Volume 5 - Irrigation and Agricultural Drainage PDF

GOVERNMENT OF MALAYSIA
DEPARTMENT OF IRRIGATION
AND DRAINAGE
Volume 5 Irrigation and

Agricultural Drainage
Jabatan Pengairan dan Saliran Malaysia

Jalan Sultan Salahuddin
50626 KUALA LUMPUR
Volume 5 - IRRIGATION AND AGRICULTURAL DRAINAGE
Disclaimer
Every effort and care has been taken in selecting methods and recommendations that are
appropriate to Malaysian conditions. Notwithstanding these efforts, no warranty or guarantee,
express, implied or statutory is made as to the accuracy, reliability, suitability or results of the
methods or recommendations.
The use of this Manual requires professional interpretation and judgment. Appropriate design
procedures and assessment must be applied, to suit the particular circumstances under consideration.
The government shall have no liability or responsibility to the user or any other person or entity with
respect to any liability, loss or damage caused or alleged to be caused, directly or indirectly, by the
adoption and use of the methods and recommendations of this Manual, including but not limited to,
any interruption of service, loss of business or anticipatory profits, or consequential damages
resulting from the use of this Manual.
March 2009
Foreword
The first edition of the Manual was published in 1960 and was actually based on the experiences and
knowledge of DID engineers in planning, design, construction, operations and maintenance of large
volume water management systems for irrigation, drainage, floods and river conservancy. The
manual became invaluable references for both practicing as well as officers newly posted to an
unfamiliar engineering environment.
Over these years the role and experience of the DID has expanded beyond an agriculture-based
environment to cover urbanisation needs but the principle role of being the countrys leading expert
in large volume water management remains. The challenges are also wider covering issues of
environment and its sustainability. Recognising this, the Department decided that it is timely for the
DID Manual be reviewed and updated. Continuing the spirit of our predecessors, this Manual is not
only about the fundamentals of related engineering knowledge but also based on the concept of
sharing experience and knowledge of practicing engineers. This new version now includes the latest
standards and practices, technologies, best engineering practices that are applicable and useful for
the country.
This Manual consists of eleven separate volumes covering Flood Management; River Management;
Coastal Management; Hydrology and Water Resources; Irrigation and Agricultural Drainage;
Geotechnical, Site Investigation and Engineering Survey; Engineering Modelling; Mechanical and
Electrical Services; Dam Safety, Inspections and Monitoring; Contract Administration; and
Construction Management. Within each Volume is a wide range of related topics including topics on
future concerns that should put on record our care for the future generations.
This DID Manual is developed through contributions from nearly 200 professionals from the
Government as well as private sectors who are very experienced and experts in their respective
fields. It has not been an easy exercise and the success in publishing this is the results of hard work
and tenacity of all those involved. The Manual has been written to serve as a source of information
and to provide guidance and reference pertaining to the latest information, knowledge and best
practices for DID engineers and personnel. The Manual would enable new DID engineers and
personnel to have a jump-start in carrying out their duties. This is one of the many initiatives
undertaken by DID to improve its delivery system and to achieve the mission of the Department in
providing an efficient and effective service. This Manual will also be useful reference for non-DID
Engineers, other non-engineering professionals, Contractors, Consultants, the Academia, Developers
and students involved and interested in water-related development and management. Just as it was
before, this DID Manual is, in a way, a record of the history of engineering knowledge and
development in the water and water resources engineering applications in Malaysia.
There are just too many to name and congratulate individually, all those involved in preparing this
Manual. Most of them are my fellow professionals and well-respected within the profession. I wish
to record my sincere thanks and appreciation to all of them and I am confident that their
contributions will be truly appreciated by the readers for many years to come.
Dato Ir. Hj. Ahmad Hussaini bin Sulaiman,

Director General,
Department of Irrigation and Drainage Malaysia
ii
March 2009
Acknowledgements
Steering Committee:
Dato Ir. Hj. Ahmad Husaini bin Sulaiman, Dato Nordin bin Hamdan, Dato Ir. K. J. Abraham, Dato
Ong Siew Heng, Dato Ir. Lim Chow Hock, Ir. Lee Loke Chong, Tuan Hj. Abu Bakar bin Mohd Yusof,
Ir. Zainor Rahim bin Ibrahim, En. Leong Tak Meng, En. Ziauddin bin Abdul Latiff, Pn. Hjh. Wardiah
bte Abd. Muttalib, En. Wahid Anuar bin Ahmad, Tn. Hj. Zulkefli bin Hassan, Ir. Dr. Hj. Mohd. Nor bin
Hj. Mohd. Desa, En. Low Koon Seng, En. Wan Marhafidz Shah bin Wan Mohd. Omar, Sr. Md Fauzi
bin Md Rejab, En. Khairuddin bin Mat Yunus, Cik Khairiah bt Ahmad.
Coordination Committee:
Dato Nordin bin Hamdan, Dato Ir. Hj. Ahmad Fuad bin Embi, Dato Ong Siew Heng, Ir. Lee Loke
Chong, Tn. Hj. Abu Bakar bin Mohd Yusof, Ir. Zainor Rahim bin Ibrahim, Ir. Cho Weng Keong, En.
Leong Tak Meng, Dr. Mohamed Roseli Zainal Abidin, En. Zainal Akamar bin Harun, Pn. Norazia
Ibrahim, Ir. Mohd. Zaki, En. Sazali Osman, Pn. Rosnelawati Hj. Ismail, En. Ng Kim Hoy, Ir. Lim See
Tian, Sr. Mohd. Fauzi bin Rejab, Ir. Hj. Daud Mohd Lep, Tn. Hj. Muhamad Khosim Ikhsan, En. Roslan
Ahmad, En. Tan Teow Soon, Tn. Hj. Ahmad Darus, En. Adnan Othman, Ir. Hapida Ghazali, En.
Sukemi Hj. Sidek, Pn. Hjh. Fadzilah Abdul Samad, Pn. Hjh. Salmah Mohd. Som, Ir. Sahak Che
Abdullah, Pn. Sofiah Mat, En. Mohd. Shafawi Alwi, En. Ooi Soon Lee, En. Muhammad Khairudin Khalil,
Tn. Hj. Azmi Md Jafri, Ir. Nor Hisham Ghazali, En. Gunasegaran M., En. Rajaselvam G., Cik Nur
Hareza Redzuan, Ir. Chia Chong Wing, Pn. Norlida Mohd. Dom, Ir. Lee Bea Leang, Dr. Hj. Md. Nasir
Md. Noh, Pn. Paridah Anum Tahir, Pn. Nurazlina Mohd Zaid, PWM Associates Sdn. Bhd., Institut
Penyelidikan Hidraulik Kebangsaan Malaysia (NAHRIM), RPM Engineers Sdn. Bhd., J.U.B.M. Sdn. Bhd.
Working Group:
Dato Ir. Mohd. Azhari Ghazalli, Tn. Hj. Abdul Halim Abdul Jalil, Ir. Loh Kim Mon, Dr. Mohammud
Husain, Ir. Hj. Daud b. Mohd Lep, Tn. Hj. Mohd Yazid b. Abdullah, Ir. Hj. Zainol Abidin b. Mahmud,
Tn. Hj. Jamil b. Shaari, Tn. Hj. Raja Roslan b. Raja Baharom Shah, Pn. Azizah bt. Mohamad, Tn. Hj.
Raja Abdul Aziz Bin Raja Ismail, Pn. Marenawati bt. Abd Malek, Tn. Hj. Hussien b. Harun, En.
Kamaruddin b. Saleh, Ir. Hj. Mohd Radzuan b. Mohamad, En. Tee Sing Tiat, En. Tan Woon Yang, Tn.
Hj. Ismail b. Ahmad, En. Mohamad Razali b. Jusoh, En. Tang Soo Yugh, Mazolizam b. Mohamad, En.
Terrence Eddy Wong, En. Salahuddin b. Ali, En. YoulHydell b. Abdul Rahman, Ir. Mohamad Suaimi b.
Ramli, Abdul Aziz b. Mohd Yusof, En. Lee Liang Wang, En. Thian Kim Tai, Kalaisaravelem, Ir. Wan
Mokhtar Nawang, Prof. Dr. Mohd Amin Mohd Soom, Dr. Abdullah Al Mamun, Dr. Md. Rowshon Kamal,
En. Mohamad Amir Mat, Cik Ernie Munyati Ulwi, Pn. Suriani Mamat.
March 2009
iii
Registration of Amendments
Amend
No
iv
Page
No
Date of Amendment
Amend
No
Page
No
Date of Amendment
March 2009
Table of Contents
Disclaimer..
Foreword.
ii
Acknowledgements
iii
Registration of Amendments ..
iv
Table of Contents..
List of Volumes ..
vi
Glossary..
vii
How to Use the Manual.............
xliv
List of Symbols
xlix
List of Abbreviations.
lx
SI and English Units and Conversion Factor
lxv
Part A
Part B
Part C
Part D
Part E
March 2009
Introduction and Administration

Chapter 1
Malaysian Perspective
Chapter 2
Administration
Chapter 3
System and Technology
Planning
Chapter 4
Planning Process
Chapter 5
Water Demand Estimation
Chapter 6
Hydraulic Fundamentals
Chapter 7
Computer Applications
Irrigation Design
Chapter 8
Water Intake Facilities
Chapter 9
Irrigation Conveyance
Chapter 10
Surface Irrigation
Chapter 11
Microirrigation
Chapter 12
Sprinkler Irrigation
Drainage Design
Chapter 13
Surface Drainage
Chapter 14
Subsurface Drainage
Chapter 15
Drainage Water Control and Treatment
Farm Infrastructure
Chapter 16
Hydraulic Structures
Chapter 17
Roads and Bridges
List of Volumes
Volume 1
FLOOD MANAGEMENT
Volume 2
RIVER MANAGEMENT
Volume 3
COASTAL MANAGEMENT
Volume 4
HYDROLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES
Volume 5
IRRIGATION AND AGRICULTURAL DRAINAGE
Volume 6
GEOTECHNICAL MANUAL, SITE INVESTIGATION AND ENGINEERING SURVEY
Volume 7
ENGINEERING MODELLING
Volume 8
MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL SERVICES
Volume 9
DAM SAFETY, INSPECTIONS AND MONITORING
Volume 10
CONTRACT ADMINISTRATION
Volume 11
CONSTRUCTION MANAGEMENT
vi
March 2009
Glossary
Term
Description
AADT
Average annual daily traffic (AADT) is the total volume of vehicle traffic in
both directions of a highway or road for a year divided by 365 days. AADT
is a useful and simple measurement of design standard and road
category. AADT is also used in pavement design and also useful in road
network management tool.
Absorption
A process by which substances in gaseous, or solid form dissolve or mix

with other substances.
Acid Soil
Soil that is free of lime with a pH of more than 7.
Adsorption
Adherence of gas molecules, ions or molecules to solid surfaces.
Advance time
Time required for a given surface irrigation stream of water to move from
the upper end of a field to the lower end. Time required for a given
surface irrigation stream to move from one point in the field to another.
Aeration
A process where a substance becomes permeated with air or another gas.

The term is usually applied to aqueous liquids being brought into close
contact with air by spraying, bubbling or agitating.
Aesthetic
The aspects of water that are perceivable by the senses (such as vision,
smell, etc.).
Algae
Comparatively simple chlorophyll-bearing plants, most of which are

aquatic and microscopic in size.
Algicide
Any substance that will kill or control algae growth.
Alkaline soil
Soils with a pH of below 7 (opposite of acid soils).
Alkalinity
The quantitative capacity of aqueous media to react with hydroxyl ions.

It can also be referred to the equivalent sum of the bases that are
titratable with strong acid. Alkalinity can also be defined as the capacity
factor, which represents the acid-neutralising capacity of an aqueous
system.
Allowable depletion
That part of soil moisture stored in the plant root zone managed for use
by plants, usually expressed as equivalent depth of water in acre inches
per acre, or inches.
Allowable velocity
Flow velocity of water in an open channel, just below the velocity that
would cause
Alluvial plain
A plain bordering a river, formed by the deposition of alluvium eroded

from areas of higher
Alternate set
irrigation
A method of managing irrigation whereby, at every other irrigation,

alternate furrows are irrigated or sprinklers are placed midway between
their locations during the previous irrigation.
Ambient
The natural conditions that would be expected to occur in waters not

influenced by man. For stream sampling purposes, those periods of
streamflow are not influenced by recent storm events.
March 2009
vii
Glossary
Term
Description
Annual exceedance
probability (AEP)
Refers to the probability or risk of a natural event with a given size

occurring or being exceeded in any given year. A 90% AEP event
represents a high probability of flood occurring or being exceeded;
meaning it would occur quite often and would be relatively small. On the
other hand, a 1% AEP event has a low probability of occurrence or being
exceeded; therefore it would be fairly rare but it would be relatively large.
Antecedent moisture
condition (AMC)
A qualitative indication of the moisture content of surficial soils at the

beginning of a storm event.
Anthropocentric
Human derived or man-made.
Anti-seep collar
A device installed around a culvert, pipe or conduit through an

embankment, which lengthens the path of seepage along the exterior of
the conduit.
Application efficiency
(Ea)
The ratio of the average depth of irrigation water infiltrated and stored in
the root zone to the average depth of irrigation water applied, expressed
as a percentage. Also referred to as AE.
low
The ratio of the average of the lowest one-fourth of measurements of

quarter (Eq) irrigation water infiltrated to the average depth of irrigation
water applied, expressed as a percentage. Also called AELQ. Used as an
indication for uniformity of application.
low half
The ratio of the average of the low one-half of measurements of irrigation

(Eh) water infiltrated and stored in the root zone to the average depth of
irrigation water applied, expressed as a percentage. Also called AELH.
Used as an indication for uniformity of application.
Application rate
Usually expressed in inches per hour.
Application rate,
sprinkler
The rate at which water is applied to a given area by a sprinkler system.
Application time, set

time
The amount of time that water is applied to an irrigation set.
Aquatics
Plants that grow either partly or completely submerged in water.
Aquifer
A water-bearing formation that provides a groundwater reservoir. It can

be made up of a single, part of or group of formation/s, which contain/s
sufficient permeable material capable of yielding significant quantities of
water to wells and springs.
Arid climate
Climate characterized by low rainfall and high evaporation potential. A

region is usually considered as arid when precipitation averages less than
10 inches (250 mm) per year.
Available soil water
The difference between actual water content of a soil and the water held
by that soil at the permanent wilting point.
Available water
capacity (AWC)
The portion of water in a soil that can be readily absorbed by plant roots
of most crops, expressed in inches per inch, inches per foot, or total
inches for a specific soil depth. It is the amount of water stored in the soil
between field capacity (FC) and permanent wilting point (WP). It is
typically adjusted for salinity (electrical conductivity) and rock fragment
content. Also called available water holding capacity (AWHC).
viii
March 2009
Glossary
Term
Description
Average annual
precipitation
The long-term or historic (generally 30 years or more) arithmetic mean of

precipitation (rain, snow, dew) received by an area.
Average daily peak

use rate
Calculated or measured water used by plants in 1 day through

evapotranspiration, expressed as inches per day.
Average recurrence
interval (ARI)
The average elapsed time in years between floods of a given size

occurring. For example a 1 year flood occurs on average once every year,
therefore the ARI value would be relatively small. Contrast to that, a 100
year ARI flood (i.e. occurs on average once every one hundred years and
fairly rare) would have a relatively large ARI value.
Backflow prevention
device
Safety device that prevents the flow of water from the water distribution
system back to the water source.
Barrel
A closed conduit used to convey water under or through an embankment,

which is a part of the principal spillway.
Baseflow
The portion of a stream flow that is not due to storm runoff, and is
supported by groundwater seepage into a channel.
Basic intake rate
Rate at which water percolates into soil after infiltration has decreased to
a nearly constant value.
Basin irrigation
Surface irrigation by flooding areas of level land surrounded by dikes.

Generally used interchangeably with level border irrigation. In some areas
level borders have tailwater runoff. If used in high rainfall areas, storm
runoff facilities are necessary.
Berm
A shelf that breaks the continuity of a slope; a linear embankment or dike.
Best management
practice (BMP)
A structure or practice designed in runoff management to prevent the

discharge of one or more pollutants to the land surface thus minimising
the chance of wash-off by runoff. It can also be referred to a structure or
practice to temporarily store or treat runoff to reduce flooding, remove
pollutants, and provide other amenities (such as recreational, fishing
spots, etc.).
Bioavailable
A fraction of the chemicals in the surrounding environment that can be

taken up by organisms. The environment may include water, sediments,
suspended particles and food items.
Biochemical oxygen
demand (BOD)
The quantity of oxygen consumed during the biochemical oxidation of

matter over a specified period of time (See also COD). It is measured in
the dark as the decrease in the oxygen content (in terms of mm/L) of a
water sample with a certain temperature over a certain period of time.
The decrease in oxygen content is brought about by the bacterial
breakdown of organic matter. The decomposition usually proceeds as far
as after 20 days until no further change occurs. The oxygen demand is
measured after 5 days (and is termed BOD5), where 70% of the final
value is expected to be reached.
Bioengineering
Restoration and stabilisation techniques that use plants, often from native
species, to mimic the natural functions and benefits.
Biofiltration
The use of a series of vegetated swales to provide filtering treatment for

runoff as it is conveyed through a channel. These swales can either be
grassed, contain emergent wetlands or high marsh plants.
March 2009
ix
Glossary
Term
Description
Biofiltration swale
A sloped, vegetated channel or ditch that provides both conveyance and

water quality treatment to runoff runoff. It does not provide runoff
quantity control but may convey runoff to BMPs, which are designed for
that purpose.
Bioretention
A water quality practice that utilises landscaping and soils to treat runoff
runoff by collecting it in shallow depressions before filtering through a
fabricated planting-soil media.
Blaney-Criddle
Method
A method to calculate grass reference crop evapotranspiration (ETc)

based on long-term air temperature data, estimates for humidity, wind
movement and sunshine duration, and a correction to ETc downward for
elevations above 1,000 meters above sea level.
Bloom
An unusually large number of organisms in a unit of water, usually made

up of one or more algae species.
Border irrigation
Surface irrigation by flooding strips of land, rectangular in shape, usually

level perpendicular to the irrigation slope, surrounded by dikes. Water is
applied at a rate sufficient to move it down the strip in a uniform sheet.
Border strips having no down field slope are referred to as level border
systems. Border systems constructed on terraced lands are commonly
referred to as benched borders.
Broad-crested weir
Any of a group of thick-crested overspill weirs used for flow

measurements in open channels. Some broad-crested weirs may have
flow transitions, roundings, or plane surface ramps on the upstream side.
Thin versions without transitions approach the behavior of sharp-crested
weirs. Thick versions with transitions approach the behavior of longthroated flumes. Broad-crested weirs typically operate with very little
head loss.
Bubbler irrigation
Micro irrigation application of water to flood the soil surface using a small
stream or fountain. The discharge rates for point-source bubbler emitters
are greater than for drip or subsurface emitters, but generally less than 1
gallon per minute (225 L/h). A small basin is usually required to contain or
control the water.
Buffer
The zone contiguous with a sensitive area that requires continual

maintenance, function, and structural stability. The critical functions of a
riparian buffer (those associated with an aquatic system) include shading,
input of organic debris and coarse sediments, uptake of nutrients,
stabilisation of banks, interception of fine sediments, overflow during high
water events, protection from disturbance by human and domestic
animals and maintenance due to hydrologic or climatic effects. The
critical functions of terrestrial buffers include protection of slope stability,
attenuation of surface water flows from storm water runoff plus
precipitation and erosion control.
Bulk density
Mass of dry soil per unit volume, determined by drying to constant weight
at 105 oC, usually expressed as gm/cc or lb/ft3. Rock fragments 2 mm or
larger are usually excluded or corrected for after measurement.
Bypass flow
Flow which eludes an inlet on grade and is carried to the next inlet
downgrade in the street or channel.
March 2009
Glossary
Term
Description
Cablegation
A semiautomatic furrow irrigation system where a gated pipe is used to

deliver water to each furrow. A continuous moving plug is attached to a
speed control device with a small cable. The moving plug allows flow out
of newly passed gates. As the plug moves downstream, the water level
drops in upstream gates thereby shutting off flows.
Capillary rise
The upward movement of water from a free watertable due to adhesion

of water to the tubular soil pores (capillaries) and the cohesion of water
molecules.
Capillary water
Water held in the capillary, or small pores of the soil, usually with soil
water pressure (tension) greater than 1/3 bar. Capillary water can move
in any direction.
Carryover soil
moisture
Moisture stored in the soil within the root zone during the winter, at times
when the crop is dormant, or before the crop is planted. This moisture is
available to help meet water needs of the next crop to be grown.
Casing
A tubular retaining structure installed in a well bore in order to maintain

the opening of the well.
Catchbasin
A chamber or well usually built at the kerb line of a street for the
admission of surface water to a sewer or subdrain. At the base of the
chamber or well, a sediment sump is designed to retain any grit and
detritus located below the point of the overflow.
Catchment
An area draining flow to a particular location or site. It may frequently

include an area of tributary streams and flow paths as well as the main
stream.
Cation exchange
capacity (CEC)
The sum of exchangeable cations (usually Ca, Mg, K, Na, Al, H) that the
soil constituent or other material can adsorb at a specific pH, usually
expressed in centimoles of charge per Kg of exchanger (cmol/Kg), or milli
equivalents per 100 grams of soil at neutrality (pH = 7.0), meq/100g.
CBR
The California Bearing Ratio (CBR) test is an empirical test first developed
in California, USA, for estimating the bearing value of sub-bases and
subgrades of roads. It is a simple strength test that compares the bearing
capacity of a material with that of a well-graded crushed stone (thus, a
high quality crushed stone material should have a CBR @ 100%).
Check dam
An earthen or gabion structure placed perpendicular across a stream to

enhance aquatic habitats. This structure when used in grass swales
reduces water velocities, promotes sediment deposition and enhances
infiltration.
Check, check
structure
Structure to control water depth in a canal, lateral, ditch, or irrigated field.
Chemical oxygen
demand (COD)
A monitoring test that measures all the oxidisable matter found in a runoff
sample in which a portion of these matters deplete dissolved oxygen in
receiving waters.
Chemigation
Application of chemicals to crops through an irrigation system by mixing

them with irrigation water.
Detritus
Unconsolidated sediments composed of inorganic (i.e. dead and decaying)

and organic material.
March 2009
xi
Glossary
Term
Description
Christiansens
uniformity
A measure of the uniformity of irrigation water application. The average

coefficient (CU) depth of irrigation water infiltrated minus the average
absolute deviation from this depth, all divided by the average depth
infiltrated. Also called coefficient of uniformity. Typically used with
sprinkle irrigation systems.
Cipolletti weir
A sharp-crested trapezoidal weir with sides inclining outwardly at a slope

of 1 horizontal to 4 vertical.
Combination Inlets
The use of both a curb opening inlet and a grade inlet.
Compensating
emitter
Micro irrigation system emitters designed to discharge water at a near

constant rate over a wide range of lateral line pressures.
Concentration
The quantifiable amount of chemicals in the surrounding water, food or

sediment.
Cone of depression
A depression in the water table or potentiometric surface of a

groundwater body that is in the shape of an inverted cone developed
around a pumped well. It also defines the area of influence of the
particular pumped well.
Confined aquifer
An aquifer bounded above and below by beds that have distinctly lower
permeability than that of the aquifer.
Conservation
The protection, improvement and use of natural resources according to

principles resulting in greater economic and social benefits.
Constructed wetland
The creation of a wetland on a site, which is designed specifically to

remove pollutants from runoff runoff.
Consumptive use
See Evapotranspiration and Crop evapotranspiration.
Contaminated site
A site where hazardous substances with concentrations above approved

levels exist and through assessment it indicates the probability of
immediate or long-term hazards to the human health or environment.
Continuous flushing
emitter
Micro irrigation system emitters designed to continuously permit passage

of large solid particles while operating at a trickle or drip flow, thus
reducing filtration requirements.
Contracted weir
A measuring weir that is shorter than the width of the channel and is
therefore said to have side or end contractions. Sometimes called a
sharpcrested weir.
Contributing
watershed area
A portion of the watershed contributing to its runoff at the point of

interest.
Control structure
Water regulating structure, usually for open channel flow conditions.
Conventional
pollutants
Contaminants other than nutrients (such as sediments, oil, and vehicle

fluids).
Conveyance
A mechanism for transporting water from one point to another (which

includes pipes, ditches and channels).
Conveyance
efficiency (Ec)
The ratio of the water delivered to the total water diverted or pumped
into an open channel or pipeline at the upstream end, expressed as a
percentage.
xii
March 2009
Glossary
Term
Description
Conveyance loss
Loss of water from a channel or pipe during transport, including losses

resulting from seepage, leakage, evaporation, and transpiration by plants
growing in or near the channel.
Conveyance system
It refers to drainage facilities of both natural and man-made that collect,

contain and provide for the flow of surface and runoff from the highest
points of the land right down to receiving waters. The natural elements
of the conveyance system include swales and small drainage courses,
streams, rivers, lakes and wetlands. The human-made elements of the
conveyance system include gutters, ditches, pipes, channels and most
retention/detention facilities.
Corrugation irrigation
A surface irrigation system where small ditches, channels, or furrows are

used to guide water downslope. Can be used in combination with graded
border systems to provide more uniform flow down the border strip.
Critical depth
The depth of flow during critical flow events.
Critical flow
The flow in an open channel that is at a minimum specific energy and has
a Froude Number equal to 1.0.
Crop coefficient (Kc)
A factor used to modify potential evapotranspiration: (1) Ratio between

crop evapotranspiration (ETc) and the reference crop (ETo) when crop is
grown in large fields under optimum growing conditions, or ETc = Kc
times ETo. (2) The ratio of the actual crop evapotranspiration to its
potential evapotranspiration
Crop
evapotranspiration
(ETc)
The amount of water used by the crop in transpiration and building of

plant tissue, and that evaporated from adjacent soil or intercepted by
plant foliage. It is expressed as depth in inches or as volume in acre
inches per acre. It can be daily, peak, design, monthly, or seasonal.
Sometimes referred to as consumptive use (CU).
Crop growth stages
Periods of like plant function during the growing season. Usually four or
more periods are identified: InitialBetween planting or when growth
begins and approximately 10 percent ground cover. Crop development
Between about 10 percent ground cover and 70 or 80 percent ground
cover. Mid seasonFrom 70 or 80 percent ground cover to beginning of
maturity. LateFrom beginning of maturity to harvest.
Crop rooting depth
Crop rooting depth is typically taken as the soil depth containing 80

percent of plant roots, measured in feet or inches.
Crop water stress

index (CWSI)
An index of moisture in a plant compared to a fully watered plant,

measured and calculated by a CWSI instrument. Relative humidity, solar
radiation, ambient air temperature, and plant canopy temperature are
measured. Improperly called an infrared thermometer (plant canopy
temperature is measured by infrared aerial photography).
Crop water use
Calculated or measured water used by plants, expressed in inches per

day. Same as ETc except it is expressed as daily use only.
Cross slope
The rate of change of roadway elevation with respect to the distance

perpendicular to the direction of travel. It is also known as transverse
slope.
Crown
The aerial expanse of a tree excluding the trunk.
March 2009
xiii
Glossary
Term
Description
Cumulative
Brought about or the increased in strength, by successive additions at

different times or in different ways.
Cumulative intake
The depth of water absorbed by soil from the time of initial water
application to the specified elapsed time.
Cutback irrigation
The reduction of the furrow or border inflow stream after water has
advanced partly or completely through the field to reduce runoff and
improve uniformity of application.
Cutback stream
Reducing surface irrigation inflow stream size (usually a half or a third)

when a specified time period has elapsed or when water has advanced a
designated distance down the furrow, corrugation, or border.
Cutthroat flume
Open-channel waterflow measuring device that is part of a group of

shortthroated flumes that control discharge by achieving critical flow with
curving streamlines through contraction. The flume is rectangular in cross
section, has two main parts resembling a Parshall Flume with the
contracted throat removed or cut out (hence its name), and has a flat
floor throughout. Calibrations depend on laboratory ratings.
Cycle time
The length of water application periods, typically used with surge

irrigation.
Darcys law
An empirical law based on experimental evidence for the flow of fluids

assuming the flow is laminar and inertia can be neglected. It states that
the velocity of the flow through a formation is directly proportional to the
hydraulic gradient.
Dead storage
A permanent pool volume located below the outlet structure of a storage

device. Dead storage provides water quality treatment but not water
quantity treatment.
Deep percolation
(DP)
Water that moves downward through the soil profile below the plant root
zone and is not available for plant use. A major source of ground water
pollution in some areas.
Deficit irrigation
An irrigation water management alternative where the soil in the plant

root zone is not refilled to field capacity in all or part of the field. Delivery
box Water control structure for diverting water from a canal to a farm unit
often including a measuring device. Also called delivery site, delivery
facility, and turnout.
Demand irrigation
delivery
Irrigation water delivery procedure where each irrigator may request

irrigation water in the amount needed and at the time desired.
Depth of irrigation
(1) Depth of water applied, measured in acre inches per acre. (2) Depth
of soil affected by an irrigation event.
Design storm
A selected rainfall event of specified amount, intensity, duration and

frequency used as the basis of design.
Detention
A temporary storage of storm runoff in a BMP, which is used to control

the peak discharge rates by controlled release rate(s).
Detention facility
A drainage facility designed to hold runoff for a short period of time and
then releasing it to the surface and subsurface runoff management
system.
Detention time
The amount of time a volume of water is detained in a BMP.
xiv
March 2009
Glossary
Term
Description
Direct runoff
The streamflow produced in response to a rainfall event and is equal to

the total stream flow minus its baseflow.
Discharge
The volume of water that passes a given location within a given period of
time (e.g. outfall; the flow of water from a well, a pump, a pipe, a
drainage basin or an aquifer in m3/s).
Discharge area
An area in which water is lost from the saturated zone.
Discharge structure
The outlet structure of a structural BMP (such as a pond) designed to

release water at a designed flow rate.
Dissolved constituent
Constituents in a water sample that will pass through a 0.45 m

membrane filter.
Distribution system
A network of open canals or pipelines to distribute irrigation water at a

specific design rate to multiple outlets on a farm or in a community.
Distribution
uniformity (DU)
The measure of the uniformity of irrigation water distribution over a field.

NRCS typically uses DU of low one-quarter. DU of low one-quarter is the
ratio of the average of the lowest one-fourth of measurements of
irrigation water infiltrated to the average depth of irrigation water
infiltrated, expressed as a decimal. Each value measured represents an
equal area.
Diurnal cycling
Having a period of variation of one day.
Drainage area
The area of a watershed within which all surface runoff drains by gravity
into a stream channel or lake upstream of a given location.
Drainage inlets
The receptors for surface water collected in ditches and gutters, which
serve as a mechanism whereby surface water enters storm drains and this
refers to all types of inlets (such as grate inlets, curb inlets, slotted inlets,
etc.).
Drainage system
(1) A natural system of streams and/or water bodies by which an area is

drained. (2) An artificial system of land forming, surface and subsurface
drains, related structures, and pumps (if any), by which excess water is
removed from an area.
Drainage techniques
The various physical methods that have been devised to improve the
drainage of an area
Drawdown
The vertical distance where the free water elevation is lowered, or the
reduction of the pressure head due to the removal of free water.
Drip irrigation
A micro irrigation application system wherein water is applied to the soil

surface as drops or small streams through emitters. Discharge rates are
generally less than 2 gallons per hour (8 L/h) for single outlet emitters
and 3 gallons per hour (12 L/h) per meter for line source emitters.
Dry pond
A facility that provides runoff quantity control by containing excess runoff

in a detention basin and then releasing it at allowable levels.
Dry-pit stations
Pump stations that use both wet and dry wells. Runoff is stored in the
wet well, which is connected to the dry well by horizontal suction piping.
March 2009
xv
Glossary
Term
Description
Ecology
The study of the habits and modes of life-living organisms (such as plants
and animals), and their relationships to each other and their environment.
The runoff pumps are located on the floor of the dry well.
Effective precipitation
(Pe)
The portion of precipitation that is available to meet crop

evapotranspiration. It does not include precipitation that is lost to runoff,
deep percolation, or evaporation before the crop can use it.
Effective rooting
depth
The depth from which roots extract water. The effective rooting depth is
generally the depth from which the crop is currently capable of extracting
soil water. However, it may also be expressed as the depth from which
the crop can extract water when mature or the depth from which a future
crop can extract soil water. Maximum effective root depth depends on the
rooting capability of the plant, soil profile characteristics, and moisture
levels in the soil profile.
Effluent
Waste material (e.g. liquid industrial discharge or sewage) that may be

discharged into the environment.
Electrical conductivity
(EC)
A measure of the ability of the soil water to transfer an electrical charge.

Used as an indicator for the estimation of salt concentration, measured in
mmhos/cm (dS/m), at 77 oF (25 oC). ECe = Electrical conductivity of soil
water extract. ECi = Electrical conductivity of irrigation water. ECaw =
Electrical conductivity of applied water.
Electrical resistance
blocks
A block made up of various material containing electrical contact wires

that is placed in the soils at selected depths to measure soil moisture
content. Electrical resistance, as affected by moisture in the block, is read
with a meter.
Emergency spillway
The channel of a pond-type BMP, designed to pass a storm event that

exceeds the design capacity of the primary discharge structure.
Emergent plants
Aquatic plants that are rooted in the sediment but whose leaves are at or
above the water surface. These wetland plants often have high habitat
values for wildlife and waterfowl, and can aid in pollutant uptake.
Emitter
A small micro irrigation dispensing device designed to dissipate pressure

and discharge a small uniform flow or trickle of water at a constant
discharge. Also called a dripper or trickler.
Energy dissipater
Any means by which the total energy of flowing water is reduced. In

runoff design, they are usually mechanisms that reduce velocity prior to,
or at, discharge from an outfall in order to prevent erosion. They include
rock splash pads, drop manholes, concrete stilling basins or baffles, and
check dams.
Energy gradient
A plotted line relating total energy elevations along an open channel or

energy grade line conduit, typically a pressure pipeline. (See Hydraulic
grade line).
Enhancement
To raise ecological value, desirability or attractiveness of an environment

associated with the surface water.
Entropic
Abundant in nutrients and having high rates of productivity frequently

resulting in oxygen depletion below the surface layer of a waterbody.
xvi
March 2009
Glossary
Term
Description
Environmental
control
Controlling air temperature and humidity or soil moisture conditions to

minimize effects of low and high air temperatures on crop quality and
quantity.
Environmental values
Particular values or uses of the environment that are conducive to public

benefit, welfare, safety or health and that require protection from the
effects of pollution, waste discharges and deposits.
Several
environmental values may be designated for a specific waterbody.
Ephemeral stream
A stream which does not flow continuously or flows only for short period
of time.
Erosion
The wearing of the land surface by water or wind and the subsequent
detachment and transportation of soil particles.
Erosion and sediment

control
Temporary or permanent measures taken to reduce erosion, control

siltation and sedimentation, ensuring that sediment-laden water does not
leave a site.
Erosive velocities
Velocities of water that are high enough to wear away land surface.
Exposed soil will generally erode faster than stabilised soils. Erosive
velocities will vary according to the soil type, slope, structural or
vegetative stabilisation used to protect the soil.
Eutrophication
Enrichment of water with nutrients, primarily phosphorus, causing

abundant aquatic plant growth (mainly algae blooms).
Evaporation
The physical process by which a liquid is transformed to the gaseous

state, which in irrigation generally is restricted to the change of water
from liquid to vapor. Occurs from plant leaf surface, ground surface,
water surface, and sprinkler spray.
Evaporation
The physical process by which a liquid (such as water) in a stream, lake

or moist soil is transformed into a gaseous state. It may be expressed as
the total (or the mean) rate in units of mass (or volume) per unit area or
as an equivalent depth of water for the period concerned.
Evaporation pan
(1) A standard U.S. Weather Bureau Class A pan (48-inch diameter by 10inch deep) used to estimate the reference crop evapotranspiration rate.
Water levels are measured daily in the pan to determine the amount of
evaporation. (2) A pan or container placed at or about crop canopy height
containing water. Water evaporated from the device is measured and
adjusted by a coefficient to represent estimated crop water use during the
period.
Evapotranspiration
(ET)
The total water vapour loss from an area by evaporation and transpiration
from plants over a given time period. It includes the evaporation of water
from soils, dew and intercepted precipitation, as well as transpiration from
plants. Sometimes called consumptive use (CU).
Event mean
concentration (EMC)
The average concentration of an pollutant measured during a storm

runoff event. The EMC is calculated by flow-weighing each pollutant
sample measured during a storm event.
Excess rainfall
An amount of rainfall greater than what the soil can absorb, resulting in
runoff.
March 2009
xvii
Glossary
Term
Description
Exchange capacity
The total ionic charge of the absorption complex active in the adsorption
of ions. See Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC).
Exchangeable cation
A positively charged ion held on or near the surface of a solid particle by a

negative surface charge of a colloid and which may be replaced by other
positively charged ions in the soil solution.
Exchangeable sodium
ratio
The fraction of cation exchange capacity of a soil occupied by sodium

ions, percentage (ESP) expressed as a percentage. Exchangeable sodium
(meq/100 gram soil) divided by CEC (meq/100 gram soil) times 100. It is
unreliable in soil containing soluble sodium silicate minerals or large
amounts of sodium chloride.
Exfiltration
The downward movement of runoff through the bottom of an infiltration

BMP into the soil layer.
Extended detention
A runoff management BMP that provides for the gradual release of a

volume of water over a time interval designed to increase settling of
pollutants and protect downstream channels from frequent flooding.
Faecal coliform
bacteria
Minute living organisms associated with human or animal faeces that are
used as an indirect indicator of the presence of other disease-causing
bacteria.
FDT
Field density test (FDT) is performed to confirm that the fill has been
compacted to a density that meets or exceeds a specified level. If this
level has not been reached, further compaction or other adjustments such
as grain size, change of source of materials, compaction, (static, dynamic,
vibrating) etc will be required in the field. If the compaction criterion has
been reached or exceeded, the fill is acceptable and engineering
performance characteristics such as strength and compressibility are
ensured.
Feel and appearance

method
A method to estimate soil moisture by observing and feeling a soil sample

with the hand and fingers. With experience, this method can be accurate.
Field application
duration
The elapsed time from the beginning of water application to the first
(irrigation period) irrigation set to the time at which water application is
terminated on the last irrigation set of a field.
Field capacity
The amount of water retained by a soil after it has been saturated and
has drained freely by gravity. Can be expressed as inches, inches per
inch, bars suction, or percent of total available water.
Field slope, grade
The terms field slope and grade are interchangeable. Surface irrigation
designers typically refer to elevation differences in the direction of water
movement as the irrigation grade. Cross slope refers to the land grade
perpendicular to the direction of irrigation.
Filtration media
The sand, soil or other organic material in a filtration device used to

provide a permeable surface for pollutant and sediment removal.
Final infiltration rate
See Basic intake rate.
Float valve
A valve, actuated by a float that automatically controls the flow of water.
xviii
March 2009
Glossary
Term
Description
Flood
Relatively high streamflow which overtops the natural or artificial banks in

any part of a stream or river.
Flood irrigation, wild

flooding
A surface irrigation system where water is applied to the soil surface

without flow controls, such as furrows, borders (including dikes), or
corrugations.
Flood routing
Determining the rise and fall of floodwater as it progresses downstream.
Flood standard (or

designated flood)
The flood selected for planning purposes. The choice should be based on
an understanding of flood behaviour and the associated flood risk. It
should also take into account social, economic and ecological
considerations.
Flood storages
Parts of the floodplain that are important for the temporary storage of
floodwaters during the passage of a flood.
Floodplain
The low land adjacent to a waterbody, which is subjected to flooding.
Floodways
Areas where a significant volume of water flows during floods. They are
often aligned with obvious naturally defined channels. Floodways are
areas, which even if only partially blocked would cause a significant
redistribution of flood flow that may in turn adversely affect other areas.
They are often, but not necessarily the areas of deeper flow or the areas
where higher velocities occur.
Flow divider
An engineered, hydraulic structure designed to divert a percentage of

canal or drainage flow to a field or BMP located out of the primary
channel.
Flume
(1) Open conduit for conveying water across obstructions. (2) An entire
canal or lateral elevated above natural ground, or an aqueduct. (3) A
specially calibrated structure for measuring open channel flows.
Flushing emitter
A micro irrigation application device designed to have a flushing flow of

water to clear the discharge opening each time the system is turned on.
Foot valve
(1) A check valve used on the bottom of the suction pipe to retain the
water in the pump when it is not in operation. (2) A valve used to prevent
backflow.
Forebay
An extra storage area provided near an inlet of a pond BMP to trap

incoming sediment before it accumulates in a pond BMP.
Foreshore
The land between a water body and the dominant ridge line facing the
water body.
Free drainage
Movement of water by gravitational forces through and below the plant

root zone. This water is unavailable for plant use except while passing
through the soil. (See Deep percolation.)
Freeboard
The space from the top of an embankment to the highest water elevation
expected for the largest design storm stored. This space is required as a
safety margin in a pond or basin.
Frost protection
Applying irrigation water to affect air temperature, humidity, and dew

point to protect plant tissue from freezing. The primary source of heat
(called heat of fusion) occurs when water turns to ice, thus protecting
sensitive plant tissue. Wind machines and heating devices are also used.
March 2009
xix
Glossary
Term
Description
Full irrigation
Management of water applications to fully replace water used by plants

over an entire field.
Fungicide
Chemical pesticide that kills fungi or prevents them from causing diseases
on plants.
Furrow
(1) A trench or channel in the soil made by a tillage tool. (2) Small
channel for conveying irrigation water downslope across the field.
Sometimes referred to as a rill or corrugation.
Furrow dike
Small earth dike formed in a furrow to prevent water translocation.

Typically used with LEPA and LPIC systems. Also used in nonirrigated
fields to capture and infiltrate precipitation. Sometimes called reservoir
tillage.
Furrow irrigation
A surface irrigation system where water is supplied to small channels or

furrows to guide water downslope and prevent cross flow. Called rill or
corrugation irrigation in some areas.
Furrow stream
The streamflow in a furrow, corrugation, or rill.
Gate
A device used to control the flow of water to, from, or in a pipeline or

open channel. It may be opened and closed by screw or slide action
either manually or by electric, hydraulic, or pneumatic actuators. In open
channels, gates slide on rails and are used to control drainage or irrigation
water.
Gated pipe
Portable pipe that has small gates installed at regular intervals along one
side for distributing irrigation water to corrugations, furrows, or borders.
Grade
The slope of a land surface, road or channel bottom.
Grass channel
An open vegetated channel used to convey runoff and to provide

treatment by filtering pollutants and sediments.
Grate inlets
Parallel and/or transverse bars arranged to form an inlet structure.
Gravel pack
An artificially-graded filter placed immediately around a well screen so as

to increase the local permeability, to prevent soil particles from entering
the well, and to allow a somewhat larger slot size in the well screen
Gravimetric (oven
dry) method
A method of measuring total soil water content by sampling, weighing,

and drying in a oven at 105oC. Percent water, usually on a dry weight
basis, is calculated.
Gravitational water
Soil water that moves into, through, or out of the soil under the influence
of gravity.
Gross irrigation
Water actually applied, which may or may not be total irrigation water
requirement; i.e., leaving storage in the soil for anticipated rainfall,
harvest.
Gross irrigation
requirement (Fg)
The total irrigation requirement including net crop requirement plus any
losses incurred in distributing and applying water and in operating the
system. It is generally expressed as depth of water in acre inches per acre
or inches
xx
March 2009
Glossary
Term
Description
Gross irrigation
system capacity
Ability of an irrigation system to deliver the net required rate and volume
of water necessary to meet crop water needs plus any losses during the
application process. Crop water needs can include soil moisture storage
for later plant use, leaching of toxic elements from the soil, air
temperature modification, crop quality, and other plant needs.
Gross pollutant trap
A device used to intercept gross pollutants being transported in runoff.
Gross pollutants
Runoff laden debris typically larger than 3 mm (includes litter and organic
matter).
Groundwater
Water in land beneath the soil surface, under conditions where the
pressure in the water is greater than or equal to atmospheric pressure,
and where all the voids are filled with water
Groundwater mound
A round, mound-shaped surface in a water table or other potentiometric

surface that builds up as a result of the downward percolation of water.
Groundwater table
The free surface of the underground water that is frequently subjected to

conditions such as fluctuating atmospheric pressure with the season,
withdrawal rates and restoration rates. Therefore, the groundwater table
is seldom static.
Growing season
The period, often the frost-free period, during which the climate is such
that crops can be produced.
Gypsum block
An electrical resistance block in which the material used to absorb water is

gypsum. It is used to measure soil water content in non-saline soils.
Habitat
The kind of locality in which animal breeds or plants normally grow. It is

also the geographic distribution or native home of plant or animals.
Head ditch
Ditch across the upper end of a field used for distributing water in surface
irrigation.
Head gate
Water control structure at the entrance to a conduit or canal.
Herbicide
A chemical substance designed to kill or inhibit the growth of plants,

especially weeds. Types include: ContactA herbicide designed to kill
foliage on contact. Non-selectiveA herbicide that destroys or prevents all
plant growth. Post-emergenceA herbicide designed to be applied after a
crop is above the ground. Pre-emergenceA herbicide designed to be
applied before the crop emerges through the soil surface. SelectiveA
herbicide that targets specific plants.
Humid climates
Climate characterized by high rainfall and low evaporation potential. A

region generally is considered as humid when precipitation averages more
than 40 inches (1,000 mm) per year.
Humus
Rich black or brown material formed from decayed organic matter.
Hybrid
Cross between two different species.
Hydrant
An outlet, usually portable, used for connecting surface irrigation pipe to

an alfalfa valve outlet.
March 2009
xxi
Glossary
Term
Description
Hydraulic
conductivity
The ability of a soil to transmit water flow through it by a unit hydraulic

gradient. It is the coefficient k in Darcys Law. Darcys Law is used to
express flux density (volume of water flowing through a unit crosssectional area per unit of time). It is usually expressed in length per time
(velocity) units, i.e., cm/s, ft/d. In Darcys Law, where V = ki, k is
established for a gradient of one. Sometimes called permeability.
Hydraulic
conductivity
For isotropic porous medium and homogenous fluids. The term refers
the volume of water at the existing kinematic viscosity that will move
unit time under a unit hydraulic gradient through a unit area measured
right angle to the direction of flow. Replaces the term coefficient
permeability.
Hydraulic grade line

(HGL)
A plotted line relating operational energy elevations along an open

channel or closed conduit. With open channel (non-pressure) flow, the
HGL is at the water surface. The HGL is the elevation water would rise in
an open stand at a given location along a pressure pipeline. (See Energy
grade line).

