I. The surface wind circulation - climate belts.

As we have discussed earlier, atmospheric motion is driven by the uneven horizontal distribution of net incoming radiation. On a global scale, the most
outstanding part of this uneven distribution is its latitudinal dependence (Fig. 1). The atmosphere (and oceans) respond to this imbalance by attempting
to move heat from the tropics and subtropics, where insolation surpasses the infrared terrestrial radiation going out to space, to the middle and high
latitudes, where there is a net radiative loss of heat. Convection, the vertical process of heat transport, and advection, the horizontal process of heat and
moisture transport, work together to accomplish this goal.
It seems logical then to expect that the mean atmospheric motion (so called general circulation) will go from equator to pole in both hemispheres. Could this
be the case? Lets begin by observing the horizontal distribution of winds near the surface. This is shown in Fig. 2 for January and July. The most outstanding
feature about this distribution is its zonally banded structure - that is, it has the pattern of east-west elongated features aligned along latitude circles. As we
shall discuss hereafter, these belts define different climate and weather regimes.
Marching from equator to pole we find the following characteristic wind belts:
Trade wind belts:
In the tropics, on both sides of the equator, lies a wide region where winds blow from east to west (easterlies) with a slight equatorward
tilt. This region is named the trade wind belt, because of the steadiness of the air flow here. In the days when ships relied on sail power for
locomotion these winds made for reliable travel westward.
Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ):
The trade winds from the Northern and Southern Hemispheres converge into a narrow belt close to the equator, nowadays generally referred to as
the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ). The convergence of the trade winds results in rising motion of the colliding air masses (to
obey the law of mass continuity - see last Monday's lecture). This region is also known as the doldrums, where the weather is generally cloudy
and periods of light winds are frequently interrupted by squalls and hard rain, making for a troubled and uncertain sea voyage.
Midlatitude westerlies:
North and south of the trade wind belt (in the Northern and Southern Hemispheres, respectively) lie regions where winds tend to blow fromwest
to east (westerlies), and are therefore referred to as the westerly wind belts. Here the winds are highly variable and unsteady, especially so
during winter. This fact is not seen in our charts, clearly demonstrating that it is not enough to look at the mean. In these regions, during
wintertime, midlatitude storms and their frontal systems travel from west to east bringing frequent changes in weather. Further discussion of this
phenomenon appears below (baroclinic instability).
Subtropics:
Between the trade wind regions lie the subtropics - regions of divergence and subsidence, where sunny weather with little clouds and no
rain prevails. In the days of sailing these latitudes were referred to as the horse latitudes because winding up in these latitudes meant serious
delays in the voyage. It is said that the horses that were carried along to be used on land had to be thrown off board to lighten the loads or that,
according to others, the sailors had to resort to horse meat after all other food rations were depleted in the slow voyage.
Polar easterlies:
Poleward from the westerly wind belt, winds with a generally easterly component prevail. The air here is cold, dry and stable, especially during
winter, and is accompanied by subsidence from above.
Polar front:
The convergence zone between polar easterlies and midlatitude westerlies is referred to as the polar front. It separates between the cold
(and dry) polar air, and the relatively warm (and more humid) midlatitude air. The polar front can be thought of as the average expression of the
transient frontal systems that move along with midlatitude cyclones (see last Monday's lecture).
The surface wind distribution is not perfectly zonal. Clear difference between continents and ocean are evident in both panels of Fig. 2. Winds are
much weaker over land (friction over land is larger than over the oceans, and high variability is another reasons for a low average). Along the coasts, winds
deviate quite a bit from zonal symmetry. More on that in the next section.

