The Asia-Pacific Education Researcher 19:1 (2010), pp.

61-78

Looking at Filipino Pre-service Teachers Value

for Education through Epistemological Beliefs
about Learning and Asian Values
Carlo MAGNO
De La Salle University, Manila
carlo.magno@dlsu.edu.ph

The present study investigated the contribution of epistemological beliefs about learning and
Asian values on pre-service teachers value for education. The relationship of epistemological
beliefs and valuing education is based on Schwartz and Bilskys (1987; 1990) theory of human
values. The participants were 362 pre-service teachers from different universities in Manila,
Philippines. It was found in a standard regression analysis that both complexity and structured
belief about learning significantly predicted valuing ones education. Higher expectation for
achievement, filial piety, and emotional restraint were also significant. A hierarchical multiple
regression was used to test the order of contribution of Asian values (filial piety, hierarchical
family structure, collectivism, emotional restraint, perseverance and hard work, higher
expectation for achievement, respect for authority, and respect for education) on valuing
education. The results showed that the order of Asian values based on the theory of Schwartz
and Bardi (2001) significantly explained the variation on valuing education (Adjusted R2 =.35).
The contribution of each Asian value increased the variation on valuing education but it remained
stable with the inclusion of respect for education and respect for authority.
Keywords: Epistemological beliefs, Asian values, value for education

Students value their education when they believe

that learning is valuable. Like other Asians, Filipinos
have high regard for education because it is an
integral part of their values orientation. Valuing
education is the belief that schoolwork is both
interesting and important. Voelkl (1997) included
the recognition of the value of school both as a
social norm and as a tool for facilitating personal
advancement. She further elaborated that value for
education is regard for school as a central
institution in society and [a student] feels what is
learned in class is important and that school is

instrumental in obtaining his or her personal life

objectives (p. 296). Value for education in the
present study is assessed among pre-service teachers
as learners. Students who value their education
include the school as part of their definition.
Valuing for education among Filipinos is rooted
in their adherence to Asian cultural values
(Salvador, Omizo, & Kim, 1997). The values held
by Asians as part of their culture complement their
achievement-driven attitudes (Asakawa &
Csikszentmihalyi, 1998; Eaton & Dembo, 1997;
Fox, 1991; Heggins & Jackson, 2003; Liang,

2010 De La Salle University, Philippines

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THE ASIA-PACIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCHER

Tracy, Kauh, Taylor, & Williams, 2006; Lynn,

1991). Asian values, which include competencies
focused on intellectual achievement, emotional
discipline, and high regard for the family, contribute
greatly to value for education (Kodama, McEwen,
Liang, & Lee, 2001). These factors serve as
terminal values to explain students value for
education (Shwartz & Bilsky, 1987; 1990).
Epistemological beliefs affect a myriad of
variables pertaining to learning, such as ways and
results of learning (Bauer, Festner, Gruber, Harteis,
& Heid, 2004), achievement goals and cognitive
engagement (Ravindran, Greene, & DeBacker,
200 5), lear ning app ro ach and academic
perfo r mance (Cano , 200 5; Chan, 200 3;
Kizilgunes, Tekkayam & Sunger, 2009), and
conceptions of teaching and learning (Wong, Chan,
& Lai, 2009). It is apparent that these factors
manifest some aspects that define value for
education. Value for ones education is defined by
Voelkl (1997) as appreciation of success in schoolrelevant goals. Students value their education when
they see school as (1) a tool for facilitating personal
development and (2) important and instrumental
in obtaining their personal life objectives. Mastery
goals, cognitive engagement, deep approach to
learning, high academic performance, and active
role of students in the conception of learning are
all facilitative of personal development and
obtaining objectives.
Goodenow (1993) demonstrated in her study
that students value for their education (belonging
and psychological membership in school) is
influenced by several personal traits. One of these
personal traits can be their epistemological beliefs
about learning. This indicates that beliefs about
learning can be used to predict value for education.
The relationship between epistemological beliefs
and valuing education occurs when individuals hold
mature beliefs about learning and knowledge which
makes them value education. More specifically,
students that allow their learning to be critiqued
and improved have more appreciation of their
success in achieving school-related goals.
Likewise, students who place importance on
organization, precision, and certainty in their

VOL. 19 NO. 1

learning are more likely to experience a sense of

success.
In the present study, Asian values and
epistemological beliefs are used as predictors of
valuing education. These variables are based on
Schwartz and Bilskys (1987; 1990) theory of
human values. Three features of the theory are
tested in the present study. First, the study includes
value typologies as terminal and instrumental. The
Asian values as predictors serve as terminal values
while valuing education serve as the instrumental
value. Schwartz and Bilsky (1987) in describing
the theory specifically noted that the impacts of
values as independent variables on attitudes can
be predicted, identified, and interpreted more
effectively and reliably (p. 550). Second, the
theory combines the concept of values with beliefs
as a primary feature. This combination of concepts
is justified by studying together epistemological
beliefs with Asian values and valuing education.
Third, the theory indicates that values are ordered
by relative importance (Schwartz & Bilsky, 1987,
p.551; Schwartz & Bilsky, 1990, p. 878; Schwartz
& Bardi, 2001). Testing Asian values and
epistemological beliefs ordered by their relative
contribution in predicting valuing education using
a hierarchical regression is appropriate because
hierarchy of values exist for every society (see
Schwartz & Bardi, 2001).
Asian Values
Montgomery (1997) characterized Asian values
as strongly evident in the family and community
that tends to be more stable across situations. For
example, Kim, Atkinson, and Yang (1999) found
that Asian values are stable even among first and
second generation Asian-Americans who are
already enculturated in Western practices. This
was also demonstrated by Liang and Sedlacek
(2003) when they conducted factor analysis on the
needs of Asian students. Moreover, the study of
Yeh, Carter, and Pieterse (2004) found strong
correlations of racial identity measures with cultural
values among Asians. Asian values strongly explain
the performance of students in the educational