(HGL)
A line coinciding with the level of flowing water in an open channel. In a

closed conduit flowing under pressure, the HGL is the level to which water
would rise in a vertical tube at any point along the pipe. It is equal to the
energy gradeline elevation minus the velocity head, V2/2g.
Hydraulic gradient
Slope of the water or potentiometric surface. The change in static head

per unit of distance in a given direction. If not specified, the direction
generally is understood to be the maximum rate of decrease in head.
Hydraulic head
The height above a datum plane (such as sea level) of the column of
water that can be supported by the hydraulic pressure at a given point in
a groundwater system. For a well, the hydraulic head is equal to the
distance between the water level in the well and the datum plane.
Hydraulic jump
A flow discontinuity, which occurs at an abrupt transition from subcritical

to supercritical flow.
Hydraulic radius
This is the ratio of cross sectional area of the flow to the wetted
perimeter. For a circular pipe flowing full, the hydraulic radius is onefourth of the diameter. For a wide rectangular channel, the hydraulic
radius is approximately equal to the flow depth.
Hydraulic ram
Device that uses the energy of flowing water to lift a portion of the flow
to a higher elevation or greater pressure.
Hydraulics
The study of water flow; in particular the evaluation of flow parameters

such as stage and velocity in a river or stream.
Hydrogeology
The science that deals with subsurface waters and related geologic
aspects of surface waters. Also used in the more restricted sense of
groundwater geology.
Hydrograph
A graph showing stage, flow, velocity, or other characteristics of water

with respect to time. A stream hydrograph commonly shows rate of flow;
a groundwater hydrograph shows the water level or head.
xxii
to
in
at
of
March 2009
Glossary
Term
Description
Hydrologic
abstractions
Losses of rainfall that do not contribute to direct runoff. These losses

include water retained in surface depressions, water intercepted by
vegetation, evaporation and infiltration.
Hydrologic budget
(Balance)
An account of the inflow to, outflow from and storage in a hydrologic unit
such as a drainage basin, aquifer, soil zone, lake, or reservoir. It is also
expressed as the relationship between evaporation, precipitation, runoff
and the change in water storage by the hydrologic equation.
Hydrologic equation
The equation that balances the hydrologic budget.
Hydrology
The study of the rainfall and runoff process and relates to the derivation
of hydrographs for given floods, draughts and other water resources
aspects.
Hydroperiod
A seasonal occurrence of flooding and/or soil saturation. It encompasses

depth, frequency, duration and seasonal pattern of inundation.
Hydroplanning
Separation of the vehicle tire from the roadway surface due to a film of
water on the roadway surface.
Impermeable
A condition where a material is incapable of transmitting significant

quantities of water under pressure differences.
Impervious surface
A hard surface area, which either prevents or retards the entry of water
into the soil mantle under natural conditions, and/or causes water to run
off the surface in greater quantities or at an increased rate of flow
compared to the present flow under natural conditions; prior to
development. Common impervious areas include (but are not limited to)
rooftops, walkways, patios, driveways, parking lots, storage areas,
concrete or asphalt paving, gravel roads, packed earthen materials and
oiled macadam.
Imperviousness
The percentage of impervious cover within a defined area.
Impoundment
The body of water retained by a berm, dam or dike.
Indigenous
Native to; belonging naturally to a particular area, country etc. (endemic).
Infiltration
The downward movement of water from the soil surface at ground level
into the underlying subsoil. Water infiltrates into the soil profile and
percolates through it. The infiltration capacity is expressed in terms of
mm/hr. Infiltration depends heavily on the vegetative cover of the soil
surface, while permeability depends on the soil texture and compaction.
Infiltration basin
A facility that provides runoff quantity control by containing excess runoff

in a detention facility, then percolating that runoff into the surrounding
soil.
Infiltration capacity
The maximum or limiting infiltration rate.
Infiltration rate
The rate at which a soil under specified conditions absorbs falling rain,
melting snow, or surface water expressed in depth of water per unit time
(centimetres per second, inches per hour).
March 2009
xxiii
Glossary
Term
Description
Infiltration,
infiltration rate
The downward flow of water into the soil at the air-soil interface. Water
enters the soil through pores, cracks, wormholes, decayed-root holes, and
cavities introduced by tillage. The rate at which water enters soil is called
intake rate or infiltration rate.
Infiltrometer
A device for determining the intake rate of soil. Water infiltrated by the
soil in the test section (typically 10 meters) is replaced with water from a
reservoir to keep the flow rate constant. The rate of water infiltrated
versus time is observed and plotted. Accumulated infiltration versus time
is also plotted. An equation (typically for a curvilinear line) then
represents the intake characteristics for that particular soil condition.
Initial intake
Depth of water absorbed by a soil during the period of rapid or

comparatively rapid intake following initial application. Expressed in inches
per hour.
Inlet
A form of connection between the surface of a ground and a drain or

sewer for the admission of surface and runoff runoff.
Instantaneous
application rate
The maximum rate, usually localized, that a sprinkler application device

applies water to the soil, expressed in inches per hour. Instantaneous
application rates of over 30 inches per hour have been measured near the
ends of low pressure center pivot irrigation laterals.
Intake family
A grouping of intake characteristics into families based on field

infiltrometer tests on many soils. Used to analyze and design border and
furrow irrigation systems.
Intake family curve
A set of accumulated intake versus time curves grouped into families

intake characteristic curve having similar border or furrow intake
characteristics. Intake family curves are unitless and do not represent the
average infiltration rate. The infiltration process in borders differs from
that in furrows, thus each irrigation system has a different set of intake
family curves.
Intake rate
The rate at which irrigation water enters the soil at the surface. Expressed
as inches per hour. (See infiltration.)
Interception
That part of precipitation or sprinkler irrigation system applied water

caught on the vegetation and prevented from reaching the soil surface.
Invasive exotic plants
Non-native plants having the capacity to compete and proliferate in

introduced environments.
Invert
The lowest point on the inside of a culvert or pipe.
Inverted siphon
A closed conduit with end sections above the middle section; used for
crossing under a depression, under a highway or other obstruction.
Sometimes called sag pipe.
Irrecoverable water
loss
Water loss that becomes unavailable for reuse through evaporation,

phreatophyte transpiration, or ground-water recharge that is not
economically recoverable.
Irrigable area
Area capable of being irrigated, principally based on availability of water,

suitable soils, and topography of land.
Irrigating stream
(1) Flow for irrigation of a particular tract of land. (2) Flow of water
distributed at a single irrigation. Sometimes called irrigating head,
normally expressed as a rate or volume.
xxiv
March 2009
Glossary
Term
Description
Irrigation
Applying water to the land for growing crops, reclaiming soils,

temperature modification, improving crop quality, or other such uses.
Irrigation check
(1) Small dike or dam used in the furrow or alongside an irrigation border
to make the water spread evenly across the border. (2) A plastic or
canvas tarp dam placed in a field ditch to raise the water level in the ditch
for diversion onto a field.
Irrigation company
A semi-public, private group, or commercial enterprise set up to deliver

irrigation water.
Irrigation district,
company
A cooperative, self-governing semipublic organization set up as a

subdivision of a state or local government to deliver irrigation water.
Irrigation efficiency
The ratio of the average depth of irrigation water beneficially used to the
average depth applied, expressed as a percentage. Beneficial uses include
satisfying the soil water deficit, leaching requirement for salinity control,
and meeting other plant needs. Generally used to express overall field or
farm efficiency, or seasonal irrigation efficiency.
Irrigation frequency,
interval
The time, generally in days, between irrigation events. Usually considered

the maximum allowable time between irrigations during the peak ET
period.
Irrigation method
One of four irrigation methods used to apply irrigation water: surface,

sprinkle, micro, and subirrigation. One or more irrigation systems can be
used to apply water by each irrigation method.
Irrigation scheduling
Determining when to irrigate and how much water to apply, based upon
measurements or estimates of soil moisture or crop water used by the
plant.
Irrigation set
The area irrigated at one time within a field.
Irrigation set time
The amount of time required to apply a specific amount of water during

irrigation period one irrigation to a given area, typically refilling the plant
root zone to field capacity minus expected rainfall.
Irrigation slope
Elevation difference along the direction of irrigation expressed as, a

percentage. Sometimes called irrigation grade.
Irrigation system
Physical components (pumps, pipelines, valves, nozzles, ditches, gates,

siphon tubes, turnout structures) and management used to apply
irrigation water by an irrigation method. All properly designed and
managed irrigation systems have the potential to uniformly apply water
across a field.
Irrigation water
management
Managing water resources (precipitation, applied irrigation water, (IWM)

humidity) to optimize water use by the plant. Soil and plant resources
must also be considered.
Irrigation water
requirement
The calculated amount of water needed to replace soil water used by the
crop (soil water deficit), for leaching undesirable elements through and
below the plant root zone, plus other needs; after considerations are
made for effective precipitation.
March 2009
xxv
Glossary
Term
Description
Julian day, day of

year
Sequential numbering of days starting January 1 as day one and

continuing until the end of the year, as day 365 (leap year day 366).
Kinematic wave
A method of mathematical analysis of unsteady open channel flow in

which the dynamic terms are omitted because they are small and
assumed to be negligible.
Land levelling, land

grading
Shaping the surface of the soil to planned elevations and grades. precision
land levelling
Laser controlled
levelling
Land levelling or grading in which a stationary laser transmitter and a

laser or grading receiving unit mounted on each earthmoving machine are
used for automated grade control.
Laterite
Laterite is the suitable material for earth roads. Laterite covered road
surface can be classified as all weathered roads, as it can be used in all
seasons of the year. It is a mixture of soil particles, gravels, and other
hard particles. The soil strength of four days socked CBR is generally
varies from 4.0 to 62.1, the average is 17.738 with a standard deviation
of 17.845 (as seen in Jalan Pintas Rawang, Kuala Lumpur). A proper
borrow pit with higher CBR value can be selected for laterite road.
Leaching
The loss of nutrients from the existing ground (i.e. when rain dissolve the
nutrients and are carried away). There are possibilities that chemical
fertilisers leached from the ground are able to pollute streams and other
water sources.
Leaching fraction
The ratio of the depth of subsurface drainage water (deep percolation) to

the depth of infiltrated irrigation water. (See Leaching requirement.)
Leaching
requirement
(1) The amount of irrigation water required to pass through the plant root
zone to reduce the salt concentration in the soil for reclamation purposes.
(2) The fraction of water from irrigation or rainfall required to pass
through the soil to prevent salt accumulation in the plant root zone and
sustain production. (See Leaching fraction.)
Length of run
The distance down the furrow, corrugation, or border to the planned end
of irrigation, typically the edge of the field.
Level Spreader
A device used to spread out runoff runoff uniformly over the ground
surface as sheet flows (not through channels). The purpose of level
spreaders is to prevent concentrated and erosive flows from occurring,
thus enhancing infiltration.
Limited irrigation
Management of irrigation applications to apply less water than needed to

satisfy the soil water deficit in the entire root zone. Sometimes called
deficit or stress irrigation.
Line-source emitter
Water is discharged from closely spaced perforations, emitters, or a

porous wall along a micro irrigation lateral.
Low energy precision
A water, soil, and plant management regime where precision down-in-crop

application (LEPA) applications of water are made on the soil surface at the
point of use. Application devices are located in the crop canopy on drop tubes
mounted on low pressure center pivot and linear move sprinkler irrigation
systems. Generally limited to circular plantings on less than 1 percent slopes
and no translocation of applied water. Furrow dikes, good soil condition, and
crop residue are usually required to control water translocation.
xxvi
March 2009
Glossary
Term
Description
Long throated flume
Open-channel flow measuring devices of various cross-sections, having

three to five main sections. Their operation is based on critical flow
occurring in a contracted throat, with parallel walls and level floor, that is
long enough to produce nearly parallel flow streamlines. This allows
accurate calibration by computational methods. The name usually refers
to devices with contractions from the channel sides or from both the sides
and bottom. Flumes with bottom-only contractions are traditionally
referred to as a type of broad-crested weir, but are hydraulically the same
as longthroated flumes.
Long-path emitter
Employs a long capillary sized tube or channel to dissipate pressure and

discharge water in discrete droplets or seeps.
Low pressure in
canopy (LPIC)
A low pressure in-canopy system that may or may not include a complete
water, soil, and plant management regime as required in LEPA.
Application devices are located in the crop canopy with drop tubes
mounted on low pressure center pivot and linear move sprinkler irrigation
systems. Limited water translocation within the field and some minor
nonuniformity of water application usually exists.
Lowflow channel
An incised or paved channel from the inlet to the outlet in a dry basin,
which is designed to carry low runoff flows and/or baseflow directly to the
outlet without detention.
Lysimeter
An isolated block of soil, usually undisturbed and in situ, for measuring

the quantity, quality, or rate of water movement through or from the soil.
Management allowed The planned soil moisture deficit at the time of
irrigation. It can be depletion (MAD) expressed as the percentage of
available soil water capacity or as the depth of water that has been
depleted from the root zone. Sometimes called allowable soil depletion.
Macrophyte
A member of the macroscopic plant life, especially of a waterbody.
Major storm
A precipitation event that is higher than the typical largest rainfall for a
year.
Management plan
A document including, as appropriate, both written and diagrammatic

information describing how a particular area of land is to be used and
managed to achieve defined objectives. It may also include description
and discussion of various issues, problems, special features and values of
the area, the specific management measures which are to apply and the
means and timing by which the plan will be implemented.
Manufacturers
coefficient
A measure of the variability of discharge of a random sample (of a given

of variation make, model, and size) of micro irrigation emitters, pressure
regulators and sprinkler nozzles, as produced by the manufacturer and
before any field operation or aging has taken place. It is equal to the ratio
of the standard deviation of the discharge to the mean discharge of the
emitters.
Mathematical
(Computer) models
The mathematical representation of physical processes (e.g. rainfall and

runoff, or mobilisation and transport of pollutants by runoff). These
models usually run on computers due to the complexity of the
mathematical relationships.
March 2009
xxvii
Glossary
Term
Description
Matric potential
Matric potential is a dynamic soil property and will be near zero for a
saturated soil. Matric potential results from capillary and adsorption
forces. This potential was formerly called capillary potential or capillary
water.
Maximum application
rate
The maximum discharge, in inches per hour, at which sprinklers can apply
water without causing significant translocation.
MDD and OMC
Maximum dry density (MDD) and Optimum moisture content (OMC) are
good references for earthwork operations. The optimum moisture content
is the water content at which the highest dry density was achieved with a
specified amount of compaction.
The water within a soil aids in the lubrication of the particles to enable
closer packing and helps fill the air voids. Compaction is the reduction of
air voids, whereas consolidation is the reduction of total voids (mostly
driving out water from the pore spaces). Adding water to a dry soil helps
to pack the solids closer together but at some point, by adding more
water, the voids within the soil matrix with water, and not solids, thus
reducing the dry density of the soil. The compaction study of a soil
typically forms a bell shaped graph, with the peak indicating the OMC and
MDD.
Mean depth
The average depth described as the cross-sectional area of the inundated

channel divided by its surface width.
Micro irrigation
The frequent application of small quantities of water as drops, tiny

streams, or miniature spray through emitters or applicators placed along a
water delivery line. The micro irrigation method encompasses a number of
systems or concepts, such as bubbler, drip, trickle, line source, mist, or
spray.
Microclimate
Atmospheric conditions within or near a crop canopy.
Mixed-flow pump
A centrifugal pump in which the pressure is developed partly by

centrifugal force and partly by the lifting action of the impellers in the
water.
Moisture deficit
The difference between actual soil moisture and soil moisture held in the
soil moisture depletion soil at the field capacity.
Moisture stake
See Tensiometer.
Mulch
Organic material spread on soil to aid moisture retention and prevent

weed growth. It also provides nutrients and helps to open soil texture.
Multi-outlet emitter
Supplies water to two or more points through small diameter auxiliary

tubing.
Multi-stage pump
A pump having more than one impeller mounted on a single shaft.
Nappe
Sheet or curtain of unsubmerged water flowing from a structure, such as

a weir or dam.
Naturalise
The establishment of plants in a manner as though they are of wild

species.
xxviii
March 2009
Glossary
Term
Description
Net irrigation
The actual amount of applied irrigation water stored in the soil for plant
use or moved through the soil for leaching salts. Also includes water
applied for crop quality and temperature modification; i.e., frost control,
cooling plant foliage and fruit. Application losses, such as evaporation,
runoff, and deep percolation, are not included. Generally measured in
inches of water depth applied.
Net irrigation water

requirement
The depth of water, exclusive of effective precipitation, stored soil moisture,

or ground water, that is required for meeting crop evapotranspiration for crop
production and other related uses. Such uses may include water required for
leaching, frost protection, cooling, and chemigation.
Net positive suction

head
The head that causes liquid to flow through the suction piping and enter
(NPSH) the eye of the pump impeller. Required NPSH is a function of the
pump design and varies with the capacity and speed of the pump. It must be
supplied by the manufacturer. Available NPSH is a function of the system in
which the pump operates and represents the energy level in the water over
vapor pressure at the pump inlet. The available NPSH must equal or exceed
the required NPSH or cavitation occurs.
Neutron gauge,
neutron probe
A nondestructive method, used primarily by researchers, to measure in situ

neutron scattering device soil moisture. High speed neutrons are emitted from
the radioactive source. Electronic count of the returning slow speed neutrons
(or reflected), primarily affected by hydrogen atoms in the soil, is calibrated to
represent total soil-water content. When properly calibrated and used, the
neutron moisture gauge is probably the most accurate and repeatable method
to measure soil moisture. The equipment is expensive, data collection is time
consuming, training and licensing for personnel using the gauge and for
storage are required.
Nonpoint source (NPS)

pollution
Pollution caused by sediment, nutrients, organic and toxic substances

originating from land-use activities and/or from the atmosphere, which are
carried to surface waterbodies by runoff. NPS pollution occurs when the rate
at which these materials entering waterbodies exceeds natural levels.
Non-saline sodic soil
A soil containing soluble salts that provide an electrical conductivity of the

saturation extract (ECe) less than 4.0 mmhos/cm and an exchangeable
sodium percentage (ESP) greater than 15. Commonly called black alkali or
slick spots.
Nutrient
A substance necessary for the growth of organisms.
Nutrient management
Managing the application rate and timing of fertilizers to optimize crop use
and reduce potential pollution of ground and surface water.
Observation well
A test well installed in an infiltration BMP to monitor draining times and

sediment accumulation after installation.
Off-line
A runoff management system designed to manage a storm event by diverting

a percentage of runoff events from a stream or storm drainage system.
Off-line BMP
A BMP system that is located outside of the stream channel or drainage path.
A flow splitter is used to divert runoff from the channel and into the BMP for
treatment.
Off-site
Any area lying upstream of the site that drains onto the site and any area
lying downstream of the site.
March 2009
xxix
Glossary
Term
Description
On-line
A runoff management system designed to manage runoff in its original

stream or drainage channel.
Operational spills
Planned or emergency spills made along or at the end of an open ditch

(lateral) in a community irrigation water delivery system. Planned spills
include the discharge of administrative or carry through water carried in
laterals, to allow turnouts to be opened and closed without precision
management of lateral flow rates. Emergency spill structures include
overflow structures to discharge precipitation runoff water that has
entered an irrigation water delivery system, and relief gates to discharge
irrigation water in case of ditch or structure failure. Typically planned and
emergency spill structures discharge water into a natural watercourse or
protected channel.
Opportunity time
The time that water inundates the soil surface with opportunity to
infiltrate.
Organism
Any living animal or plant; anything capable of carrying on life processes.
Orifice
An opening with closed perimeter usually sharp-edged and of regular form

in a plate, wall, or partition through which water may flow. Generally
used for the purpose of measurement or flow control.
Orifice emitter
A micro irrigation system application device employing a series of orifices

to dissipate pressure.
Outfall
The point or structure of a conduit discharging to a waterbody.
Outlet
Point of water disposal of a stream, river, lake, tidewater or artificial drain.
Overflow rate
Detention basin release rate divided by the surface area of the basin. It
can be thought of as an average flow rate through the basin.
Overhead irrigation
See Sprinkler irrigation.
Overtopping
To flow over the limits of a containment or conveyance element.
Oxidation
The combination of oxygen with a substance, or the removal of hydrogen

from it, or more generally, any reaction in which an atom loses electrons.
Oxygenation
The process of adding dissolved oxygen to a solution.
Pan coefficient
A factor to relate actual evapotranspiration of a crop to the rate water

evaporates from a free water surface in a shallow pan. The coefficient
usually changes by crop growth stage.
Parameter
A measurable (or quantifiable) characteristic (or feature).
Parshall flume
Open-channel water flow measuring devices which are a part of a group

of short-throated flumes that control discharge by achieving critical flow
with curving streamlines in a contracted throat section. The sidewallls of
the throat section are parallel, but the floor slopes downward in the
direction of flow then rises again in a diverging side wall section.
Calibrations are based on laboratory ratings. The flume is used for
measuring water flow rates with very small total head loss (also see
venturi flume). Ten critical edges and surfaces must be met for
construction of an accurate Parshall flume.
Pathogen
An organism capable of eliciting disease symptoms in another.
xxx
March 2009
Glossary
Term
Description
Peak discharge
The maximum flow for a given hydrologic event at a specified location.
Peak period ET
The average daily evapotranspiration rate for a crop during the peak
water use period. Sometimes commonly called peak period CU
(consumptive use).
Peak use rate
The maximum rate at which a crop uses water, measured in inches (acre
inches per acre) per unit time; i.e., inches per month, inches per week,
inches per day.
Penman-Monteith
Method
A (radiation and advection) method used to estimate reference crop

evapotranspiration (ETo) using current climatic data including air
temperature, relative humidity, wind speed, and solar radiation.
Percolation
Movement of the water through the soil profile. The percolation rate is
governed by the permeability or hydraulic conductivity of the soil. Both
terms are used to describe the ease with which soil transmits water.
Percolation
The movement under hydrostatic pressure of water through the

interstices of rock or soil, except for the movement through large
openings such as caves.
Percolation rate
The rate expressed as either velocity or volume per unit of time at which
water percolates through a porous medium.
Perennial
Plant that grow for more than two years.
Permanent wilting
point (PWP)
The moisture percentage, on a dry weight basis, at which plants can no

longer obtain sufficient moisture from the soil to satisfy water
requirements. Plants will not fully recover when water is added to the
crop root zone once permanent wilting point has been experienced.
Classically, 15 atmosphere (15 bars) or 1.5 mPa, soil moisture tension is
used to estimate PWP.
Permeability
(1) Qualitatively, the ease with which gases, liquids, or plant roots
penetrate or pass through a layer of soil (2) Quantitatively, the specific
soil property designating the rate at which gases and liquids can flow
through the soil or porous media. The degree of permeability depends
upon the size and shape of the openings and the extent of the
interconnections of the material.
Pervious
Allowing for the passage of water.
Pest management
Management to control undesirable plants, animals, fungi, or bacteria that

are troublesome, annoying, or degrading to crop quantity and quality.
Pesticide
A substance or mixture of substances used to eliminate unwanted species

of plants or animals. Includes insecticides, herbicides, and fungicides.
pH
Value taken to represent the acidity or alkalinity of an aqueous solution.

It is defined as the negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion acidity of the
solution.
Phreatophyte
transpiration
Transpiration from water loving vegetation along streams and water

bodies, generally considered a loss for irrigation purposes. Phreatophyte
vegetation may be a highly valuable food source and habitat for fish and
wildlife.
Point source
A distinct, identifiable source of pollutants.
March 2009
xxxi
Glossary
Term
Description
Pollinate
To apply pollen to the stigma or receptive surface of the female organ (of
plants).
Porous pavement
An alternative to conventional pavement whereby runoff is diverted

through a porous asphalt layer or manufactured pavement grid into an
underground stone reservoir. Thus, the stored runoff gradually infiltrates
into the subsoil.
Post-development
peak runoff
Maximum instantaneous rate of flow during a storm after a land

conversion or development is completed.
Potential
evapotranspiration
The maximum evapotranspiration that will occur when water is not (ETo)
limiting. In some methods of computing evapotranspiration, it is
measured as evaporation of water from a free surface. When used as
reference crop evapotranspiration, it is for either well watered short grass
or alfalfa. Care should be used in determining which factors are used.
Preferred term is reference evapotranspiration.
Practicable
The availability and capability of performing a certain task or tasks after

taking into the consideration of costs, existing technology and logistics in
light of the overall project purposes.
Present value
The current worth of a regular series of payments over a defined period

(e.g. annual maintenance costs over an 80 year period).
Pre-treatment
The removal of material such as gross solids, grit, grease and scum from
flows prior to physical, biological or chemical treatment processes to
improve treatability. Pre-treatment may include screening, grit removal,
runoff and oil separators.
Probability
A statistical measure of the expected frequency or occurrence of flooding.

For a fuller explanation, see Annual Exceedance Probability.
Project efficiency
(Ep)
The overall efficiency of irrigation water use in a project setting that

accounts for all water uses and losses, such as crop ET, environmental
control, salinity control, deep percolation, runoff, ditch and canal leakage,
phreatophyte use, wetlands use, operational spills, and open water
evaporation.
Pump efficiency
The hydraulic efficiency of a pump, expressed as the ratio of energy

converted into useful work to the energy applied to the pump shaft, or as
the ratio of the water power to the brake power
Pumping test
A field test to find the hydraulic characteristics of an aquifer, based on the

analysis of the drawdown of the watertable in the vicinity of a pumped
well during pumping
Rainfall intensity
The rate at which precipitation occurs at a given instant.
Rainfall management
Managing soil, water, and plant resources to optimize use of rainfall.
Reach
The smallest portion of a drainage system consisting of a uniform shape,

cross-section and slope.
Receiving waters
Bodies of water or surface water systems receiving water from man-made

(or natural) upstream streams.
xxxii
March 2009
Glossary
Term
Description
Recharge
Replenishment of groundwater by downward infiltration of water from

rainfall, streams and other sources. Natural recharge occurs without
assistance or enhancement by man. Artificial recharge occurs when the
natural recharge pattern is modified deliberately to increase recharge.
Rectangular weir
Typically a sharp crested weir that is rectangular.
Reference crop
The evapotranspiration from thick, healthy, well maintained grass (or

evapotranspiration alfalfa) that does not suffer any water stress. The
reference crop is used to represent the water use of a standard crop in
that environment even though that crop may not be physically grown in
the area. ETo is generally used when referring to clipped (2 to 5 inches
high) grass as the reference crop. ETr is used for 8- to 12-inch-high, 2year-old alfalfa.
Relative humidity
The ratio of the amount of water vapor present in the atmosphere to the
amount required for saturation at the same dry bulb temperature.
Release rate
The rate of discharge in volume per unit time from a detention facility.
Replogle flume, ramp

flume
A modified broad crested weir located in a short flume, lined ditch or

pipeline that causes a drop in the hydraulic grade line, for measuring
water flow rates. With open channel flow, there is one critical surface,
which is level. With closed pipeline flowing full, the same surface can be
oriented in any position parallel to the direction of flow. Very little head
loss is required to accurately measure water flow rate.
Restoration
The reestablishment of wetland functional characteristics and processes to

previously defined wetlands that have been lost through alterations,
activities or catastrophic events.
Retention
The holding of runoff in a basin without release except through means of

evaporation, infiltration or emergency bypass.
Retention
A drainage facility designed to hold water for a considerable length of

time to be lost by evaporation, plant transpiration and/or infiltration into
the ground.
Retrofitting
The renovation of an existing structure or facility to meet changed

conditions or to improve performance.
Return-flow facilities
A system of ditches, pipelines, pump(s), and reservoirs to collect and

reuse facilities convey surface or subsurface runoff from an irrigated field
for reuse. Sometimes called tailwater reuse facilities or pumpback
facilities.
Reverse grade
A slope or grade on a field surface, crop row, or channel that slopes in the
direction opposite to the prevalent or desired grade.
Right-of-way
Right of passage, as over anothers property. A route that is lawful to

use. A strip of land acquired for transport or utility construction.
Riparian
(1) Typically that area of flowing streams that lies between the normal
water line and some defined high water line. (2) Pertaining to the banks
of a body of water; a riparian owner is one who owns the banks. (3) A
riparian water right is the right to use and control water by virtue of
ownership of the banks.
March 2009
xxxiii
Glossary
Term
Description
Riparian
Pertaining to the banks of streams, wetlands, lakes or tidewater. A

relatively narrow strip of land that borders a stream or river, which often
coincides with the maximum water surface elevation of the 100 year
storm.
Riprap
A facing layer or protective mound of stones placed to prevent erosion or

sloughing of a structure or embankment due to the flow of surface and
runoff runoff.
Rip-rap
Broken stones or boulders placed compactly or irregularly on dams,

levees, dikes, or similar embankments, and at the downstream end of
structures, to protect earth surfaces from the action of waves, current,
and flowing water
Riser
The vertical portion of an inlet to a conduit, extending from the barrel to

the water surface.
Risk
A statistical concept defined as the expected frequency or probability of

undesirable effects resulting from a specified exposure to known or
potential environmental concentrations of a material. A material is
considered safe if the risks associated with its exposure are judged to be
acceptable. Estimates of risk may be expressed in absolute or relative
terms. Absolute risk is the excess risk due to exposure. Relative risk is
the ratio of the risk in an exposed population to the risk in an unexposed
population.
Root zone
Depth of soil that plant roots readily penetrate and in which the
predominant root activity occurs. Preferred term is plant root zone.
Rotational delivery
system
A management technique used for community irrigation water delivery

systems in which water deliveries are rotated among water users often at
a frequency determined by water supply availability rather than crop
water need. This method of managing water deliveries results in some of
the lowest on-farm irrigation water application efficiencies.
Row grade
The slope in the direction of crop rows.
Runoff
A portion of rainfall which ends up as streamflow; also known as rainfall

excess.
Runoff loss
Surface water leaving a field or farm, resulting from surface irrigation

tailwater, applying water with sprinklers at a rate greater than soil
infiltration and surface storage, overirrigation, and precipitation.
Runoff wetlands
Shallow, constructed pools that capture runoff and allow for the growth of
characteristic wetland vegetation.
Safety bench (berm)
A flat area above the permanent pool and surrounding a pond designed to
provide a separation to adjacent slopes.
Saline soil
A non-sodic soil containing sufficient soluble salts to impair its productivity

for growing most crops. The electrical conductivity (ECe) of the saturation
extract is greater than 4 mmhos/cm, and exchangeable sodium
percentage (ESP) is less than 15; i.e., non-sodic. The principal ions are
chloride, sulfate, small amounts of bicarbonate, and occasionally some
nitrate. Actually, sensitive plants are affected at half this salinity, and
highly tolerant ones at about twice this salinity.
xxxiv
March 2009
Glossary
Term
Description
Saline water
Water containing more than 10,000 mg/l of dissolved solids.
Saline-sodic soil
Soil containing both sufficient soluble salts and exchangeable sodium to

interfere with the growth of most crops. The exchangeable sodium
percentage (ESP) is greater than or equal to 15, and electrical
conductivity of the saturation extract (ECe) is greater than 4 mmhos/cm.
It is difficult to leach because the clay colloids are dispersed.
Salinity
The concentration of dissolved mineral salt in water and soil on a unit

volume or weight basis. May be harmful or nonharmful for the intended
use of the water.
Satiation
To fill most voids between soil particles with water.
Saturated zone
Part of a water-bearing material in which all voids, both large and small,
are ideally filled with water under pressure greater than atmospheric.
Saturation
To fill all (100%) voids between soil particles with water.
Sediment
Mineral and organic soil material that is transported in suspension by wind

or water flow from its origin to another location.
Seepage, seepage
loss, leakage
1. Water escaping below or out from water conveyance facilities, such as

open ditches, canals, natural channels, and waterways. 2. Water
emerging from the ground along an extensive line or surface as
contrasted with a spring where the water emerges from a localized spot.
Semiarid climate
Climate characterized as neither entirely arid nor humid, but intermediate

between the two conditions. A region is usually considered as semiarid
when precipitation averages between 10 inches (250 mm) and 20 inches
(500 mm) per year.
Settleable solids
Suspended solids in runoff that separate by settling when the runoff is

held in a quiescent condition for a specified time.
Sheet flow
Runoff, which flows over the ground surface as a thin, even and
unconcentrated layer in a channel.
Short circuiting
The passage of runoff through a BMP in less than the theoretical or

design treatment time.
Shrub
Plant with many woody stems, the main ones rising from near the base.
SI units
An international metric system developed by General Conference on

International System of Units Weights and Measures, CGPM. This system
provides for an established single unit that applies for each physical
quantity. Units for all other mechanical quantities are derived from these
basic units. See chapter 16 for complete definitions and conversions for
English to metric and metric to English units.
Simulation
The representation of a physical system by a device such as a computer

or a model that imitates
Siphon
A closed conduit used to convey water across localized minor elevation

raises in grade. It generally has end sections below the middle section. A
vacuum pump is commonly used to remove air and keep the siphon
primed. The upstream end must be under the water surface. Both ends
must be under water, or the lower end must be closed to prime siphon.
March 2009
xxxv
Glossary
Term
Description
Siphon tube
Relatively short, light-weight, curved tube used to convey water over

ditchbanks to irrigate furrows or borders. The tube is typically between 1
and 4 inches in diameter 4 to 6 feet long.
Slide gate
See Gate.
Slope
A ratio of run (horizontal) to rise (vertical).
Slotted inlets
A section of pipe cut along the longitudinal axis with transverse bars
spaced drainage form slots.
Sodic soil
A non-saline soil containing sufficient exchangeable sodium to affect crop

production and soil structure (including soil intake) under most conditions
of soil and plant growth. The lower limit of the saturation extract
exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP) of such soils is conventionally set
at 15.
Sodium adsorption
ratio (SAR)
A relation between soluble sodium and soluble divalent cations that can
be used to predict the exchangeable sodium percentage of soil
equilibrated with a given solution. The sodium adsorption ratio of a water
adjusted for the precipitation or adjusted dissolution of Ca2+ and Mg2+
that is expected to occur where a water reacts with alkaline earth
carbonates within a soil. Numerically, it is obtained by multiplying the
sodium adsorption ratio by the value (1 + 8.4 - pHc*), where pHc is the
theoretical calculation of the pH of water in contact with lime and in
equilibrium with soil CO2.
Soil aeration
Process by which air and other gases enter the soil or are exchanged.
Soil compaction
Consolidation, increase in bulk density, reduction in porosity, and collapse

of the soil structure when subjected to surface loads or the downward
and shearing action of tillage implement surfaces.
Soil condition
The physical condition of the soil related to farmability, tillage, crop

growth, root development, water movement, water intake, structure,
organic matter content, fertility, and biological activity.
Soil crusting
Compaction of the soil surface by droplet impact from sprinkle irrigation

and precipitation. Well graded, medium textured, low organic matter soils
tend to crust more readily than other soils.
Soil density
Same as Bulk density.
Soil groups
The great soil group system is one system that can be used to classify
soils. The grouping depends on the presence and type of morphological
features observed in the field, selection of these features and the
weighting they receive based on the concepts of soil genesis.
Soil horizon
A layer of soil differing from adjacent genetically related layers in physical,

chemical, and biological properties or characteristics.
Soil moisture
Water or moisture contained in the soil mantle.
Soil moisture tension
See soil water tension.
Soil organic matter
Organic fraction of the soil, including plant and animal residue in various
stages of decomposition, cells and tissues of soil organisms, and
substances synthesized by the soil population.
xxxvi
March 2009
Glossary
Term
Description
Soil porosity
The percentage of the soil (or rock) volume that is not occupied by solid
particles, including all pore space filled with air and water.
Soil profile
Vertical section of the soil from the surface through all its horizons.
Soil sealing
The orientation and consolidation of soil particles in the intermediate

surface layer of soil so that it becomes almost impermeable to water.
Soil series
The lowest category of U.S. System of soil taxonomy. A conceptualized

class of soil bodies having similar characteristics and arrangement in the
soil profile.
Soil stabilisation
The use of measures such as rock lining, vegetation or other engineering

structures to prevent the movement of soil when loads are applied.
Soil structure
The combination or arrangement of primary soil particles into secondary

particles, units, or peds that make up the soil mass. These secondary
units may be arranged in the soil profile in such a manner as to give a
distinctive characteristic pattern. Principal types of soil structure are platy,
prismatic, columnar, blocky, granular, and massive.
Soil texture
Classification of soil by the relative proportions of sand, silt, and clay

present in the soil. USDA uses 12 textural classes.
Soil water, soil

moisture
All water stored in the soil. See Water holding capacity.
Soil-water content
The water content of a given volume of soil. It is determined by:

gravimetric sampling and oven drying field samples (to a standard 105
o
C), neutron moisture probes, time domain (TDR) and frequency domain
reflectrometry (FDR) devices commonly called RF capacitance probes,
tensiometers, electrical resistance blocks, thermal dissipation blocks, and
feel and appearance methods.
Soil-water deficit or
depletion
Amount of water required to raise the soil-water content of the crop root
zone to field capacity. It is measured in inches of water.
Soil-water potential
Expresses the potential energy status of soil water relative to conditions

associated with pure, free water. Total soil-water potential consists of
osmotic potential, gravitational potential, and matric potential. See
Soilwater tension and Matric potential.
Soil-water tension
A measure of the tenacity with which water is retained in the soil. It is the
force per unit area that must be exerted to remove water from the soil
and is usually measured in bars, or atmospheres. It is a measure of the
effort required by plant roots to extract water from the soil.
Measurements are made using a tensiometer in the field (limited to 1
atmos) and a pressure plate apparatus in the laboratory.
Solar radiation (Rs)
Radiation from the sun that passes through the atmosphere and reaches
the combined crop and soil surface. The energy is generally in a
waveband width of 0.1 to 5 microns. Net Rs is incoming minus reflected
radiation from a surface.
Source control BMP
BMP that is intended to prevent pollutants from entering the runoff. A few
examples of source control BMPs are erosion control practices,
maintenance of runoff facilities, constructing roofs over storage and
working areas, and directing wash water and similar discharges to the
sanitary sewer or a dead end sump.
March 2009
xxxvii
Glossary
Term
Description
Species
The basic unit of biological classification; a group of individual plants

resembling each other by a combination of constant characteristics with
inter-breeding possible within the species but generally not between
species.
Spile
A conduit made of lath, pipe, or hose placed through ditchbanks to

transfer water from an irrigation ditch to a field.
Spillway
A passage (such as a paved apron or channel) for surplus water over or

around a dam or similar obstruction. An open or closed channel, or both,
used to convey excess water from a reservoir. It may contain gates,
either manually or automatically controlled to regulate the discharge of
excess water.
Spray irrigation
The application of water by a small spray or mist to the soil surface where
travel through the air becomes instrumental in the distribution of water.
(used with sprinkler and micro irrigation methods).
Spreading water
Discharging native or imported water to a permeable area for the purpose

of encouraging it to percolate to the saturated zone. Spreading, artificial
recharge and replenishment all refer to operations used to place water in
a groundwater basin.
Sprinkle irrigation
Method of irrigation in which water is sprayed or sprinkled through the air

to plant or ground surface. See Sprinkler irrigation system.
Sprinkler distribution
pattern
Water depth-distance relationship measured from a single sprinkler head.
Sprinkler head
A nozzle or device, which may or may not rotate, for distributing water
under pressure through the air. Water is delivered to sprinkler heads by a
system of pressurized pipelines.
Sprinkler irrigation
Facility used to distribute water by the sprinkle irrigation method.

Sprinkler systems are defined in the following general categories:
Stabilizer
The stabilization of soft soil of low bearing capacity is an economical,

ecological way to strengthen the subgrade soil and helps to build a road
in a farm in soft ground. The usual approach to soft subgrade is to
remove the soil replacing by stronger materials or crushed rocks. The high
cost of replacement has caused an alternative solution, i.e. stabilization of
existing soil.
Static head
The potential energy resulting from elevation differences. (See Head.)
Steady flow
Flow that remains constant with respect to time.
Stilling well
Pipe, chamber, or compartment having closed sides and bottom except

for a comparatively small inlet connected to a main body of water. It
buffers waves or surges while permitting the water level within the well to
rise and fall with major fluctuations of the main water body. Used with
water measuring devices to improve accuracy of measurement.
Storage coefficient
The volume of water an aquifer releases from or takes into storage, per
unit surface area of the aquifer in per unit change in head.
xxxviii
March 2009
Glossary
Term
Description
Storm drain
A particular storm drainage system component that receives runoff from

inlets and conveys the runoff to some point. They are either closed
conduits or open channels connecting to two or more inlets.
Stress irrigation
Management of irrigation water to apply less than enough water to satisfy

the soil-water deficiency in the entire root zone. Preferred term is limited
irrigation or deficit irrigation.
Structural BMPs
Devices which are constructed to provide temporary storage and

treatment of runoff runoff.
Subcritical flow
Flow characterised by high velocities, large depths, mild slopes and a

Froude number less than 1.0.
Subhumid climate
Climate characterized by moderate rainfall and moderate to high

evaporation potential. A region is usually considered subhumid when
precipitation averages more than 20 inches (500 mm) per year, but less
than 40 inches (1,000 mm) per year.
Subirrigation
Applying irrigation water below the ground surface either by raising the
water table or by using a buried perforated or porous pipe system that
discharges water directly into the plant root zone. Primary source of water
for plant growth is provided by capillary rise of soil water above the water
table (up flux) or capillary water movement away from the line source.
Subsurface drainage
The removal of excess water and salts from soils via groundwater flow to
the drains, so that the watertable and root zone salinity are controlled
Subsurface drainage
system
A man-made system that induces excess water and salts to flow via the
soil to wells, mole drains, pipe drains, and/or open drains, from where it
can be evacuated
Succulent
A plant with fleshy leaves containing juice or sap, adaptation for arid
climates.
Sump
A collector of rainwater, generally of rectangular shape, in the sole of a

box gutter and connected to a downpipe within the building perimeter.
Its function is to increase the head of water at the entry to the downpipe
and thus increasing its capacity.
Surface drainage
system
A system for the collection and conveyance of runoff, the elements which
includes kerbs and gutters, site runoff drains or channels and
appurtenances and pumped systems.
Surface irrigation
Broad class of irrigation systems in which water is distributed over the soil
surface by gravity flow (preferred term is surface irrigation method).
Surge irrigation
A surface irrigation technique wherein flow is applied (typically to furrows

or less commonly borders) intermittently during a single irrigation set.
Suspended
constituent
The constituents in a water sample (the residue) that are retained on a

filter medium. The type of filter must be specified.
March 2009
xxxix
Glossary
Term
Description
Suspension
A system in which very small particles (e.g. solid, semi-solid or liquid) are
more or less uniformly dispersed in a liquid or gaseous medium. If the
particles are small enough to pass through filter membranes, the system
is termed a colloidal suspension. If the particles are larger than colloidal
dimensions they will tend to precipitate if heavier than the suspending
medium, or if lighter, to agglomerate and rise to the surface.
Swale
A natural or human-made open depression or wide, shallow ditch that

intermittently contains or conveys runoff. Can be used as a BMP to detain
and filter runoff.
Tailwater runoff
Surface irrigation system water leaving a field or farm from the

downstream end of a graded furrow, corrugation, border. Best surface
irrigation distribution uniformity across the field is obtained with 30 to 50
percent tailwater runoff, unless tailwater reuse facilities are used.
Tensiometer
Instrument, consisting of a porous cup filled with water and connected to

a manometer or vacuum gauge, used for measuring the soil-water matric
potential.
Threshold
concentration
A concentration, where if above will produce some effect (or response)

and vice versa.
Time of
concentration
The time required for water to travel from the hydraulically most distant
point to the outlet of a drainage area.
Total dissolved solids

(TDS)
The total dissolved mineral constituents of water.
Total dynamic head
Head required to pump water from its source to the point of discharge.
Equal to the static lift plus friction head losses in pipes and fittings plus
velocity head.
Total suction head
Head required to lift water from a water source to the centerline of the
pump impeller plus velocity head, entrance losses, and friction losses in
suction pipeline.
Toxicity
The inherent potential or capacity of a material to cause adverse effects in

a living organism.
Toxicity test
The means by which the toxicity of a chemical or other test material is

determined. It is used to measure the degree of response produced by
exposure to a specific level of stimulus (or concentration of chemicals).
Translocation
Movement of water to other area(s) than where it was applied.
Transmissivity
The rate at which water of the prevailing kinematic viscosity is transmitted

through a unit width of the aquifer under a unit hydraulic gradient, equal
to the hydraulic conductivity times the aquifer thickness.
Transpiration
The process of plant water uptake and use, beginning with absorption
through the roots and ending with transpiration at the leaf surfaces. See
Evapotranspiration.
Trapezoidal flume
A calibrated open-channel structure with sidewalls inclined to the

horizontal, used to measure flow of water. Measurement is based on the
principle of critical flow at a critical section.
xl
March 2009
Glossary
Term
Description
Trapezoidal weir
A sharp-crested weir of trapezoidal-shape.
Trash rack
A protective structural device installed to protect outlet structures from

inflowing debris.
Travel time
The time interval required for water to travel from one point to another
through a part (reach) of a watershed.
Treatment control
BMPs
These are methods of treatment to remove pollutants from the runoff.

Treatment control BMPs are also known as structural controls. These
controls do require maintenance.
Treatment train
A series of BMPs or natural features, each designated to treat a different

constituent, component, or aspect of runoff, implemented together to
maximise pollutant removal effectiveness.
Triangular weir
A sharp-crested V-notch weir. Most common is 90 degree V-notch, but it

can be any angle.
Trickle irrigation
A micro irrigation system (low pressure and low volume) wherein water is
applied to the soil surface as drops or small streams through emitters.
Preferred term is Drip irrigation.
Tubewell drainage
The control of an existing or potential high watertable, or of artesian

groundwater through a group of adequately-spaced wells.
Tubewell drainage
System
A network of tubewells to lower the watertable, including provisions for

running the pumps, and drains to dispose of the excess water.
Turbidity
Cloudiness of water due to suspended solids.
Turbulence
Unorganised movement in liquids and gases resulting from the eddy

formation.
Turnout
See Delivery box.
Unavailable soil
water
That portion of water in a soil held so tightly by adhesion and other soil
forces that it cannot be absorbed by plants rapidly enough to sustain
growth without permanent damage. The soil water remaining at the
permanent wilting point of plants.
Uniform flow
A state of steady flow where the mean velocity and cross-sectional area
remain constant.
Unit hydrograph
The direct runoff hydrograph produced by a storm of given duration such

that the volume of excess rainfall and direct runoff is 1 cm.
Unsaturated flow
Water flow in the unsaturated zone of the soil.
Unsaturated zone
The zone between the land surface and the water table. It includes the
capillary fringe and may contain water under pressure less than that of
the atmosphere.
Unsteady flow
Flow that changes with respect to time.
Uptake
A process by which materials are absorbed and incorporated into a living

organism.
March 2009
xli
Glossary
Term
Description
Vadose zone
See Unsaturated Zone.
Valve
A device to control flow through a closed conveyance system.
Varied Flow
Flow in an open channel where the flow rate and depth change along the
length of the channel.
Variety
A strain of plant produced by artificial breeding.
Vegetated Filter Strip

(VFS)
A facility that is designed to provide runoff quality treatment of

conventional pollutants but not nutrients through the process of
biofiltration.
Velocity head
The energy head (H) created by water movement. The difference in

elevation between the hydraulic grade line (HGL) and energy grade line
(EGL). Described as H = V2/2g, where g = 9.81 m/s2 (acceleration of
gravity).
Venturi flume
Flow measuring device with a contracted throat that causes a drop in the
hydraulic grade line as well as an increase in velocity. Used for both
openchannel and closed pipe flow measurement.
Vortex emitter
A micro irrigation water application device that employs a vortex effect to

dissipate pressure.
Water amendment
(1) Fertilizer, herbicide, insecticide, or other material added to water for

the enhancement of crop production. (2) A chemical water treatment to
reduce drip irrigation system emitter clogging.
Water conveyance
efficiency
Ratio of the volume of irrigation water delivered by a distribution system

to the water introduced into the system.
Water holding
capacity
Total amount of water held in the soil per increment of depth. It is the
amount of water held between field capacity (FC) and oven dry moisture
level, expressed in inch per inch, inch per foot, or total inches for a
specific soil depth. Soils that are not freely drained because they have
impermeable layers can have temporary saturated conditions just above
the impermeable layers. This can temporarily increase water holding
capacity. Sometimes called Total water holding capacity. See Available
water capacity.
Water levelling
A method of landgrading wherein fields are divided into segments and

flooded, and the highs are removed until all soil is beneath the water
surface. Typically used with rice production.
Water logging
The accumulation of excess water on the soil surface or in the root zone
of the soil.
Water quality BMP
A BMP specifically designed for pollutant removal.
Water quality criteria
Scientific data evaluated to derive the recommended limits for water uses.
Water quality inlets
Pre-cast storm drain inlets (oil and grit separators) that remove sediment,
oil and grease, and large particulates from paved area runoff before it
reaches storm drainage systems or infiltration BMPs.
Water rights
State administered legal rights to use water supplies derived from

common law, court decisions, or statutory enactments.
xlii
March 2009
Glossary
Term
Description
Water spreading
Application of water to lands for the purpose of storing it as ground water

for subsequent withdrawal, or A specialized form of surface irrigation
accomplished by diverting water runoff from natural channels or water
courses and spreading the flow over relatively level areas for soil storage
or plant use. Typically does not supply full irrigation needs as they
operate only when there is surface runoff from rainfall or snow melt
events.
Water table
The upper surface of a saturated zone except where that surface is

formed by an impermeable body; or locus of points in soil water at which
the pressure is equal to atmospheric pressure; or the surface where
groundwater is encountered in a well in an unconfined aquifer. The water
table is a particular potentiometric surface.
Water table control
Controlling the water table elevation by pumping water into or discharging

water from a planned subsurface irrigation or drainage system. The water
table is maintained at a nearly constant elevation for each stage of plant
growth and maturity.
Weed
Generally a plant which rapidly reproduces itself in large numbers, and if

not checked, supersedes or destroy cultivated crops or interferes with
their cultivation.
Weir flow
Flow over a horizontal obstruction controlled by gravity.
Weirs
Any of a group of flow measuring devices for open-channel flow. Weirs

can be either sharp-crested or broad-crested. Flow opening may be
rectangular, triangular, trapezoidal (cipolletti), or specially shaped to make
the discharge linear with flow depth (sutro weir). Calibration is based on
laboratory ratings.
Well screen
A perforated casing that provides mechanical stabilization to the inflow

area of a well
Wet pond
A facility that treats runoff for water quality by utilising a permanent pool
of water to remove conventional pollutants from runoff through
sedimentation, biological uptake and plant filtration.
Wetlands
Areas that are inundated or saturated by surface or groundwater at a

frequency and duration sufficient to support, at under normal
circumstances, a prevalence of vegetation typically adapted for life in
saturated soil conditions. Wetlands generally include swamps, marshes
and bogs. This includes wetlands, which are created, restored or
enhanced as part of a mitigation procedure. This does not include
constructed wetlands or surface waters intentionally constructed from
sites that are not wet-lands such as irrigation and drainage ditches, grasslined swales, canals, agricultural detention facilities, farm ponds and
landscape amenities.
Wet-pit stations
Pump stations designed such that the pumps are submerged in a wet well
or sump with the motors and the controls located overhead.
Wilting point
See Permanent wilting point.
Wind movement
Used to calculate reference crop evapotranspiration, usually expressed as

wind speed wind run (average velocity, mph times time in hr/d).
March 2009
xliii
How to Use the Manual

This Manual has been written to serve as a source of information and to
provide guidance to all those involved in irrigation and agricultural drainage
practices in Malaysia. This part is presented essentially to guide potential
users of this Manual towards its efficient and beneficial use. They are
therefore advised to read this part first before proceeding to read the rest of
the Manual.
New users are advised to firstly read the background material in this preface.
Users seeking to overview the various systems and technologies should then
study Part A, particularly Chapter 3. Those seeking information on specific
subject may proceed to the relevant Chapter, as described in Section below.
Readers will find it necessary on occasion to refer to other Chapters for
relevant information. This has been done to avoid duplication of material.
Irrigated agriculture requires a multi-skilled and multi-disciplinary approach
and it should not be expected that each Chapter to be self-contained.
However each Chapter is as complete as possible in the coverage of its own
subject material.
Finally, the Manual does not contain site-specific guidelines on practices and
requirements for particular locations. It would be inappropriate to include
such material in a Manual with national coverage. It is recommended that
local Guidelines be developed, following the principles and procedures set out
in this Manual.
THE PURPOSE OF THIS MANUAL
Goal and Objectives
This Manual has been documented to provide guidance for planning and design of cost-efficient
irrigation and agricultural drainage systems for agricultural producers, planners, irrigation engineers,
agriculturists, government officials, consultants and others who have interests in the latest practices
for agricultural development and redevelopment in Malaysia.
The importance of good irrigation and drainage systems is vital to produce acceptable quality and
maximum yield of crops. Today's management of agricultural water requires using the best
information and techniques that current technology can provide in the planning, design, evaluation,
and management of irrigation systems. In this direction, irrigation and drainage systems should be
designed and managed with appropriate technology and to meet local crop growing conditions. The
relationship between crops, soil, water and atmosphere is the foundation for planning and designing
of any irrigation project as well as sound water and drainage management. Installed systems for
new projects and/or rehabilitation and renovations should ensure that water is applied in amounts as
intended by the design. Accordingly, drainage water from an irrigation system should be managed to
control water table, increase reuse, reduce erosion and help control adverse impacts. This necessity
underpins the standard guidelines for designing irrigation and drainage systems which will be
compatible for the countrys irrigated crops.
The Manual will have multiple objectives, including to:
xliv
develop a well-planned irrigation and drainage system in which all necessary water control
structures need to be installed for efficient distribution of irrigation water and proper
draining of excess water from agricultural lands
practice efficient crop irrigation and drainage of agricultural lands
achieve proper irrigation scheduling practices for various crops
practice proper water table management system
increase in crop production and quality of produce.
March 2009
These objectives will be seen as being achieved when the planning and design of a new irrigation
and drainage system facilities is adequate to service the requirements of new and future agricultural
developments for crop production.
Scope
The Manual covers all aspects and requirements to develop irrigation and drainage systems
efficiently for all types of irrigated crops in the country. The Manual also covers special uses for
irrigation and drainage systems. It is furnished with the technical information for designing the
systems and appropriate worked examples in a systematic way, which helps users to understand
better the design process of different irrigation and drainage systems.
Required Knowledge
This Manual is not a training document. Engineers, planners and others who are interested in
applying the guidelines set out in this Manual should have undertaken an appropriate course of study
at tertiary level. Irrigated agriculture is a complex system that requires a multi-disciplinary
knowledge such as agronomy, hydrology, water resources, hydraulics and various engineering
applications. Therefore, a good background with some relevant technical knowledge is necessary to
design and develop the proper irrigation and drainage systems.
GENERAL GUIDELINE
A thorough understanding of chapters 2, 3 and 4 is highly recommended for a good start.
Attendance to courses pertaining to this Manual would be helpful wherever such opportunity is
available.
The concept of modern irrigation and agricultural drainage is relatively new to the country and a
paradigm shift would be required to turn around traditional practices. New users who are not familiar
are advised to grasp this new concept first and have an appreciation of the need to enhance the
irrigation and drainage system while meeting the level of protection from negative impacts of
applying excess irrigation water and agricultural runoff through engineering planning, design,
construction and operation and maintenance (O&M).
The Manual explains the design of each irrigation and drainage system, as well as supporting
components in separate chapters. Users should explore maximum combinations of these components
as are practicable to meet their design objectives. Users should not limit themselves only to the
material available within this Manual but also to have initiatives in further research to enhance their
design and to help build up knowledge in this aspect, which can subsequently complement the
Manual.
It is also imperative that users of this Manual understand that it is a guideline and the applicability of
which depends on many factors such as:
Adoption of the Manual and the extent of its adoption by the Authorities;
Necessary adjustments to suit administrative requirements of each Relevant Authority;
Reforms and changes in institutional and legal matters pertaining to irrigation and drainage
that may take place in the country; and
Site conditions.
Users are therefore advised to consult the authorities first about the application of the Manual for
their project and determine the current institutional and legal framework including the administrative
procedures pertaining to agricultural irrigation and drainage.
MANUAL FORMAT
This Manual has seventeen (17) Chapters. It is divided into five (5) parts according to different main
topics that form the Manual. It is published as Volume 5 of DID Manual Series. Each part will further
March 2009
xlv
be divided into subsequent chapters. At the end of the Manual, glossary, symbols and abbreviations
are presented (see Table of Contents).
Part A contains three (3) chapters that describe overall background information on irrigation and
drainage systems, irrigated agriculture, administration aspects and system and technology.
Part B furnishes information on planning processes, water demand estimation for an agricultural
development project, hydraulic fundamentals and computer application in irrigation and agricultural
drainage.
Part C contains five (5) chapters. The first two (2) chapters describe planning and design
procedures for water intake facilities and conveyance systems for different types of irrigation
systems. The remaining three (3) chapters contain detailed planning and design of various irrigations
systems compatible for irrigated crops in Malaysia.
Part D contains three (3) chapters. This part provides technical information on planning and designs
for different agricultural drainage systems. The part describes about surface drainage, subsurface
drainage, drainage and sub-irrigation. This part also contains a chapter on drainage water control
and disposal techniques.
Part E contains only two (2) chapters. This part provides information and guidelines for important
hydraulic structures, crop production infrastructures and farm access facilities. The first chapter of
this part describes guidelines for different irrigation and drainage structures commonly used in
irrigation schemes. The last chapter covers the design guidelines for roads and bridges.
In each design chapter, background information, design criteria, design procedure, design examples
and general maintenance considerations are provided to assist the users. Diagrams and photographs
have been used wherever appropriate to illustrate the system in design processes.
In brief, the chapters of this Manual describe:
crop characteristics pertaining to irrigation

soil-plant relationships and irrigation water demand
system and technology used in irrigated agriculture
planning farm irrigation and drainage systems
design guidelines for irrigation water intake facilities
design of conveyance systems for irrigation water and on-farm distribution system
design criteria and design procedures for surface, sprinkler and micro irrigation methods and
the variety of systems for each method that can be adaptable to meet local crop, water, site
conditions and irrigation concerns
design procedures for different types of agricultural drainage systems and their suitability
design criteria and procedures for important irrigation and drainage structures and
conveyance systems
design guideline for the proper management of excess water from agricultural activities
design guideline of roads, bridges and crossings for access of farm machineries and
equipment
a brief operation and maintenance is also provided for each chapter of the system design.
The last part of this Manual contains a list of more commonly used irrigation and drainage terms,
abbreviations and symbols used.
Part A
Introduction and Administration
Chapter 1 outlines the geographic, socio-economic, agro-hydro climatologic, current issues and
development of irrigation and agricultural drainage practices. It also discusses about the
opportunities and challenges, irrigated crops and their agro-ecological conditions encountered for
agriculture. At the end, this Chapter indicates new directions for quality crop production in Malaysia.
xlvi
March 2009
Chapter 2 describes the design requirements, institutional and legal framework under which
irrigation and drainage are practiced in Malaysia. The challenge is to ensure that the administration
of the planning, design and maintenance of irrigation and drainage systems is consistent across
relevant Local, State and Federal Authorities.
Chapter 3 briefly introduces different types of irrigation and drainage systems used for modern crop
production and highlights their suitability for Malaysian Agriculture. This chapter is necessary to
consider the variety of crops, soil types, the relative availability of water, diverse hydrological
conditions, the costs of different systems and the fact that all irrigation systems are not adaptable to
all types of crops and environments. Before designing any irrigation and drainage system, this
Chapter will provide useful information for planners, engineers, irrigation professionals, agriculturists
and stakeholders to familiarize with the appropriate systems and to choose the suitable system and
technology for modern farming practices and improvements in quality crop production.
Part B
Planning
Chapter 4 addresses planning strategies towards the development of the sustainable irrigation and
drainage systems. The essential requirements for the planning and design of irrigation and
agricultural drainage systems for existing farming areas, rehabilitation and new developments are
described in this Chapter. Comprehensive irrigation and drainage management plans must be
developed for different areas on a scientific basis to be backed up by adequate legal provisions. This
Chapter also covers drainage development considerations, crop response to drainage facilities, current
and future practices, strategic planning, management practices, field investigations and
determination of design criteria, etc.
Chapter 5 provides procedures for determining total water requirements for an irrigation project. It
described soil-water-plant relationship and the relation of soil characteristics to different irrigation
methods and systems. Several soil properties directly influence the design, management and
operation of an irrigation system.
Chapter 6 briefly discusses fundamental hydraulic concepts, principles and equations that are
inherent in the planning, modelling and design of irrigation and agricultural drainage systems and
hydraulic structures. Hydraulic principles related to the particular irrigation and drainage systems are
provided in the respective design Chapters.
Chapter 7 provides guidelines on computer application for planning and designing irrigation and
drainage systems. Various computer models and software for planning and design purposes currently
being used worldwide are discussed. Most suitable models and software on the perspective of
irrigated agriculture in Malaysia are described.
Part C
Irrigation Design
Chapter 8 contains water intake facilities for farm irrigation systems. Irrigation water is supplied to
the farm either by gravity and/or pumped system from rivers, reservoirs, ponds, lakes and
groundwater. This Chapter includes systematic design of intake facilities required for on-farm
irrigation systems.
Chapter 9 describes the design of various conveyance systems and the on-farm water distribution
system. Water is conveyed from the source to the target fields of the farm in networks of open
channels and/or pipelines. Open channels may be lined or unlined and pipelines partially open to the
atmosphere or pressurized.
Chapter 10 describes the planning and design of various surface irrigation systems, which are
widely used for modern crop production. Types of surface irrigation include basin irrigation, border
and furrow. Surface irrigation involves transporting water across the soil surface, thus using the soil
to convey water along the field length. Basic considerations for choosing the irrigation method,
hydraulic, principles for surface irrigation design, problems, design process and design procedures of
different surface irrigation methods are covered. A worked example for paddy is illustrated for new
irrigation systems.
March 2009
xlvii
Chapter 11 provides a systematic approach for planning and design of applying water by means of
perforated pipes or nozzles operated under pressure to adapt with the local crop environments. With
sprinkler irrigation, water is jetted or sprayed in the air to spread it from the pipe network under
pressure across the soil surface. Brief description of sprinkler irrigation method, systems components,
design criteria and design approach for various components of the sprinkler irrigation systems are
described in systematic way. The basic hydraulics of sprinklers, pipes and pumps are included in a
way that can be easily understood by those with a limited technical or mathematical background. At
the end of this Chapter, step-by-step worked examples are provided for the better understanding of
design process of various components of a system.
Chapter 12 provides systematic planning and design guidelines of applying water directly to each
plant and only the soil immediately surrounding each plant is wetted. This Manual covers a valuable
technical information and guidance for planning and design of micro irrigation system suitable for
local fruits, vegetables and horticulture. The detailed step-by-step planning and design procedures
are addressed considering potential crops under micro irrigation. This includes layout selection,
emitter selection and placement, laterals and submains design, filtration system, application in
greenhouse, chemigation and fertigation systems, pump selection and system maintenance which
are presented. The basic hydraulics of the systems are included in useful way. Worked examples are
provided for users to understand better the design process.
Part D
Drainage Design
Chapter 13 discusses modern land drainage as a key element for continued agricultural and rural
development worldwide. Better perspectives for planning and design of agricultural drainage systems
involve new theories, concepts, methodologies and technologies. This Chapter shows ways to
manage excess water in agriculture, benefits of drainage identifying drainage problems, planning
requirements and solutions for surface drainage system. Special drainage considerations for hilly
areas, peat soils and low-lying farms are discussed in this Chapter. Design examples for various
types of surface drainage components are also given at the end of this Chapter.
Chapter 14 provides a systematic approach for the planning, design, operation and maintenance of
subsurface agricultural drainage systems. It covers drainage planning requirements, design criteria
and different subsurface drainage systems design. The design procedure of controlled drainage and
sub irrigation is also addressed in this Chapter. The Chapter is developed to improve drainage from
agricultural land through better soil and water management, identify drainage problems and their
appropriate solutions and provide technical information on proper drainage practices.
Chapter 15 discusses about the ways to control, reuse, treat and dispose the excess irrigation
water and agricultural runoff safely into the receiving water bodies. Due attention was paid on the
runoff quantity control from the agricultural areas. This Chapter also discusses about the nature of
agricultural pollution and provides the guidelines to calculate and estimate pollutant concentration
and loading from an agricultural plot. The Chapter is useful for the conservation of water resources
and for the protection of aquatic environment.
Part E
Farm Infrastructure
Chapter 16 describes various types of hydraulic structures used in irrigation and drainage systems.
Their functions, selection criteria, design and analysis procedures are available in this Chapter.
Detailed information on a few commonly used hydraulic structures, such as culverts and energy
dissipation structures are not discussed in detail as those hydraulic structures are adequately
addressed in the MSMA (DID, 2000). This Chapter will assist the users to design and analyse
common hydraulic structures used in the agricultural fields.
Chapter 17 provides design guidelines about farm roads and bridges to allow farm machineries and
equipment access to the farm. Good transport networks are important for movement of agricultural
machineries and transporting the harvest from fields. Major irrigation schemes are designed with
proper farm roads to cater for farm mechanisation especially for land preparation and harvesting.
This chapter covers guidelines on farm roads and bridges. These are essentials to interlink among
farms, which are separated by hydraulic boundaries such as canals, drainage and rivers in the
irrigation schemes.
xlviii
March 2009
List of Symbols
Symbol
Description
EMC of pollutant (mg/l)
Viscosity of fluid (N-s/m2)
Psychometric constant [k Pa oc-1]
Arc setting (degrees)
Slope of saturation vapour pressure curve [k Pa oc-1]
Density of water (g.cm3)
Density (kg/m3 and for specific weight is N/m3)
Weight of the liquid per unit volume
Is defined as the dynamic viscosity
The specific weight
El
Difference in elevation between the closed and inlet ends (m)
Change in elevations between points 1 and 2 (m)
(ets)j,k
Total seasonal evapotranspiration for crop j during season k (mm)
fc
Field capacity in percent by volume (%)
Hc
Pressure head difference between downstream end and minimum pressure heads (m)
Hc
Difference between the closed end and minimum pressure head along a multiple
outlet pipeline (m)
He
Static pressure head difference, m(ft) [Positive (+) for uphill and negative (-) for
downhill
(hf)a
Original pipe friction loss (m)
(hf)b
New pipe friction loss (m)
Hs
Allowable variation in subunit pressure head
(L)a
Original pipe length (m)
(L)b
New pipe length (m)
Pressure drop (bars)
pwp
Permanent wilting point in percent by volume (%).
pwp
Field capacity at a particular time in percent by volume (%)
(SIf)j,k
Z
(hm)a
Seasonal irrigation volume required for farm (m3)