II. The sea level pressure distribution - monsoons.

As we saw in last Monday's lecture, the winds are related to the pressure distribution via the geostrophic balance and, at the surface, via the additional
influence of friction. The global sea level pressure distribution for January and July (Fig. 3) is indeed consistent with the wind fields we saw above (Fig. 2). The
zonal wind belts are matched by the more or less zonal distribution of sea level pressure. The breakdown in zonal symmetry is however much more
evident here. What is causing the asymmetry?
The surface of Earth is far from homogenous in its composition. Land masses interrupt large ocean basins, and the land itself is intersected by massive
mountain ranges. The cover (vegetation, snow and ice, soil moisture) of the land surface varies from region to region, partly because of climate itself. All these
zonal (and meridional) asymmetries contribute to the asymmetry of the circulation for both thermal and mechanical reasons. Consider for example the
difference in thermal properties between land and ocean surfaces. On the time scales of a day, these gave rise to the sea breeze circulation (last Monday's
lecture). On seasonal time scales they give rise to many of the zonal asymmetries we see in Fig. 3.
The difference in the heat absorbing properties of continent and ocean - continents warming and cooling faster - is apparent throughout the seasonal cycle. In
winter the continents are colder than the surrounding oceans at the same latitude, and in summer they are warmer (see Fig. 4). These temperature differences
express themselves as pressure differences (Fig. 3). The continent-ocean pressure differences (Fig. 2) drive the development of regional wind
circulations, which are much different than the winds dominating that latitude zone. Such regional winds are particularly noticeable in the tropics. As with the
daily breeze cycle, air will flow from where the surface is cold to where the surface is warm, thereby creatingseasonal circulation systems known
as monsoons (derived from an Arabic word denoting season).
The most famous monsoon circulation is that over India. In summer, southern Asia and the Indian subcontinent are warmed up by the sun, and low pressure
develops over the continent (Fig. 3, July). A large system of ocean-to-land winds forms around India (Fig. 2, July) just as with the sea breeze. However,
unlike the sea breeze circulation, monsoon winds are subjected to the Coriolis force which divert the winds from flowing directly from ocean to land. It is
surface friction that is causing deviation from geostrophic balance, and convergence into the warm land mass. Over the oceans, divergence occurs. Aloft, the
situation is reversed, and the air diverges from the land to the ocean. The cycle of winds is closed by the rising and sinking of air over land and ocean,
respectively. Convergence into land and the uplift it generates brings large amounts of moisture and some of the largest rainfalls known on
Earth (the uplift is also aided by the air flowing against the Himalayas and the Tibetan Plateau).

In winter the land is colder than the surrounding ocean, and surface winds diverge from the land to the ocean. The dry continental winds and the subsidence
over the subcontinent, suppress clouds and rainfall over land. However, further east over Southeast Asia and northern Australia (centered on the equator
and ~130E, see Fig. 2, January), the circulation induced by the contrast in winter temperature between Asia and the Indian Ocean brings convergence,
massive convection and enhanced rainfall.
Monsoons occur in other regions of the world: The Central and North American monsoon brings summer rainfall to Mexico and the US Southwest. In the
winter, the American monsoon migrates to South America, where it is summer. Monsoon circulation also affects the African continent.
Differences between land and ocean are also seen in the westerly wind belt (midlatitudes). Here the deepest winter "lows" are located over the warmer oceans,
analogous with the night half of the sea breeze cycle. In summer the situation reverses, and the pressure over land is lower than over the ocean.
The thermal effects of continents and oceans affects climate extremes such as the difference in temperature between winter and summer, or the
average difference between daily minimum and maximum temperatures in different seasons. In Fig 5, for example, we plot the climatological difference
between January and July temperature (a rough measure of the amplitude of the seasonal cycle). In part, this figure depicts the fact that amplitude of the
annual cycle increases poleward. However it also clearly depicts a continent-ocean contrast: the largest differences at every latitude are over land.
Notice also that over the massive continental regions of the Northern Hemisphere (Asia in particular) the largest differences occur over the eastern sides
of the continent. The further poleward we go, the larger the difference. This reflects the extent of the moderating effect exerted by the oceans on the
western sides of the continents within the westerly wind belt.