EPISTEMOLOGICAL BELIEFS AND VALUING EDUCATION

setting because of their sense of value for education

(Sue & Okazaki, 1990).
It is shown in different studies that Asian
students, when compared to their Caucasian
counterparts, perform well in school (Flynn, 1991;
Lynn, 1994; Neisser et al., 1996). Their
achievement is explained by their specific Asian
values such as hard work, perseverance, and
diligence that allow them to do well in school and
in academic-related tasks (Knafo & Schwarts,
2003). Kodama, McEwen, Liang, and Lee (2001)
further explained that Asian learners excel in
schools because their traditional Asian values have
significant implications on their scholastic
development and experience. They showed that
Asian values such as interdependence with the
family, maintaining interpersonal harmony,
emotional restraint, academic/economic-based
definition of success, collectivism, respect for
elders, and deference to authority essentially
contribute to success in school. Asians value hard
work and high achievement which is rooted in their
value for education. Authority figures also play a
central role in the learning process of Asian students
(Sung, 1995). Students respect their teachers and
value their education because it is essential to
harmonize their relations between one generation
and another (as in the student and teacher
relationship) (Chen, 1986; Shea & Yeh, 2008). This
harmony is characterized by Asian learners giving
credit to their family and home in their educational
performance; in return, the parents central duty is
to instill in their children a positive attitude towards
school (Hess, Chang, & McDevitt, 1987).
Different studies indicate that Asian values allow
Asians to perform better in situations that involve
self-development (Kim & Atkinson, 2002; Kim,
Li, & Liang, 2002; Liang, Tracy, Kauh, Taylor, &
Williams, 2006; Lowe, 2005; Shea & Yeh, 2008).
Asakawa and Csikszentmihalyi (1998) showed in
their study specific reasons for the academic
excellence manifested by Asian students. They
found in their analysis that Asian American
ad o lescent s repo rt ed r elat ively po sit ive
experiences when they were engaged in activities
highly valued in their cultures. When engaged in

MAGNO, C.

63

activities perceived to be more like work, they

were significantly happier, reported enjoying
themselves more, and felt better about themselves
than their Caucasian American counterparts (p.
163). Positive outcomes in school situations occur
because of their high regard for education which
is consistent with their values (Sue & Okazaki,
1990).
Epistemological Beliefs
Epistemological beliefs are also related to value
for education. There are some studies that indicate
the close relationship of epistemological beliefs and
value for education in other domains. These studies
were conducted in the context of science
education, religion, and agriculture. For example,
the study by Staley (2007) examines the role of
pr agmat ic co ncerns in st at ement s o f
epistemological group beliefs, focusing on scientific
collaborations that are constituted in part by the
aim of evaluating the evidence for scientific claims
through evidential collaborations in a particle
physics class. He concluded that applying social
epistemological considerations to scientific
collaborations is practical and beneficial in a
classroom context. The study by Peeters (2007)
demonstrated that the relationship between
epistemological beliefs regarding religion and
science is a source of value. The study was not
conducted in an educational context, but the
relationship between epistemological beliefs and
value for education was apparent. The results
indicated that the participants epistemological
beliefs were more critically evaluative if their values
are not consistent with the issue. In a similar
fashion, Kuhn and Park (2005) hypothesized that
intellectual values, defined as the extent to which
intellectual engagement is regarded as worthwhile
to the groups interests, are supported by an
epistemological belief system. They found that
developing mature epistemological understanding
is a key to intrinsically value int ellectual
engagement.
The clo sest st u dy which exp lained
epistemological beliefs and value for education was

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that of Knobloch (2008). It was found that

teachers epistemological beliefs were related to
their adoption and integration of topics and activities
that would enrich student learning in their
classrooms. Measures of enriching student learning
in the classroom utilized in the study are highly
descriptive of valuing education. In particular, their
belief of the need to include the study of food,
agriculture, and natural resources in elementary
classrooms can bring about learning regarding life.
The adjustment of having a more functional
approach in the classroom and changing it to make
it mo re realist ic is a co mp lex fo rm o f
epistemological belief.
The mo st widely used measu re fo r
epistemological beliefs was constructed by
Scho mmer ( 1990 ). S he co ncept u alized
epistemological beliefs as multidimensional and
domain-independent (Schommer, 1990). The
measure was originally composed of five schemes
with the following underlying dimensions: Simple
knowledge, certain knowledge, omniscient
authority, innate ability, and quick learning. After
conducting factor analysis in succeeding studies,
Schommer came up with with four factors of
epistemological beliefs: Innate ability, simple
knowledge, quick learning, and certain knowledge
(Schommer, 1990; Schommer, 1993). Succeeding
studies were able to maintain the same four factor
structure of epistemological beliefs (Schommer,
1998; Schommer, Calvert, Gariglietti, & Bajaj,
1997); however, Scho mmer-Aikins, Mau,
Brookhart, and Hutter (2000) used Confirmatory
Factor Analysis and found a three-factor structure
of epistemological beliefs to be more appropriate
for middle school students. The three factors
include: Stability of knowledge, speed of learning,
and ability to learn. When the four factors of
epistemological beliefs were studied among Asian
samples, different patterns emerged. For example,
Chan and Elliot (2000) used the original five
schemes among 352 Ho ng Ko ng t eacher
education students and arrived at a three-factor
structure of the scale following varimax and oblimin
rotation. The factors retained were fixed ability and
quick learning (factor 1), omniscient authority,