Elevation difference between up and downstream positions, m (ft)
Allowable manifold pressure head variation to satisfy the desired emission uniformity
(m)
Area (ha)
Cross-sectional area (m2)
Wetted area of sprinkler (m2)
Catchment area (km2 or ha)
March 2009
xlix
List of Symbols
Symbol
A
Catchment area (ha)
A0
Effective open area per metre screen length (m2/m)
A1
Surface area at elevation 1 (m2)
A2
Surface area at elevation 2 (m2)
Aetc
Total annual crop water demand (mm/year)
Ai
Area irrigated by the emission device (m2)
Ai
Area irrigated (m2)
Ap
Peak application rate (mm/hr)
As
Wetted soil surface area by sprayer (m2)
At
Total drainage area (ha)
Aw
Drainage area per well (ha)
AW
Available water (cm)
Nozzle diameter (mm)
Distance between lines of wells (m)
Depth from the drawdown curve to barrier stratum at midpoint between the drains (m)
BD
Description
Bulk density (g/ml)
Correction factor, which depends on the relative humidity, light hours and wind
Concentration of fertilizer source (N-P-K, decimal)
Drainage coefficient
Coefficient, generally 0.5 for subcritical flow
Cd
Desired concentration of chemical in the solution to be injected (%)
CI
Coarseness Index of Sprinkler
Ci
Concentration of chemical in the solution to be injected (%)
CL
Connection loss
CU
Christiansen Uniformity
Cv
The manufacturers coefficient of variation for point or line source emitters
Cvm
Manufacturing coefficient of variation
Cvm
Emitter coefficient of manufacturing variation
Depth
Inside pipe diameter (mm)
Average size of soil particle (mm)
The diameter of the pressurised conduit
Da
Depth of water applied (mm/day)
March 2009
List of Symbols
Symbol
Description
Db
Bulk density
DDIR
Design daily irrigation requirements for D mm (mm/day)
Depa
Distribution efficiency for the desired percentage adequacy, %
Dg
Gross depth of water application per irrigation to satisfy uniformity, leaching and
unavoidable losses (mm)
Dg
Gross depth of water application per irrigation (mm)
Dm
Amount that can be applied without runoff (mm)
Dn
Net depth to be applied per irrigation to meet consumptive use requirements (mm)
DP
Deep percolation
Dp
Particle density (specific gravity)
Drj
Drainage requirement from the paddy field during j-th week (cm)
Drz
Depth of root zone (cm)
DU
Distribution uniformity
DU
Application Uniformity
Dx
Maximum net depth of water to be applied per irrigation (mm)
Annual erosivity (units of J/m2)
Ea
Application efficiency (%)
Ec
Conveyance efficiency (%)
Ece
Average soil salinity tolerated by the crop as measured on a soil saturation extract.
Ecw
Salinity of the applied irrigation water in ds/m
Ed
Distribution efficiency (%)
EH
Heat energy
Ei
Irrigation application efficiency (%)
Ei
Irrigation efficiency (%)
EM
The mechanical energy
Epa
Design application efficiency based on adequately irrigating percentage of field, %
Epan
Evaporation from the pan (mm/d)
Eps
Evaporation loss from saturated soil surface (mm/day)
ER
Effective rainfall (mm/day)
Erj
Effective rainfall during the period (cm)
Erj,k
Seasonal effective rainfall for crop j during year k (mm)
Es
Es ea
ET
Seasonal irrigation efficiency (%)

Saturation vapour pressure deficit [kpa]
Evapotranspiration (mm/day)
Etadj
Adjusted crop water requirement (mm/day)
Etc
Crop evapotranspiration (mm)
March 2009
li
List of Symbols
Symbol
lii
Description
Etc
Crop evapotranspiration (consumptive water use), mm/day
Etcj
Evapotranspiration from the paddy field during the period (cm)
Etd
Average daily evapotranspiration during peak-use period (mm)
Etj
Crop evapotranspiration during j-th day/week (cm)
Eto
The evapotranspiration for a clipped grass reference crop (mm/day)
EU
The design emission uniformity (%)
Irrigation interval or frequency (days)
Constant for the number of outlets (sprinklers or laterals)
Reduction coefficient to compensate for the discharge along the pipe
Multiple outlet friction reduction coefficient
Friction factor from the Moody diagram
Irrigation interval or frequency (days)
The total force on any shape of flat surface
FC
Field capacity (%) w/w
Fc
A conversion factor, 58.5 when area A is in km2, or 92.5 when area is in ha
Fr
Froude number
Fx
Maximum irrigation interval (days)
Soil heat flux density [MJ m-2day-1]
Daily gross volume of water required per plant during peak use period (L/day)
Acceleration due to gravity 9.81 (m/s2)
The gravitational acceleration
Acceleration of gravity (9.81 m/s2)
Sprinkler operating pressure head, m (ft)
Pressure head (m)
Height of capillary rise (mm)
Ha
Average sprinkler operating pressure head (m)
Ha
Average emitter pressure head (m)
Hc
Capillary rise, cm
Hd
Dike height of the paddy field in cm
Hf
Friction head loss with lateral with length L (m)
Hf
Manifold pipe friction head loss (m)
Hf
Head loss due to pipe friction, m(ft)
Hf
Energy loss in pipeline between up and downstream positions, m (ft)
Hf
Pipe friction head loss (m)
Hf
Manifold pipe friction head loss (m)
March 2009
List of Symbols
Symbol
Description
Hfa
Average friction head loss (m)
Hfp
Head loss due to friction for a single lateral with a total length and flow equal to that
of the pair of laterals (m)
Hfx
Friction head loss from x to the closed end (m)
Hfx
Friction head loss from x on a multiple outlet pipeline to the closed end (m)
HL
Average lateral inlet pressure head (m)
HL
Inlet pressure head for the pair of laterals (m)
Hl
Lateral inlet pressure head, m (ft)
Hl
The head loss
Hm
Manifold inlet pressure head after
Hm
Manifold inlet pressure (m)
Hn
Minimum pressure head along the lateral (m)
Hp
The head loss due to friction for the same flow rate in a non-distributing pipe of the
same diameter and length
HPD
Actual system operation time (hrs/day) to cover the entire area
Hr
Height of riser, m (ft)
Hv
Velocity Head
Hx
Hydraulic gradient at point x along a pipe friction curve that is tangent to the HGL (m)
Application rate (mm/hr)
The hydraulic gradient (m/m)
Second moment of area
IE
Ief
Ief
Overall irrigation efficiency which is usually 80-90%.
IR
Irrigation water requirement (mm/day)
Irj
Amount of irrigation water supplied during j-th day/week (cm)
IRLS
Presaturation water requirement (mm/day)
Iw
The density of water (1 gm/cc)
Head loss gradient (m/100m)
Ja
Lateral head loss gradient
Unit constant (K = 16667 for SDC in l/min and DDIR in mm/day and A in ha;
K = 45354 for SDC in gpm and DDIR in in/day and A in acre)
10 unit constant when sivf is in m3
Conversion constant, 60 for metric units (96.3 for English units)
Unit constant (K = 100.0 when Ll and L are in m and Af is in ha; K = 435.6 when Ll
and L are in ft and Af is in acre.)
Friction factor for pipe materials
March 2009
liii
List of Symbols
Symbol
K
Unit conversion (K = 7.89 x 107 for pipe diameter < 125 mm and K = 9.58 x 107 for
pipe diameter > 125 mm)
Conversion constant (K = 1273)
Hydraulic conductivity (in/hr or m/s)
Kc
Crop coefficient
Kc
Crop coefficient for rice
Kd
Discharge coefficient for the sprinkler nozzle
Kd
Emitter discharge coefficient (depends on units)
Kd
Emitter discharge coefficient
Km
Scale factor for adjusting manifold pressure head values taken from a standard unit
friction curve
Kp
Pan coefficient US Weather Service Class-A Pan
Kr
Resistance coefficient for fitting or valve
Ks
Factor for several pipe materials
Kv
Flow factor (m3/hr) flow rate with head loss of 1 bar
Distance
Length
Manifold length (m)
Spacing (m)
Pipe length (m)
Annual load of pollutant (kg)
Event load in kg/km2/ day,
Lc
Centroid of the area from the liquid surface
Lf
Point of action of the total force
Ll
Length of lateral (m, ft)
Lmin
Minimum screen length (m)
Lp
Length of a pair of manifolds (m)
LR
Leaching requirement expressed as a fraction
LR
The minimum leaching requirement needed to control salts within the tolerance (ece)
of the crop with ordinary surface methods of irrigation
Lrt
Leaching requirement
LS
Irrigation requirements for land shocking (mm/day)
MAD
Management allowed deficit (%)
MAD
Management allowed deficit (%)
Mg
liv
Description
Magnesium
March 2009
List of Symbols
Symbol
Description
Ml
Minor losses for fittings pipeline, m (ft)
Ml
Friction head loss due to pipe fitting, m (ft)
Ms
Residual stored soil moisture from off-season precipitation (mm)
Number
Manning roughness coefficient
Completed presaturation periods in days
Na
Sodium
Ne
Number of emitters along the lateral
Nemin
Minimum number of emitters per plant, or at least one
Nep
No. of emission points in the field
NIS
Normal irrigation duty during the crop growth stages (mm/day)
Nl
Number of laterals operating simultaneously
NO2
Nitrite
NO3
Nitrate
Np
Number of emitters per plant
NR
Reynolds number
Nr
Number of rows served from a common main line outlet
Ns
Number of operating sprinklers
Ns
Number of operating stations
Percentage daily sunshine hours
Percent of area irrigated (%)
Rainfall
Pumping rate at maximum inflow rate (m3/s)
Wetted perimeter (ft)
Percent of crop area being irrigated (P = 30 to 100%)
Pressure
Annual rainfall (mm)
P1, p2
Pa
Pressures
Atmospheric (datum) pressure
Pabs
Absolute pressure
Pav
Average pressure (kpa)
Pd
Percentage of soil surface area shaded by crop canopies at midday (%)
Pds
Pressure at downstream position, kpa (psi)
Pf
Percent of total field irrigated when the system is operating
Pf
Pressure loss due to pipe friction, kpa (psi)
March 2009
lv
List of Symbols
Symbol
Pf
Percent of total field irrigated when the system is operating
Pg
Gauge pressure
Pl
Lateral inlet pressure, kpa (psi)
Pmax
Maximum pressure (kpa)
Pmin
Minimum pressure (kpa)
Pr
Pressure required to lift water up the rises, 9.81 kpa/m (0.43 psi/ft)
PS
Perimeter of the area directly wetted by the sprayers (m)
Ps
Percent area shaded-the average horizontal area shaded at midday by the crop
canopy as a percentage of the total crop area
Pus
Pressure at upstream position, kpa (psi)
Pw
The percentage wetted area (%)
Pw
Percent area wetted-the average horizontal area wetted in the top part of the crop
root zone as a percentage of the total crop area
Flow rate
Sprinkler discharge
Drainage coefficient (in/hr or cm/hr)
Qa
Average emitter discharge (L/hr)
Qi
Inflow hydrograph peak flow rate (m3/s)
Qideal
Qm
Ideal flow assuming no energy loss

Manifold discharge (L/s)
Qmax
Maximum flow rate (m3/s)
Qmin
The minimum emitter discharge rate in the system (l/h)
Qo
Allowable peak outflow rate (m3/s)
Qrs
Recommended irrigation supply for a tertiary canal, m3s-1
Qs
Total system capacity ((L/s)
Qt
Average pump operating time per season (hr)
Qvar
lvi
Description
Average flow rate (m3/s)
Affecting surface runoff water
Hydraulic radius (ft)
Rate of application (lbs/ac)
Channel centreline radius (m)
Average annual runoff depth (mm)
Re
Effective portion of water applied
Re
Fraction of the water emitted by the nozzle that reaches to the soil which takes
into account the evaporative or wind loss
March 2009
List of Symbols
Symbol
Description
Re
Reynolds number
Rfj
Rainfall during j-th week (cm)
Ri
Rate at which the chemical solution is to be added to the supply water (l/h, gpm)
RIC
Rate of irrigation coverage, ha/hr (acres/hr)
Rj
Radius of wetted area (m)
Rn
Net radiation at the crop surface [MJ m-2 day1]
Rn
Effective rain during the growing season (mm)
Spacing between emission points (m)
Slope of the manifold (m)
Absolute slope of the HGL to which the pipe friction curve is tangent (%)
Changes in soil water storage
Sa
Angular segment wetted by a stationary sprinkler jet in degrees
SAT
Supplementary irrigation duty (mm/day)
Sd
Desired wetting depth
Sdm
Standard deviation
Se
Spacing between emitters on the lateral, m (ft)
Se
Emitter spacing-the spacing between emitters or emission points along a lateral m (ft)
Se
Spacing between emission points (m)
Se
Spacing between emitters on a lateral (m)
Sirj,k
Seasonal irrigation requirement for crop j during season k (mm)
Sl
Lateral spacing along the main line, m (ft)
Sl
Lateral discharge (L/s)
Sp
Spacing between plant (m)
SP
Seepage and Percolation
SP
Seepage-percolation loss (mm/day)
Spj
Water lost through seepage and deep percolation loss during j-th day/week (cm)
Sr
Spacing between rows (m)
Sr
Spacing between plant adjacent rows (m)
ST
Required traveller speed (m/min)
Sw
Width of the strip to be wetted by emitters on a lateral (m)
SW
Additional supply to maintain the required standing water depth (mm/day)
Swj
Ponding water depth in the field during j-th day/week (cm)
Swmax
Desired or maximum Standing water depth the period (cm)
Air temperature
Time
March 2009
lvii
List of Symbols
Symbol
T
Width of water surface in channel (m)
Tc
The time of concentration (minute)
Td
Average daily transpiration rate during the peak-use month (mm/day)
TDH
Total dynamic head (m, ft)
TI
The irrigation interval
Ti
Time base of the inflow hydrograph (minutes)
Tp
Time to peak of the inflow hydrograph (minutes)
TR
Seasonal transmission ratio
TR
Peak use period transmission ratio
Tw
Tubewell operating factor
Velocity
U2
Wind speed at 2 m height [m sec-1]
Ud
Estimated average daily consumptive use rate during the peak-use month (mm/day)
Velocity of the water (m)
Volume
Pump storage between two levels (m3)
Mean velocity
Mean channel velocity (m/s)
Ve
Screen entrance velocity (m/s)
Vi
Inflow hydrograph runoff volume (m3/s)
Vp
Volume of pores (both air and water)
VR
Annual runoff depth (MM)
Vs
Volume of solids
Vs
System coefficient of manufacturing variation
Vs
Estimated storage volume (m3/s)
Vt
Travel speed (m/min)
Vw
Volume of water
Wa
Available water holding capacity of the soil (mm/m)
Wad
Allowed water deficit (mm or m3/ha)
Waf
Allowed depletion fraction of the available water
WD
Wetted diameter or radius of nozzle (mm, ft)
Wgr
Gross water requirement (mm/day)
WHP
lviii
Description
Water horsepower (KW, hp)
WP
Wilting point (%) w/w
Ws
Weight of soil solids (oven dry)
March 2009
List of Symbols
Symbol
Description
WS
Wind speed, km/hr
Ww
Weight of soil water
Exponent for nozzle i
Distance from the closed end of a lateral (m)
Emitter pressure-discharge exponent in which x = 1.0 for laminar flow, x = 0.57 for
turbulent flow in the smooth pipe and x = 0.50 for full turbulent flow in the small tube
Distance from the closed end of the manifold (m)
Xi
Absolute deviation of the individual observations from the mean (mm)
XLQ
Amount of low-quarter average depth or volume caught or infiltrated
Xm
Mean flow rate
Manifold position ration (x/Lp)
Inlet to minimum pressure head adjustment factor for pairs of laterals
EL
Elevation difference between the closed and inlet ends of a manifold (m)
ep
Absolute difference in elevation between the outlet ends of the pair of laterals (m)
HL
Pressure head variation along the average lateral (m)
hm
Pressure head variation along the manifold (m)
hs
Allowable subunit pressure head variation that gives the desired design uniformity (m)
Swj-1
Ponding water depth in the field during (j-1) th day/week (cm)
V1,2
Storage volume between elevations 1 and 2 (m3)
March 2009
lix
List of Abbreviations
Abbreviation
Description
AADT
Average annual daily traffic
ACT
Australian capital territory
ADT
Annual daily traffic
AHW
Allowable high water
ARR
Australian rainfall and runoff
ARI
Average recurrence interval
ASCE
American society of civil engineers
ASR
Aquifer storage recovery
ASTM
American standard and testing methods
BMPs
Best management practices
BOD
Biochemical oxygen demand
BORDEV
Border irrigation development
BSI
British Standard Institute
CAD
Computer aided design
CADD
Computer aided design and drafting
CBR
California bearing ratio
CDS
Continuous deflective separation
CLIMWAT
Climate water
CMP
Catchment management plan or corrugated metal pipe
CMPA
Corrugated metal pipe arch
COD
Chemical oxygen demand
CR
Community retention
CRCCH
Cooperative research centre for catchment hydrology
CRCFE
Cooperative research centre for fresh water
CROPWAT
Crop water
CSSRI
Central Soil Salinity Research Institute
CSUID
Colorado state university irrigation and drainage model
Cumec
Cubic metre per second (unit of water flow)
CUP
Consumptive use program
DCP
Discharge control pit
DID
Department of Irrigation and Drainage
DIAD
Division of Irrigation and Agricultural Drainage
DOE
Department of Environment
DRAINMOD
Drainage, water table management systems
DRAINSAL
Drainage salinity
lx
March 2009
Abbreviation
Description
DRIPD
Drip irrigation design
DSS
Decision support system
DTM
Digital terrain model
EAP
Emergency action plan
ED
Extended detention
EGL
Energy grade line
EIA
Environmental impact assessment
EMC
Event mean concentration
EMP
Environmental management plan
EnDrain
Drainage equations
EPA
Environmental Protection Agency
EPU
Economic Planning Unit
ESCP
Erosion and sediment control plan
ESD
Ecologically sustainable development
FAO
Food and agricultural organization
FDT
Field density test
FERGON
For designing fertigation system
FIDO
Furrow irrigation design optimizer
FO
Farmers organization
FRC
Fibre reinforced cement
FURDEV
Furrow irrigation development
GIS
Geographical information system
GL
General limitations
GPT
Gross pollutant trap
GUI
Graphical user interface
HAT
Highest astronomical tide
HEC
Hydrological engineering centre
HGL
ICP
Integrated catchment planning
ICT
Information and communication technologies
IDF
Intensity duration frequency
IKRAM
Institut Kerja Raya Malaysia
ILLUDAS
Illinois urban drainage area simulator
ILRI
International Land Resources Institute
INWQS
Interim national water quality standard
March 2009
lxi
Abbreviation
Description
IrriCAD Pro
Irrigation design software
JKR
Jabatan Kerja Raya (Public Works Department)
kW
Kilo watt
LAT
Lowest astronomical tide
LCD
Litter collection devices
LGA
Local government act
LSD
Land survey datum
MAR
Mean annual rainfall
MDD
Maximum dry density
MHHW
Mean higher high water
MICROS
For designing micro sprinkler system
MLHW
Mean lower high water
MOM
Management, Operation and Maintenance
MPN
Most probable number
MSLE
Modified soil loss equation
MSMA
Manual Saliran Mesra Alam (Urban Stormwater Management Manual for Malaysia)
MUSLE
Modified universal soil loss equation
NGO
Non-government organisations
NLC
National land code
NOI
Notice of intent
NPS
Non-point source
NTU
Nephelometric turbidity unit
NWRC
The national water resources council
OMC
Optimum moisture content
PCU
Passenger car unit
PDE
Partial differential equation
PE
Polyethylene
PFDC
Precision farming development centre
PHL
Piezometric head line
PMF
Probable maximum flood
PMP
Probable maximum precipitation
ppb
Parts per billion (g/l)
ppm
Parts per million (mg/l)
PSD
Permissible site discharge
PSE
Preliminary site evaluation
QA
Quality assurance
lxii
March 2009
Abbreviation
Description
QC
Quality control
QUDM
Queensland Urban Drainage Manual
RatHGL
Rational method hydrology with HGL calculation
RIMIS
Rice irrigation management information system
RRPM
Reflectorised raised pavement marker
RS
Remote sensing
RTC
Real-time control
SALTMOD
Salinity model
SBTR
Sedimentation basin trash rack
SCS
Soil conservation services
SD
Standard drawing
SDBA
Street, Drainage and Building Act
SEH
Sewer extra heavy
Sg.
Sungai (river)
SIC
Simulation of irrigation canals
SIMETAW
Simulation of evapotranspiration of applied water
SIRMOD III
Surface irrigation models package
SP
Soluble phosphorus
SPCSP
Standard plate corrugated steel pipe
SPCSPA
Structural plate corrugated steel pipe arch
SPRINKMOD
Sprinkler simulation model
SPT
Standard penetration test
SRC
Steel reinforced cement
SS
Suspended solids
SSR
Site storage requirement
STM
Stormwater treatment measure
SURDEV
Surface irrigation development
SWAP
Soil water atmosphere plant
SWM
Stormwater management
SWMA
Selangor waters management authority
SWMAE
Selangor waters management enactment
SWMM
Stormwater management model
TCM
Total catchment management
TCPD
Town and Country Planning Department
TDH
Total dynamic head
March 2009
lxiii
Abbreviation
Description
TKN
Total kjedahl nitrogen
TN
Total nitrogen
TP
Total phosphorus
TRRL
Transport and road research laboratory
TSS
Total suspended solids
UO
Users association
UPVC
Unplasticised polyvinyl chloride
USC
Unified soil classification
USDA
United States Department of Agriculture
USLE
Universal soil loss equation
VFS
Vegetated filter strips
WADISO
Water distribution system analysis and optimization
WQV
Water quality volume
WSE
Water surface elevation
WUA
Water users association
lxiv
March 2009
SI and English Units and Conversion Factor

The International System of Units recognizes seven basic units from which all others are derived.
They are:
No.
Quantity
Name of Unit
Symbol
length
meter
mass
kilogram
kg
time
second
electric current
ampere
temperature
kelvin
luminous intensity
candela
cd
amount of substance
mole
mol
Multiples of units are designated by the following names:

Amount
Prefix
Symbol
Amount
-1
Prefix
Symbol
10
deca
da
10
deci
102
hecto
10-2
senti
-3
milli
-6
micro
-9
nano
kilo
10
mega
10
giga
10
M
G
10
10
10
This appendix presents the SI and English (imperial) units, which are used in various areas of
transportation engineering, and their conversion factors. Some metric units and factors that are not
listed in the SI but are commonly used and remain internationally recognized are also included.
Examples are the units of centimeter (10-2 m), hour (3.6 X 103 s) and kilowatt-hour (3.6 MJ) and
multiples of 10, 102, l0-1, and 102.
Units and conversion factors within and between the two systems of measures are presented here
for each dimension in a separate box. The format followed for each dimension is shown in the first
box:
DIMENSION
SI unit (symbol)
English unit (symbol)

Conversion factors
(for conversion in the direction of the arrow, multiply by the number provided)
March 2009
lxv
LENGTH
millimeter (mm)
centimeter (cm)
meter (m)
kilometer (km)
inch (in. '')

foot (ft. ')
yard (yd)
mile (mi)
103 mm = 102 cm = 1 m
103 m = 1 km
36 in. = 3 ft = 1 yd
5280 ft = 1760 yd = 1 mi
mm
m
m
km
25.40
0.0394
0.3048
3.281
0.9144
1.094
l .609
in.
ft
yd
mi
0.6214
AREA
square millimeter (mm2)
square centimeter (cm2)
square meter (m2)
hectare (ha)
square kilometer (km2)
square
square
square
acre
square
106 mm2 = 104 cm2 = 1 m2

106 m2 = 102 ha = 1 km2
1296 in.2 = 9 ft2 = 1 yd2

3,097,600 yd2 = 640
acres = 1 mi2
mm2
6.452
in.2
inch (in.2)
foot (ft2)
yard (yd2)
mile (mi2)
0.1550
m2
m2
ha
0.0929
10.76
0.8361
1.196
0.4047
2.471
ft2
yd2
acre
in.
km2
lxvi
2.590
0.3861
mi2
March 2009
VOLUME
square millimeter (mm3)
square centimeter (cm3 or cc)
liter (l)
cubic meter (m3)
cubic inch (in.3)

quart (qt)
gallon* (g)
cubic foot (ft3)
cubic yard (yd3)
106 mm3 = 103 cm3 = 1 l

106 cm3 = 103 l = 1 m3
46,656 in.3 = 27 ft3 = 1 yd3

4 qt = 1 gal = 231 in.3
1 qt = 57.75 in.3
cm3
16.39
in.3
0.0610
3.785
l
m3
m3
gal
0.2642
0.0283
ft3
35.32
0.7646
yd3
1.308
MASS
gram (g)
kilogram (kg)
(metric) tone or tonne (t)
103 g = 1 kg
103 kg = 1 t
oz
0.0353
kg
March 2009
28.35
0.4536
2.205
0.9072
1.102
1.016
0.9842
lb
ounce (oz)
pound (lb), pounds mass (lbm)
(short) ton (tn+ or stn)long ton (ltn)
16 oz = 1 lb
2000 lb = 1 tn
2240 lb = 1.12 tn = 1 ltn
tn
ltn
lxvii
DENSITY
grams/cubic centimeter (g/cm3)
grams/liter (g/L)
kilograms/cubic meter (kg/m3)
ounces/cubic inch (oz/in.3)

pounds/cubic inch (lb/in.3)
pounds/cubic foot (lb/ft3)
103 kg/m3 = 103 g/L = 1 g/cm3
16 oz/in.3 = 1 lb/in.3 = 1728 lb/ft3

g/cm3
1.743
oz/in.3
0.5737
16.02
g/L
0.0624
kg/m3
0.5933
1.686
lb/in.3
lb/ft3
SPEED
meters/second (m/s)
kilometers/hour (km/h)
10 m/s = 3.6 km/h
m/s
0.3048
ft/s
3.281
1.609
km/h
feet/second (ft/s)
miles/hour (mph)
0.6214
88 ft/s = 60 mph (exact)

(1.1467 ft/s = 1 mph)
mph
ACCELERATION
meters per second squared (m/s2)
(km/h/s is not used)
g = 3.6 km/h
m/s
feet per second squared (ft/s2)

miles per hour per second (mphps)
m/s2
0.3048
ft/s2
3.281
0.4470
2.237
g = 32.18 ft/s2
1 mphps = 1.467 ft/s2
mph
JERK
meters per second cubed (m/s3)
feet per second cubed (ft/s3)
Factors are the same as the corresponding ones for acceleration.
lxviii
March 2009
FORCE, WEIGHT
dyne (dyn)
newton (N)
kilonewton (kN)
(metric) ton or tonne (t) (not in SI)
ounce (oz) (ft/s2)

pound force (lbf)
103 pounds (kip)
(short) ton force (tnf or s.tnf)
106 dynes = 10 N = 0.01 kN

Force = mass x acceleration
3200 oz = 2000 lbf = 1 tnf

4.448
lbf
0.2248
8.896
kN
tnf
0.1124
Force = mass x acceleration

gravity const. (gc)
gc = 32.18 lbm - ft
lbf - s2
LINEAL MASS*
kilograms per meter (kg/m)
pounds per yard (lb/yd)

lb/yd
0.4960
kg/m
2.016
*Common use in transportation: mass of rails.
PRESSURE*
pounds force per square inch (lbf/in.2) (psi)
pounds force per square foot (lbf/ft 2)
pascal (Pa)
kilogram force per square meter (kgf/m2)
6,894.76
1 kgf/m2 = 9.807 Pa
psi
Pa
-4
1.45 x 10
47.88
Pa
0.02089
lbf/ft 2
FUEL CONSUMPTION (C)

AND EFFICIENCY (E)*
(C) liters per 100 kilometers (l /100km)
(C) joules per kilometer (J/km)
(E) kilometers per liter (km/ l)
m/s
(C) gallons per mile (gpm, gal/mi)

(C) British thermal units per mile (Btu/mi)
(E) miles per gallon (mpg, mi/gal)
0.4251
ft/s
2.352
235.2
km/h
0.00425
mph
0.6557 x 103
mph
km/h
1.525 x 103
March 2009
lxix
ENERGY
erg
joule (J)
British thermal unit (Btu)

foot-pound force (ft-lbf)
107 ergs = 1 J
J
J
1055
9.482 x 10-4
1.356
0.7376
Joint units:
watt-hours (Wh)
kilowatt-hours (kWh)
103 Wh = 1 kWh
1 Btu = 779.2 ft-lbf =

118.98 hp-h
ft-lbf
0.3667 x 10-6
3.6 x 106
J
Btu
ft-lbf
kWh
0.2778 x 10-6
2.665 x 106
POWER
ergs per second
horsepower (metric) (HP)
1 HP (metric) = 75 kg-m/s
HP (metric)
foot-pounds force per second (ft-lbf/s)

horsepower (British) (hp)
1 hp (British) = 550 ft-lbf/s
Joint units:
watt (W) [1 W = 1 J/s = 107 ergs/s]
kilowatt (kW)
0.7457
1.360
hp (British)
kW
1.341
0.7355
TORQUE
dyne-centimeter (dyn-cm)
newton-meter (N-m)
107 dyn-cm = 1 N-m
lxx
inch-pounds force (in.-lbf)

foot-pounds force (ft-lbf)
N-m
1.356
0.7376
ft-lbf
12 in.lbf = 1 ft-lbf
March 2009
(This page is deliberately left blank)
March 2009
lxxi
Part A Introduction & Administration

Chapter 1 - Malaysian Perspective
Chapter 1- MALAYSIAN PERSPECTIVE
Table of Contents
Table of Contents .............................................................................................................. 1-i
List of Tables .................................................................................................................... 1-ii
List of Figures ................................................................................................................... 1-ii
1.1
GENERAL .............................................................................................................. 1-1
1.2
GEOGRAPHY.......................................................................................................... 1-1
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.2.1
Physiographic Features and Water Resources ............................................. 1-1
1.2.2
Climate ................................................................................................... 1-3
1.2.3
Socio Economics ...................................................................................... 1-4
1.2.4
Urban Agriculture..................................................................................... 1-5
MALAYSIAN AGRICULTURE..................................................................................... 1-5

1.3.1
Oil Palm and Other Plantation Crops .......................................................... 1-5
1.3.2
Paddy and Other Food Crops .................................................................... 1-7
1.3.3
Floriculture and Other Crops ..................................................................... 1-8
1.3.4
New Agriculture ....................................................................................... 1-8
IRRIGATION AND AGRICULTURAL DRAINAGE ISSUES .............................................. 1-9

1.4.1
Competition for Water Use........................................................................ 1-9
1.4.2
Future Scenarios and Aims for Food Production .......................................... 1-9
1.4.3
Challenges for the Future ......................................................................... 1-11
1.4.4
Modernization and Need for Research and Development Application............. 1-12
THE WAY FORWARD .............................................................................................. 1-13
REFERENCES .................................................................................................................... 1-15
March 2009
1-i
Chapter 1 - MALAYSIAN PERSPECTIVE
List of Tables
Table
Description
Page
1.1
Acreage of Agricultural Land Usage, 1995 2010 (000 ha)
1-6
1.2
Self-sufficiency levels in food commodities, 2000-2010 (%) - NAP3
1-9
List of Figures
Figure
Description
Page
1.1
Physiographic Map of Malaysia
1-2
1.2
Average Monthly Rainfall Variations For Selected Cities and Towns
1-3
1.3
Monsoon Influences
1-4
1.4
Typical View of Urban Agriculture
1-5
1.5
Agroecological Zones of Peninsular Malaysia
1-6
1.6
The Annual Water Demand Projection
1-10
1-ii
March 2009
1
1.1
MALAYSIAN PERSPECTIVE
GENERAL
Malaysia occupies a total area of approximately 330,000 sq. km with the Peninsula, in the west and
Sabah and Sarawak, in the east, separated about 1000 km apart by South China Sea. Malaysia is
influenced by the equatorial climate with relatively frequent floods and infrequent droughts.
Earthquake and volcanic risk belts, land and oceanic, exist around it but away in neighbouring
countries. These hazards have generally posed little effects to Malaysia. Nevertheless, the generated
tsunamis had resulted in some havocs and damages in the north of the west coast of the Peninsula.
Location of Malaysia is strategic in respect to various international air transport, sea transport and
communication routes within Australasia continents. The country is moving towards achieving a
developed nation status by the year 2020. This is evidenced by its rapid socio-economic development
in the last three decades. Urban and industrial growth has spread over many parts of the country,
especially in the west coast of the Peninsula. The pressures from urbanization, however, have
significant negative consequences to the environment, especially water and ecology.
Like many other developing tropical countries, Malaysia is striving to upgrade the social well being of
its population. Since the majority of the poor are living in rural areas, the primary target is to
alleviate rural poverty through land development for agriculture, rearing of livestock and
aquaculture, enhanced crop diversification, higher harvests and productivity, increased profitability of
agricultural enterprises and sustainability of the environment. The food issues are rising in
importance now considering the extent of urbanisation, industrialisation and the impacts of global
warming on water resources. The particular issues being focused upon are best water management
practices through irrigation and drainage systems to provide a more conducive environment for
agricultural production. Modern tools and techniques will lessen the drudgery of agricultural
production while improved yields and productivity will ensure profitability of the agricultural
enterprises.
1.2
GEOGRAPHY
1.2.1
Physiographic Features and Water Resources
Malaysia stretches from latitudes 0o 60' N to 6o 40' N and from longitudes 99o 35' E to 119o 25' E. Its
mountainous areas have steep, heavily forested terrain rising from flat coastal and riverine midland.
Two thirds of the highlands lie above an altitude of 200 m, with a maximum of 2100 m. The states of
Sabah and Sarawak are traversed by relatively dissected highlands, with peaks generally less than
1800 m in height except Gunung Kinabalu (4095 m). Much of the interior, particularly in Sarawak is
densely forested. Interspersed amongst the mountain ranges are the lowlands. Alluvial plains run
from the northeast to the southeast along the west coast of these two states. The physiographic
features of Peninsular Malaysia (Figure 1.1) can be categorized as follows:
Steep mountain ranges in the central region, running in the North-West to South-East
direction, reaching a height of 2,400 m above mean sea level
Coastal plains and gently undulating alluvia of unconsolidated quaternary sediments
Rolling to undulating land on consolidated pre-quaternary formations, in between the above

two regions
Riverine flood plains along major river systems.
Most rivers in the Peninsula are short and steep, especially along the West Coast. Sungai Pahang
(330 km) is the longest in the Peninsula, while Sg. Rajang in Sarawak (563 km) is the longest in
Malaysia. Open water bodies comprise of man-made lakes such as dam reservoirs and ex-tin mining
ponds (mostly found in the Klang and Kinta River Basins) and natural lakes such as Tasik Bera and
Tasik Chini in Pahang. These water sources are used for power generation, flood control, irrigation
and domestic water supply, transportation, recreation, aquaculture and tourism.
March 2009
1-1
Most cities and large towns in the Peninsula are located over limestone and granite with a thin
surface alluvium. These include Kuala Lumpur, Seremban, Ipoh and Penang. Kota Bharu, Kuala
Terengganu, Kuantan, Johor Bahru and Alor Setar are resting on coastal alluvium. Similarly, in
Sarawak and Sabah, most primary urban towns such as Kuching, Sibu, Miri and Kota Kinabalu are
situated on coastal alluvium. Kota Bharu is known to have the largest groundwater aquifers in
Malaysia. Limestone and granite rock, associated with the Banjaran Titiwangsa and Tanah Tinggi
Terengganu, dominate the inland area of the Peninsula while the majority of the Sarawak and Sabah
lands are geologically underlined by limestone.
(a) Peninsular Malaysia
(b) East Malaysia

Figure 1.1 Physiographic Map of Malaysia
1-2
March 2009
1.2.2
Climate
Malaysia is hot and humid throughout the year, as characterized by the equatorial climate. It has an
average annual rainfall of more than 2500 mm with monthly variations for selected cities and towns
as shown in Figure 1.2. The West Coast of the Peninsula is subject to localized and convective
storms generated by the inter monsoon seasons, Sumatra wind system in the month of April-May
and October-November. Average daily temperatures range from a minimum of 25oC to a maximum
of 33oC. Relative humidity is high, sometimes exceeding 80%. Daytime cloudy hours are also high
while haze in recent years is a frequent occurrence and contributes to acid rains.
The South-West Monsoon, normally from May to September, produces less rain in the West Coast of
the Peninsula whilst the North-East Monsoon, from November to March, carries longer and heavier
rains to the East Coast of the Peninsula, North Sabah and inland Sarawak (Figure 1.3). In the
Peninsula, the wettest area is Taiping in Perak whilst the driest is Kuala Pilah in Negeri Sembilan.
Pengkalan Chepa
300
15
200
10
100
200
10
100
Rainfall (mm)
15
Temperature (oC)
300
Month
Month
Kuala Pilah
Mersing
600
30
500
25
400
20
300
15
200
10
100
0
300
15
200
10
100
5
J F MAM J J A S O ND
600
30
500
25
400
20
300
15
200
10
100
25
400
20
300
15
200
10
100
0
J F MAMJ J A SOND
Month
Month
500
25
400
20
300
15
200
10
100
Rainfall (mm)
30
Temperature (OC)
Kota Kinabalu
600
Month
20
Cameron Highland
500
Kuching
J F MAM J J A SO ND
400
Month
30
Month
25
600
J F M AM J J A S ON D
Rainfall (mm)
500
600
30
500
25
400
20
300
15
200
10
100
Temperature (oC)
J F MA M J J A S O N D
20
Rainfall (mm)
Rainfall (mm)
400
30
Temperature (oC)
20
25
600
Temperature (OC)
400
500
Rainfall (mm)
25
30
Rainfall (mm)
500
600
Temperature (oC)
30
Taiping
Temperature (OC)
600
Temperature (oC)
Rainfall (mm)
Kuala Lumpur
Rainfall
Temperature
0
J F MAM J J A S O N D
Month
Figure 1.2 Average Monthly Rainfall Variations for Selected Cities and Towns (DID, 2000)
March 2009
1-3
(a) South west monsoon
(b) North east monsoon
(c) Peninsular Malaysia
(d) Sabah and Sarawak
Figure 1.3 Monsoon Influences and Spatial Distribution of Rainfall (DID, 2000)
1.2.3
Socio Economics
Malaysia is formed by 13 states and Federal Territory comprising of Kuala Lumpur, Putrajaya and
Labuan. With the present estimated total of 28 million people, the Malaysian population is becoming
more concentrated into cities, towns and industrial zones (over 50%), with the highest figure in
Kuala Lumpur at 2 million. Most urban areas are normally found on alluvium plains and
coastal/estuarine zones. In the year 2020, the Malaysian population is expected to escalate to 30
million and with further urban and industrial growth; cities and towns may reach 55-60% of the total
population. Urban citizens, while making their daily life more prosperous, will be subject to increased
cost of livings, including for foods.
The increase in the total population is not only from births within the country but also from
immigrants. From the viewpoint of irrigation, drainage and water resources engineers, this situation
means that planning for the future in Malaysia must envisage a continued increase in population
growth in urban areas. Migration takes place from rural areas to established urban centres and
industrial zones where good infrastructure facilities exist. The migration of rural youth has resulted in
abandoned farmlands and subsequently non-profitability of the farming enterprises.
The government is now promoting new breed of farmers to venture into farming and treat
agriculture as a business. These new breed of farmers are generally better educated and are ready
to use modern technologies and good agricultural practices in their agricultural enterprises.
1-4
March 2009
1.2.4
Urban Agriculture
Urban agriculture especially growing of vegetables is expected to increase due to its shorter growth
duration and proximity to the market in big towns and cities. This is a common economic activity of
the urban population in many countries. In Malaysia, large tracks of land for urban agriculture are
typically found along river reserves, vacant state land and underneath the high voltage transmission
grid, criss-crossing the country through major towns and cities. Figure 1.4 shows a typical view of
scattered lands which can be brought under urban agriculture.
Detrimental effects of construction activities, including highways are observed at numerous locations
affecting agriculture. Flooding and sedimentation of paddy fields, oil palm estates and fruit orchards
are common sights along the highways as there is a lack of drainage infrastructure available.
Flooding will affect crop growth and yield and under prolonged conditions it could lead to total crop
failure.
Figure 1.4 Typical View of Urban Agriculture.

1.3
MALAYSIAN AGRICULTURE
Malaysian agriculture covers growing of crops, rearing of livestock and aquaculture. In terms of crop
area, Table 1.1 shows the acreage of some major crops grown in the country. In descending order of
magnitude, the acreage planted is as follows: oil palm, rubber, paddy, fruits, coconut, cocoa and
vegetables. Others include sugarcane, coffee, sago, tea and floriculture. Due to the favourable
rainfall distribution, most crops can be grown even under rain-fed condition depending on the agroclimatic zones as shown in Fig 1.5 for Peninsula Malaysia. However, shallow-rooted crops generally
will require frequent irrigation.
1.3.1
Oil Palm and Other Plantation Crops
Malaysia is currently the worlds largest producer and exporter of palm oil. The plantation sector
dates back to 1896, with the start of the rubber industry. Oil palm cultivation began in 1917, but
growth was initially very slow. It was only during the last 50 years that plantation development was
accelerated through large-scale investments in the cultivation of the oil palm as one of the approved
crops for diversifying the countrys agricultural development (Yusof, 2007).
Malaysia is also known as a major producer of rubber, cocoa and to some extent, coconuts. Most of
these plantation crops are rain-fed. Preference for oil palm has led to a rapid expansion of its planted
March 2009
1-5
areas at the expense of rubber and other crops over the last four decades. Oil palm areas have
increased from 54,000 hectares in 1960 to 4.05 million hectares in 2005, reflecting a compounded
annual growth of 10.0%. Production increased from 94,000 tonnes in 1960 to 15 million tonnes in
2005, or by almost 160 times within 45 years this represents a compound annual growth of
11.93% per year. These figures show not only the industrys success, but also the tremendous
contribution that Malaysian palm oil has made to the world food sources.
Table 1.1 Acreage of Agricultural Land Usage, 1995-2010 (000ha).
Crops
1995
2000
2005
2010
Average Annual Growth Rate (%)

19952000200519952000
2005
2010
2010
Rubber
1,679.0
1,560.0
1,395.0
1,185.0
-1.5
-2.2
-3.2
-2.3
Oil Palm
2,539.9
3,131.0
3,461.0
3,637.0
4.3
2.0
1.0
2.4
190.7
163.8
160.0
160.0
-3.0
-0.5
0.0
-1.2
Paddy
672.8
521.2
475.0
450.0
-5.0
-1.8
-1.1
-2.6
Coconut
248.9
213.8
193.2
175.5
-3.0
-2.0
-1.9
-2.3
10.2
9.2
8.5
8.1
-2.0
-1.6
-1.0
-1.5
42.2
48.3
63.7
86.2
2.7
5.7
6.2
4.9
257.7
291.5
329.8
373.2
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
Cocoa
1
Pepper
Vegetables
Fruits
Tobacco
10.5
9.3
7.8
6.2
-2.4
-3.5
-4.5
-3.5
99.1
106.4
111.4
130.0
1.4
0.9
3.1
1.8
Total
5751.0
6054.5
6205.4
6211.20
1.0
0.5
0.0
0.5
Other
Note:
1
2
Paddy, vegetables and tobacco are based on planted area

Others include sugarcane, coffee, sago, tea and floriculture
LEGEND
Highland 300-900 m a.s.l.
Highlands over 900 m a.s.l.
Regions with a clear and regular dry season
Regions with a short, but fairly regular dry season
Regions without a regular dry season
Areas where histosols predominate
0
100
200
km
Figure 1.5 Agroclimatic Zones of Peninsular Malaysia

