFETS have safe operating ranges for voltage levels that should never be breached.
Zener diodes function to limit the voltage levels between the gate and the source on the
MOSFET, providing a layer of safety for our circuit. The zener diode configuration
shown in the figure below illustrates this simple but very helpful safety addition.

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16. Zener Diode Connection for MOSFET

From our datasheets for our MOSFET, we found that for continuous operation, the gate to
source voltage should not exceed 20 Vdc. By using Zener diode D1N5245, we ensure
that the voltage from gate to source will not exceed 12 V. This safety measure keeps these
voltage levels in check, avoiding damage to the MOSFET.

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20. REFERENCES
1)

Eftichios Koutroulis, Kostas Kalaitzakis, Member, IEEE, and Nicholas C.

Voulgaris, Development of a Microcontroller Based solar Photovoltaic Maximum

Power Point Tracking Control System.
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER ELECTRONICS, VOL. 16, NO. 1, JANUARY
2001
2) Chihchiang Hua and Chihming Shen. Control of DC/DC Converters for Solar
Energy System with Maximum Power Tracking.
3) Joe-Air Jiang1, Tsong-Liang Huang2, Ying-Tung Hsiao2*and Chia-Hong Chen2,
Maximum Power Tracking for Photovoltaic Power Systems.
Department of Bio-Industrial Mechatronics Engineering, National Taiwan University
Taipei, Taiwan 106, R.O.C. Department of Electric Engineering, Tamkang
UniversityTamsui, Taiwan 251, R.O.C.
4) Sachin Jain, Student Member, IEEE, and Vivek Agarwal Senior Member, IEEE A
New Algorithm for Rapid tracking of Approximate Maximum Power Point in
Photovoltaic systems. IEEE POWER ELECTRONICS LETTERS, VOL. 2, NO. 1,
MARCH 2004
5) Mohamad A. S. Masoum, Seyed Mahdi Mousavi Badejani, and Ewald F.
Fuchs.IEEE, Microprocessor-Controlled New Class of Optimal Battery Chargers
for Photovoltaic Applications.
6) By Donald Schelle and Jorge Castorena, Jorge Castorena, Technical Staff, Technical
Staff, Maxim Integrated Products, Sunnyvale, Calif. "Buck-Converter Design
Demystied."
7) http://www.ece.uvic.ca/ Project Work Buck Converter Developers: Jason Allan,
Eric Helander

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