certain knowledge, and some components of quick

learning (factor 2), and ability to learn and avoid
ambiguities. It is apparent that omniscient authority
was included among the highly loaded components
because Asian culture acknowledges experts as the
authority in their learning. This indicates that the
subscales of epistemological beliefs are different
for Asian samples. Chan and Elliot (2002) in
another study extracted four factors of the
epistemological beliefs scale using teacher
education students in Hong Kong. The four factors
were renamed and items were revised to fit the
experiences relevant to an Asian sample. The
renamed four factors were: Innate/fixed ability,
lear ning effo rt /p ro cess, aut ho r it y/expert
knowledge, and certainty knowledge. The factors
of epistemological beliefs in the study by Chan and
Elliot (2002) were confirmed in the study by Wong,
Chan, and Lai (2009). The same four factor model
of epistemological beliefs was used and had
acceptable fit using a sample of preservice teachers
in Hong Kong. Youn, Yang, and Choi (2001), with
a Korean sample, used the items of Schomers
Epistemological beliefs and extracted two factors:
Learning (innate ability and quick learning) and
knowledge (certainty, omniscient authority, orderly
process). The knowledge factor significantly
predicted independent self-construal. The study of
Bernardo (2008) tested different factor structures
of epistemological beliefs and found that a twofactor structure was best fitted for Filipino preservice teachers. These two factors are: Simple
learning and structured learning (combination of
quick and fixed abilty). Bernardos (2009) study
then renamed the two factors of epistemological
beliefs to: Complexity of learning and structure of
learning. The complexity of learning is the belief
that learning is a complex process that can be
critiqued, further improved and elaborated (p.
165). The other end of the continuum for
complexity is simple learning [belief that learning
is bare, elementary, and uncomplicated process
(p. 165)]. On the other hand, structured learning
is the belief about the importance of organization,
precision, and certainty in the learning process (p.
165). The other end of the continuum for structure

EPISTEMOLOGICAL BELIEFS AND VALUING EDUCATION

indicates that learning is loose, inexact, and even

ambiguous process (p. 165). The present study
used the two-factor structure of epistemological
beliefs by Bernardo (2008, 2009) because it is
appropriate for the sample used in the study which
is composed of Filipino pre-service teachers.
Teacher Education in the Philippines
In the Philippine setting, the teacher education
curriculum is a degree course taken in higher
education for four years (for schools structured in
two semester per year). The curriculum of teacher
education in the Philippines was reformed in 2004
to improve the quality of the teaching of the future
generation of teachers in the Philippines. The new
education curriculum emphasizes teachers having
more functional skills related to teaching and
learning (Bernardo, 2007a). The enhanced
curriculum allows the pre-service teachers to
improve several competencies required for higher
learning. The professional education courses were
designed to integrate theory, method, and
experience in the curriculum (see Bernardo,
2007b).
The Present Study
The present study used both epistemological
beliefs (complexity and structure of learning) and
Asian values (higher expectation for achievement,
respect for education, perseverance and hard
work, respect for authority, hierarchical family
structure, filial piety, emotional restraint, and
collectivism) together to predict value for education
among Filipino pre-service teachers, grounded in
the human values theory of Schwartz and Bilsky
(1987; 1990).
In the present study, values and beliefs are
arranged according to their relative contribution to
valuing education using a hierarchical regression.
Entering Asian values and epistemological beliefs
in order is justifiable because by nature, values are
arranged according to hierarchy (Schwartz &
Bardi, 2001). The theory of human values by
Schwartz and Bilsky (1987; 1990) emphasize that

MAGNO, C.

65

values are arranged according to relat ive

importance. These value priorities reflect
differences in genet ic herit age, perso nal
experiences, social locations, and enculturation.
Different groups of people vary substantially on
the importance they give to their attribution of
values. It is appropriate to use values and beliefs
in an ordered sequence because it provides
information on certain value priorities among
Filipino pre-service teachers. The order of value
system proposed by Schwartz and Bardi (2001)
indicate commonalities among college students in
54 nations. Their study found that college Filipino
students have an alternative way of ordering values
as opposed to the African, American, and
European samples. The hierarchy of values by
Schwartz and Bardi (2001) matched the Asian
values by Kim, Atkinson, and Yang (1999) as
shown in Table 1.
The present study looked into the consistency
between the order of Asian values with the more
general class of values ordered by Schwartz and
Bardi (2001) in their theory. The order of Asian
values is studied using a hierarchical regression is
further justified in the following according to
Schwartz and Bardi (2001): (1) The Asian values
hierarchy is an explanation of why particular values
are more or less socially desirable for Filipinos;
(2) If order of values and beliefs are identified, it
promo t es and preserves co o perat ive and
supportive relations among members of the group;
And (3) individuals can easily adapt to ones group
if they know what is valued by their group.