III. The upper troposphere.

A note on upper level data representation: In meteorology, upper level variables are represented on pressure rather than on height surfaces. The fundamental
force on an equal-pressure surface is the height gradient multiplied by the constant of gravity (a quantity referred to as the geopotential).
This transformation is a direct outcome of the hydrostatic relationship. Air is initially moving from a high to a low point on a pressure surface (just as it
moves from high to low pressure on a constant height surface). In doing so, the air is converting potential energy to kinetic energy. The Coriolis force enters
and makes the air flow along constant height contours. The heights of any given pressure level are calculated in different geographical locations using
the hydrostatic relationship with values of temperature and pressure measured by weather balloons. In the calculation, an assumption is made that
the acceleration of gravity, g, is a constant everywhere on Earth. Meteorologists refer to this measure of height asgeopotential height, because by
multiplying it by a constant g it gives the potential energy of air on that pressure level.
The zonally symmetric structure of the atmospheric circulation is much more clearly depicted in the upper troposphere. The winds at the 300 mb level (about
9000 meters above ground) are shown in Fig. 6 . Here three belts can be discerned in each hemisphere: a region of weak flow in the tropics, a wide belt
of westerlies in the midlatitudes, and a second region of weak flow in the polar latitudes. The westerlies are much stronger at this level than at the
surface - evidence for strong geopotential height gradients and less friction. Around the latitude of 30, north and south of the equator, is a narrow region of
very strong westerlies known as the subtropical jet stream. The jet stream is strongest in the winter hemisphere. It is not uniform in longitude and presents
several relatively localized maxima (for example, in the western North Pacific and North Atlantic Basins). These jet maxima are related to the location of the
regions of strong tropical convection (see below - the Hadley Circulation).
The geopotential height climatology of the 300 Mb surface is shown in Fig. 7. Note that there is a much larger degree of zonal symmetry here than in the
sea level pressure map (Fig. 3). Further away from the Earth's surface, the 300 Mb level is not so strongly affected by the differences in continent-ocean
properties. The deviation from zonal symmetry here is mainly cause by the large topographical obstacles on the Earth's surface (the Tibetan Plateau and
the Himalayas, the Rocky Mountains, the Andes, etc.)

IV. Thermal wind relation and thesubtropical jet stream.

Because the atmospheric general circulation is, to first order, zonally symmetric, it is helpful to examine the variation of zonally averaged
properties as they vary with latitude and height (Fig. 8). In observing this figure, we find that the temperature lines slope most strongly towards
the surface in the midlatitudes - an indication for a large poleward temperature gradient close to the surface. We also find that high in the
midlatitude troposphere, the westerly winds reach their maxima - this is the zonally averaged depiction of the subtropical jet stream. Are
these features in the temperature and wind fields, respectively connected?
Because the atmosphere is in hydrostatic balance, pressure decreases with height more slowly in warm air than in cold air. If we started
with the same pressure at sea level in two columns of air separated from one another by a difference in temperature, then as we ascend, a
pressure difference will form between the two columns. The larger the temperature difference the larger the pressure difference. The higher we
ascend, the larger the pressure difference. In the midlatitudes, the temperature difference is such that the air becomes colder as we get closer to
the poles (that is, a poleward temperature gradient). A poleward pressure gradient is therefore established at high levels, and according to the
geostrophic relationship, a westerly wind is generated. This relationship between winds and temperature gradients is known as the thermal wind
relationship (or balance).
The large midlatitude poleward temperature gradient near the surface, which we see in Fig. 8 (its exact location varies with season), is therefore
consistent with the jet stream that moves just above. The thermal wind balance also holds when the full three dimensional state of the
atmosphere is considered, as one can verify from Fig. 4 and Fig. 6. Note that this relationship does not explain the existence of the jet
stream. The wind and the temperature gradient are tied to one another and must, to a large degree of accuracy, obey this relationship.

V. The Hadley circulation.

What is then the reason for the westerlies and the jet stream? Or the reason for the wind belts in general? The second question is probably as old as the days
when ships began circumnavigating the Earth. The first to suggest a reasonable answer to it was George Hadley, an Englishman who lived in the first part of
the eighteenth century. Hadley was aware of the warmer tropics and cold high latitudes. He envisioned that this would create a global circulation akin to the
sea breeze, with the warm tropical air rising and moving northward aloft, and the cold high latitude air flowing southward near the Earth's surface to displace
the former.