The oil palm thrives under Malaysias tropical climate, which is marked by all-year-round
temperatures ranging from 25o to 33o C and evenly distributed rainfall of 2000 mm per year. Only
few countries have that similar ideal temperatures and rainfall patterns despite they are located
1-6
March 2009
within 10 degrees latitude of the equator. Some of them experience several months of drought,
which drastically reduces yield. Malaysia and Indonesia consequently emerged as major producers of
palm oil. Producers from about twenty (20) other countries command a production share of less than
3% each. In Malaysia, oil palm is also grown in coastal lowlands and peat soils which require
extensive drainage and even in drought prone areas or undulating land that require soil conservation
and irrigation.
Given a suitable environment, planting with high yielding materials and good agro management
practices, the potential oil palm yield per hectare is 8 times more compared to soybean, 3 times
more than rapeseed and 6 times more than sunflower. In other words, it is the most productive
edible oil crops in the world.
The potential Fresh Fruit Bunch (FFB) yield at prime stage could yield between 46-59 tonnes
FFB/ha/yr. The highest yields achieved in Peninsular Malaysia ranged from 35 to 40 tonnes
FFB/ha/yr and 7.6 to 8.9 tonnes oil/ha/yr. However, such high yields are not sustained and are
usually limited to one or two years. The targeted goal should be more realistic, sustaining at 30 to 35
tonnes FFB/ha/yr for many years before it finally declines with advanced palm age. However, the
average actual FFB yield achieved is between 17 to 26 tonnes/ha/yr and 3.5 to 5.2 tonnes oil/ha/yr,
(Kasmuri and Kamarudzaman, 2005). The gap between potential and actual FFB yield and oil
production is still big. Thus, more research and adoption of research findings are needed.
The main factors that contribute to the gap between actual FFB yield and potential FFB yield are the
environment and agro-management practices. The key practices that should be given emphasis in
managing oil palm plantations for high yield are: (a) water management and soil moisture
conservation (b) fertilizer input (c) harvesting practices (d) pruning practices (e) pests and diseases
control and (f) weed control.
The ideal soil condition is one that is well aerated with adequate moisture throughout the growth
period. The most conducive soil-water regime is a condition where soil moisture is readily available.
This is moisture available between soils field capacity up to moisture contents above permanent
wilting point. The drier the soil in the crop root zone, the harder for roots of the crop to extract
water and nutrients for evapotranspiration and growth. The objective of irrigation is to fill the soil
moisture reservoir in the active root zone up to the field capacity of the soil. Drainage should be
carried out if excess water is present beyond the field capacity.
The main objectives of water management and soil moisture conservation in oil palm plantations are
to: (a) minimize the impact of drought and flood (b) optimize utilization of rain water and fresh
water from stream (c) minimize the impact of saline water intrusion and soil acidity.
Growth, development and eventual yield of oil palm are affected by moisture availability. Oil palm
production in Malaysia is strongly limited by the continued drought of two to three months long that
sometime occur in most parts of the country. Oil palm grows well in areas that received minimum of
1200 mm rainfall but distributed evenly throughout the year. Severe drought will result in
inflorescence abortion and unfavourable sex differentiation.
1.3.2
Paddy and Other Food Crops
The total physical paddy area (covering irrigated and non-irrigated) in Malaysia is about 672,800 ha
in 2005. About 322,000 hectares or 48 percent of the total paddy areas in the country are provided
with extensive irrigation and drainage facilities while the remaining are rain-fed areas (see Table
1.1). Of the irrigated areas, 290,000 hectares are found in Peninsular Malaysia, 17,000 hectares in
Sabah and 15,000 hectares in Sarawak. About 217,000 hectares of the irrigated paddy areas in
Peninsular Malaysia have been designated as main granary areas while another 28,000 hectares
distributed all over the country are classified as mini-granary areas. The paddy growing area is
expected to decline to about 450,000 ha by the year 2010 as a result of conversion of paddy land for
other land use including urbanization (Table 1.1). Therefore, increase of rice production will rely on
improved crop care, and soil and water management from provision of irrigation and drainage
March 2009
1-7
facilities. However, growing rice is now becoming important again such that suitable new lands will
need to be developed as paddy fields.
Provision of irrigation and drainage systems will be required not only for rice cultivation but also for
any crop where the soil and water environments are not readily conducive for the optimum growth
and productivity of the crops being grown. Future expansion of agriculture will be to land areas at
higher elevations with undulating topography.
Double cropping of rice will definitely need better irrigation facilities. Some areas may practice five
croppings in two years. Even though crops such as coconut, cocoa, coffee, tea, sago and some fruits
may be grown under rain-fed condition, irrigation is required for shallow-rooted crops such as
sugarcane, tobacco and most vegetables.
1.3.3
Floriculture and Other Crops
Malaysia exports a lot of cut flowers to overseas markets. Floriculture is normally practiced in
nurseries and greenhouses or rain shelters, where pressurized irrigation systems are provided. Apart
from agricultural irrigation, landscape or turf irrigation is gaining popularity with increasing effluence
in society. Sprinkler and micro irrigation systems are widely used.
1.3.4
New Agriculture
In the Ninth Malaysian Plan (2006-2010), the Government has adopted the concept of New
Agriculture. This will entail further expansion of large-scale commercial farming and venturing into
high quality and value added primary and processing activities as well as unlocking the potential in
biotechnology. The productivity, efficiency and the income and wealth generating potential of the
sector will be enhanced through the wider application of modern farming methods and ICT,
strengthening R&D and innovation, improving marketing capability and promoting increased
participation of the private sector including entrepreneurial farmers and skilled workers.
Optimization of land use as well as land consolidation and rehabilitation will be given priority. The
agriculture sector is expected to grow at a high average annual rate of 5.0 percent. With the
inclusion of the agro-based industry, the growth rate is expected to be 5.2 percent. The issues
related to the prevalence of poverty among small-scale farmers, the slow transformation of
smallholdings into modern farming and agricultural land constraints will be addressed.
During the Ninth Plan period, the overall policy thrusts of the agriculture sector will focus on its
reorientation towards greater commercialization and the creation of high-income farmers as well as
promotion of greater private sector investment including foreign investment, (MOA, 2008). In this
regard, the policy thrusts will be as follows:
increasing agricultural production including by venturing into new sources of growth with
greater private sector participation;
expanding agro-based processing activities and product diversification;
strengthening marketing and global networking;
enhancing incomes of smallholders, farmers and fishermen; and
improving the service delivery system.
The food commodities sub-sector is expected to grow at an average rate of 7.6 per cent per annum
through improvements in efficiency and productivity as well as expansion in acreage. The production
of rice will be increased to meet the country target of self-sufficiency level of 100 per cent.
The production of fruits will be undertaken on a large-scale in the fruit production zones using the
cluster development approach and concentrating on nine fruit species which have export potential.
The production of vegetables will focus on high value varieties for local consumption and selected
export markets. The Green Book Programme to promote cultivation of food crops at the community
level will be reactivated. Productivity will also be increased through wider application of the latest
1-8
March 2009
technology and knowledge-based production systems. The self-sufficiency level of food commodities
target for 2000-2010 is as shown in Table 1.2.
Balance of trade, planned by the Ministry of Agriculture and Agro-based Industry is a plan to reduce
the nations agro food trade deficit through increasing commodity production which could be
produced in Malaysia to decrease imports and increase exports. The commodities include chilli,
cucumber, haricot bean, ladys finger, yardlong bean, tomato, cabbage, ginger, sweet potato, corn,
brassica and tapioca. Fruits include papaya, star fruit, pineapple, watermelon, durian, jackfruit and
cempedak, guava, banana, mandarin orange, mango and rambutan. The production of coconut, rice
and feed for animal and fish also need to be increased.
Table 1.2 Self-sufficiency Levels in Food Commodities, 2000-2010 (%) - NAP3
Commodity
Rice
Fruits
Vegetables
2000
70
94
95
2005
72
117
74
1.4
IRRIGATION AND AGRICULTURAL DRAINAGE ISSUES
1.4.1
Competition for Water Use
2010
90
138
108
The total annual surface water resource is estimated to be 566,000 million m3 per year and of this
26% is in Peninsular Malaysia, 54% in Sarawak and the remaining 20% in Sabah. Groundwater
resource is estimated to have a safe yield of 14,700 million m3 per year in Peninsular Malaysia, 5,500
million m3 per year in Sarawak and 3,300 million m3 per year in Sabah. The present annual total
consumptive use of water is estimated to be 10,400 million m3 for irrigation and 4,900 million m3 for
domestic and industrial water supply.
Water is used for a variety of purposes. Consumptive water use is largely for irrigation, industrial and
domestic water supply and to a minor extent for mining and fisheries. The estimated domestic and
industrial water demand of 1.3 billion m3 in 1980 reached 4.8 billion m3 by the year 2000. Irrigation
water demand increased from 7.4 billion m3 in 1980 to 10.4 billion m3 by the year 2000. From the
year 2000, with the Governments continued emphasis on industrialization programs to boost
economic growth, industrial and domestic water usage continued to increase. The demand in these
sectors is expected to constitute about 48% of the total 20 billion m3 by the year 2020 (NAP3).
Figure 1.6 shows the rapid increase in the water demand ratio in the industrial and domestic sectors
compared with irrigation needs in the agriculture sector.
1.4.2
Future Scenarios and Aims for Food Production
The domestic consumption of rice is projected to increase from 2.4 million tonnes in 2000 to about
3.2 million tonnes in 2010 as a result of population increase despite the declining per capita
consumption of rice. Under the National Agricultural Policy, the local production of rice is expected to
meet about 90 % of the domestic demand by 2010.
The increase in production is targeted to come from higher productivity in the granary areas. In fact,
the granary areas have experienced a loss of irrigated area due to conversion to urban land use
during the past 20 years and are projected to lose more in future. Greater emphasis will be given to
increasing productivity of existing irrigation schemes through the adoption of the latest technologies
and promotion of local research and development efforts.
The prospect for fruit and vegetable production is bright due to the expected increase in the demand
for domestic food products. The per capita fruit consumption is expected to increase from 49.9 kg in
1995 to 65.1 kg in 2010 representing an annual increase of 1.8%. Water resources development and
on-farm irrigation and drainage infrastructure are essential to achieve the above output target for
fruit production which is expected to reach 2.55 million tonnes by the year 2010 as compared to the
2005 output of 1.51 million tonnes. Similarly, for vegetables, the annual per capita consumption is
March 2009
1-9
expected to increase at a rate of 1.8 % per annum to reach 63.6 kg in 2010. To meet this demand,
the vegetable production is expected to increase from 771.3 thousands tonnes in 2005 to a projected
output of 1.6 million tonnes in 2010.
25
20.0
Billion m3
20
14.8
15
10
Industrial and Domestic

Irrigation
8.9
5
0
1980
2000
2020
Figure 1.6 Annual Water Demand Projection (EPU, 2000)

The increase in food production as described above can only be achieved if there are adequate
measures to develop and manage water resources to meet the present and future need of the
sector. In this respect, there are already signs of water stress in some of the irrigation schemes
which are even more apparent during the drought years such as the 1998 drought associated with
the El-Nino phenomena affecting the Asia Pacific region. There had been considerable investment by
the government in the development of water resources for all the eight granary areas in the country
during the period 1960-1990. Further capital investment will be required in order to improve the
reliability of the irrigation water supply in a number of the granary areas.
The irrigation sector is expected to face mounting pressures from the domestic and industrial water
supply sector over its share of the water resources in a river basin wide context. In water-stressed
basin, there is a need to develop inter-basin or even interstate transfer of water subject to technical
and economic feasibility. Hence in the near future, many of the water allocation conflicts between
agriculture and non-agriculture sectors may have to be resolved through a policy of reconciliation.
Every effort should be made to improve water use efficiency or to cut down undue losses as
compared to the construction of massive new capital works. Where the conditions are favourable,
groundwater resources could be developed to supplement surface water resources for agricultural
and non-agricultural purposes.
There is a pressing need to improve the water use efficiency of all irrigation projects in the country.
At present, the irrigation efficiency is about 50% for the larger schemes while some of the smaller
schemes may be operating at an efficiency of less than 40%. In water stressed areas, such low
efficiencies can no longer be tolerated. The improvement of irrigation water efficiency would involve
a sustained programme of works and activities involving a combination of structural and nonstructural measures, with the latter playing a dominant role. On the former, there are plans to
provide more efficient on-farm facilities and to introduce water-recycling systems where they are
technically and economically viable. On the latter, real-time monitoring system will be installed to
operate the source and control facilities in these irrigation projects to cut down losses and to
maximize the use of effective rainfall.
The importance of stakeholder participation is also recognized and a major concerted effort is
currently in progress to promote the establishment of Water Users Groups (WUG) in all the granary
areas. It is expected that in the near future, these tertiary canal based WUG will be fully operational
in all the granary areas of the country. Through these efforts, irrigation efficiency is expected to
increase to a higher level of about 60-65 %.
1-10
March 2009
1.4.3
Challenges for the Future
The great challenge for the coming decades will be to increase food production with less water and
land resources. The effective and sustainable use of water for agriculture has become a global
priority of vital importance, requiring urgent and immediate solutions in view of intensifying
competition.
Good irrigation system performance is the result of a carefully considered system design, prudent
equipment maintenance and proper irrigation water management. On the other hand, crop
production in many cultivable lands may be hampered as a result of water logging. Drainage helps to
protect agricultural investment. The impact of drainage so far can thus best be characterized as
mitigating. However, there is still substantial scope for improvement.
Rice production in Malaysia has been set at 90% self sufficiency level for the year of 2010. Irrigation
and water managers must implement the necessary measures to improve the water use efficiency
(currently at a rather low level of about 50%) and the production efficiency of water (currently at
less than 0.2 kg of rice per cubic metre of water) of their existing and planned future irrigation
schemes. Strategies to reduce water input under water saving technologies can play a significant role
to increase the water productivity in rice irrigation systems. There is a big variation in the average
crop yields of irrigated schemes in Malaysia ranging from 3.5 to 8 tonnes of paddy per hectare per
planting season in the designated granary areas of the country where the soil and water conditions
are fairly similar. The demand for water will be under increasing pressure in agriculture and food
sector from the other competing water users.
A critical review of the existing agricultural policies led to the formulation in 1998 the Third National
Agricultural Policy (NAP3), which covers the planning period of 1998 to year 2010. The NAP3
contains policies and strategies aimed at strengthening the sectors robustness to changes in
external factors and enhance its global competitiveness as well as ensure the sustainable growth of
Malaysian agriculture. The main agenda on food production in the country over the coming decade is
to focus on the transformation process, which would alter the image of the agricultural sector
towards a modern, dynamic, large-scale, commercial and world competitive entity. Under the Eighth
Malaysia Plan (2001-2005), agriculture was designated to be the third engine of growth. Food policy
directed towards production to meet rising demand as well as reducing import. This can be achieved
through new acreage, cropping intensity as well as improvement in efficiency and productivity.
Malaysia has suitable environments for the cultivation of major crops. The highland areas e.g.
Cameron Highlands in Pahang, Lojing in Kelantan and areas surrounding rice granaries are suitable
for vegetables and horticulture (flowers and fruits). There is a need to develop new water resources
through rainwater harvesting, recycling of water and groundwater resources for agriculture to
overcome water shortages. The major problems of crop growers are the lack of knowledge in good
irrigation practices and adaptation of the appropriate technologies for their local conditions. They
need guidelines for designing their irrigation and drainage systems to suit their local environments.
The use of micro-irrigation with fertigation technology generally results in a significant yield
improvement over traditional irrigation practices. Irrigation technologies are needed to produce cash
crops, vegetables, flowers and fruits where feasible. The promotion of new irrigation practices,
technologies and improved management systems can ensure the social, economic and environmental
sustainability in the irrigation sector. The future challenge for higher water use efficiency is felt even
more, in view of the anticipated increase in cropping intensity, and also the increase in water
demand from non-agricultural sectors. It is envisaged that in line with advancement in farming
technology, automation of some irrigation structures with real time data will be greatly needed. So
far, a detailed guideline compatible with local agric-environment for the design, operation and
management of various irrigation systems is very limited. This issue underpins the necessity of a new
manual for irrigation engineers, professionals, administrators and crop growers.
March 2009
1-11
1.4.4
Modernization and Need for Research and Development Application
Modernization of irrigation system is a process of technical and managerial upgrading (as opposed to
mere rehabilitation) of irrigation schemes combined with institutional reforms, if required, with the
objective to improve resource utilization (labour, water, economics and environment) and water
delivery service to farms (FAO, 1999).
Modernization implies changes that may occur at all operational levels of irrigation schemes from
harvesting and capturing of water supply, to its conveyance and the final distribution at the farm
level. This "integrated" definition is a major step forward and a departure from previous
modernization approaches executed along disciplinary lines of actions, with disregard of other and
much needed complementary players. Thus, unless irrigation modernization is perceived and
executed under such a multi-disciplinary umbrella approach it is bound to fail. Agricultural drainage is
an integral component of irrigation.
Cosgrove and Rijsberman (2000) summarized the role that irrigated agriculture play as: "The more
food we produce with the same amount of water, the less the need for infrastructure development,
the less the competition for water, the greater the local food security and the more water remains
for household and industrial uses. The more that remains in nature." Clearly, it is possible to produce
more food while securing water resources sustainability if we introduce new technologies and
approaches to both water and irrigation management. This includes, among others, a more efficient
water reuse, improved water delivery in quantity, quality and timing, supplementary irrigation costs
reductions and development of new water sources at lower economical, social and environmental
costs. The practice of precision farming will ensure high water productivity.
In order for Malaysia to become an industrialized nation by the year 2020, it is widely recognized
that its Research and Development facilities must progress in tandem with the massive investments
made to generate research output. A lack of inventions and innovations will sooner or later hinder its
progress. In addition to improving productivity and global competitiveness, research findings and
breakthroughs in R&D are expected to contribute immensely to knowledge-based technologies and
the K-economy. Knowledge comes from research and experience, internationally and locally.
Through research programmes and efforts in technology transfer and outreach, human lives are
enriched new knowledge is shared, social problems are aided or solved, new jobs become
available, new patents and products emerge and the economy is stimulated. Technology transfer
occurs in many ways; whenever a university graduate leaves the university and secures a place in
industry, it demonstrates a successful transfer of university-based knowledge and the realization of a
dream.
The scope of irrigation research is very wide. To be of real benefit it should be aimed at gathering
the fundamental understanding of a given phenomenon and should be approached in a multidisciplinary and integrated manner. Efficient organizational structure could serve as a vehicle to
convey well-articulated, coherent programs on research and development in irrigation and drainage,
at both the national and local levels.
Irrigation in Malaysia is mainly for growing rice and drainage is mostly in the coastal areas and peat
agricultural land. A pressing issue is the big share of the nations fresh water withdrawal.
Competition from increasing industrial and urban water demand causes reduced availability, reduced
certainty of supply and increased price of irrigation water. To remain economically and
environmentally sustainable, Malaysian rice growers need to increase productivity, profitability and
water use efficiency. Current R&D and extension programmes aim to improve water use efficiency by
increasing yield and reducing water use. Modern techniques are needed for high value crops.
For upland irrigation, a large portion of the available scientific knowledge as well as the practical
experiences to date is derived from the arid areas. Since the early 70s local researchers have tried to
solve problems associated with adoption of the technology that is appropriate to local conditions.
Micro irrigation trials were conducted on sandy tin-tailings for orchards trees, on Bris soils for
tobacco cultivation and also extensively used in nurseries, greenhouses and by vegetable farmers in
the Cameron Highlands. Malaysian researchers have studied various problems related to irrigation
1-12
March 2009
and drainage for crop production, soil conservation measures, crop response to water and micro
irrigation systems. Some of the work are published in refereed journals and presented in
international and national conferences (Amin, 2005).
Kay and Terwisscha (2004) and Shahrizaila (2003) quoted UNDPs general definition of capacity
development as the sum of efforts needed to nurture, enhance and utilize the skills and capabilities
of people and institutions at all levels - locally, nationally, regionally and internationally so that they
can better progress towards sustainable development. Building capacity involves empowering people
and organizations to solve their own problems through education and training. If successful, the
result is more effective with people and for institutions better able to provide products and services
on a sustainable basis.
Every professional currently engaged in agricultural development (engineers, planners,
environmentalists and agriculturists, in particular) should therefore keep up with the current
development in irrigation and drainage technologies. They should accept new and challenging roles
of not only designing satisfactory water supply facilities but also of controlling and reducing pollution
in rural catchments and receiving waters. The level of technical know-how of our practicing
engineers and the quality of land use and hydrologic data, in terms of sufficiency and reliability, need
to be upgraded in readiness to develop and achieve sound design practice and operational
procedures to deal effectively with the existing and future agricultural water management systems.
1.5
THE WAY FORWARD
The main target in the agricultural development under the Ninth Malaysia Plan and beyond is to
increase the commercial and modern farming and for agro entrepreneurs to boost their productivity
and income. This calls for adoption of modern technologies in agricultural production, processing and
marketing of the agricultural produce. The adoption and practice of modern irrigation and drainage
technologies will support this policy through optimum utilization of the limited natural resources
while conserving the environment.
Global climate change will bring major, fundamental changes in the way agriculture is run, in
particular, the way water is managed. We need to manage water better and better if societies are to
survive. We need to examine losses, efficiency and productivity of water use at every step. New
ways and higher efficiencies of water use in agriculture will be needed to meet the needs for food,
fibre, feed and fuels in the next few decades. Issues on the suitable irrigation method, the right
techniques for managing and operating and acceptable cost will be in the forefront. Apparently the
choice of irrigation systems is based on suitability and affordability.
There are a number of constraints to be overcome in order to realize the full potential of the
agriculture sector. These include uneconomic-sized holdings, abandoned farm lands, low return
crops, traditional methods of production, shortage of farm labour, scarcity of suitable new lands and
inadequate access to appropriate technology, markets and supports. For irrigated agriculture, there
is a further limitation in water resources availability against competing uses.
MALAYSIA IS TURNING TO MODERNIZED AGRICULTURE, WHICH MEANS
COMMERCIALLY ORIENTED AND PROFIT MOTIVATED FARMING, ENVIRONMENTALLY
SOUND, HIGHLY MECHANIZED AND OPTIMUM USE OF LAND AND WATER THROUGH
CROPPING INTENSIFICATION AND DIVERSIFICATION. THE MAIN CROPS CURRENTLY
ENVISAGED UNDER IRRIGATED AGRICULTURE ARE RICE, TOBACCO, VEGETABLES,
FRUITS ORCHARDS, MAIZE, SOY BEANS, TAPIOCA AND HORTICULTURE. SURFACE
IRRIGATION SYSTEM IN PADDY CULTIVATION IS WIDELY PRACTICED IN MALAYSIA.
PADDY IRRIGATION SYSTEM, BECAUSE OF THE NEED FOR STANDING WATER FOR WEED
CONTROL, IS DIFFERENT FROM OTHER IRRIGATED CROPS. SPRINKLER IRRIGATION
SYSTEM IS SUITABLE FOR ALMOST ALL UPLAND CROPS, VEGETABLES, SOYA BEAN, TEA,
COFFEE AND OTHER FODDER CROPS. MICROIRRIGATION SYSTEM IS WELL SUITED FOR
PERENNIAL TREES AND CROPS, AS WELL AS, FOR MANY CASH CROPS AND
INCREASINGLY POPULAR IN SCARCE WATER AREAS.
March 2009
1-13
TO BOOST UP AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION, GOOD WATER MANAGEMENT PRACTICES

ARE ESSENTIAL IN ALL PADDY GRANARIES AND OTHER CROP GROWING AREAS. EACH
SYSTEM IS UNIQUE, BOTH IN TERMS OF ITS PHYSICAL AND MANAGERIAL STRUCTURES.
IRRIGATION PROFESSIONALS AND CROP GROWERS NEED TO BE FAMILIAR WITH THE
ADVANCED TECHNOLOGIES WHICH ARE APPROPRIATE FOR THEIR SITUATION.
FARMERS PARTICIPATION IN IRRIGATION WATER MANAGEMENT WILL BE ENHANCED
THROUGH THE WATER USER GROUPS BASED ON TERTIARY CANALS. MODERN AND NEW
PERSPECTIVES FOR PLANNING AND DESIGN OF IRRIGATION AND AGRICULTURAL
DRAINAGE SYSTEMS INVOLVE NEW THEORIES, CONCEPTS, TECHNOLOGIES,
METHODOLOGIES, COMPUTER MODELS AND RESEARCH FINDINGS. MORE INVESTMENTS
ARE EXPECTED IN INSTRUMENTATION FOR DATA COLLECTION AND MONITORING
IRRIGATION WATER USE AND DISPOSAL. IN ADDITION, PROFESSIONALISM NEEDS TO
BE INSTILLED AT ALL LEVELS OF PLANNING, DESIGNING, IMPLEMENTING AND
OPERATING AN IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE SYSTEMS. HENCE THIS MANUAL IS AN
IMPORTANT REFERENCE FOR PLANNING AND DESIGN OF IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE
SYSTEMS APPROPRIATE FOR THE COUNTRYS IRRIGATED CROPS.
1-14
March 2009
REFERENCES
Amin, MSM (2005). Engineering Agricultural Water Management towards Precision Farming. UPM
Inaugural Lecture Series No. 87 August 2005. UPM Press.
Cosgrove, W., Rijsberman, F. (2000). Making water everybody's business. Earthscan Publications,
London , UK.
DID, (2000). Urban Stormwater Management Manual for Malaysia. Department of Irrigation and
Drainage, Malaysia.
EPU, (2000). National Water Resources Study 2050, Prime Ministers Department, Malaysia.
FAO, (1999). Guidelines for the transfer of management of irrigation systems, Irrigation and
Drainage Paper, series 58.
Kasmuri Sukardi and Kamarudzaman Aribi, (2005). Role of Action Research in Oil Palm Plantations.
IPTRID Workshop, MANCID Kuala Lumpur.
Kay, M. and Terwisscha van Scheltinga, (2004). Developing capacity for irrigation and drainage,
GRID-newsletter.
MOA (2008). Agricultures Direction. Ninth Malaysia Plan. Ministry of Agriculture.
Shahrizaila (2003). Managing Water for Sustainable Agriculture. ICID-CIID Newsletter 2003/3.
Yusof Basiron (2007). Palm Oil Production through Sustainable Plantations.
Technol. 109 (2007) 289-295.
March 2009
Eur. J. Lipid Sci.
1-15
1-16
March 2009

Chapter 2 - Administration
Chapter 2 - ADMINISTRATION
Table of Contents
List of Tables .................................................................................................................... 2-iii
List of Figures ................................................................................................................... 2-iii
2.1
INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................... 2-1
2.2
DESIGN ACCEPTANCE CRITERIA ............................................................................. 2-1

2.2.1
2.2.2
Irrigation................................................................................................. 2-1
2.2.1.1
Crop Water Requirement .......................................................... 2-1
2.2.1.2
Irrigation Water Requirement ................................................... 2-2
2.2.1.3
Irrigation Water Losses ............................................................ 2-3
2.2.1.4
Water Resources Quantity ........................................................ 2-3
2.2.1.5
Water Resources Quality .......................................................... 2-4
2.2.1.6
Irrigation System ..................................................................... 2-4
Drainage ................................................................................................. 2-6

2.2.2.1
2.3
2.2.2.2
Drainage of Organic Soils ........................................................ 2-7
2.2.2.3
Drainage of Tidal Lands........................................................... 2-8
2.2.2.4
Control of Water Table ............................................................ 2-9
2.2.2.5
Drainage System .................................................................... 2-9
2.2.3
Performance Indicators ............................................................................ 2-11
2.2.4
Density of Irrigation and Drainage System ................................................. 2-11
2.2.5
Operation and Maintenance ...................................................................... 2-11
INSTITUTIONAL AND LEGAL FRAMEWORK .............................................................. 2-12

2.3.1
2.3.2
2.3.3
2.4
Crop Drainage Requirement...................................................... 2-7
Roles and Responsibilities ......................................................................... 2-12

2.3.1.1
Federal Government ................................................................ 2-12
2.3.1.2
State Government.................................................................... 2-13
Laws on Irrigation and Drainage................................................................ 2-15

2.3.2.1
Water Resource ....................................................................... 2-16
2.3.2.2
Land Resource......................................................................... 2-16
2.3.2.3
Drainage and Irrigation ............................................................ 2-16
2.3.2.4
Environmental Management ..................................................... 2-16
Review of Existing Legislation ................................................................... 2-16

2.3.3.1
Ownership of Water ................................................................. 2-16
2.3.3.2
Drainage and Irrigation ............................................................ 2-17
2.3.3.3
Water Resources Management.................................................. 2-18
2.3.3.4
Flood Mitigation for Agricultural Area ......................................... 2-18
2.3.3.5
Environmental Protection.......................................................... 2-18
2.3.3.6
Farmers/ Stakeholders Participation........................................... 2-18
AUTHORITY REQUIREMENT AND DOCUMENTATION ................................................ 2-19

2.4.1
March 2009
Authority Requirement ............................................................................. 2-19

2.4.1.1
Application for Land Development ............................................. 2-19
2.4.1.2
Application for Use Water ......................................................... 2-19
2.4.1.3
Application to Import Earth....................................................... 2-19
2-i
2.4.2
2.4.3
2.5
2.4.1.4
Requirement During/After Construction ..................................... 2-20
2.4.1.5
Works Related to Utility/Services............................................... 2-20
2.4.1.6
Operation and Maintenance ...................................................... 2-20
2.4.1.7
Requirements of the Department of Environment ....................... 2-20
Documentation ........................................................................................ 2-20

2.4.2.1
Drawings ................................................................................ 2-20
2.4.2.2
Reports and Manuals ............................................................... 2-21
Submission Requirement .......................................................................... 2-21

2.4.3.1
Submission for Water Extraction ............................................... 2-21
2.4.3.2
Submission to Import Soil......................................................... 2-21
OTHER IMPORTANT CRITERIA ............................................................................... 2-21

2.5.1
Public Safety Consideration....................................................................... 2-21
2.5.2
Environmental Conservation ..................................................................... 2-22
2.5.3
Land Development ................................................................................... 2-22
2.5.4
2.5.3.1
Land Clearing .......................................................................... 2-22
2.5.3.2
Land Levelling or Grading......................................................... 2-22
2.5.3.3
Special Applications ................................................................. 2-22
Geographical Information System (GIS) ..................................................... 2-22
REFERENCES .................................................................................................................... 2-23

APPENDIX 2A: Legislation, Guidelines and Orders ................................................................ 2-A1
2-ii
March 2009
List of Tables
Table
Description
Page
2.1
Irrigation module for transplanted rice
2-2
2.2
Irrigation module for direct seeding
2-3
2.3
Rainfall analysis criteria
2-4
2.4
Water resource quality
2-5
2.5
Open channels criteria
2-6
2.6
Communication facilities criteria
2-6
2.7
Design storm period and duration
2-7
2.8
Drainage criteria for acid-sulphate area
2-8
2.9
Drainage design criteria for peat area
2-8
2.10
Collector drain design criteria
2-9
2.11
Radius of curvature for carrier channels
2-10
2.12
Areal reduction factors for affluent channels
2-10
2.13
Performance indicators of irrigation and drainage systems
2-11
2.14
Density of irrigation and drainage system for rice cultivation
2-11
2.15
Enforcement authority related to Irrigation and Drainage
2-15
List of Figures
Figure
2.1
Description
Flowchart for application to use water
March 2009
Page
2-19
2-iii
2-iv
March 2009
2
2.1
ADMINISTRATION
INTRODUCTION
Although Malaysia is blessed with bountiful water, available at surface and underground, good
management of the resources is needed to ensure its continuous supply. Irrigation is the largest
consumer of water in Malaysia. The efficient use and management of water in agriculture will play a
role for achieving sustainable water resources. Providing right amount of water to the crops at the
right place, in the right time is the way forward. Under the Third National Agricultural Policy (NAP3),
it was formulated that agricultural growth will be pursued through moderate expansion of land and
further intensification of land area usage but with systematic and strategic irrigation and drainage
planning, design and management approaches as documented in the present Manual. This Chapter
provides the aspects of design criteria, institutional and legal matters, as well as authority
requirements and documentations to ensure a successful implementation of I&D Projects.
The design acceptance criteria are requirements that shall be adhered to in planning and design of
I&D systems of new areas or upgrading of I&D systems in existing schemes. Although there are
some limitations such as funding constraints, which will limit the ability to meet these requirements,
they shall be adopted as a long-term goal and progressive upgrading shall be directed towards that
goal. The criteria in this Chapter apply generally to all I&D systems. Other Chapters in the Manual
give more detailed requirements for individual system components.
Irrigation and drainage are two important elements under water planning required for sustainable
agricultural development. Inefficient irrigation will affect crop growth, water wastage and it may lead
to water scarcity crisis during a prolonged dry spell. On the other hand, high water table, flooding
and crop harvesting risk might be the result of inefficient drainage. Therefore, irrigation and drainage
systems must be planned and managed carefully and this depends a lot on the institutional and legal
framework.
Authority approval requirements are part and parcel of the implementation of any particular projects
related to land, water and environment which the States and/or Federal governments have interests.
The approval may also be required at various stages of its implementation. I&D projects for instance,
are projects where such approval is needed.
Ideally, an efficient approval system is required for a smooth project implementation. A uniform
standards and practices of application and documentation are essential and must be available for this
to materialise.
2.2
DESIGN ACCEPTANCE CRITERIA
2.2.1
Irrigation
The objective of irrigation is to fill the soil moisture reservoir in the active root zone up to the soil
field capacity. The total amount of water required in any given period is the total water used by
crops plus losses. It varies from month to month. Irrigation will provide water to replenish soil
moisture deficit in the soil moisture reservoir to field capacity or to the prescribed standing water in
case of rice to avoid water stress. Thus, the amount of irrigation water to be supplied depends on
the crops grown and the effective rainfall. Ideally, any irrigation system should be designed to supply
the right amount of water at the right place and time.
2.2.1.1
Crop Water Requirement
Water losses to the atmosphere by plants are through transpiration and evaporation processes.
Therefore, the crop water need is also termed evapotranspiration (ETc) and its amount is expressed
in depth of water layer per unit of time (mm/day). ETc depends on various factors such as type of
crops, soil moisture, growth stage, air temperature, humidity, latitude, solar radiation and wind
speed.
March 2009
2-1
For the purpose of estimating crop water requirement, the Penman-Monteith equation is normally
used to obtained crop reference evapotranspiration ETo. Crop coefficient (Kc) is used to relate ETo
and ETc. Estimated values of Kc for various types of crops are discussed in other chapters of this
Manual.
2.2.1.2
a)
Irrigation Water Requirement

Rice
For rice, transplanting or direct seeding method shall be adopted in planning and design of irrigation
system. The term irrigation module is often used to indicate the irrigation water requirements. It is
the number of acres or hectares served by one cusec or litre per second of irrigation water. Detailed
computations are shown in other chapters.
Typically, the irrigation modules for transplanted rice with 30 days pre-saturation period are as
shown in Table 2.1.
Table 2.1 Irrigation Module for Transplanted Rice
Description
Irrigation Module
mm/d
ac/cusec
L/s/ha
1. Double Cropping System

a. Pre-saturation
20.0
30
2.33
b. Supplementary
10.0 to 12.0
50 to 60
1.2 to 1.4
a. Pre-saturation
10.0
60
1.2
b. Supplementary
7.6
79
0.9
2. Single Cropping System
In direct seeding method, the sequence of water supply, volume and duration depends on the
method of direct seeding. Direct seeding method to be used in planning and design of irrigation
system can be any of these techniques:
Dry Bed Dry Seeding (rainfall or irrigation induced germination method)
Dry Bed Wet Seeding, or
Wet Bed Wet Seeding.
Typically, the irrigation module for direct seeding methods is shown in Table 2.2.
b)
Other Crops
Irrigation water requirements are computed for different types of crops to be grown as well as the
irrigation methods used for applying water either by sub-irrigation, surface irrigation, sprinkler
irrigation or micro irrigation. Detailed computations are shown in other chapters of this Manual.
2-2
March 2009
Table 2.2 Irrigation Modules for Direct Seeding (Chan and Mohd Nor, 1993)
Description
Estimated Irrigation Module

mm/d
ac/cusec
L/s/ha
a. First Build-up (7 to 10 days)
25
24
2.9
b. Second Build-up (7 to 14 days)
25
24
2.9
c.
10
60
1.2
76
0.9
20
30
2.33
c.
20
30
2.33
10
60
1.2
76
0.93
b. Second Build-up (14 days)
25
24
2.9
c.
10
60
1.2
a. First Build-up (Pre-saturation) (7 to 14 days)
25
24
2.9
76
0.9
c.
14
43
1.6
10
60
1.2
1. Dry Bed Dry Seeding

(Rainfall induced germination method)
Normal (100 days)
2. Dry Bed Dry Seeding

(Irrigation induced germination method)
Third Build-up (7 to 14 days)
d. Normal (100 days)

3. Dry Bed Wet Seeding
Normal (100 days)
4. Wet Bed - Wet Seeding
Third Build-up (14 days)
d. Normal (100 days)
2.2.1.3
Irrigation Water Losses
Irrigation water is loss during transfer of water from the source to the crops or fields to be irrigated.
The amount of losses is reflected by the efficiency of the irrigation systems. Three categories of
losses, which shall be considered in planning and design of irrigation systems, are:
Storage losses
Conveyance losses
Application losses.
2.2.1.4
Water Resources Quantity
Direct rainfall, river and ground water are the three main sources of irrigation supply that can be
considered. River flow is often regulated/sustained by dam upstream.
a)
Direct Rainfall
The rainfall analysis that must be carried out shall be in accordance with Table 2.3.
March 2009
2-3
Table 2.3 Rainfall Analysis Criteria

Type of Analysis
Criteria
1. Mean monthly rainfall
15 to 20 years rainfall record
2. Effective rainfall
Mean monthly rainfall (R) < 200mm/month

Monthly effective rainfall (RE) = 0.6R
Mean monthly rainfall (R) > 200mm/month
Monthly effective rainfall (RE) = 0.3(R-200) + 120
b)
River Flow
The 5 and 10 years return periods, annual 7-day low flow characteristics of the river shall be adopted
in planning and design of irrigation water resource for small and large areas, respectively. The three
main low flow characteristics are duration, magnitude and frequency of occurrence of the low flows.
c)
Groundwater
Groundwater resource shall be exploited in places where surface water is inadequate or of limited
quantity and economically not viable. Generally, the quantity of groundwater to be abstracted shall
not exceed the natural recharge capability or safe yield of the aquifer to avoid any adverse effects
such as progressive depletion of the water resources, land subsidence or degradation of the quality
of the groundwater.
2.2.1.5
Water Resources Quality
Its mineral constituents govern the suitability of water for irrigation. In general, any water with low
salts concentration is suitable but this depends upon the crop and soil requirements. The most
important characteristics of irrigation water are:
Total concentration of soluble salts,
Proportion of sodium to other cations,
Concentration of potentially toxic elements,
Bicarbonate concentration.
Some of the water resource quality standards to be adopted in planning and design of I&D projects
are in accordance with Table 2.4.
2.2.1.6
Irrigation System
A main-distributaries system approach shall be adopted for the planning and design of irrigation
system. The main is intended to convey irrigation water to the whole irrigation area. The
distributaries are intended to convey and distribute irrigation water to the field/crop. An effective
irrigation system is planned and designed to convey the right amount of water from the source to
the field/crops within the specified time. Generally an irrigation system consists of intake,
conveyance, distributaries and related facilities.
2-4
March 2009
Table 2.4 Water Resource Quality

Parameters
1. Electrical Conductivity (mmhos/cm)
Standard
< 4 for beans and most vegetables. 8 to 12
and not exceeding 16 for tolerant crops.
2. Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR)
< 20 unless special soil management is

practised.
3. Boron (mg/l)
< 1.25 for fruits, nuts and beans

< 2.50 for cereals and vegetables
< 3.75 for tolerant crops.
4. Residual sodium carbonate (mg/l)
< 66 is preferable but should not exceed 132.
Source : Water Quality and Sediment Yield, Manual of Water Data Standard,1977
a) Intake Facilities
Gravity/direct or/and pumped irrigation shall be adopted in planning and design of intake facilities.
The selection of the type of intake facilities depends on:
location, size and topography of the area
elevation of the lowest river water level and other river condition
yield of river with respect to the maximum water requirement.
Pump Stations : Pump intake facility shall be adopted when the field level of irrigation area is higher
than the low flow water level of the river/ water source and the low flow discharge is much more and
adequate for the irrigation water requirement as well as for the rivers maintenance.
Reservoir Irrigation : In this system, a solid barrier such as a dam, a storage weir or any other gated
structure with a provision of spillway is constructed across a river to store water. This system shall
be adopted when the low flows of the river is much less than the daily irrigation requirement, but the
total annual yield of the river must be more than the annual irrigation and rivers flow maintenance
requirement.
Direct Irrigation by Gravity : In this system, water from the river is directly diverted for irrigation.
This system shall be adopted when the water level in the river/ water source is much higher than the
field level.
b) Conveyance
Conveyance canal or pipeline (non-pressurized or pressurized) carries the total irrigation requirement
for the whole irrigated area. For open channel, the unlined or lined canal system shall be adopted.
The criteria to be used in planning and design of open channel are in accordance with Table 2.5.
For pipeline (non-pressurized), the maximum allowable velocity to be adopted in planning and design
is 1.5m/s.
c)
Distributaries
Distributaries are canals taking water from conveying canal or pipeline. The criteria in Table 2.5 are
applicable for the planning and design of distributaries.
March 2009
2-5
Table 2.5 Open Channels Criteria (DID, 1980)

Variables
Unlined Canals Criteria
Lined Canals Criteria
1. Ratio of
bottom width
to depth
2:1 (very small canal)

5:1 (canals with capacity of about 28.3 cumecs
or 1000 cusecs)
1 to 2
2. Side slopes
1.5:1 or 2:1 (ordinary condition)

Flatter than 2:1 for poor soil properties
1:1 to 1.5:1
3. Freeboard
0.45 m (small canal and distributaries)
0.10 to 0.20 m (small canal

and distributaries)
0.25 to 0.50 m (larger canals)
0.6 to 1.0m for larger canals)

4. Bund top
width and berm
4.3 m wide minimum (Bund used for farm road)

1.2 m minimum (Bund not used for farm road)
5. Velocity
0.3 to 1.2 m/s.

(Sandy loams 0.6 m/s, Clay loams 1.0 m/s
and Stiff clay 1.2 m/s)
d)
4.3 m wide (Bund used for

farm road)
1.2 m minimum (Bund not
used for farm road)
Less than 1.5m/s
On-Farm Facilities
On-farm facilities such as field control or off-take structures are required for better on-farm water
management. In paddy fields, besides having small earthen ridges, quaternary ditches are also
essential in improving water management. These facilities are particularly important in areas with
uneven topographic condition.
e)
Farm Roads
Good network of farm roads is essential for good operation and maintenance of irrigation system as
well as, other agricultural activities. Generally, farm roads shall be provided along canals or pipelines
and for every two to three rows of tree crops.
Criteria to be adopted in planning and design of farm roads for paddy cultivation are in accordance
with Table 2.6.
Table 2.6 Farm Roads Criteria for Paddy Areas
Variables
1. Location
Criteria
Along canals and drains
2. Lay bye
200 m to 300 m interval (not more 500 m)
3. Top width
4.3 m minimum (major)
4. Design loading
5 tonnes (minor)
10 to 12 tonnes (major)
2.2.2
Drainage
Good drainage is necessary for better water and farm management, good operation and
maintenance, higher yield and better soil condition. An ideal drainage system is one that is able to
maintain a desirable level of water table and be able to drain out any excess water within a desirable
period. Some temporary floodings or ponding of part of the area for a duration that would not result
in unacceptable crop damage are allowed. Earthen drains are normally constructed.
2-6
March 2009
The determination of the optimal planning and design requirements depends on the following
variables:
System variables such as drain types, structures, matching irrigation system requirement, etc
Land usage variables such as type of crops and farming practices
Environmental variables such as water quality standards to be maintained
Management variables such as operation and maintenance and financial arrangement.
2.2.2.1
Crop Drainage Requirement
The main aim of drainage is removal of excess irrigation water and storm water runoff to prevent
flooding and crop damage. Generally drainage requirements for crops are:
To avoid sea water intrusion into agricultural land
In low lying coastal areas, to lower the water table as low as possible and maintain it
In inland areas rising above highest tide levels, to maintain the water table at depths to be
decided by local requirements
To improve access to the area for maintenance purposes as well as for rural welfare.
The two broad categories of agricultural drainage to be adopted in planning and design are surface
drainage and sub-surface drainage. Surface drainage is the removal of excess water from the surface
of the land while sub-surface drainage is the control of ground water levels through the removal of
sub-surface water. The term drainage module is often used to indicate the crop drainage
requirement.
For rice cultivation, the drainage module to be adopted in planning and design of minor drains is
between 60 mm/day (10 ac/cusec) to 30 mm/day (20 ac/cusec).
The design storm return period and duration to be adopted in planning and design of agricultural
drainage shall be in accordance with Table 2.7.
Table 2.7 Design Storm Return Period and Duration
Crop Type
Design Duration (hr)
Return Period (yr)
72
5 yrs for minor drains
1. Coconut, Rubber, Oil palm,

Orchards
(collector and branch) and
2. Rice
72 (Partial submergence)
25 yrs for major drains
48 (Total submergence)
(main)
3. Banana, Cocoa, Coffee,
48
Papaya
4. Maize, Sorghum, Pineapple.
5. Tobacco, vegetables
24
Very low tolerance and should not
be planted in flood prone areas.
2.2.2.2
Drainage of Organic Soils
Two types of organic soils commonly encountered and widely developed for agriculture are acidsulphate soil and peat soil. Development of these areas for agriculture requires proper management
practices to avoid any undesirable effects to the environment as well as crop loss.
March 2009
2-7
a)
Acid-sulphate Soils
Along the west coast of Peninsular Malaysia considerable areas of land are composed of recent
deposits of marine and brackish water alluvium containing high amounts of sulphur compounds.
Excessive drainage exposes the sulphur compounds and oxidation occurs, then producing sulphuric
acid and sulphates of iron and aluminium. As a result, the soil pH declines to 3.5 or less. There are
some 351,920 ha of acid-sulphate soils in the coastal plains of Peninsular Malaysia.
In planning and design of drainage for rice and non-rice cultivation the criteria to be adopted is in
accordance with Table 2.8.
Table 2.8 Drainage Criteria for Acid-Sulphate Areas
Rice
1. Irrigation and drainage are kept
separate.
Non-rice
1. Water level in the drain does not drop below
the acid-sulphate horizon.
2. Irrigation water should be from a

non acid-sulphate area.
2. Field drains to be excavated not more than 75

mm below the potential acid-sulphate layer.
3. In strongly acid-sulphate soils drains should
be deepened in stages.
b) Peat Soils
Peat soils are soils with organic matter content greater than 65%. In Malaysia, there are
approximately 2.6 million hectares of peat soils of which about 1.5 million hectares are in Sarawak,
0.1 million hectares in Sabah, and the remaining 1.0 million hectares in Peninsular Malaysia.
Field drainage system for all crops shall be planned and design in accordance with Table 2.9.
Table 2.9 Drainage Design Criteria for Peat Soil Area
Variables
Shallow-rooting Crops
Deep-rooting Crops
1. Water level in drain

(Below ground level)
0.40 m
0.90 m
2. Groundwater level
(Below ground level)
0.2 m
0.6 m
3.0 mm/d
15.0 mm/d
3.0 mm/d
15.0 mm/d
3. Design discharge
a) Normal (long-term average)
b) Peak(1:5 years extreme)
2.2.2.3
Drainage of Tidal Lands
Tidal lands are the areas found along the coast, which are subjected to the influence of tides. The
agriculture drainage areas are to be bunded and gated to stop seawater intrusion.
Coastal bunds shall be located about 0.4 km inland. Top width shall be 3.6 m minimum with 3:1 side
slopes. Spoil is obtained from excavation of borrow pits on the inland side of the coastal bund 12.0
2-8
March 2009
m from the toe of the bund. Borrow pits frequently have no gradient and their dimensions depend on
the amount of spoil required for the construction of coastal bund. Borrow pits are also used as
reservoirs to store drainage water during the period of high tide when the outlet gates are closed.
2.2.2.4
Control of Water Table
An element of water table control shall be incorporated in planning and design of irrigation and
drainage systems. In coastal areas, a general method to be applied to control water levels above the
minimum is by the operation of the tidal control gates and the intermediate gates. Wherever
possible, automatic gates operations shall be adopted. It is a normal practice to drain out water
before the on set of the wet season and to retain water in drainage system before the on set of the
dry season. In inland areas surface drains, subsurface pipes and groundwater wells are used.
2.2.2.5
Drainage System
a) Tertiary Drains
Tertiary drains are collector drains intended to collect excess water from the field to avoid flooding or
undesirable high water table, which affect crop growth.
The criteria to be adopted for the planning and design of open collector drains are in accordance
with Table 2.10.
Table 2.10 Collector Drain Design Criteria
Variables
Design Specifications
1. Design rainstorm
As per Table 2.7
2. Velocity
0.3 to 1.2 m/s

(Clay 1.2, sandy loam 0.76, fine sands 0.46 m/s)*
3. Gradient
1:5000 for flows between 0.85 to 2.83 m3/s

1:10,000 or flatter for flows greater than 2.83 m3/s
4. Bed width to depth ratio
Varies from 2:1 for small channels to 5:1 for channels with
flow capacity of 28.3 m3/s or more
5. Side slopes
1:1 to 2:1 for ordinary conditions
6. Flood level at the head of

the drain
Not higher than 150 cm below ground level
Maximum permissible velocity (USBR)
b) Secondary Drains
Secondary drains are carrier drains, also known as branch drain intended to convey water from
collector drains to the main drain.
The criteria to be adopted for the planning and design of open carrier drains are in accordance with
Table 2.10, except for side slope and flood level. Side slope to use is 2:1 while flood level depends
on the collector drains requirement.
For erosion prevention, wherever required, carrier drain shall be planned and designed with proper
curvature. The radius of curvature to be adopted is in accordance with Table 2.11.
March 2009
2-9
Table 2.11
Radius of Curvature for Carrier Drains, (DID, 1980)
Drain Capacity (m3/s)

Radius of Curvature (m) *
15.2 minimum
1.4 or less
C=3
1.4 to 2.8
C=4
2.8 to 14.2
C=5
14.2 to 28.3
C = 6 to 7
Greater than 28.2
Note: Radius of curvature = C x Water surface width or 15.2 m whichever is greater.
In cases where the minimum radius of curvature of 15.2 m is not possible due to topography,
dwellings or other limitations, appropriate excessive erosion prevention shall be introduced.
c) Main Drains
The main drain, also known as the affluent drains is intended to convey water from carrier drains
and discharges it into receiving waters, a lake, a river or to the sea. As the area to be drained
increases, the average value of rainfall decreases. Thus, the drainage module can be reduced. Areal
reduction factors for a range of rainfall duration and catchments to be adopted in planning and
design of affluent drains are in accordance with Table 2.12.
Table 2.12: Areal Reduction Factors for Affluent Drains
Area of Catchments
(km2)
Less than 50
1.0
Storm Duration (hr)