METHOD
Participants
The participants in the study were 362 Filipino
college students taking up different courses in a
t eacher edu cat io n p ro gr am ( educat io nal
psychology, secondary/elementary education,
special education, early childhood education,
science education). All the participants started their
education courses in college with the revised

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Table 1
Value Hierarchies of Pan-Cultural Teacher Norms with Corresponding Asian Values
Value

Rank
1

Benevolence

Self-direction

Universalism

Security

Conformity

Achievement

Hedonism

Tradition

9
10

Stimulation
Power

Description

Asian Values

Preservation and enhancement of the

welfare of people with whom one is in
frequent personal contact
Independent thought and action choosing,
creating, exploring
Understanding, appreciation, tolerance
and protection for the welfare of all people
Safety, harmony, stability of society, of
relationship, and of self
Restraint of action, inclinations, and
impulses likely to upset or harm others and
violate social expectations or norms
Personal success through demonstration of
competence according to social standards

Filial pietyHierarchical family

structure

Pleasure and sensuous gratification for

oneself
Respect, commitment, and acceptance of
the customs and ideas that traditional
culture or religion provides the self
Excitement, novelty, and challenge in life
Social status and prestige, control or
dominance over people and resources

Collectivism
Emotional restraint

Perseverance and hard work

Higher expectation for
achievement

Respect for authorityRespect

for education

Note. no corresponding Asian value

teacher education curriculum. The participants

came from five colleges and universities in the
National Capital Region in the Philippines. The ages
of the participants range from 17 to 18 years old.
Age was limited to 17-18 because epistemological
beliefs are said to change within specific age groups
(Schommer, 1998).
Instruments
Schommer Epistemological Questionnaire
(SEQ). The SEQ was used in the study to measure
the participants epistemological beliefs on learning.
The 17 items in a two-factor structure were used
in the present study because they are appropriate

for Filipino pre-service teachers (Bernardo, 2008).

The factor on complexity of learning is composed
of 10 items and structure of learning with 7 items.
The items were answered by participants in a fivepoint Likert scale (1- strongly disagree, 2-disagree,
3Neutral, 4-Agree, 5-Strongly Agree). High
scores on complexity of learning indicate a complex
belief of learning while low scores indicate a belief
of learning as a simple process. For structure of
learning, high scores indicate that learning is
structured while low scores indicate that learning
is loose and flexible (Bernardo, 2009). The
relationship between complexity and structure of
learning reflects the features of the Philippine
educational system (Bernardo, 2008). This two-

EPISTEMOLOGICAL BELIEFS AND VALUING EDUCATION

factor structure was derived using Confirmatory

Factor Analysis (CFA) which was tested against a
five-factor, four-factor, three-factor, and onefactor measurement model of epistemological
beliefs. The two-factor model turned out to be the
best fitting model for both Filipino and English
versio ns ( 2 /df =1.63, RNI=.91, TLI=.91,
RMSEA=.04). Complexity and structure of
learning that is structured as a common factor
model (two latent variables that are correlated)
was replicated in the present study and adequate
fit was also obtained (see Appendix A). All items
as manifest variables for each latent factor obtained
significant paths. The goodness of fit measures
were adequat e as indicated by 2 /df=.73,
RMSEA=.06, PGI=.95, Joreskog GFI=.92,
AIC=.92. Using the data in the present study, the
relationship of both complexity and structure of
learning had a positive direction which is significant
(.67). Moreover, internal consistencies of the items
indicated by Cronbachs alpha was .73 for
complexity of learning and .70 for structure of
learning.
Asian Values Scale (AVS). The 25-item version
of the Asian Values Scale was used in the study
(Kim & Hong, 2004). The items depict Asian
values in the areas of deference to authority figures,
hierarchical family structure, filial piety, emotional
restraint, conformity to norms, collectivism, and
humility. The first version of the scale by Kim,
Atkinson, and Yang (1999) extracted six factors
with 36 items having high factor loadings (above
.40). Subsequent studies still proved the six factors
underlying a second order CFA. Because it
underlies a single latent construct in its first order
CFA, a unidimensional scale, was assessed using
a one-parameter Rasch model which resulted in
25 items that have good fit. These 25 items were
used in the present study because they remained
to fit the one-parameter Rasch model in subsequent
studies (Hong, Kim, & Wolfe, 2005). In the
present study, the Asian values needed to be
reconfigured because they aimed to determine
specific Asian values that would predict value for
education. A Principal Components Analysis with
varimax rotation was conducted to determine the

MAGNO, C.