Much of Hadley's original understanding is basically correct. The excess radiative heating in the tropics is balanced partially by evaporation but remains warmer
than the air to the north and south. The warm moist air is conditionally unstable - as soon as a small uplift occurs, the air saturates and becomes unstable
(see moist air instability in Week 3 lecture). Convection in the tropics is deep and massive. Large amounts of latent heat are released in the towering
cumulus clouds of the tropical atmosphere, providing further driving for the upward motion (see satellite mosaic for a downward view of Earth and its cloud
cover from space). At the top of the tropical troposphere (12-15 km), the atmosphere is stable and the upward motion is brought to a halt. This
forces the air to diverge poleward on both sides of the equator. The further the poleward moving air gets from the equator, the larger the Coriolis
force, and the air begins to deflect to the right (in the Northern Hemisphere) and left (in the Southern Hemisphere). The result (in both
hemispheres) is an eastward flow of air (westerly winds). The further poleward we go, the stronger the westerlies become, till we reach the jet stream latitude.
This situation is depicted in (Fig. 9) for the Northern Hemisphere.
In Hadley's original explanation, the winds continued all the way to the pole, and then sank to return all the way to the equator (like a global sea breeze).
Hadley was not aware of the law of conservation of angular momentum and thought the poleward moving air would conserve its east-west velocity. But
because the poleward moving air is getting closer to the axis of the rotating Earth, it spins up continuously until it reaches maximum in the midlatitudes. This
is where the fast moving air breaks down into large eddies (or turbulence, see below). The breakdown of the flow is also accompanied by a sinking
motion towards the surface just south of the jet stream axis. This subsidence is the reason for the horse latitudes. When it reaches the surface, the air
spreads equatorward and poleward. The equatorward spreading air acquires a westward movement due to Coriolis and the trade winds are formed. It
continues to move westward and equatorward, gathering moisture, and converging at the Intertropical Convergence Zone.
The zonally averaged poleward motion in the tropics is not in geostrophic balance with a zonally averaged pressure force (there is no mean zonal pressure
gradient, can you explain why?). It is a wind driven by upper tropospheric divergence originating in tropical uplift and convection. In the same way, part of
the surface flow in the trade belt is not in geostrophic balance, and creates a return flow towards the equator (here friction "helps" the convergence) feeding
the huge circulation cell named after Hadley. It defines the most vigorous part of the atmospheric meridional mean circulation (see Fig. 10). The Hadley
Cell accomplishes a large part of the task of carrying sensible heat (warm air) toward the higher latitudes. While the Hadley cell also carries latent
heat (water vapor) from higher latitudes toward the equator, the sensible heat transport is larger.

VI. Baroclinic instability.

The latitudes of the strongest temperature gradient, north and south of the equator, are the latitudes of the strongest westerlies aloft - they are inthermal wind
balance as we saw above. When the temperature gradient and upper level winds are too large, pure eastward motion can not be sustained and the flow
breaks down into large-scale eddies (turbulence). That this is so, is evident form looking at a daily upper level chart (Fig. 11). Here there is no longer the
"almost perfect" zonal symmetry of the flow seen in the climatology (Fig. 6). The climatology is thus misleading because it is a smoothed depiction of the
atmosphere, created by averaging together many charts with turbulent flow patterns.
The breakdown into eddies is a phenomenon referred to in the scientific jargon as baroclinic instability. Baroclinic instability favors large horizontal
temperature gradients and strong winds aloft. The stronger the jet, the more likely it is to be unstable.
Baroclinic eddies (the eddies resulting from baroclinic instability) are the cause of what we in the midlatitudes call weather. They are trains of alternating low
and high pressure systems moving eastward in the westerly flow. They are the source of the frontal systems, with their clouds,rainfall and storminess, of
the midlatitudes (see satellite mosaic for a downward view of Earth and its cloud cover from space). They break the Hadley Circulation down, and stop the
equatorial air from moving clear to the poles. However, in their circular motion, baroclinic eddies push warm air poleward and cold air southward, cooling the
subtropics and warming the polar latitudes (see Fig 12, note how the air is always colder on the westward - or upstream - side of the lows, and warmer on the
eastward - or downstream - side). Thus the process of poleward heat transport is kept going all the way to the poles.
The meridional mean circulation associated with the midlatitudes is the Ferrel Cell (Fig. 10). It is defined by the sinking motion in the subtropics along
the southern flank of the jet, and rising motion along the average position of the polar front. It is made up of the average of the turbulent motions
associated with baroclinic eddies and is thus weak and not that important for the transport of heat or moisture in the climate system.

VII. Climate zones and rainfall - summary.

The climatological distribution of annual mean land rainfall (Fig. 13) provides a backdrop for a summary of the Earth's climate zones.
1.

The equatorial region (ITCZ): Rising branch of Hadley cell; upward motion, adiabatic cooling, saturation, high clouds, convection, heavy rain.
Evaporation is less high than in the subtropics because the relative humidity in the air is high.

2.

Subtropics: Sinking branch of Hadley cell; downward motion, adiabatic warming, relative humidity of the air is low, cloud formation suppressed,
strong ocean evaporation because air near surface is fairly dry; land areas at these latitudes are location of many of world's deserts.