1
3
6
1.0
1.0
1.0
24
1.0
50
0.69
0.80
0.90
0.90
0.95
100
0.61
0.72
0.84
0.89
0.93
150
0.58
0.68
0.82
0.86
0.92
200
0.67
0.80
0.84
0.92
250
0.66
0.80
0.84
0.92
300
0.65
0.80
0.84
0.92
0.80
0.84
0.92
0.83
0.92
350
400
d) Drainage Pump
Pumped drainage system shall be chosen as a last alternative due to high investment, operation and
maintenance costs and these have rarely been implemented in Malaysia. The Tumbuh Block
Drainage Scheme in Kg. Gajah, Perak is an example of this type of drainage system.
Drainage pumps have to discharge large quantities at low heads and an axial flow or mixed flow
pumps are more suitable for these conditions. It is common to install at least identical units and it is
assumed that all pumps are in operation during peak flow.
e) Farm Roads
A network of farm roads is essential for good operation and maintenance of drainage system as well
as other agricultural activities. Farm roads shall be provided along drains and for every two to three
rows of tree crops. The design loading shall be in accordance with Table 2.6.
2-10
March 2009
2.2.3
Performance Indicators
Performance indicators are the indicators used to evaluate the performance of an irrigation and
drainage system. As the agriculture sector is the main water user and it is used mostly for irrigation,
the performance of an irrigation and drainage systems must be assessed to provide engineers with
the information on the system shortcomings of which remedial, curative or preventive measures can
be taken. Performance indicator plays a key role in the performance assessment.
Some of the performance indicators to be adopted in planning and design of irrigation and drainage
systems are in accordance with Table 2.13.
Table 2.13 Performance Indicators of Irrigation and Drainage Systems
Description
1. Irrigation System
Performance Indicator
i) Cropping Intensity (%) area for rice cultivation in a year
ii) Yield (tonnes/ha)
iii) Water Productivity Index (kg/m3 water use) for paddy irrigation
iv) Irrigation Efficiency (%)
v) Irrigation Uniformity (For sprinkle system and micro irrigation)
vi) Distribution Uniformity (For sprinkle system and micro irrigation)
2. Drainage System
i) Yield (tonnes/ha)
ii) Water table depth (m)
a) Area (ha)
b) Duration (day)
2.2.4
Density of Irrigation and Drainage System
Density of I&D system is the total length of canals or drains per unit area (m/ha) served by the
canals or drains. This term is more suitable to be used in association with rice cultivation. Since
irrigation and drainage system is required for better agricultural and water management practices,
therefore, areas with higher system density (subject to certain limit) will normally perform better
than areas with lower density.
For rice cultivation, the recommended canal density of irrigation and drainage system to be adopted
in planning and design is in accordance with Table 2.14.
Table 2.14 Canal Density of Irrigation and Drainage System for Rice Cultivation
Description
Canal Density (m/ha)
1. Area provided with main/secondary canals and drains up

to secondary level
More than 10 up to 20
2. Area provided with main/secondary/tertiary canals and

drains up to tertiary level
More than 30 up to 50
2.2.5
Operation and Maintenance
The design of I&D system needs to consider the required regular/normal or periodic/deferred
maintenance of the system. Sufficient maintenance will ensure proper operation of the system.
March 2009
2-11
Adequate facilities such as farm roads, access road and crossings for maintenance equipment shall
be provided. For rice cultivation, canals/drains should be checked periodically and clearing/repairing
works should be carried out before the beginning of irrigation supply season. Clearing/repairing of
drains in drainage areas should be carried out preferably four cycles per year to ensure excess water
can be removed on time. Clearing of canals should be at least 3 times in a year.
An I&D system must also be planned and designed such that operation can be carried out easily and
maintenance activities can be performed without the risk or inadvertent damage to the other private
properties.
2.3
INSTITUTIONAL AND LEGAL FRAMEWORK
2.3.1
Roles and Responsibilities
Malaysia consists of thirteen (13) States and three (3) Federal Territories. Governments at the State
levels are co-ordinated centrally by the Federal Government. A Chief Minister heads the State
Government, while the Prime Minister is Head of the Federal Government. The responsibility for
irrigation and drainage management, operation and maintenance is shared between Federal and
State agencies (institutions).
2.3.1.1
Federal Government
The Federal government has the responsibility of providing assistance to the State Governments in
socio-economic development of which I&D development is one of them. Irrigation and drainage
development aims to provide an environment conducive for healthy crop growth. As crop production
increases, the socio-economy of the State will also improve.
Currently, at the Federal level, irrigation and agricultural drainage is generally administered by the
Bahagian Pengairan dan Saliran Pertanian (BPSP), Ministry of Agriculture and Agro-Based Industry
while the State DID is responsible for the implementation, operation and maintenance of the I&D
infrastructures. The roles and responsibilities of the Federal Government and their agencies in
irrigation and drainage development are described below:
a) National Policy
The Federal government plays an important role in the formulation and co-ordination of agriculture
policy, of which irrigation and agricultural drainage development is one of the important aspects. The
policies can serve as a guide to uniformity in irrigation and drainage regulatory framework and
practices in the States.
b) Financing
Effective and efficient irrigation and drainage development and management depends very much on
the availability of sufficient financing to cover cost of infrastructure development, management,
operation and maintenance and implementation of non-structural measures. Financial support can be
provided on selected and priority projects to the States through direct loans, or grants. Federal
assistance may also be channelled to the State through their agents. For instance, BPSP, MOA
through such assistance scheme, can undertake responsibility for the development of I&D facilities
and infrastructures including the management, operation and maintenance. The Federal Government
also can assist the State Governments in securing loan facilities for I&D projects by undertaking
guarantees to lending agencies. Development budget can also be arranged and disbursed for use in
State projects through the five-yearly Malaysia Plan co-ordinated by the Ministry of Finance. The
Federal Government may also set-up special agencies for projects of national interest. In this case,
the Federal Government shall provide all the financial requirements through the agencies.
c) Technical Assistance and Capacity Building
The Federal Government through various Federal agencies also responsible for giving the State
Governments technical assistance for the implementation of irrigation and agricultural drainage
2-12
March 2009
development. These include secondment of staff, training program, studies and implementation of
projects. Through these bilateral governmental linkages, the States have been able to gain expertise
in new fields and technologies.
Adequate manpower is also necessary for the implementation of irrigation and drainage development
and management program. Continuous training with the introduction of various innovative
approaches and modern technologies are vital to meet the fast changing needs and challenges in
this field. It is envisaged that the Federal Government through its Federal agencies such as DID is in
the best position to implement and coordinate an integrated national capacity building that will cover
aspects of irrigation and drainage development.
d)
Data and Information Management
Various data required for the irrigation and drainage development are being collected and kept by
various Federal agencies. The DID, for example, is managing various data such as rainfall, stream
flow, water level, water table and agro hydrologic data. Secondary data are available but scattered in
various Federal Government agencies as follows:
Crops and agricultural land use Agriculture Department
Maps Survey and Mapping Department
Crops production/ population census Statistics Department
Socio-economic data Economic Planning Unit.
e) Research and Development
Irrigation and drainage development is a process of matching the crops and their water requirements
under different and variable environment. As the population of the country increases, more food has
to be produced. As the availability of land and water for food production is decreasing due to
competition with other sectors, the production per unit area has to be increased to meet the
increasing demand. This is possible through the conduct of integrated research and development
programs; and in this respect, collaboration between local institutions of higher learning such as UPM
or possibly international institution such as International Rice Research Institute IRRI, IPTRID and
FAO with the National Hydraulic Research Institute of Malaysia (NAHRIM), the Malaysian Research
and Development Institute (MARDI) and BPSP, MOA as well as other Federal agencies can further
enhance the R&D programmes.
2.3.1.2
State Government
The State Governments have the responsibility for I&D development and management, which can
further improve the socio-economic standard of the people. The State EPU can carry out the overall
planning and coordination at the State level, while the responsibility for the development and
management can be delegated to the agencies at the State level such as DID. The responsibilities
may cover planning, budgeting, construction, management, operation and maintenance (O&M) of
the I&D facilities. The State Governments shall play important roles in I&D development and this is
summarised below:
a) State Level Policy
State Governments normally evolve their own policies in consonance with Federal policies. The State
UPEN carries out overall policy coordination, but as of 2008 the task for developing irrigation and
drainage related policies has always been delegated to the DID.
b) Financing
Effective and efficient I&D development and management requires adequate funding. The State
Government needs to expand expenditure annually for the development of I&D facilities, including
March 2009
2-13
management, operation and maintenance. This often given inadequate emphasis and as a result
several I&D infrastructures has deteriorated and requires substantial allocation for reinstatement.
Funds may be available from variety of sources such as Federal grants, Federal loans, State funds, or
quit rent (including water and drainage rate), but these sources may be of limited amount.
c) Infrastructure Development and Management
Infrastructure Development - The Federal Government is generally responsible for the development
of I&D facilities. Planning and design may be implemented in-house or by registered engineering
companies. Contractors from the private sector normally do the construction works tendered out or
negotiated or directly given out to contractors appointed by the Treasury under a special program.
The tender selection committee depends on the sources of finance. Projects financed by the Federal
Government can be submitted to State or Federal level committees in accordance to the Treasury
procedures and instructions.
Infrastructure Ownership - Infrastructure facilities developed by the State Government agencies on
State land belong to the State Government. This includes infrastructures built by private sector and
handed over to the State government. While infrastructure facilities developed by Federal
Government on land given to or owned by the Federal Government belongs to the Federal
Government. Current policy prohibits the use of Federal funds for any development of permanent
infrastructures on State land, thus there is no policy currently available on the question of ownership
for projects developed by Federal agencies on State land.
Infrastructure Management - The management, operation and maintenance (O&M) responsibilities
for the completed I&D facilities are under the respective agencies who implemented the projects.
Generally, I&D schemes are taken care of by DIAD except for Muda Irrigation Scheme and Kemubu
Irrigation Scheme which are under MADA and KADA, respectively. Normally maintenance works are
tendered out to contractors from the private sector.
d) Regulatory Responsibilities
Establishment of Legislative Support - Effective regulation of I&D development and management is
important to ensure the sustainability of the irrigation and drainage areas and at the same time
preserving the environment. It relies on the establishment of a comprehensive legislative framework.
Outdated laws and regulations have to be revised at a regular basis, for example, once every 10 or
20 years, while additional regulation and procedures have to be introduced in line with contemporary
practices. The State Government has the power to act upon it. All draft Bills will be tabled to the
State Assembly for approval before being finally gazetted for enactment.
Coordination and Conflict Resolution - In I&D development and management, one is always
confronted with land-water issues that will result in conflicting views. An institutional platform is
essentially required to discuss and sort out these differences, so that consensus of opinion can be
reached. Meetings of the Majlis Tindakan Daerah at the District level and if the needs arise meetings
of the Majlis Tindakan Negeri are two avenues where this can be achieved.
Farmers awareness and education - I&D development are planned according to the best applicable
engineering practices. This may require some changes to the existing practices for the I&D systems
to function effectively. Thus, farmers must realize that they have a part to play in ensuring the
success of I&D development. They must have first and foremost, the awareness, understanding of,
and the right attitude towards I&D matters at hand. Farmers participation in the form of water user
group (WUG) has benefited both the farmers and the State Governments. Campaigns and
information dissemination programs to educate and to enhance the farmers understanding of the
issues, organised from time to time, as being practiced, requires continuous improvement and
changes in consonance with the current issues. At present, these activities are being carried out by
the DID, MADA, KADA and DOA on limited scale. The Area Farmers Associations existence has been
used as a stepping-stone to enhance the awareness and education programs.
2-14
March 2009
Enforcement - Enforcement of legislation for I&D and related fields is essential. The responsibility for
this mainly rests on agencies as shown in Table 2.15.
Table 2.15 Enforcement Authority Related to Irrigation and Drainage (I&D)
Offences
1. Land-use violation
2. Uncontrolled use of pesticide
3. Unlicensed blockages and diversions
4. Unauthorised discharge and water extraction
5. Unauthorised obstruction of water flow in
canals or drains
Enforcement Authority
Land Administrator
Department of Agriculture/ Department of
Environment
Land Administrator/ DID
Land administrator/ DID
DID
e) Disaster Management
I&D facilities may expose to damage due to unexpected disaster such as extraordinary flooding
which require immediate action to reduce the negative impacts to the socio-economy of the State. At
present, disaster management is principally under the care of the District Officer (DO). The agencies
that administer the I&D facilities monitor and conduct the damages assessment and forward to the
DO for further actions. The Federal Government is also assisting the State Governments by providing
special allocations for the reinstatement of damaged facilities. The fund is normally channelled
through the Federal agencies.
f)
Transformation in I&D Management Strategies
Even though Malaysia is blessed with bountiful water, it has to be managed wisely to minimise water
stress as the incidence of water scarcity has occurred more frequently than ever lately. In this
respect, irrigation, which is the main water user, has a very important part to play. Inefficient I&D
management leads to water wastage and it was envisaged that reforms in I&D management
strategies are important steps to be taken for sustainable development of water related activities. In
this aspect, the Federal and State Governments are both responsible in taking appropriate measures
for the I&D transformation to be materialised.
2.3.2
Laws on Irrigation and Drainage
I&D essentially deal with the application of water to soils and the removal of excess water from soils
effectively for crops cultivation. To meet these objectives, I&D systems are provided without much
considerations on the regional implications. This practice has to be changed for sustainable
agricultural and water resources development. The new approach is to look at I&D within the context
of integrated water resources management (IWRM). Existing laws associated with irrigation and
drainage shall be thoroughly considered as follows:
Water resources, which include rivers, groundwater, lakes, wetlands and other water
bodies may be extracted from them, while excess water might be discharged into such
water bodies.
Land and the development or exploitation of such land
Drainage and irrigation
Environmental management.
Other issues such as State/Federal relationships, administrative practices on the ground and
constitutional jurisdiction are also important.
March 2009
2-15
The position of the Federal and State governments with regard to the following public issues by
constitution is briefly discussed.
2.3.2.1
Water Resource
Water is a State matter. Water by definition includes rivers, lakes, streams and groundwater.
However on certain water-based projects in the States such as water supplies, rivers and canal
works or resource utilisation works such as hydropower generation implemented by the Federal
Government, it has exclusive power.
Since, water and matters relating thereto, and in particular land, are within the State Authorities
jurisdiction, thus they are in a better position to control and regulate the water resources on their
ground.
2.3.2.2
Land Resource
Based on the National Land Code, all matters relating to land are placed under the State jurisdiction.
The definition of Land includes land under water. Together with land, related matters such as
forestry, agriculture and mining are under the State jurisdiction.
The Federal Government or any State Government, may consult the National Land Council formed in
accordance to Article 91 of the Federal Constitution, with respect to any matter relating to the
utilisation of land or in respect of any purported legislation, dealing with land or administration of
any such law. The Federal and State Governments shall implement the policy so formulated.
2.3.2.3
Drainage and Irrigation
Under the Federal Constitution, drainage and irrigation is enumerated as a specific item in the
Concurrent List. This implies both the Federal and State Governments have legislative power over
this particular function. However, the State List includes water related items such as water supplies,
rivers and canals, control of silt and riparian rights and also administration of land, which is
prescribed exclusively in the State List. Forest, control of silt, land improvement and soil conservation
are also enumerated in the State List. Thus, the State Government has extensive power over
drainage and irrigation and matters related thereto, taken as a whole.
2.3.2.4
Environmental Management
There is no direct reference to the control and regulation of environmental pollution in the Federal
Constitution. It is necessary therefore to infer the source of authority for environmental matters by
examining particular issues.
It has been decided by the Malaysian Court of Appeal that in the event of conflict between State law
and the Federal Environmental Quality Act (EQA) 1974, the application of any environmental
legislation will depend on the specific subject matter to which it is to be applied and whether the
State or Federal Governments has power over the matter under the Constitution. Environmental
matters related to land and water services for example, are under the State Governments.
2.3.3
Review of Existing Legislation
Irrigation and drainage in Malaysia although specifically covered under irrigation and drainage
legislation, there are several other federal and state laws, which are closely related. Some of the
legislations, guidelines and orders which are directly or indirectly related to drainage and irrigation
are shown in Appendix 2A.
2.3.3.1
Ownership of Water
Drainage and irrigation is a sector very much associated with water. Thus, definitely legislation
concerning water has certain impacts on I&D development and management. Various aspects of
legislation relating to water vest ownership of water in the State Government, particularly in terms of
2-16
March 2009
water that occurs in rivers and water bodies within the State. Pursuant to this, the Waters Act 1920
(Revised 1989) Section 3 provides that the entire property in and control of all rivers in any State is
and shall be vested solely in the Ruler of such State.
This Act emphasizes more on the planning of water resources development, the acquisition and
administration of rights to the use of water, the conservation and protection of water resource and
incidental matters pertaining thereto. Under this Act, water means any water, whether surface or
underground and watercourse means any river including any tributary thereof, stream, reservoir,
pond, lake, canal, channel, swamp or overflow area or groundwater aquifer.
The District Office is the licensing authority and any extraction, diversion, use of water or to increase
the use of water whether it is surface or groundwater by any person is subject to approval of the
District Office in the form of licence. No person shall possess a right to the use of water without
licence except for water of less than 200 litres/day used for domestic purposes, including the
watering of gardens and livestock. State licensing was also not required for any Federal works.
Licence to divert water from rivers for irrigation, may be granted under this Act.
Under the National Geological Survey Act, 1974, any person intended to extract groundwater shall
inform the Director General except to those making a well for extraction of water which is less than
9.15m (30 ft) in depth or yields less than 2.27 m3/day (500 gallons per day) for domestic purposes.
2.3.3.2
Agricultural drainage and irrigation development generally are covered under the Drainage Works
Act, 1954 and the Irrigation Area Act, 1953. Both Acts shall only be applicable to the States of West
Malaysia. For the States of Sabah and Sarawak, the Drainage and Irrigation, Sabah Ordinance
15/1956 and the Drainage Works Ordinance, 1966, Sarawak, respectively shall be applicable. The
enforcement of the provisions of the Acts shall apply to those irrigation and drainage areas that have
been declared and gazetted by the State Authority and in this case is the State Government. Thus,
irrigation and drainage areas which have not been declared and gazetted such as irrigation areas
owned and developed by private companies are not covered under these Acts, but their agricultural
activities shall be covered under other laws such as Water Acts and Environmental Quality Act.
Every irrigation or drainage area shall be in the charge of Drainage and Irrigation Engineer or such
other officer appointed by the appropriate authority. Current practice indicates that DID District
Engineer will normally be appointed as the officer-in-charge of irrigation or drainage area for the
respective district.
Under the Irrigation Areas Act and Drainage Works Act, the State Governments may impose annual
rate (drainage rate or water rate) to defray the cost of the provision of such drainage facilities or to
offset the expenditure on construction, management, supervision and maintenance of such irrigation
facilities.
The Drainage Works Act also specifies that the State Government may appoint a Drainage Board
and the Board may make recommendations pertaining to matters such as:
to consider any objection by the land owner/occupier
drainage area coverage
additions, improvement or new drainage works
uses of drainage rate for any drainage works.
Drainage and irrigation areas have to be managed effectively to ensure that the provisions of I&D
facilities serve its purpose. The Drainage Works Act and the Irrigation Areas Act provide for the
arrest or punishment of any person committing an offence against the Acts.
March 2009
2-17
2.3.3.3
Water Resources Management
In order to minimise, prevent or address problems of water scarcity and deterioration of water
quality, water resources must be managed effectively. This must also go along with careful basins or
catchments management, which includes good management of rivers and other water sources
reserves. The Water Enactment, 1984, states that the State Water Resources Development Plan shall
propose specific actions concerning various subjects and some of them are related to water resource
management such as:
Water Demand: Identification of existing and projected domestic, industrial, agricultural

and navigation-related water demand by District.
Minimum Flow: Determination of the minimum flow requirement of any watercourse

within the State incapable of satisfying existing or projected water demand on a
continuous basis.
Groundwater: Identify all geographic areas within the State where a condition of
groundwater overdraft exists or anticipated.
Water Source Protection: Identify any water source, watershed or dependent resource
within the State, which is threatened by pollution, siltation, salinity intrusion or erosion
from existing and planned development.
Under this Act, a State Water Resources Committee may declare any Watershed Reserve Area and
the Committee shall gazette the dimensions within 90 days of its declaration.
Besides that, there are other laws aimed directly or indirectly at managing water resources. The Land
Conservation Act, 1960 Part II, Section 3 provides for declaration of hill land which cannot be
disturbed to prevent erosion and siltation, while under the Forest Enactment, forest areas may be
declared as forest reserve for the purpose of protecting river catchments.
2.3.3.4
Flood Mitigation for Agricultural Area
Under the Ministerial Functions Act, the Minister of Natural Resources and Environment is entrusted
with the responsibility for flood mitigation, which also includes agricultural areas. Allocations for flood
mitigation for agricultural areas are mainly obtained from the Federal Government.
2.3.3.5
Environmental Protection
The Environmental Quality Act (EQA), 1974, a Federal law is the principal legislation that protects the
environment. Section 34(A) of the EQA provides for environmental impact assessment (EIA). The
Environmental Quality (Prescribed Activities) (Environmental Impact Assessment) Order, 1987 has
prescribed measures to prevent or mitigate the impact of large projects. The EIA requirement is a
preventive measure to ensure that proposed projects take into consideration environmental matters
in their implementation.
2.3.3.6
Farmers/ Stakeholders Participation
Participation and cooperation from farmers and any interested parties are vital to ensure the
respective laws and legislations are effectively implemented.
2-18
March 2009
2.4
AUTHORITY REQUIREMENT AND DOCUMENTATION
2.4.1
Authority Requirement
2.4.1.1
Application for Land Development
Development of land for agricultural purposes can be carried out either by the State or Federal
Governments through its agencies or by individual or private company.
Generally the State Governments have allocated land to State/ Federal agencies for agricultural
development. These agencies may develop the land on their own or they may lease it to individual or
private company of which an agreement specifying the terms and conditions shall be made between
both parties. On the other hand, any individual or private company may apply any land for
agricultural development. The application shall be forwarded to the District Land Office. The National
Land Code must be complied if it involves land use conversion.
2.4.1.2
Application for Use Water
Permission to use water or to increase the use of water or to change the place of diversion or use of
water by any person requires approval in the form of licence from the District Officer. The application
for a water use licence shall be forwarded to the District Officer prior to the commencement of any
works related to such use. Figure 2.1 shows a flowchart for application to use water.
Submission of application to
District Officer
Forward to State
Water Resources
Committee
Comply
with
conditions
Rejected and
notify the
applicant
Arrange Hearing
Forward decision to
District Officer
Notify the applicant

Figure 2.1 A Flowchart for Application to Use Water from the District Office.
2.4.1.3
Application to Import Earth
In cases where earth has to be imported from other places, permission shall be obtained from the
State authority prior to the commencement of such works. The application shall be forwarded to the
Land Office. For State or Federal Governments owned projects, the party engaged for the projects
development shall forward the application.
March 2009
2-19
2.4.1.4
Requirement During/After Construction
Permission to use existing facilities such as farm roads and crossings or to construct any canal, drain
or such things to connect with existing facilities within an irrigation or drainage area shall be
obtained from the officer in-charge of the areas. The applicant shall specify the facilities and the
duration involved. The officer-in-charge shall conduct site checks prior to granting permission and do
so from time to time to ensure compliance with the permission given.
2.4.1.5
Works Related to Utility/Services
During the implementation of projects, wherever and whenever decisions from different agencies are
required, it shall be sorted through joint consultation between the agencies to avoid any
complications and conflict of interests. There is a general understanding between agencies on the
need for a joint consultation, but there is no statutory provision for the requirement.
2.4.1.6
Operation and Maintenance
The O&M of I&D facilities provided by the State or Federal Governments is normally carried out
either by the DIAD, DID or the respective agencies that manages the I&D areas. Any facilities that
are not covered under these agencies responsibilities or those facilities, which have been constructed
by the user/ owner shall be operated and maintained by the user/ owner.
2.4.1.7
Requirements of the Department of Environment
Drainage and Irrigation works categorised as prescribed activities under the EQA (1974) shall be
subjected to EIA and Environmental Management Plan (EMP) requirements. The prescribed irrigation
and drainage activities are as follows:
Drainage of wetland, wildlife habitat or of virgin forest covering an area of 100 ha or more
Irrigation schemes covering an area of 5,000 ha or more
Construction of dams and manmade lakes and artificial enlargement of lakes with surface
areas of 200 ha or more.
Other activities under the prescribed activities list where drainage and irrigation might be involved
are shown in appendix 2A4. The DOE has prepared several guidelines to facilitate project proponents
in complying with the EIA/EMP requirements.
2.4.2
Documentation
The management, operation and maintenance of I&D facilities require complete and comprehensive
documentation. It shall cover all the various stages of project implementation including project
inception, planning, detailed design, construction, commissioning, O&M and upgrading.
The documents shall be in the form of hard copy and soft copy and shall provide the necessary
information, which can be incorporated in Irrigation and Drainage Information System (IDIS). The
documents shall include drawings, reports and manuals. Documentation shall be managed effectively
and shall facilitate retrieval of data and information whenever needed.
2.4.2.1
Drawings
Drawings submitted for the purpose of approval of licences and/or permits shall contain important
details such as location plan, layout plans, levels, cross-sections and other foundation and structural
details and services whichever applicable that may be affected. As-built drawings shall also be
submitted after the completion of the project.
2-20
March 2009
2.4.2.2
Reports and Manuals
All related reports and manuals shall be prepared and shall include design reports and EIA report
wherever applicable. Design reports may include a project brief, site and soil investigation, detailed
calculation, specifications and other relevant information. An authorised person such as a
professional engineer shall endorse design reports.
Operation and maintenance manuals of the I&D systems shall at least cover project brief, design
criteria adopted, residual problems and procedures to be followed in the operation and maintenance
of the I&D systems.
2.4.3
Submission Requirement
This section explains the requirements a project proponent must submit, apart from requirements by
other agencies. This is to ensure the objectives of the Manual are met.
2.4.3.1
Submission for Water Extraction
The application for water extraction shall be forwarded together with details of the proposed use,
layout plan showing the location of intake point, quantity of water to be extracted and any facilities
to be erected or constructed. The extraction and use of groundwater shall require the following:
Drilling shall be undertaken by an authorized registered driller
Record of progress of the work including the depth of strata passed through and the
water level
Samples of all geological materials passed through
Results of any pump test.
2.4.3.2
Submission to Import Soil
Application for importing earth shall be submitted in standard form (Form 4C Permit to Remove
Rock Material) available at the particular District Land office. Details to be submitted include:
Description of land
Estimated quantity of earth to be extracted
Sketch plan of the land.
2.5
OTHER IMPORTANT CRITERIA
2.5.1
Public Safety Consideration
Many of the requirements for the planning and design of I&D systems presented in this Manual have
either directly or indirectly considered the need to protect public safety. Notwithstanding these
requirements, I&D managers and designers must consider the need or otherwise to implement
additional measures to further protect public safety.
Standard of typical measures to improve public safety include:
safety railing on crossings, headwalls or other locations where the public could fall into
drains or water bodies
safety fencing for head works, pump intakes compound or other location to prevent any
unauthorized people from entering the areas
covered drains or canals close to residential areas
March 2009
2-21
2.5.2
maximum flow velocity criteria for canals and drains
maximum flow velocity criteria for flow on or across roads.
Environmental Conservation
Due consideration has to be made on the importance of environmental conservation in planning and
design of I&D systems. I&D managers and designers must consider the need or may otherwise
implement additional measures to conserve the environment.
Standard of typical measures to conserve the environment include:
2.5.3
2.5.3.1
limiting the depth of open drains in peat soil areas to avoid excessive subsidence
limiting the quantity of ground water extracted for irrigation purposes to avoid saline
water intrusion
implementing appropriate measures to minimise erosion or/and sedimentation
controlled burning in land development.
Land Development
Land Clearing
Land clearing for agricultural development shall be undertaken properly and wherever possible
natural vegetation shall be retained to minimise erosion within a site. This will maintain the soil
fertility as well as to control sedimentation and pollution in waterways.
2.5.3.2
Land Levelling or Grading
Whenever land levelling or grading is practiced, it must be carried out with the best possible
methods and practices to avoid the needs of excessively deep downstream conveyance system or
drainage pumps to drain out excess water.
2.5.3.3
Special Applications
Hilly areas development shall be planned and designed with proper erosion and sedimentation
control practices to maintain the soil fertility as well as to control sedimentation and pollution in
waterways and to avoid damage to other land.
2.5.4
Geographical Information System (GIS)
GIS is one of the management tools that can be used by I&D managers in managing irrigation and
drainage areas. GIS is one of the important components for the successful implementation of
precision farming. As this tool is becoming more and more important and widely used, it shall be
incorporated in any new development of irrigation and drainage areas. GIS application shall be
planned and designed in accordance with Garispanduan Aplikasi Sistem Maklumat Geografi (GIS)
issued by DID via Surat Pekeliling JPS Bil 2/2005 or any new related instructions or circulars issued
from time to time as well as MS 1759 Geographic Information/Geomatics Features and Attributes
Codes.
2-22
March 2009
REFERENCES
Malaysian Meteorological Services, (1993). Agroclimatic and Crop Zone Classification of Malaysia.
Chan, C C (1993). Impacts and Implications of Direct Seeding on Irrigation Requirement and
Systems Management.
Glenn J.H., Robert G.E., Marvin E.J., and Derrel L.M. (1983). Design and Operation of Farm Irrigation
Systems, American Society of Agricultural Engineers (ASAE), New York.
DID (1980). Design Manual for Water Conveyance Systems. Jabatan Pengairan dan Saliran Malaysia,
Government Printing, Kuala Lumpur.
DID (1973). Drainage and Irrigation Department Manual. Jabatan Pengairan dan Saliran Malaysia,,
DID (1977). Manual of Water Data Standard. Water Quality and Sediment Yield. Jabatan Pengairan
dan Saliran Malaysia, Government Printing, Kuala Lumpur.
Drainage Works Act (1954). (Act 354) & Irrigation Areas Act 1953 (Act 386). Revised in 1988.
FAO, (1986). Design and Operation of Irrigation Systems for Smallholder Agriculture in South Asia.
Food and Agricultural Organization, Rome.
FAO, (1986). Irrigation Water Needs. Irrigation and Water Management Manuals, Food and
Agricultural Organization, Rome.
G.O. Schwab, (1993). Soil And Water Conservation Engineering. Ferguson Foundation. Agricultural
Engineering Series.
Irrigation Areas Act (1953). Revised in 1989. The Drainage and Irrigation Department (DID) of
Malaysia, Government Printing, Kuala Lumpur. Kanun Tanah Negara, (1965).
Larry G.J. (1988). Principles of farm irrigation system design. John Wiley & Sons, New York, pp. 543.
Smedema L.K., Vlotman W.F. and Rycroft D.W. (2004). Modern land drainage planning, design and
management of agricultural drainage systems. A.A. Balkema Publishers.
Land Conservation Act, (1960). Guidelines, Codes & Standards of Malaysia Laws & Regulations ,
Jabatan Ukur dan Pemetaan Malaysia. Government Printing, Kuala Lumpur.
NAP3 (1998). Third National Agricultural Policy (1998 2010), Ministry of Agriculture Malaysia.
National Forestry Act, (1984). Guidelines, Codes & Standards of Malaysia Laws & Regulations.
Jabatan Perhutanan Semenanjung Malaysia, Government Printing, Kuala Lumpur.
National Geological Survey Act, (1974). Guidelines, Codes & Standards of Malaysia Laws &
Regulations. Government Printing, Kuala Lumpur.
Parlimentary Acts. Ministrial Function Act, (1969). Perintah Menteri-menteri Kerajaan Persekutuan
2004.
Waters Act, (1920). Guidelines, Codes & Standards of Malaysia Laws & Regulations of Malaysia Laws
& Regulations. Jabatan Pengairan dan Saliran Malaysia, Government Printing, Kuala Lumpur.
March 2009
2-23
2-24
March 2009
APPENDIX 2A: Legislation, Guidelines and Orders

Appendix 2A1: List of Legislation
1.
Waters Act, 1920
2.
Irrigation Areas Act, 1953
3.
The Drainage Works Act, 1954
4.
The National Land Code, 1965
5.
Environmental Quality Act, 1974
6.
Land Conservation Act, 1960
7.
The National Geological Survey Act, 1974
8.
Drainage and Irrigation, Sabah Ordinance 15/1956
9.
Drainage Works Ordinance, 1966, Sarawak
10.
The Water Enactment, 1984
11.
The Forest Act, 1984
12.
Sabah Water Resources Enactment, 1998
13.
Sabah Conservation of the Environment Enactment
14.
Sabah Land Ordinance, 1930
15.
Sabah Forest Ordinance, 1965
16.
Sarawak Water Ordinance, 1994
17.
Sarawak Land Code, 1958
18.
National Resources and Environment Ordinance, 1958, Sarawak
19.
Forest Ordinance, Sarawak, Cap. 126
Appendix 2A2: List of Guidelines

20.
Guidelines for Prevention and Control of Soil Erosion and Siltation in Malaysia.
21.
Environmental Impact Assessment Guidelines for Drainage and/or Irrigation Projects.
Appendix 2A3: List of Orders

22.
23.
Environmental Quality (Prescribed Activities) (Environmental Impact Assessment)

Order, 1987.
The Natural Resources and Environment (Prescribed Activities) Order, 1994.
Sarawak.
Appendix 2A4: List of Prescribed Activities related to Drainage and Irrigation

a)
Agriculture
b)
Land development scheme covering an area of 500 ha or more to bring forestland into
agricultural production.
Agricultural programmes necessitating the resettlement of 100 families or more.
Development of agricultural estate covering an area of 500 ha or more involving changes
in type of agricultural use.
Land Reclamation
March 2009
Coastal reclamation involving an area of 50 ha or more.
2A-1
c)
Forestry
d)
Conversion of hill forest land to other land use covering an area of 50 ha or more
Logging or conversion of forest land to other land use within the catchments of
reservoirs used for municipal water supply, irrigation or hydro-power generation or in
areas adjacent to state and national parks and marine parks
Logging covering an area of 500 ha or more
Conversion of mangrove swamps on islands adjacent to national marine parks
Clearing of mangrove swamps on islands adjacent to national marine parks.
Construction of dams and man-made lakes and artificial enlargement of lakes with
surface areas of 200 ha or more
Drainage of wetland, wildlife habitat or of virgin forest covering an area of 100 ha or
more
Irrigation schemes covering an area of 5,000 ha or more.
Note: Information extracted from the Environmental Quality (Prescribed Activities), Environmental
Impact Assessment Order, 1987.
2A-2
March 2009

Chapter 3 - System and Technology
Chapter 3 - SYSTEM AND TECHNOLOGY
Table of Contents
Table of Contents..3-i
List of Figures..3-iii
3.1 INTRODUCTION.... 3-1
3.2 IRRIGATION SYSTEMS ..3-1
3.2.1 Types of Irrigation Systems.. 3-1
3.2.2 Surface Irrigation 3-2
3.2.2.1 Basin Irrigation. 3-3
3.2.2.2 Border Irrigation.. 3-4
3.2.2.3 Furrow Irrigation. 3-5
3.2.3 Sprinkler Irrigation 3-8
3.2.3.1 Portable Systems ...3-8
3.2.3.2 Semi-Portable Systems 3-12
3.2.3.3 Solid Set or Permanent Systems 3-13
3.2.3.4 Semi-Permanent Systems . 3-13
3.2.3.5 Continuous Move Systems 3-14
3.2.4 Microirrigation . 3-14
3.2.4.1 Drip or Trickle System.. 3-15
3.2.4.2 Bubbler System .. 3-15
3.2.4.3 Microsprinkler System. 3-16
3.2.4.4 Subsurface Drip System . 3-17
3.2.5 Subirrigation.. 3-17
3.2.5.1 Important Characteristics 3-18
3.2.5.2 Types of Sub-irrigation System 3-18
3.2.6 Low Cost Drip Irrigation..3-19
3.2.7 Special Applications...3-19
3.2.7.1 Soilless Culture System .. 3-19
3.2.7.2 Chemigation and Fertigation Systems ... 3-25
3.3 DRAINAGE SYSTEMS...3-27
3.3.1 Types of Drainage Systems . 3-28
3.3.2 Components of a Drainage Systems.3-29
3.3.2.1 Main Drainage System..3-29
3.3.2.2 Field Drainage System.. 3-29
3.3.3 Surface Drainage... 3-29
3.3.3.1 Bedding Systems 3-30
3.3.3.2 Shallow Ditch Systems 3-31
3.3.3.3 Grassed Waterways 3-32
3.3.4 Subsurface Drainage. 3-34
3.3.4.1 Open or Deep Ditch Drainage System. 3-34
3.3.4.2 Pipe Drainage System. 3-34
3.3.4.3 Tubewell Drainage Systems.. 3-38
3.3.4.4 Mole Drainage Systems 3-39
3.3.5 Interception Drainage. 3-40
March 2009
3-i
3.3.6 Biodrainage .. 3-40

3.3.6.1 Possible Biodrainage Scenarios.. 3-42
3.3.6.2 Rainfed Systems.... 3-42
3.3.6.3 Irrigated Systems.. 3-44
3.3.7 Composite Drainage system... 3-45
3.4 WATER TREATMENT FOR AGRICULTURAL WATER USES... 3-46
3.4.1 Potential Water Quality Problems.. 3-46
3.4.1.1 Low Quality Municipal Water... 3-46
3.4.1.2 Low Quality Well Water... 3-46
3.4.1.3 Low Quality Surface Water... 3-46
3.4.1.4 Low Quality Tail Water.... 3-46
3.4.2 Selection of Treatment Process . 3-46
3.4.3 Methods of Treatment 3-47
3.4.3.1 Particle Removal.. 3-47
3.4.3.2 Salt and Hardness Removal . 3-47
3.4.3.3 Inactivation of Microorganisms .. 3-47
3.5 WATERTABLE MANAGEMENT..3-47
3.5.1 Where to Apply the Practice. 3-48
3.5.2 Impacts of Watertable Management... 3-48
3.5.3 Controlled Drainage and Subirrigation... 3-49
3.6 DRAINAGE WATER REUSE .. 3-49
3.6.1 Importance of Drainage Water Reuse 3-50
3.6.2 Impacts of Drainage Water Reuse. 3-50
3.6.3 Reuse of Drainage Water for Crop Irrigation.. 3-50
3.7 ICT APPLICATION..3-51
3.7.1 Planning and Design. 3-51
3.7.2 Operation.3-52
3.7.3 Management and Maintenance...3-52
3.7.3.1 Geographical Information System (GIS) ..... 3-52
3.7.3.2 Decision Support System (DSS) ... 3-53
3.7.3.3 WEB-based System... 3-54
REFERENCES ..3-55
APPENDIX 3.A:
Comparison of Irrigation Systems in Relation to Site and Situation.. 3A-1
APPENDIX 3.B:
Suitability of Irrigation Systems for Various Crops in Malaysia.3A-2
APPENDIX 3.C:
Adaptability and Conservation Features of Surface Irrigation Systems...3A-5
APPENDIX 3.D: Adaptability and Conservation Features of Pressurized Irrigation Systems 3A-6
3-ii
March 2009
List of Figures
Figure
Description
Page
3.1
Illustrated Complementary Systems and Technology in Irrigated Agriculture
3-1
3.2
Major Classifications of Irrigation Systems
3-2
3.3
Typical Irrigation System Components
3-3
3.4
Typical Basin Irrigation System of IADP Selangor
3-4
3.5
Typical Border Irrigation System
3-5
3.6
Typical Furrow Irrigation Systems
3-5
3.7
Levelled Furrow Irrigation System in Florida, USA
3-6
3.8
Contour Furrow Irrigation System
3-6
3.9
Graded Furrow Irrigation System
3-7
3.10
Corrugated Furrow Irrigation System
3-7
3.11
Surge Irrigation Systems in Florida, USA
3-7
3.12
Side Roll or Hand Move Sprinkler System
3-8
3.13
Common Portable Sprinkler Systems
3-8
3.14
Portable Hand-moved Sprinkler System in Florida, USA
3-9
3.15
Side-wheel-roll Lateral Sprinkler System
3-9
3.16
Gun Type Sprinkler Systems
3-10
3.17
Hose-pull Systems
3-11
3.18
Hose-reel Systems
3-11
3.19
Hose-fed Laterals Sprinkler System
3-12
3.20
Solid Set Sprinkler System
3-13
3.21
Semi-permanent System
3-13
3.22
Continuous Move Systems in Florida, USA
3-14
3.23
Drip Irrigation System
3-15
3.24
Emitters Arrangement for Point and Line Sources in Florida, USA
3-16
3.25
Bubbler Irrigation System
3-16
3.26
Microsprinkler Irrigation System
3-17
3.27
Subsurface Drip Irrigation System
3-17
3.28
Subirrigation Systems and Applications
3-18
3.29
Low Cost Microirrigation System
3-20
3.30
Low Cost Microirrigation with Solar Power
3-20
3.31
Irrigation of Soilless Culture in Greenhouse
3-21
3.32
Nutrient Flow Culture Using Plastic Film in Recirculation System
3-22
3.33
Hydroponic Culture in a Gravel Filled Trough
3-22
3.34
Full Floor Sand Culture System for Capsicum
3-23
3.35
Open Field Soilless Culture for Vegetable Production Systems in Florida, USA
3-24
3.36
Chemigation Station Layout
3-26
3.37
Watertable Conditions in Root Zones
3-27
3.38
Major Purposes of Agricultural Drainage
3-28
3.39
Common Agricultural Drainage Systems
3-29
3.40
Surface Drainage Bedding
3-30
3.41
Drainage by Overland Flow in Bedding Drainage System
3-31
March 2009
3-iii
3.42
Random Open Drains
3-31
3.43
Parallel Open Drains
3-33
3.44
Cross Slope Drain System
3-33
3.45
Grassed Waterway
3-34
3.46
Subsurface Drainage Systems
3-36
3.47
Subsurface Pipe Drainage System
3-37
3.48
Pipe Drainage Layout Patterns
3-38
3.49
Typical Flow Pattern to Parallel Pipe Drains
3-38
3.50
Tubewell Drainage System
3-39
3.51
Mole Formation by Pulling a Bullet
3-39
3.52
Mole Drainage Discharging into Drain Trenches
3-40
3.53
Interception Drainage Systems
3-41
3.54
Controlling Waterlogging and Salinity by Biodrainage
3-41
3.55
Dryland Plantation Scenario
3-42
3.56
Recharge Control Plantation
3-43
3.57
Break-of-Slope Planting of by 2-yrs Blue Gums
3-43
3.58
Deforested Hill with Salinity Problems in Australia
3-44
3.59
Inundation Caused by Seepage from Irrigation Canal
3-45
3.60
Watertable Management Alternatives
3-48
3.61
Controlled Drainage by Weir and Flap Gate
3-49
3.62
Reuse of Drainage Water in MUDA Rice Irrigation Scheme
3-50
3.63
Basic Structure of SDSS
3-53
3-iv
March 2009
3 SYSTEM AND TECHNOLOGY

3.1
INTRODUCTION
The aim of irrigation and drainage is to ensure the sustainability of agricultural activities particularly
in achieving food security. Therefore, the challenges to increase the productivity in irrigated
agriculture involving both technological and management interventions. Employing the modern
irrigation technologies appropriately is the key to overcoming this challenge. Proper training and
maintenance are also required with the use of advanced technology. Advancement of irrigation and
drainage system has been reported from many countries worldwide. Some practices have been
adopted locally and more are expected in the near future. However, a typical irrigation and
agricultural drainage system is usually comprised of intake, conveyance and distribution, field
irrigation, field drainage and disposal system. A typical illustration of the complementary systems and
technology is shown in Figure 3.1.
The objective of this Chapter is to provide introduction and summary of illustration and information
of various irrigation and drainage systems and technology considered appropriate for use. This is
vital to manual users before moving on to subsequent design chapters.
Conveyance
Irrigation Use
Distribution
Excess/Used Water
Drainage
Intake
Pre Treatment
Reuse
Disposal
River
Sea
Figure 3.1 Illustrated Complementary Systems and Technology in Irrigated Agriculture

3.2
IRRIGATION SYSTEMS
Irrigation is a process of transferring water from a conveyance system of channels or pipes into the
field for the purpose of agricultural production. Irrigation systems are designed to supply an
adequate amount of water in a timely manner to plants. It is of course necessary to choose an
irrigation system before design, equipment specification and installation. To do a proper selection,
one must give careful consideration to both the environment in which the irrigation system must
function and to the capabilities and limitations of all potential irrigation system alternatives. Efficient
irrigation systems have a great influence to the entire growth process of crops. It requires proper
design and operation along with experience, science and even some art.
3.2.1
Types of Irrigation Systems
Water is commonly applied to crops by surface, sprinkler, microirrigation or subirrigation systems.

Comparison for three major irrigation systems in relation to site and situation is presented briefly in
Appendix 3.A. The major classification of irrigation systems is shown in Figure 3.2. Each of these
irrigation systems has variable adaptation that work with certain conditions. Other factors to consider
are plant water requirements, condition of water and its supply, soil type, and topography,
microclimate concerns and irrigation scheduling constraints. Surface irrigation is the simplest type
among all irrigation systems. Suitability of irrigation systems for different crops is given in Appendix
3.B.
March 2009
3-1
Irrigation Systems
Sprinkler
Surface / Flood
Basin
Level
Microirrigation
Portable
Graded
Border
Permanent
Level
Furrow
Graded
Subirrigation
Drip/Trickle
Natural or Water
Table Control
Bubbler
Artificial or
Burried Pipe
Micro-sprinkler
Semi-Permanent
Sub-surface Drip
Self-moved
Level Furrow
Graded Furrow
Contour Furrow
Figure 3.2 Major Classifications of Irrigation Systems

3.2.2
Surface Irrigation
Surface irrigation is the introduction and distribution of water into fields by gravity flow of water over
the soil surface. Three common surface irrigation methods are:
Basin irrigation
Border irrigation
Furrow irrigation
There are two features that distinguish a surface irrigation system from others:
the flow has a free surface responding to the gravitational gradient

the on-field means of conveyance and distribution is the field surface itself
There are many factors affecting the choice of suitable irrigation method, such as land topography,
soils, field shape, crops and labour. Common surface irrigation systems practiced in Malaysia are
basin and furrow. A suitability chart for surface irrigation systems is provided in Appendix 3.C.
There are several basic components of surface irrigation system (Figure 3.3). They are:
Water source
Water conveyance system
Farm water distribution system
Turn-outs
Provision for holding water in the field
Flow measurement and
Reuse reservoir or tail water ditch
Water Source: The water sources for surface irrigation are from rivers, reservoir and groundwater or
from the combination of them. If the water source is above the level of the field to be irrigated, it
can flow to the field by gravity through an open channel or pipelines. If the water level is below the
level of the field, a pump or headworks will be required to raise the water level to the required
elevation.
Water Conveyance System: Water conveyance systems for surface irrigation convey water from the
source to fields through open channel and/or pipelines. Delivery system may include structures for
regulating and diverting water into the farms. The capacity of a delivery system must be sufficient to
deliver required amount of water to any point in the field whenever is needed. Delivery system
3-2
March 2009
should be convenient to operate and maintain and be economically justified by the return from the
crop to be grown.
Farm Water Distribution System: Farm water distribution system or head ditches or head pipelines
extend along one end of the field to be irrigated. It is to make water available from the delivery
system to the different areas in the field.
Turnouts: Turnouts are used for releasing water at various canal levels to the next lower canal level
and finally from water distribution systems onto the land to be irrigated.
Provision for Holding Water in the Field: Provisions for holding the water in the field to be irrigated
are necessary to most surface systems. They consist of a ridge of earth, formed from field soil to
enclose the area to be irrigated. They are called levees, dikes, borders or batas.
Flow Measurement: The control mechanisms include orifices, timer for mains (manual and
automatic), parshall flumes, garbage dumps, and control gates for channels. The floodgates are used
for controlling irrigation supplies.
Reuse Reservoir or Tail Water Ditch: A reuse reservoir is used for collecting excess water for reuse.
It allows higher flow rates through the irrigated strip, which increases the uniformity of the water
application and saves the excess water for the reuse. Fertilizers, pesticides and salts that may wash
from the irrigated fields are kept in the reservoir from entering streams and polluting them.
Parshall Flume
Water
Supply
Check
Head Ditch
Gated Pipe
Field
Ditch
Water Use
System
Water Delivery
System
Drop
Division Box
Tail Water Ditch

Water Removal System
Figure 3.3 Typical Irrigation System Components (FAO, 1989)

3.2.2.1
Basin Irrigation
Basin irrigation is the simplest in principle among all methods. Basins are flat areas of land,
surrounded by low bunds (Figure 3.4). This system is widely practiced for paddy cultivation in
Malaysia. The bunds prevent flowing of water to the adjacent fields. In general, the basin method is
suitable for crops that are unaffected by standing water for long periods. The basins are filled to the
desired depth and water is retained until it infiltrates into the soil or the excess is drained off. There
are many different sizes of basins. The size depends on soil type, stream size, irrigation depth, field
size, land slope and farming practice. There is no simple calculation to select the best basin sizes for
March 2009
3-3
different stream sizes, irrigation depths and soil types. The experience of local irrigators often
provides a good guide to the best size.
Farm Channel
Drain
Drain
Basin
Basin
Water
Spreading
(a) Basin layout
(b) A Tertiary Canal with Control Gate
(c) Paddy Field View
Figure 3.4 Typical Basin Irrigation System of IADP Selangor

Rice is the most common basin crop grown in submerged condition, which differentiates from other
crops. Physically basin irrigation is popular for all systems of irrigated rice production where levees
are formed for controlling the water in paddy fields.
3.2.2.2
Border Irrigation
Border irrigation is one of the most complicated among all surface irrigation methods. Borders are
long, sloping strips of land separated by bunds (Figure 3.5). They are sometimes called border strips,
border checks or strip checks. Borders are usually rectangular in shape, varying in size from 100
800 m long and 3 30 m wide. Border irrigation uses land formed into strips, level across the narrow
dimension but sloping along the long dimension, and bounded by ridges or borders. The slope of the
border strip down which the water flows should be uniform or slightly decreasing. A minimum slope
is needed to provide the hydraulic gradient, which will cause the water to flow down the border strip.
An increasing rate of slope usually results in uneven water distribution and erosion of the soil
because of the speed of water flow.
A uniform distribution of water is important to use the right unit of stream size for the soil and land
slope and to stop the flow at the right time so that just enough water infiltrates to fill the soil
reservoir of the crop root zone. Many factors that affect the choice of border size and shape. These
3-4
March 2009
include soil type, unit stream size, irrigation depth, slope, field size and shape and farming practice.
Border irrigation system is not widely practiced for irrigated agriculture in Malaysia.
Farm Channel
Recession
Level
Uniform Border
Slope Length
Channel
Advance
Width
(a) Border Layout
(b) Farm Channel View
Figure 3.5 Typical Border Irrigation System (Kay, 1983)

3.2.2.3
Furrow Irrigation
In furrow irrigation system, channels or tubes towards the fields distribute the water. The water
enters into furrows by means of floodgates, siphons or by opening a furrow from the supply lines.
Floodgates may be used to control the application of water in a particular field. To obtain high
uniformity, the water application can be automated by regulating the flow delivered into the furrow.
A large stream size is applied to spread water quickly along each furrow to keep deep percolation
losses small. The size of stream required depends on the irrigation depth, soil type and furrow
length. The crop is usually grown on the ridges between the furrows. Irrigation water flows from the
field channel into the furrows by opening up the bank of the channel, or by means of siphons or
spiles (Figure 3.6). Furrows can be designed with a variety of shapes and spacings. Optimal furrow
lengths are primarily controlled by the soil intake rates and stream size. With runoff return flow
systems, furrow irrigation can be a highly uniform and efficient method of applying water. The
furrow irrigation systems commonly practiced are level, contour and graded types.
(a) Furrow with Siphon in Florida, USA
(b) Furrows for Tobacco at Jelabu, Malaysia
Figure 3.6 Typical Furrow Irrigation Systems

Suitable Crops: Furrow irrigation is suitable especially for row crops. Crops easily damaged by water
covering their stems or crown should be irrigated by furrows. It is also suited to the early stages of
tree planting. Some common crops are:
March 2009
3-5
(a)
Row crops such as maize, sugarcane, tobacco and soybean.

Crops that would be damaged by inundation, such as tomatoes, vegetables, potatoes,
beans, cabbage, cauliflower, onion, garlic, broccoli, carrot, radish, chilli, etc.
Fruits such as citrus, pineapple, orchards etc.
Level Furrows
The level furrows (Figure 3.7) with no slopes are used to irrigate crops seeded on the furrows or on
the sides of furrows. This method requires faster supply of water. With furrow irrigation, the best
results are obtained in gentle and uniform slopes. The amount of water can be adjusted according to
the variations of the furrows. High application efficiency can be obtained if it is designed properly
and the surface runoff can be reduced. The furrows can be doubled in length, since the water can be
applied from both sides of the furrow. This procedure reduces cost of construction and maintenance
of the distribution system. The capacity of the furrows must be sufficient to maintain the flow rate.
(a) Furrow with Wider Bed
(b) Special Furrow System
Figure 3.7 Levelled Furrow Irrigation System in Florida, USA

(b)
Contour Furrows
This system utilizes small channels with continuous and almost uniform slope by which the hilly areas
are irrigated. The furrows (Figure 3.8) follow the contour lines of the land. This system is suitable in
uneven lands, hilly areas, and row crops, except for sandy soils. The furrows along the contours can
be used to irrigate areas with pronounced slopes. The recommended slope must be between 1% and
2%. The system is efficient and acceptable if all the practices are followed. A proper method is
necessary to avoid the overflow of the water in the furrows. The length of the furrows must be short
to eliminate excess water that can destroy the furrows. The furrows along contours are used jointly
with parallel terraces to provide protection against breakage of furrows. The superior and inferior
furrows must be protected.
Figure 3.8 Contour Furrow Irrigation System (VSA, 2008)

(c)
Graded Furrows
Slopping furrows consist of small channels with uniform continuous slope that follow the direction of
the irrigation (Figure 3.9). Furrows with slopes can be used in all soils except sandy soils, with high
3-6
March 2009
degree of infiltration capacity and with a very little lateral distribution. The flow to each furrow must
be regulated carefully so that the distribution of the water is uniform and minimum runoff. Size and
shape of the furrows depend on the stream size, slope, crop grown, equipment used, and spacing
between crop rows. The method is not adaptable for shallow rooted crops or low irrigation rates for
the germination of seeds.
Figure 3.9 Graded Furrow Irrigation System (VSA, 2008)

(d)
Corrugated Furrows
Corrugation irrigation is a partial surface flooding method. Irrigation water is applied in small
channels or corrugations evenly spaced across the field (Figure 3.10). Water flowing in the
corrugations soaks into the soil and spreads laterally to irrigate the areas between corrugations.
Figure 3.10 Corrugated Furrow Irrigation System

(e)
Surge Irrigation
Surge irrigation is the intermittent application of water to a furrow. This intermittent application of
water is accomplished by alternating the application between two irrigation sets through gated pipe
and is regulated by a surge valve (Figure 3.11). When surge irrigation is used, the furrow is allowed
to partially dry between water applications.
Figure 3.11 Surge Irrigation System in Florida, USA

March 2009
3-7
3.2.3
A sprinkle system or sprinkler system consists of pipelines, which carry water under pressure from a
pump or elevated source to lateral lines along which sprinkler heads are spaced at appropriate
intervals. Like trickle irrigation system, the term sprinkle is more correct in describing the system,
and sprinkler is the water outlet device. The system distributes water in pipes under pressure and
spraying it into the air so that it breaks up into small water droplets and falls on the ground.
Sprinkler generally needs less water and labour than surface irrigation and can be adapted to sandy,
erodible soils on undulating ground. Common sprinkle irrigation systems used in agriculture are
briefly described below. Overhead impact sprinkler and rain gun are very popular in Malaysia.
Suitable Crops: Sprinkle irrigation is suited for most row crops, field crops, vegetables, flowers and
tree crops. It can be adapted to most climatic conditions and crops in irrigated agriculture. However,
extremely high temperatures, wind speeds and low humidity and salinity problems affect the water
application performance. A suitability chart is provided for sprinkler systems in Appendix 3D-1.
3.2.3.1
Portable Systems
A portable sprinkler irrigation system is set in a fixed location for a specified length of time to apply a
required depth of water. The length of time in a position is called irrigation set time. The lateral and
sprinkler is then moved to the next set position. Usually, the lateral is moved between one and four
times each day depending on the set time. It is gradually moved around the field until the whole
field is irrigated. This system consists of portable main pipelines and one or more lateral lines of
portable pipe or hose, and sometimes a portable pump (Figure 3.12).
Lateral Line
Water Source
Main Line
Lateral Line
(a) Layout of Portable System
(b) Carrying Laterals to Another Zone
Figure 3.12 Side Roll or Hand Move Sprinkler System (Kay, 1986)
The simplest portable system is one moved by hand. It consists of a pump, mainline, lateral and
rotary sprinklers spaced 9-24 m apart. The lateral pipes are usually laid on the ground surface. They
may also be mounted on posts above the crop height and rotated through 90 degrees, to irrigate a
rectangular strip. Portable sprinklers are one of the most popular systems and are used to irrigate a
wide range of field and orchard crops. Comparatively, the initial investment is low and they are very
simple to use. Skilled operators are also needed to run and maintain the systems properly. Figure
3.13 shows some common portable sprinkler systems.
Portable Sprinkler
System
Hand-moved
Laterals
End-tow
Laterals
Side Wheel
Role Laterals
Perforated
Laterals
Gun Type
Laterals
Hose-fed
Laterals
Boom
Laterals
Figure 3.13 Common Portable Sprinkler Systems

3-8
March 2009
(a)
Hand-moved Laterals
Portable, hand-moved sprinkler systems are manually moved from zone to zone. These composed of
portable pipelines with risers and sprinkler heads. Portable or buried mainline pipe with uniformly
spaced valve outlets provides the water supply. Portable aluminum or plastic lateral pipe has quick
couplers. Risers and sprinkler heads are either center-mounted or end-mounted. Lateral sections are
typically 6, 9 and 12 m long. Lateral must be dismantled and moved back across the field to the start
position after completion of the last set location in the field unless multiple laterals are used and the
finish location is adjacent to the start location of the next set. A hand-moved system has a low initial
cost, but requires high operating labour. It is difficult to use in tall crops, such as corn. Riser height
must be based on maximum height of the crop to be grown. Hand-moved sprinklers are easily
adapted to odd shaped fields. Application efficiencies can be 60% to 75% with proper management.
Figure 3.14 shows a typical portable hand-moved aluminum pipe system.
(a) Sprinklers on a Lateral Pipe with Risers
(b) Aluminum Laterals connected to a Submain
Figure 3.14 Portable Hand-moved Sprinkler Systems in Florida, USA

(b)
Side-wheel-role Lateral
Side-wheel-roll lateral system is a portable self-moved sprinkler system consisting of sprinklers

mounted on aluminium lateral pipes on wheels above the soil surface (Figure 3.15).
Figure 3.15 Side-wheel-roll Lateral Sprinkler System in Florida, USA

This system is similar to a hand-moved system except that wheels are mounted on the lateral.
Lateral pipes serve as the axle for wheels located along the length of the lateral in moving the
system sideways by rotation to the next set. Each lateral pipe section is supported by a large
diameter (at least 1 m) wheel normally located at the centre but can also be at the end. The lateral
pipe itself forms the axle for the wheels. A power unit (air-cooled gas engine) usually mounted at the
centre of the line mechanically move the lateral pipe. Self-righting or vertical self-aligning sprinkler
heads are used because the sprinkler head is always upright, even with partial rotations. With proper
management, application efficiencies can be 60 to 75 percent. Because the lateral pipe is mounted
only 1-1.5 m above the soil surface, this system is only adaptable to short crops. The system is best
adapted to rectangular fields on relatively uniform topography.
March 2009
3-9
(c)
Gun Type Laterals
These sprinklers are operated and moved as a large single impact type sprinkler head (Figure 3.16).
The sprinkler is moved from one set to the next set either by hand or using a small tractor,
depending on their size and whether they are towable. Generally only one sprinkler is operated per
lateral. Laterals are generally aluminum pipe with quick-coupled joints. In Malaysia, giant sprinkler or
raingun irrigation system is well adapted for the field crop such as sugarcane, tobacco and maize.
This system is found to be very suitable for big farms more than 5 ha with both clay and sandy soils.
Sprinkler discharge can range from 3 L/s (50 gallons per minute) to more than 65 L/s (1,000 gallons
per minute). Nozzle diameters can vary from 15 to 55 mm, and operating pressures from 60 to more
than 825 kPa. Equipment cost for a rain gun system is estimated to be about RM 6,000/ha. With
proper management, application efficiencies can be from 50 to 60 percent. There are two main types
of system, namely, (i) Hose-pull system and (ii) Hose-reel system.
(a) A Giant Sprinkler or Rain Gun
(b) A Cable-tow Travelling Gun
(c) Small Gun with Hose Traveller
(d) Rain Gun with Hose Traveller
Figure 3.16 Gun Type Sprinkler Systems (NLSON, 2008)

Hose-pull system: The hose-pull machine has a rain gun mounted on a wheeled carriage (Figure
3.17). Water is supplied through a flexible hose up to 200 m long and 50-100 mm in diameter, pulled
behind the machine. A strip up to 400 m long can be irrigated at one setting although the flexible
hose may only be 200 m long.
The rain gun carriage is positioned at the start of its first run. The flexible hose is laid along the
travel lane and connected to the rain gun and the valve coupler on the mainline. A steel guide cable
on the sprinkler carriage is pulled out to the far end of the field and firmly anchored. The valve
coupler is slowly opened to start the irrigation. The rain gun carriage is moved either by water
motor powered from the water supply using a piston or turbine drive, or an internal combustion
engine. This slowly turns a winch, which winds in the guide cable and pulls the rain gun across the
field.
The pressure at the rain gun controls the application rate. The forward speed of the machine
controls the depth of water applied. Typical machine speeds vary from 10-50 m/hr the faster the
3-10
March 2009
machine travels the smaller the depth of water applied. Once the machine is operating it should not
require any supervision for many hours. At the end of a run it stops automatically. On simpler
machines an operator needs to be on hand to stop the pump. Labour is required only to reposition
the hose and machine and to start the next run.
Direction of Travel
Rain Gun
Speed Control Valve