67

underlying specific factors of Asian values (see

Appendix B). There were eight factors extracted
with eigenvalues of greater than 1.0. These factors
were labeled based on the original factors of Kim,
Atkinson, and Yang (1999): Emotional restraint (6
items), collectivism (5 items), filial piety (5 items),
higher expectation for achievement (4 items),
respect for authority (2 items), respect for
education (1 item), perseverance and hard work
(1 item), hierarchical family structure (1 item) with
explained variance of 16.02%, 9.91%, 6.77%,
5.82%, 5.52%, 4.87%, 4.33%, and 4.10%
respectively. The last three factors containing single
items were retained because their removal will
tremendously affect the internal consistency and
item fit (one parameter IRT) of the entire scale.
Having single items as a measure of subscale is
supported by the multidimensional item response
theory which posits that a single item can be
representative of a strong indicator of the domains
measured or even a variety of abilities (Antal,
2007, p. 292). To assess the functionality of the
25 items, the procedure of Kim and Hong (2004)
was replicated using a one-parameter Rasch
Model. The response format of the current scale
is a four-point Lickert scale (1-strongly disagree,
2-disagree, 3-agree, 4-strongly agree). Having a
four point Lickert type is considered as a
continuous scale because the length of the scale
still represents the degree and amount of Asian
values measured (Alreck & Sett le, 2004;
Netemeyer, Bearden, & Sharma, 2003). For the
analysis of the items, the response format for each
item was recoded into a dichotomy (0=strongly
disagree/disagree, 1=agree/strongly agree) to
make the items monotonic to produce logit values
as a requirement in the procedure for the Rasch
model analysis. This procedure is necessary
because in analysis of dichotomous items, item
difficulty and person ability are defined such that
when they are equal, there is a 50% chance of a
correct response (Kim, Atkinson, & Yang, 1999,
p. 198; Wright & Mast er s, 1 982) . T he
dichotomous scale was only entered for the Rasch
model analysis but the four-point Likert scale was
used in the multiple regression analysis. All the 25

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items turned out to have a good fit based on the

MNSQ values (within .8 to 1.2) and Z standard
scores (values below 2.00 are acceptable).
Using the IRT approach, two sets of reliability
were obtained: Person reliability was .72 and
item reliability was .94. These reliability values
indicate that person characteristics remained to
be consistent for all 362 participants and the
responses for the 25 items were consistent as
well.
Identification with School Questionnaire
(ISQ). The ISQ was originally composed of 16
items and the subscale on valuing of education is a
7-item subscale for the factor belongingness in
school (Voelkl, 1997). The response format for
each item is a Likert scale that ranged from (1)
strongly disagree to (4) strongly agree. The
participants were instructed to respond to the items
as learners. Previous studies used CFA for the 16
items and resulted in two factors (belongingness in
school and valuing of school) with adequate fit.
Correlation of the two underlying factors is high
(.8 5). Vo elkl ( 1997 ) reco mmended t hat
researchers could choose one dimension or two
based on their theoretical design. This prior
Confirmatory Factor Analysis showed that the
whole scale can be represented by a single factor.
The reported coefficient-alpha reliability for the
scale is . 84. To examine t he funct io nal
characteristics of the items as a single dimension,
the one-parameter Rasch model was used in the
present study (see Appendix C). In the same way
as with the AVS, the response format for the 7
items was recoded in a dichotomous format. All
items result to have good fit with MNSQ values
within .80 to 1.2, and Z values below 2.00. Item
reliability was .97 but person reliability is .32
indicating a wide variation of responses per
person.

right and wrong answers, to answer as honestly as

possible, not to leave any items unanswered, and
to take their time in answering. After completing
the items, the participants were debriefed about
the purpose of the study.
The total scores of the SEQ, AVS, and measure
for valuing education were transformed into
standard z scores to equalize differences in their
scale lengt h (Do wnie & Heat h, 1984). A
standard multiple regression was conducted
where the factors of epistemological beliefs and
Asian values were used to predict value for
education. In another analysis, a hierarchical
multiple regression was used because the order
of the values were already determined based
on the hierarchy of values by Schwartz and Bardi
(2001).

Procedure
There were three sets of questionnaires
provided for those participants who were willing
to participate in the study. During administration,
the participants were reminded that there were no

RESULTS
In t he first analysis, each fact o r o f
epistemological beliefs and Asian values was used
to predict valuing education using a standard
multiple regression analysis. In another analysis,
hierarchical multiple regression was used where
filial piety and hierarchical family structure was
entered as the first set of predictors. This was
followed by collectivism, emotional restraint,
perseverance and hard work, higher expectation
for achievement, and respect for authority and
education the last.
The standard multiple regression analysis
showed that in predicting valuing education, both
complexity (=.25) and structure (=.10)
epistemological beliefs were significant. For Asian
values, higher expectation for achievement
(=.23), filial piety (=.16), and emotional restraint
(=.15) were significant. Complexity and higher
expectation for achievement largely contributes to
valuing education. The predictors taken together
to predict valuing education was significant with
sufficient explained variance (R=.66, R 2 =.43).
Epistemological beliefs and Asian values as
predictors explain valuing education well (Adjusted
R 2=.42).

EPISTEMOLOGICAL BELIEFS AND VALUING EDUCATION

MAGNO, C.

69

Table 2
Standard Multiple Regression Predicting Value for Education
B
Complexity
Structure
Higher Expectation for Achievement
Respect for Education
Perseverance and Hard work
Respect for Authority
Hierarchical Family Structure
Filial Piety
Emotional Restraint
Collectivism

0.25***
0.10*
0.23***
0.08
0.09
0.03
0.07
0.16**
0.15**
0.01

5.26
2.07
4.87
1.80
1.85
0.66
1.51
3.21
2.80
0.17

0.00
0.04
0.00
0.07
0.07
0.51
0.13
0.00
0.01
0.87

*p<.05, **p<.01, ***p<.001

The Asian values were entered in order based

on the hierarchy of values by Schwartz and Bardi
(2001) using hierarchical multiple regression in
predicting Asian values. The hierarchical regression
showed that there was a significant increase in the
explained variance for valuing education when
emotional restraint was added with hierarchical
family structure, filial piety, and collectivism (R=.54,
R 2 =.30, Adjusted R 2 =0.28). There was also a
significant increase in the explained variance for
valuing education when perseverance and hard
work, and higher expectation for achievement were
added as a predictors (R=.60, R 2 =.36, Adjusted
R 2 =.35). However, there was no change in the
variance explaining value for education when
respect for authority and respect for education
were added as predictors. Hierarchical family
structure had a significant contribution to valuing
education when the effect of emotional restraint,
perseverance and hard work, higher expectation
for achievement, respect for authority, and respect
for education were controlled. The final order (step
5) of the Asian values in predicting valuing
education had an adequate explained variance
(Adjusted R2 =.35).