3.

Midlatitudes: Moderately rainy because of synoptic storms especially along storm tracks; western parts of continents drier in summer because of
oceanic high pressure that brings cool dry air down from north.

4.

Polar regions: Sinking air suppresses precipitation; thus the polar regions are deserts (snow-covered only because the small accumulation of
snow every year doesn't melt/sublime very much, not because it snows a lot there).

Key Concepts
Key Concepts of Chapter 6:

1. Air pressure is the pressure exerted by the weight of air above. Average air pressure at sea level is about 1 kilogram per square
centimeter, or 14.7 pounds per square inch. Another way to define air pressure is that it is the force exerted against a surface by the
continuous collision of gas molecules.

2. The newton is the unit of force used by meteorologists to measure atmospheric pressure. A millibar (mb) equals 100 newtons per square
meter. Standard sea level pressure is 1013.25 millibars. Two instruments used to measure atmospheric pressure are the mercury barometer,
where the height of a mercury column provides a measure of air pressure (standard atmospheric pressure at sea level equals 29.92 inches
or 760 millimeters), and the aneroid barometer, which uses a partially evacuated metal chamber that changes shape as air pressure
changes.

3. The pressure at any given altitude is equal to the weight of the air above that point. Furthermore, the rate at which pressure decreases
with an increase in altitude is much greater near Earths surface. The normal decrease in pressure experienced with increased altitude is
provided by the standard atmosphere, which depicts the idealized vertical distribution of atmospheric pressure.

4. In calm air, the two factors that largely determine the amount of air pressure exerted by an air mass are temperature and humidity. A
cold, dry air mass will produce higher surface pressures than a warm, humid air mass.

5. Wind is the result of horizontal differences in air pressure. If Earth did not rotate and there were no friction, air would flow directly from areas of higher pressure to areas of lower
pressure. However, because both factors exist, wind is controlled by a combination of (1) the pressure-gradient force, (2) the Coriolis force, and (3) friction. The pressure-gradient force
is the primary driving force of wind that results from pressure differences that occur over a given distance, as depicted by the spacing of isobars, lines drawn on maps that connect
places of equal air pressure. The spacing of isobars indicates the amount of pressure change occurring over a given distance, expressed as the pressure gradient. Closely spaced isobars
indicate a steep pressure gradient and strong winds; widely spaced isobars indicate a weak pressure gradient and light winds. There is also an upward-directed vertical pressure
gradient, which is usually balanced by gravity in what is referred to as hydrostatic equilibrium. On those occasions when the gravitational force slightly exceeds the vertical pressure
gradient force, slow downward airflow results. The Coriolis force produces a deviation in the path of wind due to Earths rotation (to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left
in the Southern Hemisphere). The amount of deflection is greatest at the poles and decreases to zero at the equator. The amount of Coriolis deflection also increases with wind speed.
Friction, which significantly influences airflow near Earths surface, is negligible above a height of a few kilometers.

6. Above a height of a few kilometers, the effect of friction on airflow is small enough to disregard. Here, as the wind speed increases, the deflection caused by the Coriolis force also
increases. Winds in which the Coriolis force is equal to and opposite the pressure gradient force are called geostrophic winds. Geostrophic winds flow in a straight path, parallel to the
isobars, with velocities proportional to the pressure-gradient force.

7. Winds that blow at a constant speed parallel to curved isobars are termed gradient winds. In centers of low pressure, called cyclones, the circulation of air, referred to as cyclonic
flow, is counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere. Centers of high pressure, called anticyclones, exhibit anticyclonic flow, which is
clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and counterclockwise in the Southern Hemisphere. Whenever isobars curve to form elongated regions of low and high pressure, these areas are
called troughs and ridges, respectively.

8. Near the surface, friction plays a major role in redistributing air within the atmosphere by changing the direction of airflow. The result is a movement of air at an angle across the
isobars, toward the area of lower pressure. Therefore, the resultant winds blow into and counterclockwise about a Northern Hemisphere surface cyclone. In a Northern Hemisphere
surface anticyclone, winds blow outward and clockwise. Regardless of the hemisphere, friction causes a net inflow (convergence) around a cyclone and a net outflow (divergence)
around an anticyclone.