Water Piston Drive
Hose
Rachet Drive and Cable Drum
Steel Cable
Figure 3.17 Hose-pull Systems (Kay, 1986)
Hose-reel system: The hose-reel machine has a rain gun mounted on a sledge or wheeled carriage
shown in Figure 3.18. Water is supplied through a more rigid hose than that used for the hose-pull
although it is still flexible enough to be wound on to a large reel. The hose is used to pull the rain
gun towards the hose reel positioned at the edge of the field. Machines are available with hose
lengths ranging from 200 to 400 m.
In a typical layout for a hose-reel system the mainline is laid out across the center of the field from
the pumping station. The hose-reel placed close to the mainline at the start of the first run is slowly
pulled across the field by a tractor and the hose allowed to uncoil from the reel. Only the hose length
needed is pulled out, the surplus remains neatly coiled on the reel. The pump is started and the
valve coupler slowly opened to start the irrigation.
The rain gun is slowly pulled back across the field by winding the hose on to the hose-reel. Power to
drive the hose-reel can be provided by a water motor, an internal combustion engine or the power
take-off point on a tractor. At the end of a run the hose-reel automatically stops winding. On some
machines a mechanism also shuts down the main water supply to the rain gun.
When the hose-reel is used in the centre of the field it is turned through 180o and the rain gun pulled
out to start the next irrigation run, a job carried out simply by one man and a tractor. When
irrigation is completed in this position the hose reel and rain gun are towed by tractor to the next
field location. For small fields the mainline may be placed along one edge, provided the hose is long
enough. Application rates and machines speeds are similar to the hose-pull system.
Water Turbine Drive
Main Line Valve Coupler
Hose Reel
Rain Gun
Hose
Figure 3.18 Hose-reel Systems (Kay, 1986)

March 2009
3-11
(d)
Hose-fed Laterals
A variation to end-tow laterals is the hose fed system (Figure 3.19). A few low capacity sprinkler
heads are mounted on small diameter flexible plastic or rubber hoses that are attached to outlet
valves. The hoses with equally spaced sprinklers are pulled by hand to the next adjacent set. To
utilize small, lightweight flexible hose that can be easily moved by hand, submains are used. This
system is excellent for orchards and irregular shaped fields. With proper management, application
efficiencies can be 50 to 65 percent.
Figure 3.19 Hose-fed Laterals Sprinkler System in Florida, USA

(e)
End-tow Laterals
The end-tow lateral system is similar to a hand move system except that it consists of rigidly coupled
lateral pipe and is mounted on skid plates or dolly wheels. The mainline is buried across the middle
of the field. Laterals are towed lengthwise across the mainline from one side to the other with a
tractor. Both ends of the lateral can be connected to the mainline via a flexible hose. Guide rollers
are used near the mainline to position the lateral at the next set. Typically lateral positions are offset
a half of the total move. Application efficiencies can be 60 to 75 percent with proper management.
(f)
Boom Laterals
Periodic move boom systems are operated and moved with a tractor similar to large gun sprinklers.
The boom generally contains several closely spaced impact sprinklers or spray heads. It rotates
around a central swivel joint where water is introduced. Power for the rotation comes from
backpressure caused by directional sprinkler nozzles. The supply line is generally portable aluminum
with quick-coupled joints. When irrigating, the boom is allowed to remain at one location (set) until
the desired amount of water is applied. Boom sprinkle systems are not suitable for use in windy
areas. Wind adversely affects uniformity of application and rotational operation. High winds can
overturn the entire boom. With proper management, application efficiencies can be 50 to 60 percent.
(g)
Perforated Laterals
Perforated pipe systems spray water from 1.5 mm diameter orifice or holes drilled at uniform
distances along the top and sides of a lateral pipe. The holes are sized and spaced to apply water
uniformly along the length of the lateral. Common operating pressures are 35 to 140 kPa. Application
rates close to the lateral are generally quite high. Spacing between lateral sets must be quite close to
achieving an acceptable uniformity of application. Either plastic or aluminum laterals with quickcoupled joints are used.
3.2.3.2
Semi-Portable Systems
A semi-portable system is similar to a fully portable system except that the location of the water
source and pumping plant is fixed. This system may be suitable on more than one field where there
is an extended mainline.
3-12
March 2009
3.2.3.3
Solid Set or Permanent Systems
A fixed or solid set sprinkler irrigation system has sufficient number of laterals and sprinklers that
none of the laterals or equipment need to be moved to complete irrigation once in place (Figure
3.20). Laterals can be either permanently buried or portable pipe laid on the ground surface. A solid
set sprinkler system can be easily automated. Most permanent systems have only part of the
systems irrigating at one time. This depends on the size of the pipes and the amount of water
available. Flow is diverted from one part of the systems to another by valves. This system requires
less labour requirements because the pipe does not need to be moved while in the field. It allows
light applications at frequent intervals. The system cost is high, needing sufficient lateral pipes and
sprinklers to cover the entire field. It is inconvenient for cultivation or other agricultural operations.
(a) Typical Layout
Water Supply
(b) Operational View
Figure 3.20 Solid Set Sprinkler System (USDA, 1997)

3.2.3.4
Semi-Permanent Systems
A semi-permanent system has portable lateral lines, permanent mainlines, and a stationary water
source and pumping plant (Figure 3.21). Mainlines are usually buried with risers for connecting
laterals.
Figure 3.21 Semi-permanent System in Florida, USA
March 2009
3-13
3.2.3.5
Continuous Move Systems
Continuous-move systems have laterals and sprinklers that are connected to the mainline and move
continuously as water is supplied. The popularity of these systems has steadily increased due to
shortages of labour for moving portable laterals and sprinklers have continued. Centre pivot and
boom sprinklers, quite common in Europe and US are hardly seen in Malaysia. These two types of
continuous move systems, centre pivot and linear-move, are commonly used for irrigating large,
rectangular or regular shaped fields. Figure 3.22 shows the centre pivot and linear move systems in
operation in the fields. This system is not yet being used in Malaysia.
The centre pivot, which is a self-propelled sprinkler system rotates around the pivot point and has
the lowest labour requirements of the systems considered. It is constructed using a span of pipe
connected to moveable towers. Center pivots are adaptable for crop of any height and are
particularly suited to lighter soils. The linear or lateral move system is built the same way as a centre
pivot, with moving towers and spans of pipe connecting the towers. The main difference is that all
the towers move at the same speed and in the same direction. Water is pumped into either one of
the ends or into the centre.
(a) Center Pivot System
(b) Lateral Move System
Figure 3.22 Continuous Move Systems in Florida, USA

3.2.4
Microirrigation
Microirrigation systems are localized irrigation methods that slowly and repetitively distribute water
uniformly to the plant root zone via emitters. It operates under low pressure with small-sized wetting
patterns and low discharges. The systems ensure to apply water and fertilizer directly to individual
plants or trees, reducing the wetted area by wetting only a fraction of the soil surface; thus, water is
applied directly into the root zone. Some systems are capable of wetting only a fraction of the root
zone while supplying adequate water to satisfy crop water requirements. Water discharge patterns
differ because emission devices are designed for specific applications due to agronomic or
horticultural requirements. Microirrigation saves water because of high application efficiency and
water distribution uniformity.
Microirrigation is immensely popular because of its potential to increase yields and decrease water,
fertilizer, and labour requirements if managed properly. It has gained more attention where water
supply is limited and/or expensive. Systems are useful and suitable for sloping or irregularly shaped
pieces of land that are impossible to flood or sprinkler irrigate. There are four principal characteristics
associated with micro irrigation systems
3-14
Low flow rate,

Localized, partial wetting of the soil surface and soil volume,
Repetitive water applications due to the limited wetted volume, and
Low operating pressure.
March 2009
Suitable Crops: Microirrigation is primarily suited only for high value perennial crops, tree crops,
fruits, vegetables and floriculture whereas almost all upland crops can be irrigated by micro irrigation
systems. Application of microirrigation for greenhouse, landscaping and nurseries has also increased
tremendously. A suitability chart for microirrigation systems is provided in Appendix 3D.2.
3.2.4.1
Drip or Trickle System
Drip irrigation or trickle irrigation is an irrigation method which minimizes the use of water and
fertilizer by allowing water to drip slowly to the roots of plants, either onto the soil surface or directly
into the root zone, through a network of valves, pipes, tubing, and emitters (Figure 3.23). Discharge
rates are less than 12 litres per hour (L/hr) for widely spaced individual applicators and less than 12
L/hr per meter for closely spaced outlets along a tube (or porous tubing).
a. Porous type
b. Multi-cutlet
distributors
c. Sublateral
loop
Submain
Water
source
Gate
valve
Fertilizer
tank
Filter
Lateral
Pressure
control valve
d. Distributors
Gate valve
Main line
Pressure
regulator
Figure 3.23 Drip Irrigation System

Microirrigation systems are further classified into various categories in terms of installation method,
emitter discharge rate, wetted soil surface area or the mode of operation. Arrangements of emitters
on laterals determine the water distribution pattern in the soil. There are two arrangements as
shown in Figure 3.24.
(a)
Point source
Drippers are installed along the laterals at intervals to create a discrete wetted soil volume by each
emitter without overlapping. This layout is suitable for orchard irrigation, trees and in widely spaced
annual crops.
(b)
Line source
Drippers are installed closely along the lateral with overlapping of the wetted soil volumes by
adjacent drippers. This layout is suitable for densely grown row crops.
3.2.4.2
Bubbler System
In bubbler irrigation, water is applied under low head through bubbler emitters (Figure 3.25).
Emitters may have single or multiple outlets and are mostly pressure compensated. The discharge
rate is greater than that for drip or subsurface irrigation but less than 4 litres per minute (L/min).
The emitter discharge rate normally exceeds the infiltration rate of the soil, and a small basin is
required to control the distribution of water. Basin bubblers are used in orchards and landscaping
and for ornamental plants. These systems are best used with medium to fine textured soils.
March 2009
3-15
(a) Point Source
(b) Line Source

Figure 3.24 Emitters Arrangement for Point and Line Sources in Florida, USA
Stake
Bubble riser
Basin
Burried & Lateral
(a) Bubbler Installation
(b) Bubbler Emitter
Figure 3.25 Bubbler Irrigation System (Lamm et al., 2007)

3.2.4.3
Microsprinkler System
Microsprinklers and sprayers are available in a variety of styles and configurations and like drip
emitters they operate at a low-pressure range of 690 to 1380 kPa (100-200 psi) (Figure 3.26).
Microsprinklers and sprayers are rated by flow rate, wetting diameter, or radius, and the spray
method (moving parts versus non moving parts). Like sprinklers, microsprinklers and sprayers are
available in 360-degree full circle pattern, 360-degree jet pattern, 180-degree half circle pattern, 90 degree quarter circle pattern and strip. Microsprinklers and sprayers are available with different flow
rates and diameters, from low flow at 0.3 4 L/s and with diameter from 1 15 m. Microsprinklers
and sprayers have small sized droplets and good uniformity of coverage that provides a low
precipitation rate, allowing longer watering time with less runoff.
3-16
March 2009
3.2.4.4
Subsurface Drip System
In subsurface drip irrigation (SDI), water is applied slowly below the soil surface through buried
emitters, with discharge rates generally in the same range as drip irrigation (Figure 3.27). This
method of application is not to be confused with subirrigation, in which the root zone is irrigated
through watertable control. SDI systems have gained wider acceptance since earlier problems of
emitter clogging have been reduced and improved methods of installation have been developed. SDI
is now being installed on small fruit and vegetable crops and field crops. Emitter outlets should be
pointed upwards to avoid clogging. Maintenance requirements are similar to surface microirrigation
systems.
Figure 3.26 Micro-sprinkler Irrigation System (Lamm et al., 2007)
Figure 3.27 Subsurface Drip Irrigation System (Lamm et al., 2007)

3.2.5
Subirrigation
Water is applied beneath the ground surface usually 30 to 75 cm below the ground surface either by
raising the watertable within or near the root zone or by using a buried perforated or porous pipe
system that discharges directly into the root zone. It depends on the root characteristics of the crop.
Irrigation then occurs by capillary movement of water into the crop root zone. Figure 3.28 is a typical
example installed in Muda Agricultural Development Authority (MADA) areas for irrigating mango
farm. Water is typically applied from a parallel network of open field ditches (water furrows) or
underground pipe (drain tiles), called laterals. Open ditches are more common because underground
pipe systems are more expensive, and more prone to clogging by roots, bacterial activity, chemical
March 2009
3-17
precipitation, and other causes. The ditches are also required for surface drainage during large
rainfall events. Lateral ditches are typically spaced from 3 to 20 m apart on sandy soils, depending
on the soil hydraulic conductivity and on irrigation, drainage, cultural, and field equipment
requirements.
3.2.5.1
Important Characteristics
Sub irrigation method is used in soils with low capacity and when surface irrigation cannot be used
and the cost of pressurized irrigation is excessive. The level of the water can be maintained at the
optimal depth according to the crop requirements at different growth stages. The evaporation losses
are reduced to a minimum. Irrigation from below does not allow the weed seeds to germinate.
Subirrigation is appropriate for multiple textured soils with a good permeability so that the water is
mobilized quickly, in a horizontal and vertical direction and to a recommended depth below the root
zone. The topography must be uniform, almost level or very smooth with uniform
slope. Subirrigation is adapted for vegetables and root crops, forage crops and gardens.
This method of irrigation is limited to be used on permeable soils such as sandy loam or loam with
high hydraulic conductivities in the surface soil layers, but with restrictive subsurface layers and
existing high watertable. Water with high concentration of salts cannot be used. The selection of
crops is limited. Crops with deep root system (such as citrus) are unsuitable for subirrigation.
(a) Lateral Ditches in Mango Farm
(b) Main Ditch of Subirrigation in Mango Farm
Figure 3.28 Subirrigation Systems and Applications (Tobiar, MADA)

3.2.5.2
Types of Subirrigation System
The sub-surface irrigation may be classified into natural subirrigation and artificial sub-irrigation.
(a)
Natural Subirrigation
This method is applicable to low lying lands where the watertable is high and within the capillary
reach of crop root zones. Watertable is recharged by seepage from irrigation canals. Effective control
is required as it may develop into waterlogged conditions.
(i) Constant watertable system in which irrigation water is applied continuously to maintain a
watertable at the level required for optimum crop growth. Water is continuously diverted or pumped
into ditches or water furrows, and water levels are typically controlled with flashboard riser
structures at the downstream end of the irrigated field. Flow rates are often adjusted as a function of
stage of crop growth, time of year, and in some cases, even time of day. Constant watertable
seepage systems are used to irrigate large acreages of vegetables and sugarcane, and some fruits.
Depending on field slope, soil properties, ET rates, and management practices, runoff often occurs
from the fields. Irrigation efficiencies are lowest when runoff water is discharged from the irrigated
3-18
March 2009
field. Efficiencies are highest when runoff is recycled or applied to other irrigated fields and when
application rates are matched to changes in water requirements during each day.
(ii) Fluctuating watertable system in which watertable is permitted to fluctuate on a daily basis as
water is only applied intermittently in an effort to reduce runoff. Water supply is cut-off when
watertable is high and runoff begins to occur. Water supply is restarted when watertable drop to
critical levels or during peak crop water use. Fluctuating watertable systems are less frequently used
than constant watertable systems because higher levels of management are required. The potential
for leaching crop nutrients is increased, and yield reductions occur when watertable fluctuates
excessively.
(b)
Artificial Sub-irrigation
It is a very expensive method. The system is suitable only under favourable water supply and subsoil
conditions for high yielding crops. Water is provided to crops by capillary through a network of
buried perforated pipes, which carry water under pressure to percolate into soil. The perforated
subsurface pipes allow the infiltration through the soil. The pipes can be placed at a spacing of 45
cm and at a depth of 50 cm. These buried pipes can suffer damage by deep plowing.
3.2.6
Low Cost Drip Irrigation
Low cost irrigation system is suitable for growing fruits, vegetables and flowers in family-owned
gardens, some of which are not larger than 1000 m2. Conventional drip technology is not suitable for
these small gardens. It is expensive and out of the reach of small producers. Cheap low-pressure
drip systems are available, developed by IDE International in India and Watermatics in USA (Figure
3.29 and 3.30).
Both types include a tank, filter, valves, main line, manifold, laterals, micro-tubes or emitters. Local
simplified versions may easily be developed for these small holders irrigation systems.
3.2.7
Special Applications
3.2.7.1
Soilless Culture System
Soilless culture is an artificial means of providing plants with support for nutrients and water. Soilless
culture is used in greenhouse cultural systems. The system is currently relied on heavily in
greenhouse vegetable production in many areas around the world. Soilless culture is being more
widely practiced because soil fumigation is becoming less practical and more expensive. Early
systems relied on naturally available sand, gravel, volcanic rock, or various mixtures of these
materials. Modern systems employ manufactured media such as rockwool, perlite, expanded clay,
and other materials in plastic containers or plastic wrapping. Certain organic products, such as pine
bark, coconut coir, rice husk, composted plant materials, etc., also are used successfully for
greenhouse culture of vegetables. Many of these soilless media systems can be adapted for openfield use. Soilless systems are particularly adapted to small farms producing a variety of crops, but
also can be used by growers producing crops in large fields. The following is an outline of important
aspects of successful open-field soilless production of vegetables.
Soilless culture in bags, pots, or troughs with a lightweight medium is the simplest, most economical,
and easiest to manage of all soilless systems. The most common types of media used in
containerized systems of soilless culture are peat-lite (Boodley and Sheldrakejr, 1977), or a mixture
of barks and wood chips. Container types range from long wooden troughs in which one or two rows
of plants are grown, to polyethylene bags or rigid plastic pots containing one to three plants. Bag or
pot systems using bark chips or peat-lite are in common use. Typical soilless crop production system
in a greenhouse is shown in Figure 3.31.
March 2009
3-19
Microtube Coverage
Bucket
Take off
Valve
Line filter
12 mm lateral line
Microtube
15 m
15
m
End cap
(a) Layout (Bucket Kit and Drum Kit)
(b) Application
Figure 3.29 Low Cost Microirrigation System (IDE, 2007)
Drip Line
Distribution
Line
Solar Panel
Main
Line
Filter
Solar Pump
Figure 3.30 Low Cost Microirrigation with Solar Power (Watermatics, 2008)
(a)
Types of Soilless Culture Systems
Liquid-medium systems are further differentiated from solid-medium systems by method of

operation. Liquid systems are generally closed circuit with respect to nutrient-solution supply: the
solution is re-circulated from a supply reservoir either continuously or intermittently for a period of
days or weeks. The two most common liquid systems in use today are nutrient-flow technique (NFT)
and gravel bed culture.
3-20
March 2009
(a) A Typical Run-to Waste System
(c) Soilless Culture in Trays
(b) Rockwool Slabs with Recirculation
(d) Strawberry Grown in Soilless Culture
Figure 3.31 Irrigation of Soilless Culture in Greenhouse (NETAFIM, 2008)

Nutrient-flow technique (NFT) growing system consists of a series of narrow channels through which
nutrient solution is recirculated from a supply tank. A plumbing system of plastic tubing and a
submersible pump in the tank are basic components. The channels are generally constructed of
opaque plastic film or plastic pipe (Figure 3.32); asphalt-coated wood or fiberglass also has been
used. The basic characteristics of all NFT systems are the shallow depth of solution that is
maintained in the channels. Flow is usually continuous, but some systems are operated intermittently
by supplying solution a few minutes every hour. The purpose of intermittent flow is to assure
adequate aeration of the root systems. This also reduces the energy required; but under rapid
growth conditions, plants could experience water stress if the flow period is too short or infrequent.
Therefore, intermittent-flow management seems better adapted to mild-temperature periods or to
plantings during their early stages of development. Capillary matting is sometimes used in the
bottom of NFT channels, principally to avoid the side-to-side meandering of the solution stream
around young root systems, but it also acts as a reservoir by retaining nutrients and water during
periods when flow ceases.
Gravel-bed culture utilizes a waterproof trough filled with pea gravel, which is plumbed to a nutrient
solution reservoir (Figure 3.33). Gravel particles retain very little water and nutrients, so the system
must recirculate solution from the supply tank to the beds several times a day by means of a time
clock and submersible pump. The advantage of the two-pipe system is that any root growth into the
drain line will not interfere with the uniform distribution of nutrient solution to the bed. In either
case, however, root growth will eventually clog the drain line and rotary cleaning equipment must be
used to remove it.Solid-medium soilless culture may employ any one of the many types of suitable
March 2009
3-21
media in various types of containers. Basic requirements are a material of uniform texture that drains
well yet retains some nutrients and water, a container in which the lateral is confined, and a means
of supplying nutrient solution. A well-drained sandy loam could be used as a growing medium, but a
supply of very uniform soil in the volume required may be difficult to find, and the weight of soil is
much greater than other types of material. Where sand is used, particle-size distribution is an
important consideration in order to maintain a good balance between drainage and nutrient and
water retention. Particle sizes should be in the range of 0.1 to 1.0 mm with an average of 0.25 to
0.50 mm. Full-floor sand culture has been successful for vegetable culture in greenhouses and is
considered a good means of providing plants with a uniform, well-drained rooting medium (Figure
3.34).
Staples
Roots
Plug
Pump
Black polyethylene
Nutrient solution
Poly lined
Figure 3.32 Nutrient Flow Culture Using Plastic Film in Recirculation System (US Devis, 2007)
Pea Gravel
Nutrient Solution
Soil Surface
Fill and Drain Line
Submersible Pump
End View
V-Shaped Through
Figure 3.33 Hydroponic Culture in a Gravel Filled Trough (US Davis, 2008)
3-22
March 2009
Greenhouse
Drip tubing
Soil surface
30 cm Drip
sand fill
Drain
lines
Polyethylene liner
(a) Layout
(b) Soilless Culture View
Figure 3.34 Full Floor Sand Culture System for Capsicum (US Davis and NETAFIM, 2008)
(b)
Field Site Soilless Culture System
Soilless culture can be practiced on any field site on the farm where possible; growers should choose
areas free of weeds such as nut sedge and areas least likely to flood (Figure 3.35a). It is preferable
to place the soilless bags on polyethylene-mulched raised beds in the field (Figure 3.35b). Raised
beds place the bags above the soil reducing the chances for soil contamination of the media and
increases air movement and water drainage. An alternative for small production units is to place
nursery ground cloth on the ground underneath the bags (Figures 3.35c and 3.35d). Tomato and
pepper production is increased with the soilless system, largely because of increases in numbers of
extra-large fruits (Figures 3.35e, 3.35f and 3.35g). Production of strawberry has been increased by
50% on a field area basis compared to standard soil-based field production (Figure 3.35h).
(c)
Key Aspects of Growing Crops in Soilless Substrates
Soilless substrate must have the following properties:
(d)
High water capacity and mobility

High air content
Light weight
Stable
High capacity to supply nutrients
Non-salinity
Advantages of Soilless Cultures
(e)
Enhanced control of water and fertilizer applications

Optimal moisture in the substrate
Optimal nutrient supply
Significant advantage in disinfecting between growing periods
Water recycling enables reduced expenses
Environmental solution
Excellent alternative for unsuitable soils due to salinity, drainage problems, etc.
Limitations of Soilless Cultures
Low root volume

Low nutrient storage
Trace elements - important to control
Low buffering capacity
Fast changes in pH
Salinity control
March 2009
3-23
(a) Level, Sandy Field for Strawberry
(b) Perlite-filled Lay-flat Bags for Strawberry
(c) Perlite-filled Lay-flat Bags for Strawberries
(d) Perlite-filled Bags on Black Nursery Cloth
(e) Continuous-filled Perlite Bags for Strawberry
(f) Tomato in Outdoor Soilless Culture
(g) Pepper Production in Outdoor Soilless Culture
(h) Strawberry in Perlite-filled Lay-flat Bags
Figure 3.35 Open Field Soilless Cultures for Vegetables Production Systems in Florida, USA
3-24
March 2009
3.2.7.2
Chemigation and Fertigation Systems
Chemigation is a process of applying an agricultural chemical (fertilizer or pesticide) to the soil or

plant surface with an irrigation system by injecting the chemical into the irrigation water. Depending
on the type of agricultural chemicals being applied, chemigation may be referred to as fertigation,
herbigation, insectigation, fungigation, etc. Chemigation is one of the best ways to apply many
agricultural chemicals. It optimizes production and reduces potential environmental hazards. But,
safe and effective chemigation requires top-level management by the operator.
Irrigation systems used for chemigation must have the required antipollution safety devices and the
appropriate injection equipment installed, and the entire system must be in good working condition.
In addition, the irrigation and chemigation equipment must be maintained and operated properly.
The uniformity of the chemical application is dependent on the uniformity of the water application.
Therefore, it is very important that high water application uniformity occurs. If the application
uniformity is less than 80 percent, the microirrigation system should not be used for chemigation.
Uniformity of distribution is dependent upon thorough mixing and uniform water application.
The objective of applying nutrients or chemicals is to meet the nutrient needs of the crop or to
control pests and diseases. The process must not result in plugging or corrosion of the irrigation
system components, and to be efficient, the chemical needs to be applied uniformly to the field.
(a)
Injection Methods
There are numerous ways to inject chemicals into irrigation water. The best method depends on
Solubility of the material to be injected

Potential hazard of the chemical
Availability of power
Portable versus permanent installation
The injection device typically differentiates one injection system from another; the principal types are
piston and diaphragm pumps and venturi. Often a pump is used to inject the chemical into the
pressurized irrigation pipe, while the venturi uses the force of the irrigation water as the driving force
to inject the chemical. Figure 3.36 shows the sketch of a chemigation layout.
Chemigation units can be either fixed or mobile. In permanent systems, all components are devoted
to a single irrigation system. In mobile system, most components of the chemigation system are
mounted on trailer or truck and are shared by several irrigation systems. Mobile units can
significantly reduce the fixed costs of chemigation; however, labor costs may increase.
Fertigation is not optional, but is actually necessary. Fertigation provides the only good way to apply
fertilizers physically to the crop root zone. On high value drip irrigated crops, such as lettuce,
tomatoes, and peppers, the level of fertigation management for achieving high yields and crop
qualities exceeds to what is found with other irrigation methods and crops. To capitalize on
fertigation benefits, particular care should be taken in selecting fertilizers and injection equipment as
well in the management and maintenance of the system.
(b)
Fertilizer or Chemicals Metering Devices
Many types of injector pumps are available. It is not necessary to use a complicated or expensive
injector to obtain good results. Positive displacement pumps are precise and operate on an external
power source such as electricity (120 volt AC or 12 volt battery), an internal combustion engine, or
waterpower. The other types of pumps work on differential pressure rather than positive
displacement.
Positive displacement pumps are piston pumps or diaphragm pumps. Once a piston pump is
calibrated to a given rate, it is accurate, but it has surfaces that might be exposed to corrosion, and
it must be stopped to change calibration. Diaphragm pumps usually are made of a chemically
March 2009
3-25
resistant material. They are accurate and can be adjusted as they run. These pumps inject at a
constant rate regardless of flow or pressure changes in the system.
There are also proportioner injectors that sense the rate of flow and adjust the injection rate as the
flow rate changes. These pumps do not require an outside power source, and they work well in
nurseries or greenhouses. One possible disadvantage is that these injectors require some pressure to
operate, and pressure changes in the system might alter the rate of injection, which might or might
not be proportional to the desired rate.
The venturi bypass is simple and relatively low cost. It works from differential pressure in the system
(usually 20 percent) from one side of the device to the other. Since the injection rate depends on the
pressure differential, any pressure fluctuations in the system change the injection rate.
Positive displacement injection pumps give better control of injection rates and are preferable to
venturi or pressure differential devices. The injection pump should be sized for maximum amount of
fertilizer to be injected at any time during the season, and so the fertigation process can be
completed in less time than will be required to meet the irrigation needs of the crop.
Automatic low
pressure cut-off
Irrigation
pipe line
Electric motor
and pump
Irrigation
pump panel
Flow meter
Vacuum
relief
valve
Control
panels
electrically
interlocke
Automatic low
pressure drain
Check
valve
Injection
tank
Drain line
Injection and
automatic
check valve
Chemical
discharge line
Agitator
Electric
conduit
Panel for inject

pump and
agitator
Injection
pump
Filter prior to injector pump
Connections for fresh water
to flush out chemicals
Chemicals flow meter
Injection hose
Figure 3.36 Chemigation Station Layout (Burt, 1994)

(c)
Control and Automation in Chemigation System
Two types of dosing patterns are normally followed. In quantitative dosing, a measured amount of
fertilizer is injected into the irrigation system during each application. Injection may be initiated and
controlled automatically or manually. In proportional dosing, a constant predetermined ratio between
the irrigation water and the fertilizer solution is maintained. Pumps inject the fertilizer solution in a
pulsating pattern. Venturi injectors apply the fertilizers continuously and in constant connection.
3-26
March 2009
3.3
DRAINAGE SYSTEMS
Drainage is the artificial removal of excess water and dissolved salts from agricultural land in order to
enhance crop growth. Unwanted water can be accumulated on fields due to heavy rainfall and/or
excessive irrigation. Too much water application is harmful to crops and must be removed faster as
possible to provide site access and trafficability for timely planting and harvesting. It is accomplished
by a provision of an agricultural drainage system. Open drainage systems are the most common but
combination of open and subsurface drainage is used to lower groundwater levels quickly after
rainstorms or at the end of the rainy season.
The general objective of agricultural drainage is to enhance crop growth and to maintain the soil
productivity (Figures 3.37 and 3.38). The specific objectives of agriculture drainage are:
To
To
To
To
lower the watertable for favorable crop growing conditions

remove excess surface and subsurface water
remove excess soluble salts with the (excess) water from the drained soil profile
maintain groundwater levels at a desired level
Two drainage modes are normally used in agriculture, i.e. the horizontal drainage (open or closed
conduits) and vertical drainage (tubewells drainage). Selection of one mode of drainage or
combination of drainage methods depends upon the nature of the problem and the typical
characteristics of the project area. The physical factors identified the topography, soil and water.
However, when physical factors are equally favourable then the deciding factor may be their relative
economics, ease in operation and maintenance and long term impacts on the environment.
Soil not saturated
Unsaturated soil
Water table
Saturated soil
Water table
Saturated soil
(a) Before drainage
(b) After Drainage
Figure 3.37 Watertable Conditions in Root Zones (FAO, 1980)
March 2009
3-27
Over land flow

Watertable without
drainage system
Watertable with drainage
Saturated soil
(a) Removing Excess Water by Open Ditch
Extra water
is supplied
Salt are removed
by the water
Collector
drain
Drain pipe
(b) Controlling Salinity by Pipe Drainage

Pipe Drain
Watertable without
drainage system
Saturated soil
(c) Maintaining the Watertable by Pipe Drainage

Figure 3.38 Major Purposes of Agricultural Drainage (USDA 2001)
3.3.1
Types of Drainage Systems
Agricultural drainage is accomplished by a system of surface ditches, subsurface conduits, or by a

combination of surface and subsurface components that collect and convey water from fields. Field
drainage systems can be either surface or subsurface drainage systems. Figure 3.39 illustrates the
different drainage systems practiced for crop production. A surface drainage system is applied when
the water logging occurs on the soil surface, whereas a subsurface drainage system is applied when
the water logging occurs in the soil and there are problems with excessively shallow watertable
and/or secondary salinization. Both types of systems need an internal or "field drainage system",
which lowers the water level in the field, and removes the excess rain or irrigation water and an
external or "main drainage system", which convey the water to the outlets of the drainage basins.
3-28
March 2009
Drainage Systems
Shallow Collector
Disposal Drains
Main Drainage
Deep Collector
Field Drainage
Deep Main
Drain
Interception
Drainage
Subsurface Drainage
Surface Drainage
Bedding
Open Ditch
Shallow Ditch
Biodrainage
Outlet
Pipe/Tile
Grassed
Waterways
Tubewells
Mole
Figure 3.39 Common Agricultural Drainage Systems

3.3.2
Components of a Drainage System
3.3.2.1
Main Drainage System
Main drainage system receives water from fields as surface runoff, interflow and subsurface flow and
removes water from the irrigated areas for disposal. The principal function of the main drains is to
convey water to the outlet point for disposal. The main drainage systems consist of deep or shallow
collectors, and main or disposal drains. Deep collectors are required for subsurface field drainage
systems, whereas shallow collectors are used for surface field drainage systems, but they can also be
used for pumped subsurface systems. The terms deep and shallow collectors refer rather to the
depth of the water level in the collector below the soil surface than to the depth of the bottom of the
collector. The bottom depth is determined both by the depth of the water level and by the required
discharge capacity. The deep collectors may either discharge their water into deep main drains
(drains that do not receive water directly from field drains, but only from conveyance), or their water
may be pumped into a "disposal drain". The final point of a main drainage system is the gravity
outlet structure or the pumping station. The outlet point of a drainage system will normally be
located at the low points on a river, a lake, the sea or any other component of the hydrological
system which will be suitable to act as a recipient of drainage water.
3.3.2.2
Field Drainage System
Surface water is usually collected by a system of shallow drainage channels along the lower ends of
the farm. Gentle side slopes are used so that agricultural machineries can operate across them to
gain access to the fields.
3.3.3
Surface Drainage
Surface drainage is the removal of water that collects on the land surface. Many fields have low
spots or depressions where water ponds. The system consists of an outlet channel, lateral ditches,
and field ditches; and should include land smoothing or land grading. Water is carried to the outlet
channel by lateral ditches, which receive water from field ditches or sometimes from the surface of
the field. This type of system is suitable for all slowly permeable soils and for soils with clay subsoils.
The rate at which water is removed by surface drainage depends on several interrelated factors,
March 2009
3-29
including rainfall, soil properties, and cropping patterns. A topographic survey and a contour map of
the area with sufficiently large scale are prerequisite before designing a surface drainage system.
3.3.3.1
Bedding Systems
Bedding resembles a system of parallel field ditches with the intervening land shaped to a raised,
rounded surface (Figure 3.40). This drainage system generally is used where the slopes are flat and
the soil has a low permeability and other types of drainage are not economically feasible. A bedding
system generally is in small land areas and is installed using farm equipment. Beds are established to
run with the land slope or in the direction of the most desirable outlet. Local information should be
used to determine the width of beds, the crown height, construction method, and maintenance.
Bedding is most appropriate for crops grown on the flat like grassland, fodder crops, sugarcane and
various grain crops. The bedding practice has two distinct forms namely corrugation and crowning
(Figure 3.41).
(a)
Corrugations
The convex area in this type of bedding, formed by ploughing or blading, lies between two dead
furrows, which are usually spaced from 10 m to a maximum of 25 m apart. These lands or
corrugations require establishment of field ditches and laterals for collection and removal of runoff
from dead furrows.
(b)
Crowning
The convex area in this type of bedding is usually greater than 20 m in width. Surface slopes are
provided across each crown. Some type of surface ditch forms the side boundaries of each crown.
The crown is constructed with blade equipment.
e
slop
Land
Field ditich
The furrows drain

to field ditches
s in
tion
a
r
e
op tion
ing
ec
Farm her dir
eit
o
0t
300
o
0t
d1
to
e
c
t
spa rt
en th
c
s
r
i
e
pa
che
sw
1p
Dit 0 m a
lly varie
9
a
usu nt
e
de erce lop
Gra /2 p and s
1
l
1
Outletdrain
Drain
Outlet
Outlet drain should be

at least 0.15 to 0.30 m
deeper field ditch
Figure 3.40 Surface Drainage Bedding (USDA,1997)
3-30
March 2009

Deep, loose topsoil maintained
by up-hill ploughing
Overland flow
Watertable
Dead furrow or
shallow ditch
Interflow
"Impermeable" soil
Figure 3.41 Drainage by Overland Flow in Bedding Drainage System (Smedema et al., 2004)
3.3.3.2
Shallow Ditch Systems
The systems comprise of shallow field ditches laid out in certain patterns. The ditches are usually too
shallow and the subsoil too impermeable to achieve much subsurface drainage. The main function is
to collect surface runoff and provide shallow profile drainage, mostly through interflow. There are
four types of shallow ditch system may be distinguished based on the applied layout pattern and on
the type and main function of the installed ditches.
(a)
Random Drain
This system is applicable to undulating land where only scattered wet areas require drainage. The
ditches should be located so they intercept depressions and provide the least interference with
farming operations (Figure 3.42). The ditches should be shallow and have side slopes flat enough for
farm equipment to cross. Precision land forming and smoothing helps to assure the removal of
surface water from less permeable soil.
Depressions where
runoff collects
Waste
spoil in
low spots
Farming operations
in either directions
Random field
ditches
(Outlet)
drain
(Outlet) drain
Outlet drains should be
15-30 cm deeper than
the random field ditches
Figure 3.42 Random Open Drains (USDA, 1997)

(b)
Parallel Drain
This system is applicable to land where the topography is flat and regular and where uniform
drainage is needed. The ditches are established parallel but not necessarily equidistant, as shown in
Figure 3.43. The direction of the land slope generally determines the direction of the ditches. Field
ditches are generally perpendicular to the slope, and laterals run in the direction of the slope. The
March 2009
3-31
location of diversions, cross slope ditches, and access roads for farming equipment can also influence
the drain location. Spacing of the field ditches depends upon the water tolerance of crops, the soil
hydraulic conductivity, and the uniformity of the topography. Land forming can reduce the number of
ditches required by making the topography more uniform. Where possible, spacings should be
adjusted to fit the number of passes of tillage and harvesting equipment.
(c)
Cross Slope Drain
This system is used to drain sloping land, to prevent the accumulation of water from higher land,
and to prevent the concentration of water within a field. The field ditches work best on slopes of less
than 2 percent. The drain is located across the slope as straight as topography will permit (Figure
3.44). The spacing of these ditches varies with the land slope and should be based on drainage
guides. The excavated material should be placed in low areas or on the downhill side of the drain.
Land forming or smoothing between the ditches improves operation of the system by preventing the
concentration of flow and the occurrence of ponding.
(d)
Narrow Raised Beds
A narrow bed system has a raised bed wide enough for single or double crop rows to provide an
aerated surface profile. This system facilitates surface water movement and aeration of the shallow
root zone. When used with plastic covers for weed control, evaporation control, and nutrient
management, the narrow bed system can be extremely effective for some cropping systems.
3.3.3.3
Grassed Waterways
Grassed waterways are natural or constructed channels established for transport of concentrated
flow at safe velocities using adequate vegetation (Figure 3.45). They are generally broad and shallow
by design to move surface water across farmland without causing soil erosion.
Grassed waterways provide a stable channel for the conveyance of a concentration of surface water
flow through cultivated areas. Grassed waterways dissipate part of the energy from the flowing
water and lower it to a level that will not erode away the vegetative cover or form fullies. For this
reason, all flow should be diverted away from the waterway during establsihment of the vegetative
cover. The design of vegetated waterways is more complex than that of a regular open ditch. This is
due to the variation of roughness with depth of flow and stage of vegetation growth. These
waterways are not suitable for continuous flow. The geometry of the channel also varies with the
stage of growth of the grass cover.
Advantages
The main advantages of grassed waterway are:
Allows crossing of farm machinery
Waterway grass can be harvested as forage
Low maintenance once grass is established
Convey large quantities of water
Water quality can be improved
Disadvantages
The main disadvantages are:
Not suitable for subsurface drainage outlet
Vegetation establishment can be difficult
3-32
March 2009
Rows continuous across

field. Do not plant in the
ditch bottom.
,
t io n
lt iv a
Di
, cu
ting ing
n
a
l
est
fp
n o d harv
o
i
t
an
r ec
Field ditch
Drains should be
about parallel but not
necessarily equidistant
spacing.
F ield
slop
Outlet drain
Outlet drain (lateral) should

be about 0.3m deeper
than the field ditches.
Figure 3.43 Parallel Open Drains (USDA, 1997)
ope
d sl
Lan
Cross slope drains should

be constructed across the
slope as straight and parallel
as the topography permits
with limited cutting through
ridges and humps.
Main outlet
drain
Outlet drain
After the ditches have been

constructed, smooth or grade
the area between the ditches.
Figure 3.44 Cross Slope Drain System (USDA, 1997)

March 2009
3-33
Figure 3.45 Grassed Waterway (Green and Haney, 2008)

3.3.4
Subsurface Drainage
Subsurface drainage removes excess water from the soil profile, usually through a network of
perforated tubes installed 1.0 to 1.5 m below the soil surface. There are mainly two types of
subsurface drainage systems in use, namely the horizontal drainage and the vertical drainage.
Subsurface drainage by channels is often referred to as "horizontal drainage" and drainage by wells
as "vertical drainage, but it is better to consider of "field drainage by wells", or "field drainage by
ditches or pipes".
Subsurface drainage is applicable in soils where the root zone is underlain by soil layers of
reasonable hydraulic conductivity and/or thickness; and the excess water on or in the soil is able to
infiltrate and percolate through the root zone to the underlying watertable at reasonable rates. In
soils with poor infiltration characteristics and/or with poorly permeable soils, subsurface drainage is
both technically and economically impossible to remove excess water from the root zone. Four types
of subsurface drainage systems (Figure 3.46):
3.3.4.1
Deep ditch drainage (horizontal drainage, also called ditch drainage)

Pipe drainage (horizontal drainage, also called tile drainage)
Tubewell drainage (vertical drainage, also called well drainage)
Mole drainage
Interception drainage (horizontal drainage)
Open or Deep Ditch Drainage System
A deep ditch drain is a channel with an exposed water surface that conveys overland flow as well as
subsurface flow. Open drains combine surface and subsurface drainage functions. The main
disadvantages of open drainage systems are: (i) land loss; (ii) interference with the irrigation; (iii)
splitting-up of the land into small units; (iv) hampering (mechanized) farming operation and (v)
relatively frequent maintenance requirements.
3.3.4.2
Pipe Drainage System
A pipe drain is a buried pipe (regardless of material, size or shape) that conveys excess groundwater
to control the watertable at a desired depth. Pipe drainage systems are installed in the soil below the
plough layer at a depth of 1.0 to 1.5 m, and at a spacing of 5 to 25 m (normally > 0.70 m depth)
and therefore have the advantage of not interfering with the farm operations. The drainage network
generally outlets to an open ditch or stream. The land can be farmed right over the drain and there
is no loss of farming area. Maintenance requirements are minimal if the systems are properly
constructed. If overland drainage flows occur, shallow open drains are additionally required.
3-34
March 2009

Collector Drain
Open Field Drain
(a) Open or Deep Ditch Drainage

Collector Drain
Pipe Field Drain
(b) Pipe Drainage

Irrigation
Canal
Drain
Tubewell
Tubewell
Watertable
Aquifer
(c) Tubewell Drainage

Collector Drain
Mole Drain
Plastic Pipe at Outlet Canal
(d) Mole Drainage

Figure 3.46 Subsurface Drainage Systems (Nijland et al., 2005)
March 2009
3-35
Subsurface pipe drainage systems can be divided into two major systems.
Singular system
Composite system
In a singular pipe drainage system, the field drains are buried perforated pipes that discharge into
open collector drains (Figure 3.47). In a composite pipe drainage system, the collector drains also
consist of closed or perforated pipes that in turn discharge into an open main drain either by gravity
or by pumping. The collector system itself may be composed of sub-collectors and a main collector.
Pipe laterals may discharge either into a ditch collector or into a pipe collector through singular and
composite systems. Field width in the singular system should not exceed 300 m for single sided entry
and 600 m for double sided entry. Land loss by ditches in a singular system may amount to 2-3%.
The outflow of a pipe drain into a ditch collector in singular system is easy to inspect. Moreover,
blockage affects a small area only. In a composite system, blockage may affect a large area while it
is liable to continue over a longer period, as malfunctioning is not so evident. Considering the above
factors, singular systems are most suitable for flat plains. Composite systems often have significant
advantages in drainage for salinity control in irrigated areas.
(a)
Layout
Most subsurface drainage for modern farming is achieved by pipe drainage systems. Three types of
alignment of field drains and the collector drains are used in pipe drainage systems. They are natural
system, herringbone system and parallel grid system.
Natural system is an irregular pattern of field drains running through a depression to collect surface
runoff and interflow as well as groundwater flow. An open ditch is often used in preference to a
buried pipe. Parallel and herringbone systems are suitable in areas where the size of depressions
decreases and their number increases.
In the herringbone system, the collector drains are aligned down the main slope and the field drains
are aligned across the slope but at a slight angle to the contours, so that the pipes slope downwards
the collector drain but remain at a constant depth below the surface. In the parallel grid system, the
laterals are given slope by increasing the installation depth along the drain or along the land to be
drained. Typical slopes are 5-10 m per 100 m length of the drain. Figure 3.48 illustrates field
drainage patterns.
(b)
Flow Pattern of Pipe Drains
Figure 3.49 illustrates the flow pattern of the excess water to the field drains for the case of a
parallel drainage system.
(c)
Pipe Materials
Three types of drain are used for the pipe drainage systems, i.e. clay tile, concrete and plastic pipe
drainage systems.
(d)
Envelope
An envelope is porous material placed around a perforated pipe drain to perform one or more of the
following functions:
3-36
Filter function
Hydraulic function
Mechanical function
Bedding function
March 2009
Drain
Sea, River or Lake
(a) Single System

Sea, River or Lake
(b) Composite System

Figure 3.47 Subsurface Pipe Drainage System (Nijland et al., 2005)
(e)
Structures
Structures in pipe drainage systems are:
Surface water inlets

Inspection, junctions and control
Crossings
Outlets
Sump outlet
March 2009
3-37
Wet spots
Field dra
(Latera in
l)
or
ct
lle
Co
Herringbone system
Natural stream
Slope of the land
Field drain
Collector
Main drain
(lateral)
Field drain
(a) Natural System
(lateral)
Main drain
Collector
Double sided entry
One sided entry
(b) Parallel Grid system

Figure 3.48 Pipe Drainage Layout Patterns (Smedema et al., 2004)
Soil surface
Watertable
Infiltration and percolation of excess

h
Streamline
Pipe drain
Field drainage base
Figure 3.49 Typical Flow Pattern to Parallel Pipe Drains (Smedema et al., 2004)
3.3.4.3
Tubewell drainage means drainage of agricultural lands by wells. A tubewell drainage system
consists of a network of tubewells to lower the watertable, including provisions for running the
pumps, and surface drains to dispose off the excess water. Tubewell drainage is used in areas with a
high soil permeability and preferably fresh groundwater that can be reused for irrigation. The system
requires intensive operation and maintenance and a continuous power supply. Figure 3.50 depicts an
example of well drainage in controlling watertable.
3-38
March 2009
Figure 3.50 Tubewell Drainage System (Christen, 1983)

3.3.4.4
Mole Drainage Systems
A mole drain is an unlined underground drainage conduit 75-100 mm in diameter formed in clay soil
by a mole plough. It is formed by pulling a solid object, usually a solid cylinder with a wedge-shaped
point at the end, through the soil at the proper slope and depth, without a trench having to be dug.
These unlined conduits remove water from the soil (Figure 3.51). Mole drainage is applied only
under very specific conditions, mainly in stable clayey soils. The effect of mole drainage is a rapid
removal of excess water from the surface layers, rather than at controlling the watertable as such.
This provides an intensive drainage system suitable for heavy clay soils that quickly removes excess
water from the root zone and much less interception of saline groundwater than deeper traditional
pipe drains. Mole drainage is a cost effective option for clay soils, where existing surface drains can
be used. However, this is rarely used in Malaysia.
Mole drains are used when natural drainage needs improvement due to lack of slope or heavy clay
subsoil prevents downward drainage. They are a more sophisticated drainage system than open
drains. Mole drains do not drain groundwater but only water that enters from above. Mole drainage
is widely used in New Zealand and England on heavy soils to improve productivity of crops and
pastures.
Mole formation and associated

soil cracking
Leg
45o
Log
fissures
45
Leg slot
Mole channel
Expander
Fool
Figure 3.51 Mole Formation by Pulling a Bullet (USDA, 2001)

Moling is suited to clay soils with minimum clay content of 30%. It is important to prevent water
stagnating in the mole channels since this will weaken the walls and lead to premature collapse. Safe
gradients are in the range of 0.2 3%. This should enable relatively trouble free moles in that minor
surface undulations will not block with negative gradients, and the risk from erosion is reduced. The
flatter the gradient, the more even the soil surface has to be and more interceptor drains needed to
achieve good results. Mole drains are generally spaced about 2 m to 5 m apart and are 0.5 0.8 m
deep. The generally accepted maximum effective length of moles is about 200 m.
March 2009
3-39
A better system is to intercept the flow in the mole channels at suitable intervals by means of drain
trenches installed across the mole channels (Figure 3.52). This provides a dependable outlet and
allows the use of short length mole channels in large fields. The drain trenches are installed first and
then the mole channels are drawn across and through the trenches. The trenches may be parallel
and regularly spaced or be laid out in close accordance with the topography, with the trenches
mostly following the depressions in the field. The trenches are provided with a pipe drain and are
backfilled to well above the mole depth with gravel to allow the discharge from the mole channels to
flow readily down to the pipe.
Drain
trench
A
Boundry ditch
A
30-50 m
Top soil
Boundry ditch
Drain trench
50-60 cm
Subsoil
Mole channel
20-30 cm
Gravel
Pipe
Drain trench
Mole channels
(2-3 m apart)
(a) Layout
(b) Cross section A-A
Figure 3.52 Mole Drainage Discharging into Drain Trenches (Smedema et al., 2004)
Mole drains generally respond rapidly to rainfall and their discharge rates can be substantial.
Therefore it is essential that the hydraulic conductivity of the backfilled gravel should be high in
order to minimize head losses at the discrete points where water cascades from the mole channel
into the gravel-filled trench. The gravel should be clean and have a minimum size of between 3 and
5 mm. The pipes should also be designed to cope with this rapid response to rainfall.
3.3.5
Interception Drainage
Interception drainage systems remove excess water originating upslope, deep percolation from
irrigation or rainfall, and water from old, buried stream channels (Figure 3.53). Interception drains
are open ditches or buried conduits located perpendicular to the flow of ground water or seepage.
They are installed primarily for intercepting subsurface flow moving down slope. Although this
method of drainage may intercept and divert both surface and subsurface flows, it generally refers to
the removal of subsurface water.
3.3.6
Biodrainage
Biodrainage is the vertical drainage of soil water through evapotranspiration by vegetation for
controlling water logging and salinity. It presents itself as a feasible and environment-friendly option
based on the property of plants and trees to transpire water and is used to remove excess water and
salinity. The biodrainage system consists of fast growing tree species, which absorb water from the
capillary fringe located above the ground watertable.
Fast growing Eucalyptus species known for luxurious water consumption under excess soil moisture
condition are suitable for biodrainage (Figure 3.54). These species can be planted in blocks in the
form of farm forestry or along the field boundary in the form of agroforestry. Other suitable species
for biodrainage may be Casuarina glauca, Terminaliaarjuna, Pongamia pinnata and Syzygium cuminii
etc. Biodrainage trees and plants only help in removing the drainage surplus water by absorbing
through the roots and transpiring from the leaves thus lowering the watertable. It also helps in
counteracting the harm done by excessive irrigation or seepage of the water through the canal.
3-40
March 2009
Biodrainage system does not remove the salt from the soil. But by controlling the watertable rise and
decreasing the capillary water fringe, the trees help in preventing the accumulation of salts in the
root zone. Hence, biodrainage by trees can control the rise in watertable in irrigation command areas
and prevent the formation of water logging and eventually the saline wasteland. Hence, biodrainage
is the best way to lower watertable and avoid the problems of disposal of drainage effluent.
Original water table

Soaked Area
Trench
1 1.5m depth
Topsoil
Permeable
backfill
Water table decline
Interceptor
drain pipe
Figure 3.53 Interception Drainage System (BCDF, 1999)
(a) Waterlogged Field
(b) Biodrainage by Eucalyptus species
Figure 3.54 Controlling Waterlogging and Salinity by Biodrainage (Albertus et al. 2002)
The merits of biodrainage over the conventional engineering based sub-surface drainage systems are
as given below:
Relatively less costly to raise biodrainage plantations

No operational cost, as the plants use their bio-energy in draining out the excess ground
water into atmosphere
Increase in worth with age instead of depreciation
No need of any drainage outfall and disposal of drainage effluent
No environmental problem, as the plants drain out filtered fresh water in to the atmosphere
In-situ solution of the problem of water logging and salinity
Preventive and curative system of long life
Facilitate combined drainage and disposal system
Mitigates the problem of climate change due to greenhouse effect
Purifies the atmosphere by absorbing CO2 and releasing
Acts as wind break and shelter belts in agroforestry system
Provides higher income to the farmer due to the production of food, fodder and timber
March 2009
3-41
3.3.6.1
Possible Biodrainage Scenarios
Biodrainage management mechanisms can be classified based on land use context considering
dryland, rainfed and irrigated land use systems as follows:
Dryland/rainfed systems
Recharge control
Groundwater flow interception
Discharge enhancement
Irrigated systems
Water table control
Channel seepage interception
Biodrainage cum conventional drainage systems
3.3.6.2
Rainfed Systems
A major problem with biodrainage (as opposed to conventional drainage) in rainfed conditions is that
plant water requirement is generally low during cooler winter periods with high rainfall. So there is a
delayed drainage response to rainfall inputs with the soil reservoir filling over rainy season and being
depleted by vegetation water use over dry season, thus creating a storage buffer to accommodate
the next rainfall season. Non-irrigated biodrainage plantings can be designed for different purposes
as described in the following sections (Figure 3.55).
a) Recharge Planting
b) Break-of-Slope Planting
c) Discharge Planting
Without Tree
With Tree
Water Table
Groundwater Flow
Figure 3.55 Dryland Plantation Scenario (Albertus et al. 2002)