DISCUSSION
It was found in the study that complexity and
structure of learning, higher expectation for
achievement, filial piety, and emotional restraint
taken together best explains valuing education.
Both epistemological beliefs, complexity and
structure of learning turned out to significantly
increase valuing education in the standard
regression analysis. It was also found that the
ordered factors of Asian values explain valuing
education well. The present study expands the
literature by further examining the ordered effects
o f Asian values and pu t t ing t o get her
epistemological beliefs and Asian values to explain
valuing education.
Complexity and structured beliefs about learning
significantly predicted valuing education in the
analysis. This result supports previous studies
showing the relationship between epistemological
beliefs and value for education (Knobloch, 2008;
Kuhn & Park, 2005; Peeters, 2007; Staley, 2007).
Complexity of learning in predicting value for
education means that students see education as
valuable when they believe that learning can be

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VOL. 19 NO. 1

Table 3
Hierarchical Regression Predicting Value for Education
Order

Hierarchical Family
Structure
Filial Piety
Hierarchical Family
Structure
Filial Piety
Collectivism
Hierarchical Family
Structure
Filial Piety
Collectivism
Emotional Restraint
Hierarchical Family
Structure
Filial Piety
Collectivism
Emotional Restraint
Perseverance and Hard
work
Higher Expectation for
Achievement
Hierarchical Family
Structure
Filial Piety
Collectivism
Emotional Restraint
Perseverance and Hard
work
Higher Expectation for
Achievement
Respect for Authority
Respect for Education

Beta

SE

R2

Adjusted
R2

0.12**
0.47***

2.63
10.04

0.01
0.00

.48***

.23

0.23

0.11*
0.41***
0.15***

2.36
8.04
2.90

0.02
0.00
0.00

.50***

.25

0.24

0.08
0.30***
0.07
0.27***

1.72
5.73
1.32
5

0.09
0.00
0.19
0.00

.54***

.30

0.28

0.01
0.23***
0.05
0.22***

0.21
4.39
1.10
4.10

0.83
0.00
0.27
0.00

.60***

.36

0.35

0.09

1.88

0.06

0.24***

4.95

0.00

-0.001
0.23***
0.05
0.20***

-0.02
4.43
0.90
3.74

0.99
0.00
0.37
0.00

.60***

.36

0.35

0.09

1.73

0.08

0.23***
0.001
0.06

4.67
0.02
1.33

0.00
0.99
0.19

*p<.05, **p<.01, ***p<.001

critiqued, further improved, and elaborated. The

pre-service teachers, as the sample of the study,
know that education emphasizes a thorough
understanding about the concept of learning. Their
thorough understanding of the nature of learning
includes their belief about the complexity of the

learning process. Being open to change and their

willingness to improve their learning is also
indicative that they value their education. They are
open to be evaluated in order to improve. This
belief is possible because education is valuable for
them. This is typical when a pre-service teacher

EPISTEMOLOGICAL BELIEFS AND VALUING EDUCATION

demonstrates teaching with a group of students and

is later evaluated by the teaching supervisor. The
pre-service teacher manifests an open attitude
towards the evaluation process because of his
willingness to improve his performance. Part of
having a complex belief in learning is the value for
a course in study skills. This means that students
are open to acquiring further study skills for
improvement. This aspect has a similarity with
valuing education which is typical among Asians.
The intention to acquire further study skills is a
manifestation of the value given for education in
general. The same is true for the aspect of
complexity on learning how to learn. The belief
on learning how to learn shows the value for
learning as a key element to master specific tasks.
This means that students should continue to look
for ways to acquire information because this adds
to ones repertoire of skills. Students continue to
acquire skills because of the value they place on
education. The aspects of complexity of learning
such as openness to evaluation, value for study
skills, and continued acquisition of ways to learn
are manifested as pre-service teachers value their
education. This relationship is explained through
the pre-service teachers formation in their
education curriculum. The formation of teachers
undertaking the reformed teacher education
program in the Philippines developed a complex
way of viewing the learning process. This complex
view of learning is developed in understanding the
integration of theory, method, and experience (see
Bernardo, 2007b).
On the other hand, structure of learning also
significantly predicted value for education. Preservice teachers value their education more when
they think about the importance of organization,
precision, and certainty of the learning process.
This shows that the tendency to view learning as
structured makes learners (pre-service teachers)
fo cus o n st ruct uring t heir learning and
consequences of their learning such as value for
education. Belief about the structure learning is
manifested through knowing the best methods,
careful work, specificity of facts, eliminating
distractions, meticulous organization, and having

MAGNO, C.