9. A surface low-pressure system with its associated horizontal convergence is maintained or intensified by divergence (spreading out) aloft. Inadequate divergence aloft will weaken the
accompanying cyclone. Because surface convergence about a cyclone accompanied by divergence aloft causes a net upward movement of air, the passage of a low pressure center is
often associated with stormy weather. By contrast, fair weather can usually be expected with the approach of a high-pressure system. As a result of the general weather patterns
usually associated with cyclones and anticyclones, the pressure tendency or barometric tendency (the nature of the change of the barometer over the past several hours) is useful in
shortrange weather prediction.

10. Two basic wind measurementsdirection and speedare important to the weather observer. Wind direction is commonly determined using a wind vane. When the wind consistently
blows more often from one direction than from any other, it is called a prevailing wind. Wind speed is often measured with a cup anemometer.

Key Concepts
Key Concepts of Chapter 7:
1. The largest planetary-scale wind patterns, called macroscale winds, include the westerlies and trade winds. A somewhat smaller macroscale circulation is
called synoptic scale, or weather-map scale. Mesoscale winds, such as thunderstorms, tornadoes, and land and sea breezes, influence smaller areas and often
exhibit intensive vertical flow. The smallest scale of air motion is the microscale. Examples of
these very local, often chaotic, winds include gusts and dust devils.

2. All winds have the same cause: pressure differences that arise because of temperature
differences that are caused by unequal heating of Earth's surface. In addition to land and sea
breezes brought about by the daily temperature contrast between land and water, other
mesoscale winds include mountain and valley breezes,chinook (foehn)
winds, katabatic (fall) winds, and country breezes. Mountain and valley breezes develop as
air along mountain slopes is heated more intensely than air at the same elevation over the
valley floor. Chinooks are warm, dry winds that sometimes move down the east slopes of the
Rockies. In the Alps, winds similar to chinooks are called foehns. Katabatic (fall) winds originate
when cold air, situated over a highland area such as the ice sheets of Greenland or Antarctica, is
set in motion under the influence of gravity. Country breezes are associated with large urban
areas where the circulation pattern is characterized by a light wind blowing into the city from the
surrounding countryside.

3. A simplified view of a model of global circulation is a three-celled circulation model for each hemisphere. Because the circulation patterns between the equator and
roughly 30 latitude north and south closely resemble an earlier single-cell model used by George Hadley in 1735, the name Hadley cell is generally applied. According to
the three-cell circulation model, in each hemisphere, atmospheric circulation cells are located between the equator and 30 latitude, 30 and 60 latitude, and 60 latitude
and the pole. The areas of general subsidence in the zone between 20 and 35 are called the horse latitudes. In each hemisphere, the equatorward flow from the horse
latitudes forms the reliable trade winds. Convergence of the trade winds from both hemispheres near the equator produces a region of light winds called the doldrums.
The circulation between 30 and 60 latitude (north and south) results in the prevailing westerlies. Air that moves equatorward from the poles produces the polar
easterlies of both hemispheres. The area where the cold polar easterlies clash with the warm westerly flow of the midlatitudes is referred to as the polar front, an
important meteorological region.

If Earth's surface were uniform, two latitudinally oriented belts of high and two of low pressure would exist. Beginning at the equator, the four belts would be the
(1) equatorial low, also referred to as the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) because it is the region where the trade winds converge, (2) subtropical high, at
about 20 to 35 on either side of the equator, (3)subpolar low, situated at about 50 to 60 latitude, and (4) polar high, near Earth's poles.

In reality, the only true zonal pattern of pressure exists along the subpolar low in the Southern Hemisphere. At other
latitudes, particularly in the Northern Hemisphere, where there is a higher proportion of land compared to ocean, the zonal
pattern is replaced by semipermanent cells of high and low pressure. January pressure and wind patterns show a very strong
high-pressure center, called the Siberian high, positioned over the frozen landscape of northern Asia. Also evident in
January, but absent in July, are two intense semipermanent low-pressure centers, the Aleutian and Icelandic lows, situated
over the North Pacific and North Atlantic, respectively. With the onset of summer the pressure pattern over the Northern
Hemisphere changes dramatically and high temperatures over the continents generate lows that replace the winter highs.
During the peak summer season, the subtropical high found in the North Atlantic (called the Azores high in winter) is
positioned near the island of Bermuda and called the Bermuda high.