(a)
Recharge Control
The sustainability of natural environments relies on the balance between recharge and discharge or
hydrological balance; water fluxes passing beneath the root zone of vegetation communities are
3-42
March 2009
laterally discharged through regional subsurface aquifer systems. Where vegetation is changed by
agricultural development and crops with lower annual water use and/or shallower root systems are
planted, recharge increases. As the conveyance capacity of the underground aquifer system is often
not high enough to accommodate the increased recharge volumes, groundwater tables rise and
cause water logging and salinization. Watertables in the recharge areas are too deep to be accessed
by vegetation root systems, and plants in these areas rely on rainfall for their evaporative
requirements. The process to minimize deep seepage losses in the higher parts of the landscape to
minimize discharge problems down-slope is often referred to as recharge control. Re-vegetation of
recharge areas is a major tool in the fight against dryland salinity in Australia (Figure 3.56).
Figure 3.56 Recharge Control Plantation (Albertus et al. 2002)

However, re-vegetation of recharge areas can also have negative effects. This scenario is often
encountered in catchments covered by newly established fast-growing plantations. It is an example
of an over-designed recharge-control biodrainage system and could cause problems such as reduced
river flows, the drying-up of wells and increasing groundwater salinity.
(b)
Groundwater Flow Interception
Break-of-slope plantings have been promoted as flow interceptors for areas where groundwater
flows through permeable layers overlying low-permeability strata. By tapping these layers at some
point down the slope, where the quality is still relatively fresh, the trees are considered to intercept
these flows and thus reduce discharge problems further down the slope. Location of the tree
plantations, based on a thorough understanding of the underlying stratigraphy, is extremely
important if this concept is to work. Figure 3.57 shows a break-of-slope planting of two-year-old blue
gums (Eucalyptus globulus) in northern Victoria, Australia.
Figure 3.57 Break-of-Slope Planting of by 2-yrs Blue Gums (Albertus et al. 2002)
March 2009
3-43
(c)
Discharge Enhancement
Low-lying landscape units with shallow watertables often serve as local discharge areas (Figure
3.58). Where these areas have drainage outlets and seepage flows discharge into rivers, salt balance
is provided. Where the depressions are closed basins and percolation to deeper aquifers is inhibited,
salinization of the landscape unit is inevitable. The use of biodrainage in waterlogged discharge areas
is based on the concept of enhanced evapotranspiration. The long-term sustainability of biodrainage
in this environment is a topic of intense debate. Smedema (1997) suggests that biodrainage could be
considered for waterlogged landscape depressions and canal seepage interception, and could be
applied in parallel field drainage arrangements as an alternative to conventional field drainage
systems. In Australia it is now widely accepted that in discharge situations, enhanced
evapotranspiration biodrainage sites will eventually succumb to salinity, unless some form of
conventional drainage is installed to control salt balance to the vegetations rootzone by removal of
saline drainage effluent (Heuperman, 2000).
Figure 3.58 Deforested Hill with Salinity Problems in Australia (Albertus et al. 2002)
Plants can use water both from the unsaturated part of the soil profile above the watertable and
from the saturated part below the watertable. One special application of the biodrainage concept is
the amelioration of waterlogged soils during the initial reclamation or ripening phase of new land
development. Vegetation with a vigorous, deep and extensive root system is used to dry out
waterlogged soil profiles. Allender (1990) states that Eucalypts were successfully used during the
nineteenth century to drain the Pontine Swamps near Rome, a region that had been a malarial
swamp since Roman times.
3.3.6.3
Irrigated Systems
In landscapes with undulating topography, recharge and discharge areas are often relatively easy to
delineate. Recharge occurs at the higher parts of the landscape and discharge lower down the slope.
In irrigation areas, with their flat topography and shallow watertables, the distinction between
recharge and discharge is less clearly delineated and frequently areas that are discharging
groundwater by evapotranspiration between irrigation events temporarily turn into recharge areas
during and immediately after irrigation.
(a) Watertable Control
Shallow water table levels pose a threat to agricultural crops as they often result in salinization of the
plant rootzone. The management of irrigation areas often aims to keep watertables below the critical
depth, which is defined as the depth at which capillary salinization is negligible. Sustainability of
irrigation is determined by the leaching capability of soils. To avoid salinity problems, the salts
3-44
March 2009
present in the irrigation water will have to be removed from the rootzone by leaching them either
laterally to adjoining non-irrigated areas or streams or vertically down to levels below the vegetation
rootzone.
Plants can remove water from the soil either (1) directly from the saturated zone below the water
table, (2) from the unsaturated capillary fringe above the water table or (3) from unsaturated topsoil
layers after rainfall or irrigation. Scenarios (1) and (2) result in watertable control; scenario (3)
recharge control. In scenario (3) leaching is unimpeded; when water application exceeds plant water
demand, leaching will take place. In scenarios (1) and (2) leaching becomes restricted and salt
accumulation processes begin to occur. This happens especially where water tables are shallow, as is
often the case in irrigation areas. A final equilibrium salinity level will establish, depending on applied
water salinity, soil hydraulic conductivity, hydraulic gradients and vegetation type.
(b)
Channel Seepage Interception
Channel seepage shown in Figure 3.59 can be a major contributor to watertable accessions in
irrigation areas. High seepage rates will result in groundwater mounds beneath channels, causing
water logging and salinity problems in the adjoining land. Water quality in supply channels is
normally good and the seepage water, if not left to evaporate and increase in salinity, can be
productively used by vegetation and commercial crops. The issue of salt balance, although less
critical than for more saline groundwater situations, is still a matter of long-term concern.
Figure 3.59 Inundation Caused by Seepage from Irrigation Canal (Albertus et al. 2002)
(c)
Biodrainage Cum Conventional Drainage
Biodrainage crops are no exception to the basic rules that irrigation, or for that matter plant growth,
is not sustainable without some form of rootzone salt balance. Where biodrainage results in salt
accumulation, engineering assistance is needed to make the system sustainable.
3.3.7
Composite Drainage System
A combined surface and subsurface drainage system is required when both surface and subsurface
water logging occur. Surface water should not be connected directly to a subsurface drainage
system, unless it is designed for it. The excessive volume and velocity of water from a surface drain
system connected directly to drains may actually leach out of the perforated pipe defeating its
function as a groundwater collection device. It may join non-perforated pipe conveying water from
surface drainage systems and subsurface drainage systems when the junction is at an elevation
lower than any perforated pipe. The most cost-efficient system in terms of lifecycle costs may
include completely separate systems, one to collect and convey surface water and another to collect
and convey subsurface water.
March 2009
3-45
3.4
WATER TREATMENT FOR AGRICULTURAL WATER USES
An irrigation system should ensure increased yields, improved quality, and higher utilization
efficiency of the irrigation water. Controlled quality and delivery of the irrigation water play
significant role for improved crop yields. Water quality problems may affect the sustainability of
irrigation and drainage projects. Therefore, treatment and disposal of agricultural drainage water
continues to be a necessary component of agricultural production systems.
3.4.1
Potential Water Quality Problems
It is well known that irrigation water should be free of particles that are larger than 50-100 micron,
depending upon the type of irrigation system used. Furthermore, the irrigation water should
preferably have low salt content, usually measured by the electrical conductivity (EC) or the total
dissolved solids (TDS) levels, to prevent certain ion toxicities and build-up of salinity. Iron and
manganese values need to be kept low to prevent staining problems. Many additional parameters,
e.g., concentrations of boron, fluoride, and heavy metals should also be low to reduce the likelihood
of specific ion toxicity. In addition to these physical and chemical parameters, another major concern
is the biological integrity of the water. Typical water quality problems are given below:
3.4.1.1
Low Quality Municipal Water
Municipal water, if available for use in irrigation in a given facility, is generally free of disease-causing
microorganisms; yet it may contain salt and hardness levels high for irrigation of certain types of
plants. High concentrations of primarily calcium, magnesium, sodium chloride and sulfate cause
elevated salt and hardness levels in water.
3.4.1.2
Low Quality Well Water
Well waters potentially have high salt and hardness levels, and can also be contaminated with
disease-causing microorganisms. Some well waters might have high turbidity caused by suspended
particles as well.
3.4.1.3
Low Quality Surface Water
A surface water resource, such as a river, reservoir, lake, pond and stream can be used for irrigation.
Typically surface waters contain high levels of suspended solids and a variety of microorganisms.
Sometimes high salt levels may also be observed.
3.4.1.4
Low Quality Tail Water
Crops consume a relatively small fraction of the irrigation water applied to the plants
(evapotranspiration), and the rest is disposed as tail water. Tail water contains high concentrations
of nutrients added to the irrigation water as fertilizers. Hence, the reuse of the tail water is obviously
beneficial for reducing the need for additional irrigation water and fertilizer. However, tail water
usually contains high concentrations of suspended particles, organic matter coming from the growth
media, microorganisms, and potentially higher levels of undesirable salts, e.g., sulfate and chlorine.
3.4.2
Selection of Treatment Process
The first steps in the selection of any treatment process for improving irrigation and drainage water
quality are to thoroughly define the problem and to determine what the treatment process is to
achieve. A thorough knowledge and understanding of water quality criteria is required prior to
selecting any particular treatment process. This will require input from all parties involved in the
project including the funding source(s), users (farmers, industries or municipalities), water
authorities, regulatory agencies and the public. Once the selection criteria have been defined,
possible treatment options can be identified.
3-46
March 2009
3.4.3
Methods of Treatment
Treatment approaches can be divided into three general types: physical, chemical and biological.
Many processes exhibit both physical and chemical aspects and so are sometimes called
physicochemical treatment. Most of the cases, integrating several technologies to solve the waterrelated problems provide the most cost-effective solution. Different types of water treatment
technologies are briefly discussed to solve each individual problem.
3.4.3.1
Particle Removal
Filtration is a common technology to take out particles from water. A fully automatic filter system
prevents the solids from entering into the delivery system. Filters should be backwashed on a preset
frequency and/or by sensing pressure differential through the filters.
3.4.3.2
Salt and Hardness Removal
Membrane processes, such as micro-filtration and reverse osmosis can successfully remove ions
contributing to the water hardness and high electrical conductivity (or TDS) levels. Ion exchange
process also works effectively, yet it is usually more costly or impractical compared to the membrane
processes.
3.4.3.3
Inactivation of Microorganisms
Chlorine is used for cleaning and maintaining irrigation systems. Proper injection methods and
amounts of chemical must be used to provide an effective water treatment program without
damaging the irrigation system or the crop being grown. Because chlorine can react with some
metals and plastics, always check with the manufacturer recommendations to make sure that
problems will not occur if chlorine is injected.
Irrigation systems can become partially or completely clogged from biological growths of bacteria,
fungi, or algae which are often present in surface and ground water. Bacteria, fungi, and algae use
chemical elements such as nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur, or iron as nutrient sources to grow and
develop. Generally, filtration alone cannot effectively remove these microorganisms. Chlorination can
be used to minimize the growth of microorganisms within the pipes and other components of
irrigation systems.
If water is not properly treated, clogging of pipes, fittings, and emission devices (sprinklers, drippers,
spray jets, etc.) can occur, resulting in decreased crop growth and development because of reduced
water application amounts, uniformity, and efficiency. Therefore, the greatest challenge for both
irrigation design and management, when applying biological effluents through microirrigation
systems, is the prevention of emitter clogging to keep the system operating as designed. This
challenge of clogging prevention requires meeting these criteria:
3.5
Selecting and installing the proper system components

Filtering the effluent properly and effectively
Effectively suppressing biological growth and chemical precipitation in the effluent
Flushing of materials in the distribution system
Monitoring system performance needs strengthening to avoid catastrophic clogging.
WATERTABLE MANAGEMENT
Watertable management is the operation and management of a shallow groundwater level to

maintain proper soil moisture for optimum plant growth, to sustain or improve water quality, and to
conserve water. It is the operation of a subsurface drainage system for the purpose of lowering the
watertable below the root zone during wet periods (drainage), raising the watertable during dry
periods (subirrigation), and maintaining the watertable during transition (controlled drainage).
Watertable management practices include surface drainage, subsurface drainage, controlled
drainage, and subirrigation or a combination of these (Figure 3.60). Controlled drainage and
March 2009
3-47
subsurface drainage systems can often be retrofitted to function as a subirrigation system

(Broughton, 1995). The system helps to improve water quality by reducing the quantity of nutrient
enriched drainage water leaving fields, and can provide production benefits by extending the period
of time when soil water is available to plants.
Watertable
Flow
(a) Subsurface Drainage
Adjustable
weir
Water Level
Watertable
No flow
(b) Controlled Drainage

Adjustable weir
and water level
Watertable
Flow
(c) Subirrigation Mode
Water
supply
Figure 3.60 Watertable Management Alternatives (USDA, 2001)

When dropboards are added to the riser, the subsurface drainage rate is decreased and the height of
the water level in the ditches and surrounding fields rises. Managing the field water through the use
of controlled drainage allows timely drainage and also maximized storage of water within the field for
utilization by the crop.
3.5.1
Where to Apply the Practice
Drainage water management can be applied on drained fields where outflows from the drains can be
controlled. The topography should be relatively uniform, and flat to gently sloping within a
management unit or zone. Non-uniform watertable depths can lead to non-uniform crop growth that
complicates management decisions. Slopes of 1% or less are recommended.
3.5.2
Impacts of Watertable Management
Watertable management can have a significant impact on crop production. Lowering the watertable
increases the amount of water passing through the soil. Nitrates and soluble phosphorous move with
the drainage water and are transported to the drainage outlets. The aerobic conditions created in
drained soils decrease the occurrence of denitrification. Raising the watertable decreases the amount
of water passing through the soil, and proportionally decreases the transport of nitrates and soluble
phosphorous from the field. Raising the watertable during the non-growing season can result in a
30% reduction in the discharge of nitrates. Lowering the watertable improves field trafficability and
timeliness of crop management operations such as field preparation, planting, and harvesting, and
can extend the growing season by allowing earlier access to the field. With a low watertable,
ponding is less likely to occur or to be sustained when it does occur. A lower watertable results in
3-48
March 2009
aerobic soil conditions and an increased depth of the root zone. Partially raising the watertable after
crops are established can conserve soil moisture and may enable a crop to be more productive in the
years where there is an extended dry period during the growing season.
3.5.3
Controlled Drainage and Subirrigation
The process called controlled drainage occurs when the structure is used to conserve water by
reducing drainage outflows and when no additional water is pumped in. During dry periods, water
may be pumped into the control outlet where it moves back through the drainage network, thus
raising the water level in the field. In this mode the system is being used for subirrigation.
When a structure (such as a flashboard riser) is used in the outlet ditch to regulate the drainage
rate, the system may function in either the controlled drainage or subirrigation mode. Usually a weir
is placed in the control structure so that the water level in the drainage outlet has to rise higher than
the weir crest before the water will flow out of the field. Water control structures, such as a
flashboard riser, installed in the drainage outlet allow the water in the drainage outlet to be raised or
lowered as needed. This water management practice has become known as controlled drainage.
When the flashboards are lowered or removed, subsurface drainage occurs more quickly (Figure
3.61). Here, excess water is removed from the field through a system of underground drain tubes
which outlet to a main drain tube or open ditch. If a new system is to be installed for both drainage
and subirrigation, the system's size and layout must satisfy the water management needs of the
specific site. Many factors influence this size and layout. The most important management decisions
include:
when to raise/lower the control structure;

at what height to maintain the weir in the control structure; and
when to add water to the system.
(a) Water Profile in Drainage Ditch (USDA, 2001)
(b) Rectangular Flap Gate in Indonesia
Figure 3.61 Controlled Drainage by Weir and Flap Gate

3.6
DRAINAGE WATER REUSE
Increasing demand for available fresh water resources in many areas of the world has provided a
driving force for the use of marginal-quality water for irrigation. The reuse of agricultural drainage
water is already practiced on a large scale in several countries. Drainage water recycling has been
applied very successfully, for instance, in the MUDA scheme in Malaysia (Figure 3.62). It contributes
6% of the total water demand of the MUDA scheme.
March 2009
3-49
(a) Pump Installed in the Main Drain
(b) Drainage Water Pumping into the Main Canal
Figure 3.62 Reuse of Drainage Water in MUDA Rice Irrigation Scheme

3.6.1
Importance of Drainage Water Reuse
Reuse and safe disposal of agricultural drainage water are important components of comprehensive
water management and have the potential to increase water resources available for agriculture and
protect the quality of downstream water resources. In regions where irrigation water supplies are
limited, drainage water can be used to supplement them. However, the quality of the drainage water
determines which crops can be irrigated. Drainage water of different salinities can be successfully
applied to crops during different growth stages or can be used with crop rotations between tolerant
and sensitive crops. For cyclic use strategies, factors that should be considered include the effects of
changes in salinity during the growing season, the average salinity distribution in the root zone, the
interactions with climatic variables, and the effects of different soil types. On the other hand, soils
with specific limitations such as clay soils, sandy soils, saline and gypsiferous soils, acid soils and
peat soils, need cost effective reclamation and management to achieve their potential productivity.
Therefore, well-designed and managed drainage systems must remove runoff and leachate
efficiently; control deep percolation; and minimize erosion from applied water, thereby reducing
adverse impacts on surface water and ground water.
3.6.2
Impacts of Drainage Water Reuse
Drainage water reuse for irrigation may be hazardous to the environment, since the irrigation water
contains pollutants such as nutrients, pesticides, pathogens, trace and heavy metals, and salinity. In
addition, use of marginal-quality water has the potential of causing serious problems of soil
degradation and reduction in crop productivity because of resulting low irrigation water quality.
Other problems such as human health hazards and quality degradation of groundwater are also
possible. The safe use of the drainage water in irrigation needs to apply appropriate management to
reduce the negative impacts. The objective of the recommended management practices involve
managing, limiting, or removing pollutants such as nitrates, phosphates, sediments, pesticides,
pathogens, salinity, heavy metals and other chemicals.
3.6.3
Reuse of Drainage Water for Crop Irrigation
The major degradation factor of reused waters is the high concentration of ions. Waters with low
ionic concentrations provide plants with an adequate supply of many of the essential nutrients
needed for growth. However, as salinity increases, specific ions may become toxic or interfere with
the uptake of other nutrients. Drainage and leaching of salts from the root zone are key factors in
the management of salinity in agriculture. Another management factor is control of the range of salt
tolerance expressed in crop species. However, crops can be grown with saline waters provided that
suitable irrigation and cropping strategies are used (Rhoades, 1988).
There is a wide range in plant species response to salinity. Sugar beet and sugar cane are among the
most salt tolerant. Water reuse for agricultural crops has distinct economic incentives and a number
3-50
March 2009
of crops are known to be highly tolerant to salinity. However, as salinity increases in the irrigation
water, there is a greater need to monitor and manage irrigation and drainage practices and to
consider the sustainability of the system. The greater the salinity of the irrigation water, the greater
is the need for adequate irrigation and drainage. Rates of salt accumulation in the soil are dependent
upon the amount and concentration of the saline water applied and the amount remaining after plant
water needs have been met. Fortunately, salinity is not a problem in Malaysia due to the high
rainfalls that leach away any accumulated salts in the crop root zone.
It is possible to safely reuse agricultural drainage water if the characteristics of the water, soil, and
the intended crops are known and can be economically managed. Poor quality water requires
selection of crops with appropriate salt tolerances, improvements in water management,
enhancement of water quality and maintenance of soil structure and permeability. In general, poorer
quality water can be used for surface-applied irrigation than for sprinkler irrigation. Sprinkler
irrigation should be done at night or in the early morning when evaporation is less. Drip irrigation
has advantages when saline water is used. Drip irrigation avoids wetting of the leaves with saline
water and can be managed to maintain relatively high soil water potentials. As drip irrigation is
normally applied frequently, there is a continuous leaching of the soil nutrients.
Blending strategies for using waters of different salinities can be successfully applied to crops during
different growth stages (Rhoades, 1989). Blending is the mixing of poor quality drainage water with
good quality irrigation water. The feasibility of blended applications of high quality water with
drainage water depends on both supply and the availability of storage, mixing and delivery systems.
Where nonsaline waters are available for critical irrigations, growers can take advantage of the fact
that many crops are most salt sensitive during the germination and seedling stages and are much
more tolerant during later growth stages.
3.7
ICT APPLICATION
Nowadays, water resource management is more and more important. Modern agriculture is a largescale water consumer, which must adjust as well as possible its consumption in adequacy with its
needs, while preserving the natural resources and the quality of the productions. Information and
Communication Technologies (ICT) offer solutions to make possible a finer approach of the irrigation
of the crop by facilitating the work of the farmers.
The application of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in agriculture is increasingly
important. It consists of three main technologies. They are: Computer Technology, Communication
Technology and Information Management Technology. These technologies are applied for
processing, exchanging and managing data, analysis, modelling, decision support systems,
interactive visualization, generating new information and knowledge. Furthermore, expansion of the
computer systems and advances in internet related technologies and GIS is a new horizon.
3.7.1
Planning and Design
Information technologies have gained importance in the worldwide organizations due to their
efficiency with low costs. Naturally, developments in computer and information systems, especially
data management systems, directly affect irrigated agriculture. Data management is the most
important part in agriculture. Irrigated agriculture is a complex system that requires a large amount
of data with various formats. Managing of different types of data causes serious problems for any
new irrigation and drainage scheme. However, development of computers and data systems has
opened new perspectives of creating and managing data systems easily and economically. Due to
development of the information and communication technologies; collecting data, delivering
materials (maps), manipulating and updating data becomes easier. The recent technologies provide
lots of tools for spatial technologies and data modeling.
Mapping is an important component in planning and design of any irrigation project. Considering the
stupendous task and the constraint of time, it is necessary to employ modern methods of surveying,
investigations, design and implementation. Geographic Information Systems (GIS), Remote Sensing
and Global Positioning Systems (GPS) are now common tools to modernize and simplify the physical
March 2009
3-51
surveys required for investigation and planning related to maintaining irrigation and drainage
systems. GIS-based mapping and models are nowadays indispensable tools for irrigation and
drainage professionals in the planning, design, operation, maintenance and management of irrigation
and drainage systems.
ICT plays an important role in the development of innovative planning models, irrigation design,
drainage optimization models and design, GIS application, and computer aided design techniques.
ICT can provide application of computer software for design of surface, micro and sprinkler irrigation
systems, and irrigation systems scheduling, design of wells and pumps, open channels, pipe
networks, and performance evaluation of irrigation systems. A properly designed and managed
irrigation and drainage system can minimize the losses, thus helping to improve water productivity.
Irrigation engineers and agriculturists are very interested to seek more efficient ways for both
conveyances of water and irrigation supplies for crop production. ICT technology is revolutionizing
not just the food and agriculture industries, but also providing the water and friendly environmental
solutions.
3.7.2
Operation
A controller is an integral part of an irrigation system. It is an essential tool to apply water in the
necessary quantity and at the right time to sustain agricultural production and to achieve high levels
of efficiency in water, energy and chemical uses. Irrigation controllers have been available for many
years in the form of mechanical and electromechanical irrigation timers. These devices have evolved
into complex computer-based systems that allow accurate control of water, energy and chemicals
while responding to environmental changes and development stages of the crop.
Two general types of controllers are used to control irrigation systems: Open control loop systems,
and closed control loop systems. The difference between these is that closed control loops have
feedback from sensors, make decisions and apply decisions to the irrigation system. Closed control
system takes over and makes detailed decisions of when to apply water and how much water to
apply. In open control loop systems, a decision is made by the operator on the amount of water and
the time to apply. This system uses irrigation duration or applied volume for control purposes.
ICT is increasingly being used in irrigation and water resources because of its ability to store,
analyze, and display spatial data. Main issues and challenges include user considerations, proper
data management, software cost, availability of skills, and the difficulties of coupling water
management models with software. Finally, the performance of a simulation model integrated with
ICT application depends on the objective, availability of data and resources, and the skill of the user
and modeler.
3.7.3
Management and Maintenance
3.7.3.1
Geographical Information System (GIS)
The GIS technology has come a long way in the past decade and continues to evolve, with the basic
function as spatial data management. Dramatic improvements continue in the capability of hardware
and software operating platforms; and large volumes of data sets have become available. GIS
technology has grown rapidly to become a valuable tool in the analysis and management of spatial
ecological problems. It is not new for GIS to be used in irrigated agriculture. GIS has been applied in
resource planning and decision-makers with a set of tools to analyze spatial data effectively. A more
popular application of GIS in agriculture, which may be classified as micro application nowadays is
digital agriculture, tailoring soil and crop management to fit the specific conditions found within a
field with the aim to improve production efficiency.
Common applications of GIS in irrigation and drainage are improved irrigation and drainage
practices. GIS maps help to characterize fields according to various criteria in order to help illustrate
how and where future actions may be prioritized.
3-52
March 2009
A good management and timely application of water usually result in better crop yield and drainage
control. Efficient operation and water management for irrigated agriculture needs to cater a huge
amount of spatially distributed data covering variability in soil and crop conditions, hydrological
uncertainties, fluctuation of river flows and uncertainties, canal and water distribution networks and
various control structures as well as socio-economic and administrative aspects. All these determine
and affect the irrigation water requirements for different crops. Integrating all required data along
with analytical models can provide a framework to support decision-making process for complex
irrigation problems. The modern GIS (Geographical Information System) with its powerful modeling,
management and analysis capabilities coupled with appropriate models can help to enhance the
decision-making in agricultural water management since the temporal and spatial dimensions could
be studied at once. GIS technique integrated with agro-hydrological models can help to evaluate and
diagnose the irrigation system performance to aid in improving the water management.
3.7.3.2
Decision Support System (DSS)
Basic component of DSS include control unit, database (management), model base (management),
knowledgebase (management) and user interface, with spatial database different from common
database in DSS. Spatial model integrated with GIS as known as spatial decision support system
(SDSS) is useful tool for solving more sophisticated and special problems. It is generally agreed that
SDSS is evolved from DSS which combines geographic information with appropriate algorithms and
extend these capabilities to provide a rational and objective approach to spatial decision analysis and
a more vivid graph expression than DSS clearly. Its primary functions are to (a) provide the
mechanisms for interactive input and manipulation of large volumes of spatial data; (b) allow
representation of the complex spatial relationships and structures that are common in spatial data,
including analytical techniques that are unique to both spatial analysis and modeling; (c) provide
output in a variety of spatial forms; and (d) facilitate decision-making and improve the effectiveness
of the decision made. SDSS are explicitly designed to provide the user with an interactive decisionmaking environment that enables geographic data analysis and spatial modeling to be performed.
Database
Modelbase
Knowledgebase
Sub-system of
database
management
Sub-system of
modelbase
management
Sub-system of
knowledgebase
management
Control unit
User interface
Figure 3.63 Basic Structure of SDSS

Web-based decision support system that integrates the expert knowledge, analysis model and GIS to
assist farm-level agronomic decision-making and that is fit for any circumstances in agriculture
production region with efficient knowledge support. The approach involves general GIS spatial data
management (geo-referenced digital map, spatial agriculture decision unit, etc.), agronomic
March 2009
3-53
diagnosis and decision-making with integration of expert knowledge and analysis model, so that the
variable-rate application of water and fertilizer to any regular or irregular cultivated field can be
addressed. The core technology involved includes expert knowledge representation, model
organization, software data exchange standard and integration of GIS, expert knowledge and
analysis model. With this approach and the basic principle of the traditional digital agriculture, it is
possible to tap the variable-rate water and fertilizer application to agronomic fields even in the
mountainous and remote region and gain maximum benefit with minimum purchased input, which is
very useful in agriculture production. The framework of the developed system is a hybrid structure
model composed of B/S (Browser/Server) and C/S (Client/Server), which not only extends the
capability of decision support service space but also makes the system easy to maintain.
3.7.3.3
WEB-based System
Various data structures an d exchanging different types of data cause serious problems at the
beginning of the development of any new scheme. Recently, web-based GIS with the rapid
expansion of internet and the World Wide Web is regarded as one of important issues for web
application, and several GIS products running on web browser have been announced. GIS offers
much more than a typical display of data related to irrigated agriculture, and provides the
capability of combining the data itself with virtually any other geographically based information, and
make it possible to calculate meaningful value-added results. Web-based information system gives
the following benefits:
Integration of data in a GIS

Creating a web-based system,
Creating a real-time system,
Creating an open-sourced system,
Capable data structure that recognize different raw data formats
Creating a data processing system that exchange different data formats into one format
Creating an interactive web-map on the fly with the processed data
Creating a reporting system that produces reports based on user specified parameters
Like most of the internet applications, web-based GIS are based on the simple server/client model.
In a server/client system a computer acts as a client that sends requests to the server computer, the
server computer processes the requests, and then sends the results back to the client (Kim and Lee,
1998). There are many possible ways when constructing a web-based map system, the main
determiner for the project is the technologies that will be used. Investigating proper programming
languages and web technologies, the options are narrowed down to scripting languages and widely
used web data presentation systems in order to increase capability.
3-54
March 2009
REFERENCES
Albertus F.H., Arjun S.K., Harry W.D. (2002). Biodrainage - Principles, Experiences and Applications,
International Programme for Technology and Research in Irrigation and Drainage Food and
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome.
Allender, E.B. (1990). Tree species for woodlots - existing cultivars. In Proceedings Woodlots
Workshop, Serial No. 32, Mildura, Australia. pp. 18-22.
BCDF (B.C. Drainage Factsheet) (1999). Agricultural Drainage Criteria. Irrigation Industry Association
of British Columbia, Canada.
Boodley W. and Sheldrakejr R. (1977). "Cornell peat-lite mixes for commercial plant growing."
Informational Bulletin 43. New York State College of Agriculture and Life Sciences.
Broughton R.S. (1995). Economic, production and environmental impacts of subirrigation and
controlled drainage. p. 183191. In H.W. Belcher and F.M. D'Itri (ed.) Subirrigation and controlled
drainage. Lewis Publisher, Boca Raton, FL. 1995.
Burt C.K., OConnor, and T. Ruehr (1994). Irrigation Training and Research Center, California State
University, San Luis Obispo, CA.
Christen E.W. and J.W. Hornbuckle (1983). Irrigation Insights No.2 Subsurface drainage design and
management practices in irrigated areas of Australia. Land and Water Australia, Canberra 2002.
FAO (1980). Drainage design factors. P.J. Dieleman. Irrigation and Drainage Paper No. 38. FAO,
Rome. 52 p.
Green, C.H. and Haney, R. (2008). Grassed Waterways USDA-ARS. Accessed on the 20 December
2008 http://www.sera17.ext.vt.edu/Documents/BMP_Grassed_Waterways.pdf
Heuperman, A.F. 2000. Biodrainage: an Australian overview and two Victorian case studies.
Proceedings Eighth ICID International Drainage Workshop, New Delhi, India.
Kay M. (1983). Sprinkler Irrigation, Equipment and practice. Batsford Academic and Educational Ltd,
London. pp 120.
Kay M. (1986). Surface Irrigation, Equipment and practice. Batsford Academic and Educational Ltd,
London.
Kim, K.S and Lee, K.W. (1998). The Development of Web-based geographic information system,
Pascolo, P. Brebbia, C.A, ed. GIS Technologies and Their Environmental Applications, WIT Press, UK.
Lamm F.R., Ayars J.E. and Nakayama F.S. (2007). Microirrigation for crop production. Design,
operation and management. Developments in Agriculture Engineering 13, Elsvier, Netherland. PP
618.
Lambert S.K., Willem F.V. and David W.R. (2004). Modern Land Drainage: Planning, Design and
Management of Agricultural Drainage Systems. pp 446.
Nijland H.J., Croon F.W. and Ritzema H.P. (2005). Subsurface Drainage Practices: Guidelines for the
implementation, operation and maintenance of subsurface pipe drainage systems. Wageningen,
Alterra, ILRI Publication no. 60, pp. 608.
NETAFIM (2008). (http://www.netafim.com/Irrigation_Products/)
NELSON (2008). (http://www.nelsonirrigation.com/). Water Application Solutions
March 2009
3-55
Ritzema H.P., Kselik R.A.L. and Fernando C. (1996). FAO Drainage of irrigated lands. Irrigation water
management training manual: 9. pp 74.
Rhoades, J.D. (1988). Evidence of the potential to use saline water for irrigation. In: Int. seminar on
the reuse of low quality water for irrigation (R. Bouchet, ed.), CIHEAM - Mediterranean Agronomic
Institute of Bari and Water Research Centre, Cairo, Egypt, pp. 16-21.
Rhoades, J.D. (1989). Intercepting, isolating and re-using drainage waters for irrigation to conserve
water and protect water quality. Agric. Water Manage. 16:37-52.
Smedema, L.K. (1997). Biological drainage: myth or opportunity? GRID, magazine of the IPTRID
network, Issue 11: p. 3.
Smedema L.K., Vlotman W.F. and Rycroft D.W. (2004). Modern land drainage planning , design
and management of agricultural drainage systems. A.A. Balkema Publishers, ISBN 9058095541.
USDA (2001). National Engineering Handbook Part 624 Draiange.
USDA (1997). National Engineering Handbook Part 652 Irrigation Guide.
US Davis (2008). Vegetable Research and Informatin Centre. Soil Culture of Green House
Vegetables. http://vric.ucdavis.edu/veginfo/topics/hydroponics/hydroponics.pdf.
EDIS Florida (2008). http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/HS176. Open-Field Soilless Culture of Vegetables
(Accessed on 15 March 2008).
ADITI (2008). http://www.ide-india.org/ide/drip.shtml.
intervention program (ADITI).
Affordable
drip
irrigation
technology
Irriline (2008). Irriline Sprinkler Irrigation System. http://www.irriline.com/sprinklerirri.htm.

Wikipedia (2008). Irrigation. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/irrigation
VSA (2008). Proven and Green Environmental Solutions, Technical Reference Manual, Vetiver System
Applications. http://www.vetiver.org/TVN-Manual_Vf.pdf
EDIS, Florida (2008). http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/AE385 Florida Irrigation Systems
NCSU (2008). http://www.soil.ncsu.edu/publications/BMPs/drainage.html. Controlled Drainage: What
is it and how does it work.
3-56
March 2009

Appendix 3.A Comparison of Irrigation Systems in Relation to Site and Situation
Surface Irrigation
Site and
situation
factors
Infiltration
rate
Redesigned
surface
systems
Moderate to
low
Moderate
slope
Level
basin
Intermittent
mechanical
move
Moderate
All
Small
slopes
Continuous
mechanical
move
Medium to
high
Level to
rolling
All but trees
and
vineyards
Small
streams
nearly
continuous
Salty water
may harm
plants
Average
80%
Crops
All
All
Water
supply
Large
streams
Very
large
streams
Water
quality
All but very

high salt
All
Efficiency
Average
60-70%
Average
80%
Level to
rolling
Generally
shorter
crops
Small
streams
nearly
continuous
Salty water
may harm
plants
Average
70-80%
Labor
requirement
High
training
required
Low,
some
training
Moderate,
some
training
Low, some
training
Capital
requirement
Energy
requirement
Management
skill
Low to
moderate
Moderate
Moderate
Moderate
Low
Low
Moderate to
high
Medium
Moderate
Moderate
Machinery
operations
Medium to
long fields
Short
field
Duration of
use
Short to
long
Long
Moderate to
high
Moderate to
high
Some
interference
circular
fields
Short to
medium
Topography
Medium
field length,
small
interference
Short to
medium
Weather
All
All
Poor in
windy
conditions
Better in
windy
conditions
than other
sprinklers
Chemical
application
Fair
Good
Good
Good
March 2009
Microirrigation
Solid-set and
permanent
Emitters and
porous tubes
All
All
Level to
rolling
All
all
High value
required
Small
streams
Small streams,
continuous
and clean
Salty water
may harm
plants
Average
70-80%
Low to
seasonal
high, little
training
All
Average
80-90%
Low to high,
training
required
High
High
Moderate
Low to
moderate
Moderate
High
Some
interference
May have
considerable
interference
Long term
Variable
Windy
conditions
reduce
performance,
good for
cooling
All
Good
Very good
3A-1
3A-2
Pisang
Cili
Bayam
Timun
Halia
Kacang Tanah
Cili Padi
Nangka
Bendi
Serai
Limau Nipis
Kacang
Panjang
Jagung
Mangga
Manggis
Kelapa Sawit
Padi
Betik
Lada Hitam
Peria
Banana
Chilli
Chinese
spinach
Cucumber
Ginger
Groundnuts
Hot Chilli
Jackfruit
Lady's Finger
Lemon grass
Lime
Long bean
Maize
Mango
Mangosteen
Oil palm
Paddy
Papaya
Pepper
Biter Guard
-
Level
Local
English
Crops Names
Graded
Basin
Level
Graded
Furrow
Surface/Flood Irrigation
Contour
Subirrigation
Drip
SDI
Microirrigation
APPENDIX 3.B: Suitability of Irrigation Systems for Various Crops in Malaysia
Sprinkler
Irrigation
Soilless/
GreenHouse
Irrigation
March 2009
March 2009
Belimbing
Tebu
Limau Manis
Ubi Keledek
Ubi Kayu
Teh
Tembakau
Tomato
Tembikai
Cempedak
Durian
Rambutan
Kelapa
Dokong
Ciku
Duku Langsat
Kubis
Bunga Kubis
Brokoli
Hidroponik
Star fruit
Sugarcane
Sweet Orange
Sweet Potato
Tapioca/Cassava
Tea
Tobacco
Tomato
Watermelon
Cempedak
Durian
Rambutan
Coconut
Dokong
Ciku
Duku Langsat
Cabbage
Cauliflower
Broccoli
Hydroponic
-
Nenas
Pineapple
Level
Local
English
Crops Name
Graded
Basin
Graded
Level
Furrow
Contour
Subirrigation
Drip
SDI
Microirrigation
APPENDIX 3.B: Suitability of Irrigation Systems for Various Crops in Malaysia (Contd.).
Sprinkler
Irrigation
Soilless/
GreenHouse
Irrigation
3A-3
3A-4
Citrus
Jagung
Kacang Soya
Strawberi
Buah Labu
Nursery bed
Padi
Sayur
Buah Buahan
Lain-lain
Citrus
Corn
Soybeans
Strawberries
Pumpkin
Nursery bed
Paddy
Vegetables
Fruits
Others
Lobak
Carrot
Level
Local
English
Crops Names
Graded
Basin
Level
Graded
Furrow
Contour
Subirrigation
Drip
SDI
Microirrigation
APPENDIX 3.B: Suitability of Irrigation Systems for Various Crops in Malaysia (Contd).
Sprinkler
Irrigation
Soilless/
GreenHouse
Irrigation
March 2009
APPENDIX 3.C Adaptability and Conservation Features of Surface Irrigation Systems

Efficiency
(%)
60-80
Method
Adapted to
Conservation Features
Basins or Level
Border
Close-growing crops on flat

land with sandy soils.
Provides good control of water

applied. Good for alkali control.
Graded
Borders
Hay or grain on uniform

slopes up to 3%; established
pasture on uniform slopes up
to 6%. Best adapted to light
soils.
Provides uniform wetting and

efficient water use.
Utilizes
large water streams safely and
thus less time is required to
cover area.
60-80
Corrugations
Close-growing
crops
on
sloping land with soil slow to
take water. Extreme care is
needed in applying water to
slopes of more than 2%.
Provides uniform wetting and

prevents
erosive
water
accumulation on land too rolling
or steep for borders or basins.
Makes use of small streams.
40-55
Furrows
Row crops, truck crops,

orchards,
vineyards
and
berries on gentle slopes with
all but coarse-textured soils.
Provides
no
conservation
features unless furrows laid on
nearly level land on the contour
and water applied with extreme
care.
60-80
Controlled
Flooding
Close-growing
crops
on
rolling land; pasture sod
established by corrugations
or sprinkler.
Provides water control and fairly

uniform wetting where land
cannot be used for other
methods.
65-80
Wild Flood
Water is allowed to flow over

the land without the use of
furrows, borders or other
structures.
Provides little to no water

control and non uniform wetting
on sloping and rolling lands.
25-40
March 2009
3A-5
APPENDIX 3.D Adaptability and Conservation Features of Pressurized Irrigation Systems
3D-1 Sprinkler Irrigation Systems

Method
Adapted To
Linear
Move
Center
Pivot
Fixed Solid
Set
Nearly all crops on

any irrigable soils,
except
in
very
windy hot climates.
Side Rolls
Hand
Move
Big Gun
(Travelling
or
Stationary)
Efficiency
(%)
Provides good control of water applied. Good
for rectangular fields, may be equipped with
drop tubes and various spray heads to reduce
wind drift and evaporative losses and can
operate on low pressures.
Application uniformity is usually high, labour
requirements
are
low
and
pressure
requirements are often low. Results can be
accomplished on fields which are less than a full
circle.
Labour requirements are low, easily automated
and application uniformity is usually high.
Good for rectangular fields, not adapted to tall
crops, alignment may be difficult on undulating
topography.
Good for irregular shaped hills and rolling
terrain, not suited for tall crops. More labour
intensive than a side roll system.
Good for irregular shaped fields, suited for high
intake rate soils, wind greatly affects water
distribution pattern. Manual labour minimized.
75-90
75-90
60-75
60-75
60-75
55-65
3D-2 Trickle Irrigation Systems
Method
Adapted To
All terrains and most

agricultural crops and soils
including steep or rocky
ground that is unsuitable for
other forms of irrigation.
Permits storage of water

in lower part of soil
profile, good control over
timing
and
water
application, less water
required, chemicals and
fertilizer are efficiently
applied, runoff and deep
percolation are controlled,
can be used on soils with
low infiltration rates and
low
water-holding
capacity.
Easily
automated.
Surface Trickle
Subsurface
Trickle
Microspray or
Mist
3A-6
Efficiency
(%)
85-95
85-90
March 2009
Part B Planning
Chapter 4 - Planning Process
Chapter 4 - PLANNING PROCESS
Table of Contents
4.1
INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................... 4-1
4.2
NEED FOR PLANNING ............................................................................................ 4-1
4.3
PLANNING PRINCIPLES .......................................................................................... 4-2
4.4
PLANNING PROCESS FOR IRRIGATION PROJECTS.................................................... 4-3
4.5
4.4.1
Watershed-based Planning........................................................................ 4-4
4.4.2
Project Planning Relationships................................................................... 4-4
4.4.3
Outline for Irrigation Project Planning ........................................................ 4-5
DETERMINING PROJECT NEEDS ............................................................................. 4-11

4.5.1
4.5.2
4.5.3
4.5.4
4.5.5
4.6
What is the Effect of Irrigation on Crop Production? .................................... 4-12

4.5.1.1
Effect of Amount and Timeliness of Rainfall on Crop Production ... 4-12
4.5.1.2
Effect of Additional Water on Crop Production ............................ 4-12
4.5.1.3
Effect of Land Drainage on Crop Production ............................... 4-12
4.5.1.4
Effect of Fringe Benefits from Irrigation ..................................... 4-13
How Much Water is Needed ...................................................................... 4-13

4.5.2.1
Seasonal Water Demand .......................................................... 4-13
4.5.2.2
Peak-Use Rate of Water Demand .............................................. 4-13
4.5.2.3
How to Find Peak-use Rate of Water Demand ............................ 4-13
What are Satisfactory Sources of Water?.................................................... 4-14

4.5.3.1
Sources of Water ..................................................................... 4-14
4.5.3.2
Effect of Water Laws and Water Sharing.................................... 4-14
4.5.3.3
Effect of the Distance to the Water............................................ 4-14
4.5.3.4
Effect of the Height of the Water to be Lifted ............................. 4-14
How Much Water Is Available? .................................................................. 4-14

4.5.4.1
Flow of Water in a Stream ........................................................ 4-14
4.5.4.2
Amount of Water in a Lake, Pond or Reservoir ........................... 4-15
4.5.4.3
Flow of Water from Groundwater Well ....................................... 4-15
4.5.4.4
Capacity of Combination of Sources........................................... 4-15
Is the Quality of Water Satisfactory?.......................................................... 4-15

4.5.5.1
Effect of Chemical Content of the Water .................................... 4-15
4.5.5.2
Effect of Trash and Dirt in the Water ......................................... 4-15
SELECTION OF WATER APPLICATION METHOD ....................................................... 4-15

4.6.1
Method of Applying Water ........................................................................ 4-15

4.6.1.1
Effect of Land Slope................................................................. 4-15
4.6.1.2
Effect of Water Intake Rate ...................................................... 4-16
4.6.1.3
Effect of Water Holding Capacity ............................................... 4-16
4.6.1.4
Effect of Water Tolerance of Crops ............................................ 4-17
4.6.1.5
Effect of Wind Action ............................................................... 4-17
4.6.2
What System to Select for the Sprinkler Irrigation Method ........................... 4-17
4.6.3
What System to Select for the Trickle/Drip Irrigation................................... 4-17
4.6.4
What System to Select for the Surface Irrigation Method ............................. 4-17
March 2009
4-i
4.6.5
Energy Requirement of Irrigation Systems ................................................. 4-18
4.7
DETERMINING IRRIGATION COST AND RETURN ON INVESTMENT............................ 4-18
4.8
PLANNING PROCESS FOR AGRICULTURAL DRAINAGE PROJECTS .............................. 4-18

4.8.1
4.8.2
4.8.3
Field Investigation ................................................................................... 4-18

4.8.1.1
Problem Diagnosis ................................................................... 4-19
4.8.1.2
Plan Preparation ...................................................................... 4-19
Project Preparation Stages........................................................................ 4-19

4.8.2.1
Identification........................................................................... 4-19
4.8.2.2
Reconnaissance ....................................................................... 4-19
4.8.2.3
Feasibility Study ...................................................................... 4-19
4.8.2.4
Detailed Design ....................................................................... 4-20
Basic Design Criteria ................................................................................ 4-20

4.8.3.1
Surface Drainage ..................................................................... 4-21
4.8.3.2
Subsurface Drainage................................................................ 4-21
4.8.3.3
Main Drainage ......................................................................... 4-21
4.8.3.4
Field Drainage Systems ............................................................ 4-21
4.8.4
Design Rainfall ........................................................................................ 4-22
4.8.5
Design of Field Drainage Systems.............................................................. 4-22

4.8.5.1
Surface Drainage Systems ........................................................ 4-22
4.8.5.2
Subsurface Drainage Systems................................................... 4-22
4.8.5.3
System Capacity and Drainage Coefficient ................................. 4-22
4.8.5.4
Controlled Drainage ................................................................. 4-23
4.8.6
Determination of Design Criteria ............................................................... 4-23
4.8.7
Regional Agricultural Drainage Criteria....................................................... 4-23
4.8.8
Design Procedure Overview ...................................................................... 4-23
4.9
WATER QUALITY PROTECTION AND ENHANCEMENT................................................ 4-24
4.10
PARTICIPATORY PLANNING ................................................................................... 4-25
4.11
RAIN-FED LANDS IN TROPICAL HUMID ZONES ........................................................ 4-25
REFERENCES .................................................................................................................... 4-26

APPENDIX 4.A Factors Affecting the Selection of Sprinkler Irrigation Systems4-A1
APPENDIX 4.B Factors Affecting the Selection of Micro Irrigation Systems .............................. 4-A2
APPENDIX 4.C Factors Affecting the Selection of Surface Irrigation Systems ........................... 4-A2
APPENDIX 4.D Cost and Return Form.................................................................................. 4-A3
4-ii
March 2009
List of Tables
Table
Description
Page
4.1
Factors affecting the selection of a water application method
4-16
4.2
Maximum length of run for surface irrigation furrows in soils of different

textures (0.1 to 0.2 percent slope)
4-17
4.3
Examples of Engineering Factors by Type of Drainage System
4-22
List of Figures
Figure
Description
Page
4.1
Resource planning process for project plan (Steps 1-4)
4-4
4.2
Resource planning process for project plan (Steps 5-9)
4-5
4.3
Relationship among all Variables in Drainage Design
4-20
4.4
The Role of the Basic Drainage Criteria in Drainage Design
4-21
4.5
Illustration of a Straightforward Method of Analysis of Drainage Effects on

Agriculture
4-21
March 2009
4-iii
4-iv
March 2009
4
4.1
PLANNING PROCESS
INTRODUCTION
Development of public services and facilities including irrigation and agricultural drainage projects
will involve planning, design, construction and operation functions, ideally carried out in that order.
In the past an orderly planning function has not been given much emphasis.
Irrigation and agricultural drainage system consists of various integrated components, each of which
is intended to perform one or more functions in controlling the quality and quantity of irrigation
water and agricultural drainage runoff. A unique characteristic of irrigation and agricultural drainage
systems is that they function by season. In dry season, irrigation will play an important role in
replenishing the crop water requirement, whereas in the wet season the drainage system is more
important in removing excess water from the crop root zone. Sometimes, the same drainage system
used, for example in oil palm plantations can also be used for irrigation.
The public generally takes irrigation and agricultural drainage system for granted. Accordingly, public
interest in and willingness to pay for planning, designing, constructing and operating irrigation and
agricultural drainage systems tend to literally rise and fall in relation to the frequency of droughts
and flooding or other related problems. This is particularly true for the planning function, which
generally seems to enjoy the least support from the general public and elected officials. Irrigation
and agricultural drainage planning is normally only undertaken in reaction to serious crop failure,
flooding or other related problems. During and immediately after a flood or drought, the community
is often willing to fund remedial efforts and planning projects. However, months later, when the
planning has been completed and costly recommendations made, public interest wanes, little or
nothing is done and the cycle is repeated.
Prevention of flooding using land zoning regulations, flow control storages or flood protection works
is usually difficult to justify politically before any floods have actually occurred. This means that
planning of flood-free agricultural developments can be very difficult and that flood problems are
inevitable.
4.2
NEED FOR PLANNING
Irrigation and agricultural drainage systems and their management impact directly the communitys
quality of life by either enhancing or adversely affecting the natural environments. Irrigation and
agricultural drainage problems are complex involving economic, environmental, legal, financial,
administrative and political facets. Irrigation and agricultural drainage planning is a method of
addressing these complex quantity and quality problems in a coordinated and holistic manner on
total catchment basis.
There is an obvious need for irrigation and agricultural drainage systems to be planned and
integrated into the public services at the earliest possible stage in the planning process for rural
development. Irrigation and agricultural drainage management planning should not be done after all
the other decisions have already been made as to the form and layout of a new agricultural area. It
is this latter approach that creates irrigation and agricultural drainage problems, which are costly to
correct. The extent to which existing irrigation and agricultural drainage problems are ultimately
addressed and future problems prevented depend on the degree to which this integration is
achieved. For established areas, particularly those undergoing land use change or urban
consolidation, there is a need to reconsider how irrigation and agricultural drainage is managed and
assess how these changes impact the natural environment.
Waterways provide a direct link between all land uses. How irrigation and agricultural drainage is
managed can impact on each land use in terms of water quality, flood risk, traffic disruption,
amenity, recreational opportunities, etc. An understanding of these inter-relationships will influence
the form of new development and determine what improvements need to be made within
established areas. All changes to land uses and the management of land, whether it increases the
March 2009
4-1
impervious area or the excessive use of fertilizers, affect the quantity and quality of irrigation and
agricultural drainage runoff.
Irrigation and agricultural drainage runoff occurs no matter how well or how poorly, irrigation and
agricultural drainage management planning is done. The quality of the planning effort determines
the ultimate costs to the project developer and the ultimate effect on the community.
Irrigation and agricultural drainage management planning may not lead to the best or optimum
solution for irrigation and agricultural drainage problems, as a best or optimum solution may not be
possible or economically feasible. However, the planning process will hopefully lead to good courses
of action and avoid a multitude of erroneous and probably unnecessarily expensive courses of action.
4.3
PLANNING PRINCIPLES
Irrigation and drainage management planning should apply Integrated Catchments Planning
principles to ensure that all components are planned and coordinated so as to achieve the desired
results. Integrated Catchments Planning is a philosophy that balances social, economic and
environmental concerns to achieve sustainable development. It emphasizes sound land and water
management in the upper catchments to reduce the need for expensive end-of pipe solution in the
lower catchments and in receiving waters. Without coordinated planning, potential benefits may not
be fully realized or drainage improvements in one location may worsen problems in another.
Planning of irrigation and agricultural drainage systems is a multi-faceted exercise involving direct
interaction between professionals having expertise in the following fields:
Agriculture
Agricultural Engineering
Hydrology and hydraulics
Civil/Structural Engineering
Ecology
Socio-Economics.
In some instances it will be necessary to include additional specialists (e.g. botanists, chemists, farm
extension service) depending on the characteristics of the area and the nature of the proposed
development. Experience has shown that the following principles apply when planning and
designing irrigation and agricultural drainage systems:
(a)
Irrigation and agricultural drainage is a watershed or river basin phenomenon that does not
respect boundaries between government jurisdictions or between public and private
properties.
Irrigation and agricultural drainage management should be a central part of an overall catchment
management program involving both the community and government. Overall, those government
authorities most directly involved must provide co-ordination and strategic planning, but the planning
must be integrated on a regional level if optimum results are to be achieved. The ways in which
proposed local irrigation and agricultural drainage systems fit existing regional systems must be
quantified and discussed in an irrigation and agricultural drainage strategic plan.
(b)
Irrigation and agricultural drainage is a sub-system of the total water resource system.
Irrigation and agricultural drainage system planning and design must be compatible with catchment
management plans and in particular, should be coordinated with planning for landuse, open space
and transportation. Erosion and sediment control, flood control, site grading criteria and regional
water supply are all closely inter-related with irrigation and agricultural drainage management.
Irrigation and agricultural drainage strategic planning should normally address all of these
considerations.
4-2
March 2009
(c)
Every watershed has two drainage systems.
One is the minor drainage system, which is designed to provide on-farm quick removal of excess
water in the crop root zone that accommodates relatively moderate frequent runoff. The other is the
major drainage system, which carries more runoff and operates when the rate or volume of runoff
exceeds the capacity of the minor drainage system. Both systems should be carefully considered.
(d)
Irrigation and agricultural drainage project is a space allocation problem and therefore
an intrinsic part of the country and town planning process.
The volume of runoff present at a given point of time in a rural area cannot be compressed or
diminished. All the components of an irrigation and agricultural drainage system have the potential
to both convey and store runoff. If adequate provision is not made for the space demands of
irrigation and agricultural drainage systems, runoff will overflow or encroach onto other landuses,
will result in damage or will impair or even disrupt the functioning of other systems and services.
(e)
Planning and design of irrigation and agricultural drainage management systems should
consider the features and functions of natural drainage systems.
Every catchment contains natural features that may contribute to the management of irrigation and
agricultural drainage runoff under existing conditions. Existing features such as natural watercourses,
depressions, wetlands, floodplains, permeable soils and vegetation provide natural infiltration, help
control the velocity of runoff, extend the time of concentration, filter sediments and other pollutants,
and recycle nutrients. Plans for urban development should carefully identify and map the existing
natural system. Natural engineering techniques can preserve and enhance the natural features and
processes within a development area and maximize post-development economic and environmental
benefits, particularly in combination with open space and recreational uses. Good planning and
design can improve the effectiveness of natural systems, rather than negate, replace or ignore them.
(f)
Agricultural drainage management systems should be planned and designed, beginning with
the outlet or point of outflow from the catchments.
The downstream conveyance system or receiving water should be evaluated to ensure that it has the
capacity to accept design discharges without adverse backwater or downstream impacts such as
flooding, stream bank erosion and sediment deposition.
(g)
Irrigation and agricultural drainage management systems should not be put in place if they
cannot be maintained or will not receive regular maintenance allocation.
Failure to provide proper maintenance reduces both the hydraulic capacity and pollutant removal
efficiency of the system. The keys to effective maintenance are the clear assignment of
responsibilities to an established agency and a regular schedule of inspections to determine
maintenance needs and to ensure that required maintenance is done. Established past local
maintenance performance should be the basis for the selection of specific planning and design
criteria.
4.4
PLANNING PROCESS FOR IRRIGATION PROJECTS
The institutional and legal frameworks as well as authority requirements guide the planning of
irrigation and drainage projects in Malaysia; and necessary documentation are detailed out in
Chapter 2 of this Manual. Project proponent should be familiar with the local legislations, guidelines
and orders as land and water are under the State Jurisdiction.
The Field Office Technology Guide (FOTG), Soil Conservation Service USDA (1997) has outlined the
purpose of the planning and implementation process is to:
Provide methodology that helps planners work effectively with project proponents to identify
opportunities and needs and to solve identified resource problems or concerns.
March 2009
4-3
4.4.1
Help project proponents recognize and understand natural resource conservation principles,
concerns and problems. Resource treatment and effects are considered for each alternative.
Develop and evaluate alternatives that lead to the decision to implement and maintain
conservation treatments and management for the project.
Enable project proponents to achieve their objectives as well as to meet social, legal and
program requirements.
Help project proponents develop a plan that meets established project specific quality criteria
including environmental concerns.
Assess the effectiveness of installed practices in meeting the goals and objectives of the
project proponents while solving problems and impacts on environmental values.
Watershed-based Planning
The watershed-based planning approach provides a comprehensive process that considers all natural
resources in the watershed (project) as well as social, cultural and economic factors. The process
tailors workable solutions to ecosystem needs through the participation and leadership of sponsors.
The watershed approach follows the established planning process and empowers local people to
recognize problems and opportunities and find workable solutions for resolving issues and attaining
goals related to ecosystems. This approach provides a forum for successful planning and conflict
resolution. The result is a watershed plan with clear description of resource concerns, goals to be
attained and identified sources for technical assistance, education assistance and funding assistance
from Federal, State and local entities for implementing solutions.
4.4.2
Project Planning Relationships
Project planning relationships adopted by the USDA are displayed in Figures 4.1 (steps 14) and 4.2
(steps 59).
Technical
Publics and stakeholders
Steering
goals, objective, resource
committee
concern, problem, etc
teams
assistance
Benchmark systems
and effects
Inventory
Resource
Legislated programs
and criteria
Analyze
resource
data
Identify
problems
FOTG
State quality
criteria
Local quality
criteria
Determine
objective
Resource
concerns
Next larger
project plan
(report)
Problems defined and quantified:

objectives established
Steps 5 and 6
FOTG : Field Office Technical Guide
Figure 4.1: Resource Planning Process for Project Plan (Steps 1-4)
4-4
March 2009
Steering
committee
Established objective and defined

and quantified problems and
resource concerns
Public and
stakeholders
CPPE and
CMS process
Technical
teams
assistance
Legislated programs
and criteria
Formulate
Alternative
Discipline
manuals and
handbooks
Evaluate
alternative
CMS: Conservation Management