71

definite answers. A positive affect about the

importance of education is expected if the process
of learning facilitates organization. Students who
are directed to the right track, precise answers,
best methods, and specific facts become more
appreciative of their learning and consequently
value their education. Pre-service teachers who
benefit from the consequences of structured beliefs
are able to see the value of education more.
Previous studies showing the relationship
between epistemological beliefs and value for
education are limited. The studies only show how
epistemological beliefs can be beneficial in some
aspects of valuing education. The contribution of
a complex and structured beliefs of learning on
value for education directs a system of learning.
This system of learning operates by showing: (1)
how advantageous the formation of complex and
structured beliefs of learning is to valuing education
in general; (2) how the transformation of
perspectives in viewing learning needs to be
complex and structured to attain the value of
improving learning; and (3) the indicators of
development among pre-service teachers through
the quality of curriculum exposed especially in the
Philippine setting.
The Asian values that were significant such as
filial piety, higher expectation for achievement,
emotional restraint indicate theoretical consistency
with valuing education (Hess, Chang, & McDevitt,
1987; Kodama, McEwen, Liang, & Lee, 2001;
Shea & Yeh, 2008; Sue & Okazaki, 1990). These
Asian values account for the influence of both the
family socialization which is inclusive in filial piety
and personal development that encompasses higher
expectation for achievement, and emotional
restraint. This result describes Asian cultural values
promoting high regard for education through family
socialization and personal development.
Excellence, achievement, and mastery in the
academic setting are expected and valued by
Asians. The outcome of these high expectations in
school is valued by the students and they
consequently value their education more. Students
are commonly expected by their parents to get high
scores in tests, pass board exams, and be included

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THE ASIA-PACIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCHER

in the list of honor students. The child exerts effort

to meet these standards because it is valued in the
family. The sense of achievement the child receives
upon meeting the standards makes them view
education as valuable.
Filial piety as a significant predictor of valuing
education indicates that the family and the kind of
socialization that occurs in the family is a mechanism
for seeing education as an integral part of their life.
This is demonstrated when major decisions need
to be made about the childs education and the
whole family is concerned. The child who is a
recipient of education respects the decision of the
family especially the elders when it comes to
matters about school. For example, parents decide
what school to enroll the child in, what course in
college the child will take, the kind of company
the child keeps in school, and to some extent the
extra-curricular activities the child engages in.
Whatever the family decides for the child, the child
in turn lives with these decisions made by the
parents that are consistent with family values and
orientation. The child is expected to live by the
parents ideals because disobedience is not valued.
The way the parents see the importance of
education is also seen by the child as important.
For Filipinos, valuing of education through filial
piety reflects parents view that education is part
of a legacy that they leave to their children (Li,
2000; Salvador, Omizo, & Kim, 1997). Because
of this orientation, the child continues to value the
legacy of education provided by the parents by
exerting effort and working hard in school. The
higher expectation for achievement accounts largely
in explaining valuing education through the
excellence exerted by students in school. This
standard is expected by the family, teachers, and
peers to be maintained. Deviation from the
standards creates a bad conception about the
student.
Emotional restraint as an Asian value also
explains valuing education. Emotional restraint can
be a form of self-control and self-discipline that
makes individuals regulate their actions. This kind
of behavior is valuable for Asians because it
facilitates positive relationship and harmony with

VOL. 19 NO. 1

others (Youn, Yang, Choi, 2001). In the school

context, the students restrain themselves from
answering back to authority figures, show positive
reactions even when their work is critiqued, and
have a courteous attitude when speaking with
teachers. This formation of restraining ones
emotion is valued to facilitate harmony and
organization in school which a student values. This
is demonstrated when students restrain themselves
from smoking, bringing deadly weapons, cheating
during exams, and displaying intimate affection for
a partner within the school grounds. These
restraints are facilitated within the school
community because of students value for
education.
The Asian values, specifically higher expectation
for achievement, filial piety, and emotional restraint,
are relevant in the school and educational context
because of their contribution to valuing education.
Filipinos value their education because it is part of
their values orientation as Asians. Valuing education
is coherent with what is valued in the family and
what one values. This coherence puts education
as an important priority in their development. This
scenario is true among Filipino pre-service teachers
(Agbayani-Siewert, 1994; Cimmarusti, 1996;
Salazar, Schludermann, Schludermann, & Huynh,
2000; Guanzon-Lapena, Church, Carlota, &
Katigbak, 1998). They are taking a degree in
teacher education because of their high value for
education.
The findings do not only show which Asian
values and epistemological beliefs explain valuing
education but also a configuration illustrating the
order of Asian values. Specifically, the hierarchical
regression indicates that the ordered Asian values
largely accounts for the variation in valuing
education. The variation in valuing education
remained stable when respect for education and
respect for authority were included as predictors.
The order of the contribution of predictors shows
the importance of how each Asian value explains
value for education. The order found in the study
are consistent with the hierarchy of values found
by Schwartz and Bardi (2001) only for filial piety,
emotional restraint, and higher expectation for

EPISTEMOLOGICAL BELIEFS AND VALUING EDUCATION

achievement which were found to be significant.