4. The greatest seasonal change in Earth's global circulation is the development of monsoons, wind systems that exhibit a
pronounced seasonal reversal in direction. The best-known and most pronounced monsoonal circulation, the Asian
monsoon found in southern and southeastern Asia, is a complex seasonal change that is strongly influenced by the amount
of solar heating received by the vast Asian continent. The North American monsoon (also called the Arizona
monsoon and Southwest monsoon), a relatively small seasonal wind shift, produces a dry spring followed by a
comparatively rainy summer that impacts large areas of the southwestern United States and northwestern Mexico.

5. The temperature contrast between the poles and equator drives the westerly winds (westerlies) located in the middle latitudes. Embedded within the westerly flow
aloft are narrow ribbons of high-speed winds, called jet streams, that meander for thousands of kilometers. The key to the origin of polar jet streams is found in great
temperature contrasts at the surface. In the region between 30 and 70, the polar jet stream occurs in association with the polar front.

6. Studies of upper-level wind charts reveal that the westerlies follow wavy paths that have rather long wavelengths. The longest wave patterns are called Rossby
waves. During periods when the flow aloft is relatively flat, little cyclonic activity is generated on the surface. Conversely, when the flow exhibits large-amplitude waves
having short wavelengths, vigorous cyclonic storms are created. In addition to seasonal changes in the strength of its flow, the position of the polar jet also shifts from
summer to winter.

7. Because winds are the primary driving force of ocean currents, a relationship exists between the oceanic circulation and the
general atmospheric circulation. In general, in response to the circulation associated with the subtropical highs, ocean
currents form clockwise spirals in the Northern Hemisphere and counterclockwise spirals in the Southern Hemisphere. In
addition to influencing temperatures of adjacent land areas, cold ocean currents also transform some tropical deserts into
relatively cool, damp places that are often shrouded in fog. Furthermore, ocean currents play a major role in maintaining
Earth's heat balance. In addition to producing surface currents, winds may also cause vertical water movements, such as
the upwelling of cold water from deeper layers to replace warmer surface-water.

8. El Nio refers to episodes of ocean warming caused by a warm countercurrent flowing southward along the coasts of
Ecuador and Peru that replaces the cold Peruvian current. The events are part of the global circulation and related to a seesaw
pattern of atmospheric pressure between the eastern and western Pacific called the Southern Oscillation. El Nio events
influence weather at great distances from Peru and Ecuador. Two of the strongest El Nio events (198283 and 199798)
were responsible for a variety of weather extremes in many parts of the world. When surface temperatures in the eastern
Pacific are colder than average, a La Nia event is triggered. A typical La Nia winter blows colder than normal air over the
Pacific Northwest and the northern Great Plains, while warming much of the rest of the United States.

9. The general features of the global distribution of precipitation can be explained by global winds and pressure systems. In general, regions influenced by high pressure,
with its associated subsidence and divergent winds, experience dry conditions. On the other hand, regions under the influence of low pressure and its converging winds
and ascending air receive ample precipitation.

10. On a uniform Earth, throughout most of the year, heavy precipitation would occur in the equatorial region, the midlatitudes would receive most of their precipitation
from traveling cyclonic storms, and polar regions would be dominated by cold air that holds little moisture. The most notable anomaly of this zonal distribution of
precipitation occurs in the subtropics, where many of the world's great deserts are located. In these regions, pronounced subsidence on the eastern side of subtropical
high-pressure centers results in stable atmospheric conditions. Upwelling of cold water along the west coasts of the adjacent continents further adds to the stable and dry
conditions. On the other hand, the east coast of the adjacent continent receives abundant precipitation year-round due to the convergence and rising air associated with
the western side of the oceanic high.

Key Concepts
Key Concepts of Chapter 9:
1. The primary weather producer in the middle latitudes (for our purposes, the region between southern Florida and Alaska, essentially the area of the westerlies) is the
middle-latitude or mid-latitude cyclone. Mid-latitude cyclones are large low pressure systems with diameters often exceeding 1000 kilometers (600 miles) that generally
travel from west to east. They last a few days to more than a week, have a counterclockwise circulation pattern with a flow inward toward their centers, and have a cold
front and frequently a warm front extending from the central area of low pressure. In the polar front theory (also called the Norwegian cyclone model), mid-latitude
cyclones develop in conjunction with the polar front.