Filial piety having the largest contribution, followed
by emotional restraint, and higher expectation for
achievement indicates that these Asian values play
important aspects in explaining how individuals
value education. These Asian values belong to the
class of benevolence, conformity, and achievement
values which are the top three in Schwartz and
Bardis theory. The values function to form
cooperative and supportive social relations. The
role of the family and parents, and expectations
from others dictate majority of school related
events. Parents regard for education is consistently
shared by the child. To maintain this value, the child
exerts effort to maintain expectations.
The present study did not only show the order
of individual Asian values. There is some form of
compatibility having both epistemological beliefs
and Asian values together to explain valuing
education given that it had a larger explaining
power (Adjusted R2 =.42) than Asian values alone
to predict valuing education (Adjusted R 2 =.35).
This compatibility opens the possibility of further
theorizing that epistemological beliefs and Asian
values function in an integrated mechanism. This
means that epistemological values are best studied
together with Asian values. This is especially true
in the formation of pre-service teachers because
their beliefs and values explain much of their value
for education.
The pr esent st udy ext ends t heo ry o n
epistemological beliefs by studying it together with
Asian values as predictors. The findings in the study
fo und higher explained var iance when
epistemological beliefs are combined with Asian
values to predict valuing education. This provides
a perspective that aside from ones cultural values,
personal epistemologies also play an important role
in explaining why pre-service teachers value their
education. It further extends theory by allowing
other school-relevant variables to be viewed as
outcome of ones epistemological beliefs (such as
valuing ones education). The findings specifically
point out that epistemological beliefs play a role in
the development of ones sense of regard for
education.

MAGNO, C.

73

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MAGNO, C.

77

Appendix A
CFA for the Factors of Epistemological Beliefs

Latent variable: Complex Learning

A course in study skills would probably be valuable.
The most successful people have discovered how to improve their ability to
learn.
If I find the time to re-read a textbook chapter, I get a lot more out of it the
second time.
Students have a lot of control over how much they can get out of a textbook.
Everyone needs to learn how to learn.
Wisdom is not knowing the answers, but knowing how to find the answers.
If a person cant understand something within a short amount of time, they
should keep on trying.
You should evaluate the accuracy of information in a textbook, if you are
familiar with the topic.
Often, even advice from experts should be questioned.
Students who are average in school will remain average for the rest of
their lives.
Latent variable: Structured Learning
A good teachers job is to keep his students from wandering from the right
track.
The most important aspect of scientific work is precise measurement and
careful work.
Educators should know by now which is the best method, lectures or small
group discussions.
When I study, I look for the specific facts.
Usually you can figure out difficult concepts if you eliminate all outside
distractions and really concentrate.
I really appreciate instructors who organize their lectures meticulously and
then stick to their plan.
The best thing about science courses is that most problems have only one
right answer.
(structure)(complex)
Note. Complex and structure are latent variables, the items indicated are manifest variables.
***p<.001, 2/df=.73, RMSEA=.06, PGI=.95, Joreskog GFI=.92, AIC=.92

Parameter
Estimate

SE

0.32***
0.57***

0.06
0.06

0.51***

0.06

0.37***
0.66***
0.56***
0.66***

0.06
0.06
0.06
0.06

0.70***

0.06

0.39***
1.00

0.07

0.42***

0.06

0.55***

0.06

0.55***

0.06

0.49***
0.44***

0.06
0.06

0.55***

0.07

0.38***

0.07

0.67***

0.05

78

THE ASIA-PACIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCHER

VOL. 19 NO. 1

Appendix B
Factor Loadings and Item Fit of the AVS
Factor Loadings

Modesty is an important quality of a person

One should have sufficient inner resources to
resolve emotional problems
One need not remain reserved and tranquil*
One should be humble and modest
One need not be able to resolve psychological
problems on ones own*
One need not control ones expression of
emotion*
One should not make waves
One should not deviate from familial or social
norms.
When one receives a gift, one should reciprocate
a gift of equal or greater value.
One should consider the needs of others before
consider ones own needs.
One should think about ones group before
himself.
Children should not place their parents in
retirement homes.
One should avoid bringing displeasure to ones
ancestors.
The worst thing that one can do is to bring
disgrace to ones family reputation
Occupational failure does not bring shame to the
family*
Familys reputation is not the primary social
concern.
One should be discouraged from talking about
ones accomplishments*
One need not achieve academically in order
to make ones parent proud*
One need not minimize or depreciate ones own
achievement*
Ones achievement should be viewed as Familys
achievements.
Younger persons should be able to confront
their elders*
One should be able to question a person in
authority*
Educational and career achievements need not
be ones top priority*
One need not focus all energies on ones studies*
One need not follow the role expectations
(gender, family hierarchy) of ones family*

F1
.58

F2

F3

F4

F5

INFIT
F6

F7

F8 MNSQ Z
.99
-.06

.68
.72
.41

1.05
1.05
1.04

.67
1.27
.64

.63

.95

-1.24

.42

1.02
.93

.64
-1.64

.46

.92

-1.60

.48

.99

-.15

.71

.89

-2.03

.52

.91

-1.55

.79

.96

-.53

.62

.99

-.16

.78

1.04

.88

.51

1.06

1.51

.49

.97

-.71

.77

1.10

2.38

.55

1.07

1.72

.71

1.14

3.60

.63

1.02

.34

.67

.97

-.76

.55

.98

-.67

.96
.89

-1.06
-1.98

1.04

.96

.57

.73
.56
.48

Note. Explained variance 16.02% (F1=Emotional Restraint), 9.91% (F2=Collectivism), 6.77% (F3=Filial Piety), 5.82%
(F4=Higher Expectation for Achievement), 5.52% (F5=Respect for Authority), 4.87% (F6=Respect for Education),
4.33% (F7=Perseverance and Hard work), 4.10% (F8=Hierarchical Family Structure). Acceptable MNSQ for item fit is
within 0.8-1.2, Acceptable Z fit is below 2.00 (Pomeranz, Byers, Moorhouse, Velozo, & Spitznagel, 2008).
* Reversed scoring