2. Fronts are boundary surfaces that separate air masses of different densities, one usually warmer and more moist than the
other. As one air mass moves into another, the warmer, less dense air mass is forced aloft in a process called overrunning.
The five types of fronts are (1) warm front, which occurs when the surface (ground) position of a front moves so that warm
air occupies territory formerly covered by cooler air, (2) cold front, where cold continental polar air actively advances into a
region occupied by warmer air, (3) stationary front, which occurs when the airflow on both sides of a front is neither toward
the cold air mass nor toward the warm air mass, (4) occluded front, which develops when an active cold front overtakes a
warm front and wedges the warm front upward, and (5) a dryline, a boundary between denser dry, air and less dense humid
air often associated with severe thunderstorms during the spring and summer. The two types of occluded fronts are the coldtype occluded front, where the air behind the cold front is colder than the cool air it is overtaking, and the warmtype occluded
front, where the air behind the advancing cold front is warmer than the cold air it overtakes.

3. According to the polar front model, mid-latitude cyclones form along fronts and proceed through a generally predictable life
cycle. Along the polar front, where two air masses of different densities are moving parallel to the front and in opposite
directions, cyclogenesis (cyclone formation) occurs and the frontal surface takes on a wave shape that is usually several
hundred kilometers long. Once a wave forms, warm air advances poleward invading the area formerly occupied by colder air. This change in the direction of the surface
flow causes a readjustment in the pressure pattern that results in almost circular isobars, with the low pressure centered at the apex of the wave. Usually, the position of

the cold front advances faster than the warm front and gradually closes the warm sector and lifts the warm front. This process, known as occlusion, creates an occluded
front. Eventually all the warm sector is forced aloft and cold air surrounds the cyclone at low levels. At this point, the cyclone has exhausted its source of energy and the
once highly organized counterclockwise flow ceases to exist.

4. Guided by the westerlies aloft, cyclones generally move eastward across the United States. As an idealized mid-latitude cyclone moves over a region, the passage of a
warm front places the area under the influence of a maritime tropical air mass and its generally warm temperatures, southerly winds, and clear skies. The passage of a
cold front is easily detected by a wind shift, the replacement of south or southwesterly winds with winds from the west or northwest. There is also a pronounced drop in
temperature. A passing occluded front is often associated with cool, overcast conditions, and snow or glaze during the cool months.

5. Airflow aloft (divergence and convergence) plays an important role in maintaining cyclonic and anticyclonic circulation. In a cyclone, divergence aloft does not involve
the outward flow of air in all directions. Instead, the winds flow generally from west to east, along sweeping curves. Also, at high altitudes, speed variations within the jet
stream cause air to converge in areas where the velocity slows, and to diverge where air is accelerating. In addition to speed divergence, directional divergence (the
horizontal spreading of an air stream) and vorticity (the amount of rotation exhibited by a mass of moving air) also contribute to divergence (or convergence) aloft.

6. During the colder months, when temperature gradients are steepest, cyclonic storms advance at their fastest rate. Furthermore, the westerly airflow aloft tends to steer
these developing pressure systems in a general west-to-east direction. Cyclones that influence western North America originate over the Pacific Ocean. Although most
Pacific storms do not cross the Rockies intact, many redevelop on the lee (eastern) side of these mountains. Some cyclones that affect the United States form over the
Great Plains and are associated with an influx of maritime tropical air from the Gulf of Mexico. Another area where cyclogenesis occurs is east of the southern
Appalachians. These cyclones tend to migrate toward the northeast, impacting the Eastern Seaboard.

7. Due to the gradual subsidence within them, anticyclones generally produce clear skies and calm conditions. One to three times each winter, large highs, called blocking
highs, persist over the middle latitudes and deflect the nearly zonal west-to-east flow poleward. These stagnant anticyclones block the eastward migration of cyclones,
keeping one section of the nation dry for a week or more while another region experiences one cyclonic storm after another. Also due to subsidence, large stagnant
anticyclones can produce a temperature inversion that contributes to air pollution episodes.

8. In the spring, Earths pronounced northsouth temperature gradient can generate intense cyclonic storms. At a mid-latitude location, as a spring cyclone with its
associated fronts passes, temperatures can change quickly from unseasonably warm to unseasonably cold, and thunderstorms with hail can be followed by snow showers.