Services
CED: Conservation Effects for
Decision-makers
State quality
criteria
CED
Local quality
criteria
Planning unit
ecosystem component
Next larger project area

Ecosystem component
Resource concerns
Cause and source of
impairment
FOTG
Client select alternative
Step 8: Implement plan
Natural and introduced

Human activities
Interactions and effect
CPPE: Conservation Practice

Physical Effects
FOTG : Field Office Technical
Guide
Step 9: Follow-up
Figure 4.2 Resource Planning Process for Project Plan (Steps 5-9)
4.4.3
Outline for Irrigation Project Planning
The following outline is a guide for inventorying, investigating and analyzing physical resources for a
project. It can assist planning personnel with irrigation aspects of planning a project. Adherence to
the principles of the outline will help ensure a uniform approach in estimating physical feasibility,
benefits, effects and impacts at the various stages of progressive planning.
The outline is not intended to indicate a fixed chronological order or procedure. Many of the
investigations may be carried out concurrently. Perform only those items described in the outline that
are directly applicable to appraise the capability of satisfying a component need. The procedural
outline is subject to additions or deletions should a particular project warrant.
Intensity of investigations required for various outline components varies with the level of planning
and the scope and significance of the project being planned. Generally, the lowest intensity is
associated with pre-application planning level. It increases to full intensity for investigation of the
selected plan.
The procedural outline does not describe program requirements for plan preparation. It provides an
orderly format for planning, implementation and evaluation. As a part of the planning process, it
provides an orderly format for organizing information to facilitate comparison of alternatives. It also
provides guidance for writing of plans, organizing supporting documentation and facilitating reviews.
Step 1.
Identify Problems and Concerns (Scoping Process)
An interdisciplinary team should review the project proponents application and gather and review
existing information about the project area and ecosystem(s). They should:
March 2009
4-5
Step 2.
Determine environmental, social, economic and cultural resources in the area. Other
agencies and specific interest groups are good sources for information.
Make a field review of the project area with specific interest in project proponents concerns,
but look at all natural resources.
Obtain input from the public, other agencies and special interest groups. This is generally
best done at one or more public meetings. All personnel or groups affected by the project
should be interviewed for their real (or perceived) concerns and problems. Small groups can
be effective in identifying resources of concern.
Determine Objectives
Help project proponent develop project planning goals and objectives based on needs and values
regarding the use, treatment and management of available resources, both onsite and offsite.
Establish project specific quality criteria for resources of concerned.
Step 3.
Inventory Resources
Review goals and objectives determined in step 2 as related to land uses, production goals, and
problem solving. Tailor inventory detail to expected complexity of resource setting. This can be
accomplished using the scoping process. Review with project proponent the purpose and importance
of the inventory process, what should be done, how much time will be required and what
documentation will be provided.
Develop Plan of Work outlining; list of tasks, discipline, time frame to do tasks and expected product
for each task. Have project proponents assist throughout the inventory process as much as possible.
Suggested inventory procedure outline:
(a) Develop project base map
Identify cultural features, communities, roads, railroads, public and private utilities, climatic
stations, ponds, streams, lakes, key points where resource data have been collected, wildlife
reserves, parks.
Topography or elevations typically one to five contour intervals.
(b) Overlay maps
Soils
Farm boundaries, irrigation authority boundaries, eg. MADA, KADA
Water rights (if appropriate)
Skeletal outline
- Project conveyance facilities including canal and pipeline locations and delivery
points
- Drainage facilitiessurface and subsurface
- Reservoirs
- Diversion points
- Wells
- Water control structures, measuring devices
Irrigation service areas
- Present
- Potential
On-farm irrigation methods, systems or both
(c) Conservation farm maps

Skeletal outline of farm distribution system and field layout is needed. Inventory may be by farm,
group of farms, project or sample area as determined by intensity of study and variation of
conditions. Delivery location(s) and amount of water delivered are shown for each farm.
4-6
March 2009
(d) Soils
Description of soil series, surface textures, management groups
Acreage and location
Soil moisture storage management groups
Intake characteristics
- Furrow, rill, corrugation
- Border, basins
- Sprinkler
Soil chemistry; i.e., salinity, sodicity, pH
Erodibility designation or group from both water and wind
Water table depth by month, season.
(e) Crops
Crops grown including time of year

Acreage of each crop
Acreage by irrigation method and/or system(s)
Growing season with planting and harvest dates for multiple cropping.
(f) Water supply
Quantity records-historical or probability

- Reservoir storage availability
- Direct stream diversion
- Ground water including depth
Quality records
- Chemical and mineral content
- Sediment content and type
- Temperature, if a factor
Water rights
- Listing of water rights as to source
- Priorities by date
- Seasonal volume, flow rate or both
- How administered (state, irrigation organization, group, water user)
Competing water uses from the same source.
(g) Climatic records (mean monthly and seasonal or monthly for historical period)
Temperature maximum, minimum, average daily and growing degree days, if available
Precipitation-effective precipitation during growing season
Humidity
Wind-speed and prevailing direction, by month or season
Pan evaporation
Solar radiation
Percent probable sunshine.
(h) Energy sources
Type-electric, natural gas, diesel, gravity, solar

Availability-blowouts, lightening
Cost, rates and power interruption potential.
(i) Project conveyance facilities
Canals, laterals, pipelines, etc., including shape, location and size

Capacity - based on size, shape, and conveyance gradient or elevations
March 2009
4-7
Length(s)
Conveyance losses (preferably measured)
- Seepage
- Evaporation
- Evapo-transpiration stream side vegetation, submersed and floating aquatic weeds
- Operational and management spills and other losses
Method of delivery
- Continuous flow
- Rotation
- Demand, including elapsed time between request and delivery. Is quantity variable?
Is delivery period (time) variable? Can user request variable time and amount?
- Combination
Water measuring facilities
- Canal and lateral division boxes
- Pipeline division points
- Pumping plant discharge
- Farm deliveries
Geology.
(j) Project runoff and wastewater disposal including reuse facilities
Type
Capacity
Location of disposal facilities and areas, outlets, pump back or reuse facilities and areas
Real or anticipated effects of runoff and wastewater disposal.
(k) Irrigation methods and systems
Irrigation method (surface, sprinkler, micro, sub-irrigation) and systems (furrow, border,
hand-move sprinkler, line source micro, etc.)
Acreage by method and system-Inventory by field, farm, group of farms, project area or
representative sample areas, as determined by study, diversity of soils, management
areas
Quantity of water used or applied
- Per irrigation or application event
- Per irrigation season
- For auxiliary use; i.e., chemigation, temperature control, leaching
On-farm irrigation scheduling methods
Project irrigation scheduling methods.
(l) Return flow-tailwater, runoff usable in the project
Step 4.
Quantity records, field measurements, sample evaluations, etc.

Quality records
- Chemical concentration
- Mineral content
- Organic content
- Sediment content
Location in the project.
Analyze Resource Data
Use scoping process to determine the types of analyses needed. Identified problems and concerns,
project proponents objectives, program criteria and environmental values to be considered. Input
from project proponent, irrigation water user's interdisciplinary team, special interest group(s), public
and other agencies affected by the project is necessary. Types of planning, size, cost, potential for
adverse environmental or social impact and controversy need to be considered. Agreement by the
project proponent(s) and Federal, State or local agencies is essential.
4-8
March 2009
Define the existing and future resource conditions in the project area. This can help define the
conditions that limit the project proponent from fully realizing their objectives. Separately analyze
with- and Without Project Conditions. Without Project Conditions can be for existing conditions or
future without project conditions. One of these is selected and used as the benchmark to compare
alternatives. Typically several alternatives are analyzed, and some are eliminated before the near
final selection of best alternative(s).
Analysis of resource data outline:
(a) Project area to be irrigated
Acreage of composite groups of soils that can be managed similarly

Acreage by crop
Acreage by irrigation method and/or system
(b) Crop water requirements
Project wide composite for different crops; i.e., weekly, monthly
(c) Water supply, by days, weeks, or months as needed
Frequency (continuous, intermittent)

Historical period (including time of year)
Risk assessment (probability)
(d) Conveyance efficiencies, by month
By type and condition of conveyance facility

By construction material; i.e., earth, concrete, PVC pipeline, steel pipeline
(e) Overall application efficiencies including management
By irrigation method and/or system

By type and condition of on-farm distribution facilities
(f) Crop water budget/balance, by probability, historical period
Acres provided full water supply

Acres provided partial water supply
Water deficiencies and excesses
- Volume
- Time periods
(g) Project delivery system capacity requirements
Unit peak period water requirements

Composite peak period water requirements
Farm turnout capacity and pressure requirements
Project conveyance facility capacity and pressure requirements
Water measurement for division of supply for farm delivery
(h) Irrigation benefits
March 2009
Net returns
- Crop yield and quality improvements, optimizing net benefits
- Reduced farm, irrigation, or both organization operation costs
Environmental improvements
4-9
Water quality improvementsreducing agricultural related chemicals, salts,

sediments, and organic material in ground and surface water; reducing stream
temperatures
Water quantity improvementsreducing seepage and deep percolation losses
thereby reducing pumping, diversion and storage requirements resulting in
increased in-stream flows, decreased ground water mining
Community benefits
Other resource improvementsair quality, wildlife habitat
(i) Review and finalize quality criteria for project with water users and non-water users
affected by the project
Step 5.
Formulate Project (Components) Alternatives
Identify practices (components) and other treatments that address the project proponents goals and
objectives. Land treatment (structural and non-structural) as well as preventive measures should be
considered. Management improvements using the existing system are always the first increment to
be considered. Develop alternatives (composite of components) as necessary. Make a preliminary
evaluation of the effects of each practice on resource concerns, problems, objectives, and
environmental values.
Develop preliminary designs and cost estimates. Compare alternatives to project quality criteria.
Estimate environmental, social, economic, and human effects. Acceptability of the alternative by the
project proponent, the public, and State and Federal agencies should be established. Needed
measures to mitigate any potential environmental damages should be included.
Analyze the risk and uncertainty associated with each alternative. Use the project proponent and
public affected by the project to help identify and formulate alternatives. Develop benefit-to-cost
analysis for selected alternative(s).
Step 6.
Evaluate Project (Components) Alternatives
Quantify effects on soil, water, air, plant, and animal resources plus social and economic
considerations, both for the benchmark and each alternative. Quantification of effects should be
done as agreed to by the interdisciplinary team. Evaluation detail for each alternative will vary and
become more refined as needed in the selection process. The project proponent, public, and other
agencies and interest groups affected by the project should be included in the quantification process.
Compare the effects of each alternative to the benchmark. Both beneficial and adverse impacts are
considered. Compare alternative to project quality criteria. Display evaluations in a manner easily
understood by the project proponent, public, special interest groups, individual landowners, and
other agencies.
Step 7.
Step 8.
Make Decisions
Assist the project proponent in reviewing alternatives and evaluations.
Provide opportunity for public response.
Project proponent reviews the plan, public input obligations, and responsibilities.
Compare selected alternative to project specific quality criteria.
Project proponent provides a decision, with public information (and review) as necessary.
Implement Project Plan
Develop Plan of Work for implementation of practices and measures. Include list of tasks, disciplines
involved and time required for preparing land acquisition plans, acquiring necessary right of way,
prepare land surveys, final design of construction drawings and specifications, cost estimates, bid
documents, and installation sequence and schedule.
4-10
March 2009
Particular attention should be paid to all special environmental concerns, such as threatened and
endangered species, cultural resources and wetlands. Project proponent obtains necessary
agreements, permits and approvals.
Develop plans for any mitigating loss of environmental values that resulting from project plan
implementation. If established project quality criteria were appropriate, mitigation should be minimal.
Develop Operation, Maintenance, and Replacement (O, M, and R) plan and agreement(s). Identify
who will do the work and the process followed for periodic inspections and development of plans for
remedial action.
Step 9.
Evaluate Project Plan (Follow-up)
Establish evaluation criteria including what use will be made of the results. Develop planning of work
to guide evaluation efforts. Develop by component, project and individual discipline the products to
complete the evaluation. This will vary based on the project and the purpose of the evaluation.
Identify personnel who will be involved in remedial work and together develop procedures to be
used, time required, and detailed cost involved. Develop a schedule showing who has responsibility
for a specific action, when it is to begin, when it is completed, and what is to be the product.
As identified in the Plan of Work, periodically:
4.5
Gather information, make analyses, develop recommendations and prepare necessary

reports.
Take necessary actions as a result of the evaluation. Examples of evaluations may include:
- Dam performance and safety inspections
- Monitoring water quality
- Performance evaluations of measuring devices, conveyance facilities, and pumps
- Delivery (conveyance) system operation and management.
DETERMINING PROJECT NEEDS
A farmer, grower or an agricultural entrepreneur in Malaysia, being a humid country with a lot of
rain, needs convincing that irrigation pays. One of most significant risk factors in agriculture is the
weather. Seldom is rainfall adequate to obtain optimum crop production even in humid areas. During
the growing season there will be one or more periods when rainfall does not meet crop water needs.
Consequently more land is being irrigated than ever before. There are several factors that will
influence the decision to install an irrigation system.
Usually the first question that comes to mind is How much will an irrigation system cost? The cost
varies depending on field conditions, type of the system, how much water must be moved and
several other factors, some of which can be costly. That is why it is important to plan carefully
before investing in an irrigation system.
Turner and Anderson (1980) listed some of the commonly asked questions:
Will irrigation be beneficial and profitable for farmers?

Which type of irrigation should be used?
Approximately how much will a system cost?
To answer these question and other questions, these information are needed:
How much increase in yield can be expected from different crops with irrigation?
How does yield quantity and quality improved?
What management practices will help make irrigation profitable? Such practices as growing more
plant per hectare, and double cropping
How much water is needed and where to look for a good water source
How the different irrigation system works, and what are their energy and labour requirements
How to compare the total cost of a system with the value of the expected increase in yield from
irrigation
March 2009
4-11
This section will discuss the planning of an irrigation system on three main headings:
Determining whether or not to irrigate;

Determining what type of irrigation system to use; and
Determining irrigation cost and return on investment.
The real value of irrigation is in getting the maximum return on investment by optimizing yield. If the
irrigation is to be profitable, the average increase in crop value due to irrigation must be equal to or
more than the total cost of irrigating. So irrigating high value crops is generally more profitable than
irrigating low value crops.
The best irrigation system possible will not guarantee a profit. Good management practices are also
necessary. There is a need to plant the recommended varieties, use proper seeding rates, provide
proper cultural practices, and control of insects, disease and plant competitors. In addition, we must
be assured of enough water from the sources. We cannot afford to invest a large sum of money in
an irrigation system later find that we do not have enough water.
To help us to decide whether or not to irrigate, we need to reach decisions on the following:
4.5.1
What is the effect of irrigation on crop production?

How much water will be needed?
What are satisfactory sources of water?
How much water is available?
Is the quality of water is satisfactory?
What is the Effect of Irrigation on Crop Production?
There are four factors that affect the crop production. They are rainfall, additional water, drainage
and fringe benefit from irrigation
4.5.1.1
Effect of Amount and Timeliness of Rainfall on Crop Production
In arid areas, the amount of rainfall is very low. In semi arid, sub humid and humid areas, there is
enough rainfall for most crops but it is not distributed evenly. There are often period of time even in
the most humid areas, when crop suffer from lack of water, the time between rains is very long.
Drought conditions occur, plants suffer and yield decrease. Crops in some soil conditions will suffer if
they do not receive water within five days or less. We can expect many of these dry periods to be
longer than five days minimum.
4.5.1.2
Effect of Additional Water on Crop Production
The main purpose of irrigation is to increase crop yields and to improve crop quality. Yield increase
when ample water is available from irrigation due to better assurance of a good stand during early
growth and transplanting, more plants per unit area can be grown, more efficient use of fertilizers is
possible and improved varieties (ones developed for use with irrigation) can be planted. Research
and experiment have shown that irrigation improves yield quality. Better qualities increase the
market value of the agricultural produce.
4.5.1.3
Effect of Land Drainage on Crop Production
We can irrigate any slope that can be cultivated successfully if the system is designed properly and
proper soil conservation practices used. Land grading can reshape rough grounds with irregular
slopes.
Obstructions such as roads, buildings, graveyards, power lines and streams must be considered in
irrigation planning as they may interfere with ditches, pipelines and the moving of the equipment.
4-12
March 2009
Providing for drainage with irrigation is often needed to control the water in the root zone of the
plants. This is called complete water management program. Too much water is harmful to most
crops. Drainage can be accomplished by surface drainage or sub surface drainage.
4.5.1.4
Effect of Fringe Benefits from Irrigation
The use of irrigation for its fringe benefits can be just as valuable as irrigating to supply plants with
water. If we were to take advantage of some or all the fringe benefits, be sure to include this factor
in the planning of the system. Fringe benefits are crop cooling, application of chemicals and
application of liquefied animal waste, and control of harvesting dates. In large irrigation schemes,
the water from irrigation can also be used for domestic, recreational, fisheries and environmental
protection.
4.5.2
How Much Water is Needed
We must be certain that we allow enough water supplies in our irrigation planning. If we run out of
water during growing season, we can still have a crop loss even with an irrigation system. We need
to compare what our crop will need with the amount of water available. For this purpose, we need to
know how much total water will the crop use during the season and how much water will be used
daily when the crops need water the most. Detailed discussion on crop water requirements is
presented in Chapter 5.
4.5.2.1
Seasonal Water Demand
Different crops require different amount of water. The amount of water a crop uses during a season
is called seasonal consumptive use or seasonal water demand of that crop. This varies with
climatic areas. In drier areas, plants require more water than in wetter areas because of greater
evaporation and transpiration (ET) losses, e.g. Maize growing in humid region will use 580 mm of
water during a 100 days growing season. Rice grown in the wet main season requires about 100 mm
less ET compared to the drier off-season.
For other purposes, such as applying water for cooling, add these amounts to the total expected
need. This water demand is an estimated of the maximum amount of water needed. Irrigation
should be capable of meeting all or part of this amount, depending on the rainfall in the cropgrowing region.
4.5.2.2
Peak-Use Rate of Water Demand
There is a period, usually during crop fastest growing period, when it will use more water than any
other time. The amount of water used per day by crop during this period is called peak-use rate of
water demand of that crop. To meet peak-use rate water demand, we are more concerned with
how much water is available continuously than the total quantity needed for the season. This is
because the irrigation system must be capable of supplying enough water to meet the need even if
there is no rain during that period.
If the source of water is a stream or well, the rate of flow must be equal or greater than the peak
use demand rate of the crop. The peak-use demand rate varies with climatic conditions, soils and
crops. For some other crops like rice, the peak water demands is for presaturation and land
preparation, not the crop water requirement.
4.5.2.3
How to Find Peak-use Rate of Water Demand

Find peak-use demand rate for the crop in millimeters or inches per day
Determine the peak-use demand rate per day for the total area to be planted
March 2009
4-13
Estimate how long is the expected duration of the irrigation system operating per day.
Assume this is during a time of drought when crop is completely depending on irrigation
system.
Find the peak-use demand rate per day for the whole area in litre per second or cubic meter
per sec. or cusec. Compare peak water demand with available water supply.
Determine the minimum rate of flow needed for irrigation. As irrigation efficiency is not 100
percent, we must apply more water than the minimum requirement for the crop. Irrigation
efficiency generally ranges from 50 to 80 percent due to evaporation, non-uniform
application, surface flow and other losses or wastages.
4.5.3
What are Satisfactory Sources of Water?
4.5.3.1
Sources of Water
Most water for irrigation comes from one of four different sources; streams/rivers, lakes, pond or
reservoirs, community pipelines and canal, and ground water wells.
4.5.3.2
Effect of Water Laws and Water Sharing
Water by definition includes rivers, lakes, streams, and groundwater. In Malaysia, even though
water is under the jurisdiction of the State Government, the present development approach is to
look at irrigation and drainage within the context of Integrated Water Resources Management
(IRWM). However, the State governments have extensive power over irrigation and drainage and
related matters.
The use of water is increasing with the population increase and the demand by industries, cities and
farms. To control this use, new laws are being written and old laws are being revised. It is important
to check with the state authorities before we decide to irrigate.
4.5.3.3
Effect of the Distance to the Water
The distance of the source from the farm is a factor in deciding if the source is satisfactory. Close
source is normally cheaper to develop. If we have a choice, get the estimate of the total cost of
conveying the water from each source before making decision.
4.5.3.4
Effect of the Height of the Water to be Lifted
The height from the water level to the field is also a factor in irrigation planning. For pumping, the
concern is with the height from the water (especially groundwater wells) to the pump and the height
from the pump to the field. For centrifugal pumps, the height from water to the pump or suction
lift should not exceed 5 meter for maximum efficiency. Add lift and height from the pump to the
field to get total elevation difference. Distance and height determines cost. Estimate the total cost of
pumping from different sources to decide which source to use. For gravity scheme, the height will
determine the height of diversion structures to be constructed.
4.5.4
How Much Water Is Available?
4.5.4.1
Flow of Water in a Stream
Streams and rivers are the most common sources of water for irrigation. Many are dependable but
some streams dry-up when we need the water most during the dry season. The flow rate during dry
weather should be checked against peak use rate by the crops. If the stream flow is unreliable,
water storage in the form of a lake, pond or reservoir should be provided.
4-14
March 2009
4.5.4.2
Amount of Water in a Lake, Pond or Reservoir
Lakes, ponds or reservoirs must be able to hold water even for the driest seasons. If they are
stream fed, the storage capacity must be sufficient for the peak use rate during the dry season. A
study of the rainfall-runoff records may be necessary to determine the total amount of water
available. Most storage reservoirs collect soil from the watershed over a period of years. The
sediments settle at the bottom of the lake and reduce its capacity. Soil erosion control must be
practiced.
4.5.4.3
Flow of Water from Groundwater Well
The flow rate and drawdown from ground water wells are normally obtained through pumping tests.
Drawdown is an indication of the rate at which the underground water is being replaced in the well
while pumping. If the water is not replaced as fast as the pump removes it, the water level will drop
below the pump intake. Pumping action stops.
4.5.4.4
Capacity of Combination of Sources
If none of the sources supplies enough water, a combination of pond-and-well or pond-and-stream

may be used. Such a combination allows the grower to irrigate part of the time from the pond where
the water is being supplied continuously to the pond from the stream or ground water well.
4.5.5
Is the Quality of Water Satisfactory?
4.5.5.1
Effect of Chemical Content of the Water
There is always a chance of getting water from streams, lakes, ponds, reservoirs and sometimes
from wells that contain chemicals which are harmful to plants. These chemicals are salts, chlorine,
boron, industrial wastes and organic acids and stains.
4.5.5.2
Effect of Trash and Dirt in the Water
Trash in water is a problem with most of the systems using ponds, lakes or stream as a source, but
most trash can be filtered or screened before entering pump or irrigation canals. Sand in water
reduces the life of pumps and sprinklers. If sand and silt are present in irrigation water, they tend to
fill lakes and ditches and build up deposits in the field.
4.6
SELECTION OF WATER APPLICATION METHOD
4.6.1
Method of Applying Water
As discussed in great details in Chapter 3, there are four basic methods by which water can be
applied; from above the ground surface such as sprinklers, on the ground surface such as basin and
furrows and under the ground surface such as subsurface drip and sub-irrigation by water table
control. After deciding on the method that fits our needs, we have to decide which type of irrigation
to be used. There are so many different types of systems available, depending to wide range of field
conditions, soil types and crop varieties to which the irrigation system must be adapted (Table 4.1).
Since the financial return on some crops is low compared with others, the cost of irrigation systems
has to be balanced with the return expected. Also since the labour is one of the major costs, much
effort has been made to design systems that require very little labour. The final selection of one
system over another is likely to be based on the difference in their total annual cost and initial cost.
4.6.1.1
Effect of Land Slope
Slope of the land may determine which method of irrigation to be used. If the land is level or it can
be made level without too much expense, all four methods can be used. If the land is sloping, the
March 2009
4-15
Table 4.1 Factors Affecting the Selection of a Water Application Method

(Source: Turner and Anderson, 1980)
Water
Application
Method
Factors Affecting Selection

Land Slope
Water Intake Rate

of the Soil
Water Tolerance of
Crops
Wind Action
Sprinkler
Adaptable to both level and

sloping ground surfaces.
Adaptable to any
soil intake rates.
Adaptable to most
crops. May help
promote fungi and
disease on foliage
and fruit.
Wind may
affect
application
efficiency.
Surface
Land area must either be

levelled or graded to limited
slopes or contours (0 to 1.0
per cent slopes for most
systems). It sometimes is
possible to flood slightly
steeper slopes that are
sodded.
Not generally
recommended for
soils with high
intake rates of more
than 60 mm per
hour or with
extremely low
intake rates such as
peats and mucks.
Adaptable to most
crops. May be
harmful to root
crops and to plants
that cannot
tolerate water
standing on roots.
Usually not
considered
a factor.
But high
winds may
affect the
application
efficiency
on bare
soil.
Micro/Trickle
/Drip
Adaptable to all land slopes.
Adaptable to all
intake rates.
No problems.
No effect.
BelowSurface Subirrigation
Land area should be level or

contoured.
Adaptable only to
those soils which
have an impervious
layer below the root
zone, or a high
controllable water
table.
Adaptable to most
crops.
No effect.
Sub-surface
Irrigation
Land area must be level or

graded to limit slopes or
contours.
Adaptable only to
medium to fine
textured soils with
moderate to good
capillary movement.
No problem.
No effect.
choice is limited to sprinkle or trickle method. With sprinkle method, an even distribution of water
can be applied slowly enough to prevent runoff and possible erosion. With the trickle method,
emitter discharge rates can be matched to soil intake rates. Uniform pressure distribution can be
obtained through pressure regulation and lateral arrangement.
4.6.1.2
Effect of Water Intake Rate
Water intake rate (measuring how fast the soil can absorb water) determine the maximum rate
irrigation water can be applied so that the surface puddling and runoff will not occur. Soil texture
(size of soil particles), surface sealing, slope cover and tillage conditions affect intake rates of the
soil. The water intake rates of the soil affect the method of irrigation to be used.
4.6.1.3
Effect of Water Holding Capacity
The water holding capacity (WHC) of soil is the amount of water it will hold after the free water has
been drained away by gravity. The WHC of a soil depends largely on its textures. Coarse textured
soils hold less water than fine textured soils. The WHC does not affect the method of irrigation, but
the frequency of irrigation and the amount of water applied per irrigation. A coarse-textured soil
must be designed to apply more frequently than a fine-textured soil.
4-16
March 2009
4.6.1.4
Effect of Water Tolerance of Crops
For crops that are likely to develop fungi or disease under high moisture conditions, the use of
sprinkler method may not be suitable. The crops that cannot tolerate having roots stand under water
for several hours, surface irrigation method may not be able to be used. If we plan to use floodwater
for weed control on crops such as rice, surface method must be used.
Below surface method of applying water supply may help in reducing weed growth, but it may slow
down germination of shallow planted seeds. Below surface irrigation is classified into sub irrigation
and subsurface irrigation. With sub-irrigation, water is supplied to the root zone by artificially
regulating the ground watertable elevation. In subsurface irrigation, water is supplied below the
surface, by porous or perforated plastic pipes.
4.6.1.5
Effect of Wind Action
Wind action may affect the water application efficiency of the sprinkler and surface methods. Strong
wind will distort the water distribution pattern to the extent we may get too little water on the
windward and too much water the other side. High wind will sometimes affect the application
efficiency of surface irrigation, particularly on large, unplanted level areas.
4.6.2
What System to Select for the Sprinkler Irrigation Method
Water is sprayed through the air and it falls to the ground like rain. This is accomplished by using
either one or more spray nozzles or perforated pipe (Appendix 4.A).
4.6.3
What System to Select for the Trickle/Drip Irrigation
A system of supplying filtered water directly onto or below the soil surface. Water is carried out
through an extensive pipe network to each plant. The outlet device that emits water onto or into the
soil is called emitter. After leaving the emitter, water is distributed to a wetted zone by its normal
movement through the soil (Appendix 4.B).
4.6.4
What System to Select for the Surface Irrigation Method
With the surface method, water is applied on the ground at the ground level. It flows by gravity over
the surface of the field. This is accomplished in two ways. For close growing crops like rice, the
entire field is flooded. For row crops or crops in beds, the water is directed down furrows between
the rows shown in Appendix 4.C and Table 4.2.
Table 4.2 Maximum Length of Run for Surface Irrigation Furrows or Strips in Soils of Different
Textures (0.1 to 0.2 Percent Slope) (Turner and Anderson, 1980)
Soil Textures
Very coarse texture very coarse sands
Length of Run Maximum,

in Meter (feet)
Not suitable
Coarse texture coarse sands, fine sands and loamy sands
183 (600)
Moderately coarse texture sandy loams and fine sandy loams
274 (900)
Medium texture very fine sandy loams, loams and silt loams
366 (1200)
Moderately fine texture clay loams, silty clay loams and sandy clay
loams
549 (1800)
Fine texture sandy clays, silty clays and clays
792 (2600)
Peats and mucks
Not suitable
March 2009
4-17
4.6.5
Energy Requirement of Irrigation Systems
The increasing cost of energy necessitates an understanding of energy requirements of irrigation

system. The total energy requirements for an irrigation system can be divided into four categories;
manufacturing energy, installation energy, operating energy and transportation energy. The
operating energy is required to run the system for a given amount of time and pressure. Electrical
generating efficiencies are considered when comparing electrical motors to internal combustion
engine. Transportation energy is required to move irrigation system over the field during the season.
4.7
DETERMINING IRRIGATION COST AND RETURN ON INVESTMENT
Irrigation systems cost varies with the method of water application and the energy requirements.
Surface method is considered as the least expensive and the most energy conservative system.
Pressurized irrigation systems on the other hand require pumping costs and piping network. Micro
irrigation systems normally require filtration units. Pressurized irrigation systems can be automated.
The more sophisticated the system will definitely increase the costs.
Determining the cost and return on an irrigation system is a long and detailed mathematical process.
The procedure involves compiling information needed, determining the initial cost, determining
annual depreciation cost, determining annual operating cost, determining return on investment and
filling the cost and return form. A typical Format is as shown in Appendix 4.D.
4.8
PLANNING PROCESS FOR AGRICULTURAL DRAINAGE PROJECTS
Agricultural drainage is accomplished by a system of surface ditches, subsurface conduits, or by a

combination of surface and subsurface components that collect and convey water from fields.
Planning of agricultural drainage involves the preparation of a plan for the solution of a drainage
problem. The plan will generally consist of a number of measures to be taken and/or works to be
constructed. In some cases, the best solution to a drainage problem may well be a change in land
use or in farm practices, making the agricultural use of the land less susceptible to excess water. In
most cases, however, the core of a drainage plan consists of the construction of some new drainage
works. The detailed of such works being mostly in the domain of engineering is commonly referred
to as design. It is very important to know the requirements for the drainage network composition
and to design types of drainage systems in cultivated lands of different areas. It is also necessary to
understand the hydrological and hydraulic calculations of drainage and to know the main drainage
arrangement conditions.
Planning an effective drainage system takes time and requires consideration of a number of factors,
including:
4.8.1
Local, state, and federal regulations

Soil information
Wetland impact
Adequacy of system outlet
Field elevation, slope and topography
Economic feasibility
Present and future cropping strategies
Environmental impacts associated with drainage discharge
Easements and right-of-ways
Quality of the installation
Field Investigation
The necessary field survey and related investigations required for the planning and design of a
drainage system. Most of the investigations and the indicated levels of detail are for the detailed
drainage phase, and would generally also be undertaken during the feasibility stage at a somewhat
4-18
March 2009
lower level of detail. The investigations and/or evaluations are comparable to those needed for the
performance and benchmarking activities. Long-term records are needed for performance
assessment and benchmarking with a lower density that for detailed design. Planning and design
requires a great deal of information on the project. This information will in particular be used:
To diagnose the drainage problem in land and conceive possible solutions

To prepare plans and designs
4.8.1.1
Problem Diagnosis
A correct diagnosis of the drainage problem is essential for the preparation of a sound drainage plan.
It involves the nature and cause of the problem and the harmful effect. Various types of maps are
useful during this stage: geographical, hydrological, soils, administrative, etc., showing relief,
characteristics elevations, the present drainage systems, soil patterns, land use, main infrastructure
features and other relevant information. Aerial photos are also particularly useful. The assessment of
the outlet conditions and of foreign water involvement may require the investigation of a wider area
than the project area.
4.8.1.2
Plan Preparation
Plans for drainage problems can be conceived once a satisfactory diagnosis of the problem is made.
Parallel with the planning and design process, further investigations are carried out to establish the
environmental, technical, socio-economic and institutional conditions under which the planned
measures and works are to be implemented and to operate.
4.8.2
Project Preparation Stages
Investigations and planning for a agricultural drainage project normally proceed in stages. In
general, the following four stages of project preparation may be distinguished. Depending on the
project certain stages may be omitted or combined.
4.8.2.1
Identification
First formulation of the project mostly on the basis of available information and analysis and/or
evaluation
4.8.2.2
Reconnaissance
The Intended targets are:
Broad and general field investigations for the collection of relevant information.
Preliminary diagnosis of the drainage problem.
Draft outline for the possible solution and delineation of the project area and its subareas.
Evidence that proposed project is promising and desirable.
4.8.2.3 Feasibility Study

Preliminary investigation will be performed using available recorded data, including reports, studies,
plans, topographic maps, etc., supplemented with field reconnaissance. Information should be
obtained for the project area and for adjacent areas that may affect the proposed drainage project.
Intended targets are:
Information should be collected through semi-detailed type of field investigations (Map

Scale: 1:10000 to1:50000)
March 2009
4-19
Presentation of the proposed plans with sufficient information to demonstrate convincingly

that the options are technically sound and to enable costs to be estimated within some 10%
accuracy.
Provide sufficient evidence and proof that the proposed project is the best available solution
and it is administratively workable and economically feasible.
4.8.2.4
Detailed Design
Information is collected through detailed field investigations. Detailed plans and designs,
construction drawings and specifications are elaborated for all plans for working documents.
4.8.3
Basic Design Criteria
The preparation of a drainage plan involves the determination of the optimal combination of the plan
and design variables. They are as follows:
System variables: types of drains, structures, outfalls, alignments, spacing, depths, capacities,
materials, construction methods, matching with irrigation system variables, etc.
Land use variables: crops, cropping patterns, farming systems, on-farm water management
practices, etc.
Environmental variables: water quality standards, wetland protection and conservation, permissible
impacts on downstream flow regime, etc.
Management variables: institutional organizations and procedures, operation and maintenance,
financial arrangement, etc.
The formulation of the basic design criteria considering with all the relationships in an integrated
manner is illustrated in Figure 4.3.
Design variables (mutually related)
Constraints
Objective
-
Technical
Economical
Financial
Environmental
Other
System
variables
Environmental
variables
Land use
variables
Management
variables
(restricting the values

which the variables
can assume)
Optimal plan
(combination of design variables which, while meeting the constraints, maximise the objectives)
Figure 4.3 Relationships among all Variables in Drainage Design (Smedema et al., 2004)
4-20
March 2009
Figure 4.4 illustrates the main role of the basic drainage criterion in the drainage planning. The
relationships between drainage and farming have been broken down into:
The relationship between the provided drainage and the occurrence of excess water on or in
the field
The impacts of these excess water occurrences on the farming.
Drainage
Costs
(a)
Occurrence of
excess water
on/in the land
Basic design criterion

(desired degree of
excess water
control)
(b)
Farming
Benefits
Figure 4.4 The Role of the Basic Drainage Criteria in Drainage Design (Smedema et al., 2004)
4.8.3.1
Surface Drainage
The basic design criterion for the surface drainage involves the span of time the excess water on the
agricultural land resulting from the design rainfall must be removed. Irrigation losses may also be
important with rainfall, and should where relevant be incorporated in the design criterion.
4.8.3.2
Subsurface Drainage
The basic design criterion for subsurface drainage involves the required watertable control during
and after the occurrence of a design rainfall. Recharge due to irrigation, seepage etc may need
consideration. The require watertable control may be formulated in a steady state or a non-steady
state form.
4.8.3.3
Main Drainage
The technical criteria applicable to main drainage systems depend on the hydrological situation and
on the type of system. Criteria for the design of main drainage systems may be derived from the
field discharges they collect. The conveyance system must be sized appropriately for both base flow
and design storm flow.
4.8.3.4
Field Drainage Systems
To obtain a quantitative insight into the effects of drainage on agriculture, one can do experiments
with varying drainage designs and measure the corresponding crop production. This straightforward
procedure is illustrated in Figure 4.5. The engineering factors mentioned in the figure depend on the
type of drainage system involved. Some of the engineering factors are specified in Table 4.3.
Vary the drainage
systems engineering
factors (Table 4.3)
Measure the
corresponding crop
production (object factor)
Figure 4.5 Illustration of a Straightforward Method of Analysis of Drainage Effects on Agriculture
March 2009
4-21
Table 4.3 Examples of Engineering Factors by Type of Drainage System

Type of drainage system
Engineering factor
Subsurface drainage system
Depth, spacing and dimensions of ditches or pipe drains
Tubewell drainage system
Depth, spacing and dimensions of wells, pump capacity
Surface drainage system
Length and slope of the fields, dimensions of furrow and bedding
Main drainage system
Depth, width, cross-section and slope of drains, spacing of the network
4.8.4
Design Rainfall
The design rainfall is the most critical rainfall event that the drainage system should be able to cope
with i.e., it generates the most serious of all excess rainwater incidences, which the system is
designed to control. Designed drainage system may no be fully controlled for higher rainfalls which
may occur rarely and therefore these will cause damage. It is generally economic to accept
occasional damage rather than a construct a foolproof, expensive drainage system, capable with
coping with even the highest rainfalls.
4.8.5
Design of Field Drainage Systems
The general process of design for agricultural drainage systems are outlined briefly, further details
being given in Chapters 13 and 14.
4.8.5.1
Surface Drainage Systems
The main variables to be defined are:
4.8.5.2
Type and layout of the system

Discharge capacity of the system
Depth of the field drainage i.e., water level to be maintained in the field ditches.
Subsurface Drainage Systems
The following main variables required to be defined in the design:
4.8.5.3
Type and layout of the system

Discharge capacity
Watertable depth to be maintained in the field relative to the soil surface
The depth of the pipe drains or the watertable to be maintained in the ditches
Spacing of the field drains
System Capacity and Drainage Coefficient
To protect crops, a subsurface drainage system must be able to remove excess water from the upper
portion of the active root zone 24 to 48 hours after a heavy rain. Any refinement of these drainage
coefficient guidelines should be done after consulting with drainage experts and local drainage
contractors or farmers. NRCS literature suggests the drainage coefficient may need to be increased
where one or more of these situations occur:
4-22
The crop has high value (e.g., sugar beets or other vegetable/truck crops)
Soils have a coarser texture
Crops have a lower tolerance to wetness
The topography is flat (implying poorer surface drainage)
Large amounts of crop residue are left on a field
March 2009
There is little or poor surface drainage

Crop evapotranspiration is low
Frequent and low intensity rain is common
Planting and harvest times are critical
4.8.5.4
Controlled Drainage
The design of control drainage systems in principle follows the same sequential steps for the
conventional systems. It, however, includes a facility for the control of the discharge and appropriate
structure.
4.8.6
Determination of Design Criteria
Design criteria are generally established partly based on sound theory, analysis and experience. The
role of prior experience is reflected mainly in the use of empirical formula and engineering rules of
thumb. The drainage system must be cost effective throughout the planning and design process. The
selection of design discharges which largely determine the required canal dimensions, pump
capacities, etc. The local availability of skills and materials should be always be an important
consideration for cost effective drainage project. Design criteria should be also established based on
future operation of the project. Although drainage improvements were traditionally evaluated solely
for their impacts on the field in which they were installed, it is now important to consider the impacts
of further drainage improvements on downstream water quantity and quality. Drainage affects the
entire watershed and must be considered as one element in overall water management within the
watershed. Therefore technical aspects of the drainage project must be compatible for future
operation. Operational considerations should play an important and fully integrated role in the
planning and design of an agricultural drainage project.
4.8.7
Regional Agricultural Drainage Criteria
The regional drainage criteria for agricultural areas are:
To remove the runoff from the 10 year, 2 day storm, within 2 days in the growing period
Between storm events and in periods when drainage is required, the base flow in channels
must be maintained at 1.2 m below field elevation.
The conveyance system must be sized appropriately for both base flow and design storm
flow.
When conducting a drainage study using the above criteria, the flooding on the surface of the land is
analyzed first, determining the length of time required to remove water from the surface of the land
(field elevation). The time for the water levels in the channel to return to base flow is then
determined. To provide adequate drainage to the root zone, the water level should return to base
flow levels within 24 hours after cessation of flooding. The total time it takes to remove flooding and
return the water level to base flow should not exceed 2 days for the design storms stated in the first
two criteria.
4.8.8
Design Procedure Overview
The general design procedure steps are:

Site Analysis: At each site where a drainage structure(s) will be constructed, the following items
should be evaluated as appropriate from information given by the preliminary investigation:
Drainage area.
Effects of adjacent structures (upstream and downstream).
Existing streams and discharge outlets.
Stream slope and alignment.
Stream capacity.
March 2009
4-23
Soil erodibility.
Environmental permit concerns and constraints.
Coordination with representatives of the various environmental disciplines is encouraged.
Recurrence Interval: Select a recurrence interval in accordance with the design policy in Chapter 2.
Hydrologic Analysis: Compute the design flow utilizing the appropriate hydrologic method.
Hydraulic Analysis: Select a drainage system to accommodate the design flow utilizing the
appropriate methods.
Environmental Considerations: Environmental impact of the proposed drainage system and
appropriate methods to avoid or mitigate adverse impacts should be evaluated. Items to be
considered include:
Agricultural water management

Water quality
Soil erosion and sediment control
Drainage collection methods
Disposal systems
These elements should be considered during the design process and incorporated into the design as
it progresses.
Drainage Review: The design engineer should inspect the drainage system sites to check topography
and the validity of the design. Items to check include:
4.9
Drainage Area
Size
Improvements
Performance of existing or adjacent structures
- Erosion
- High water level
Channel Condition
- Erosion
- Vegetation
- Alignment of the structure with drainage channel
Environmental impacts
WATER QUALITY PROTECTION AND ENHANCEMENT
It is important to recognize that while technologies may be available to minimize water quality
impacts from drainage effluent, institutional mechanisms must also be put in place to ensure that the
technologies can be implemented. Policies and programmes, including legal and monitoring aspects,
require an institutional framework. The management goal of agricultural drainage is to maintain
proper soil water balance in humid areas (ASCE, 1990; Smedema, 1990). Drainage water from
different locations and/or facilities will have different quality characteristics. Poor quality water
should be separated from good quality water. If drainage water is unsuitable for reuse, it should be
disposed of in a sink of lower quality water. Most subsurface drainage water has the potential to be
reused. There are several factors to consider when determining the constraints for the management
of surface or subsurface agricultural drainage water. The amount and quality of drainage water
managed, changes in the rate of flow, and chemical concentrations need to be determined. Drainage
water is no different from any other water supply and is always usable for some purpose within
certain quality ranges. Beyond these limits, drainage water must be disposed.
4-24
March 2009
4.10
PARTICIPATORY PLANNING
Participatory planning is an important process in solving some of the difficult problems (Le Moigne et
al., 1994). Farmers at the tail-end of irrigation systems who may currently receive poor quality water
are often left out of planning exercises. Special efforts to incorporate their needs are necessary.
Innovative approaches or good practices that stress responsible and negotiated agreements between
participants should be reviewed and adapted to local circumstances.
4.11
RAIN-FED LANDS IN TROPICAL HUMID ZONES
The humid tropics are characterized by long-lasting rainy seasons (more than 8 months) with an
annual rainfall exceeding 2000 mm. Water logging occurs frequently in the flat areas. When the
inundations have a strong influence, no attempt should be made to implement a drainage system
without a flood-control scheme. Further, investigations ought to be made to check whether an
adjustment of the cropping system would be sufficient to eliminate the drainage problem. If a
drainage system is still found to be necessary, a surface drainage system is usually the appropriate
choice, because subsurface drainage systems in the humid tropics are often prohibitively expensive
as they would have to be designed for very high discharge capacities and would need very narrow
spacing. Only when the soil's hydraulic conductivity is very high could the spacing be wide enough to
be practically feasible.
March 2009
4-25
REFERENCES
American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE). (1990). Agricultural salinity assessment and
management. ASCE Manuals and Reports on Engineering Practice, 71, New York: ASCE, 619p.
DID (2000). Urban Stormwater Management Manual for Malaysia. MASMA Volume 3 Planning
Processes. DID Malaysia.
Le Moigne, G., Subramanian, A., Xie, M. and Giltner, S. (eds.). 1(994). A guide to the formulation of
water resources strategy. Technical Paper 263. Washington, D.C.: World Bank.
Smedema, L.K. (1990). Natural salinity hazards of irrigation development in (semi)arid regions. p.
22-35. In: Symposium on land drainage for salinity control in arid and semi-arid regions (H.R. Amer,
ed.), Vol. 1, Cairo, Egypt: Nubar Printing House.
and management of agricultural drainage systems. A.A. Balkema Publishers, p 446.
Turner, J.H. and C.L. Anderson (1980). Planning for an Irrigation System. American Association for
Vocational Instruction Materials.
USDA-NRCS (1997). Irrigation Guide. Field Office Technology Guide. National Engineering Handbook.
Natural Resources Conservation Service, United States Department of Agriculture.
4-26
March 2009
March 2009
10
20
20
20
Side-Move
Self-Propelled:
Center-pivot
Lateral-Move
Single- sprinkler
Hand- moved
Tractor- moved:
Wheel-Mounted
Self-Propelled
Boom-Sprinkler
Tractor- moved
Self-propelled
No
limit
5-15
10
No
limit
10
No
limit
20
(%)
Max
Slope
Self-Moved:
Side-Wheel-Roll
Tractor-Moved:
Wheel- mounted
Multi-Sprinkler
Permanent
Hand-Moved
Portable Set
Solid Set
Type of System
6.4(2.5)
25(1)
6.4(2.5)
25(1)
5.0(.20)
25(1)
6.4(2.5)
50(2)
6.4(2.5)
50(2)
6.4(2.5)
25(1)
1.5(.10)
50(2)
5.0(.20)
75(1.5)
2.5(.10)
50(2)
mm/hr
(in/hr)1
1.3 (0.5)
50(2)
2.5(.10)
50 (2)
1.3(.05)
50(2)
2.5(.10)
50(2)
Water
Application
Rate Min.
Max.
Rectangular
Any shape
Rectangular
Any shape
Circular,
Square or
Rectangular
Rectangular
Any shape
Rectangular
Any shape
Shape of
Field
Lane for
boom and
hose
Land for
winch and
hose
Safe operation
of tractor
Clear of
obstructions,
path for
towers
Safe operation
of tractor
Reasonably
smooth
Smooth
enough for
safe tractor
operation
No limit
Field Surface
Conditions
2-3
(8-10)
2-3
(8-10)
No limit
2-3
(8-10)
2-3
(8-10)
1.2 (4)
1-2 (4-6)
No limit
m (ft)2
Max.
Height of
Crop
.2-1.2
(.1-.5)
8-16
(20-40)
4-40
(10-100)
8-16
(20-40)
8-16
(20-40)
8-16
(20-40)
.1-.4
(.05-.15)
1.2-3.7
(.5-1.5)
.5-1
(.2-.4)
.2-.7
(.1-.3)
.5-1.2
(2-5)
15-30
(6-12)
8-80
(20-200)
15-30
(6-12)
7.5-15
(3-6)
15-30
(6-12)
15-30
(6-12)
12-24
(4.8-12)
RM/ha
(a)x1004
30-90
(12-36)
6-24
(2.4-12)
30-90
(12-36)
12-24
(4.8-12)
8-32
(20-80)
.4 or more
(1 or more)
.4-16
(1-40)
.4 or more
(1 or more)
8-20
(20-50)
Ha (a)
Approx.
Cost
.2-.7
(1-3)
.1-.4
(.05-.15)
.2-.7
(1-3)
Hrs/ha
(a)3
.1-.25
(.05-.10)
1.2-3.7
(.5-1.5)
.5-1.2
(.2-.5)
.5-1
(.2-.5)
Labor
Required
Size of
single
System
Yes
Chemical
Application
APPENDIX 4.A Factors Affecting The Selection Of Sprinkler Irrigation Systems

(Adapted from Turner and Anderson, 1980)
Yes
Fertilizer
Application
Adaptable To
Yes
Not
Recom.
Yes
Not Recom.
Yes
Not recom.
Liquid
Animal
Waste
Distribution
4A-1
4A-2
0.5
NA
Graded furrow
Corrugation
Cross slope
3.0
NA
Contour ditch
Contour furrow
0.5
NA
NA
4.0
2.0
Cross slope
6.0
4.0
3.0
4.0
2.0
Nearly level
Level Furrow
Graded:
Graded border
0.1
Contour levee
(per cent)
Sod
Crops
NonSod
Crops
Nearly level
NonSod
Crops
Any Shape
Shape of field
No
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
No
Adaptable to
Orchard &
Row Crops (row
Vineyards
or bedded)
Yes
No
No
Yes
No
No
No
Sown, Drilled or
Sodded Crops
8.0
NA
15.0
4.0
Sod
Crops
Max.
2.5(.1)
2.5(.1)
2.5(.1)
2.5(.1)
7.6(.3)
2.5(.1)
2.5(.1)
2.5(.1)
50(2)
38(1.5)
75(3)
75(3)
50(2)
50(2)
13(.5)
50(2)
mm (in)/hr1
Min.
Rows should
be of equal
length
Yes
No
Yes
Rows should
be of equal
length
Rectangular
No
Yes
Any shape
Rectangular
Rows should
be of equal
length
Any shape
Shape of
Field
Row
Crops
(Row or
bedded)
No
Yes
Yes
No
No
Yes
Adaptable to
Sown
Weed
Drilled
Control
or
In Rice
Sodded
Crops

Water Application
Rate of Intake Family
Yes
Yes
Orchards
and
Vineyards
6-12
(1.2-4.8)
7.5-15
(3-6)
1-3
(.4-1.2)
1.2-3.7
(.5-1.5)
15-27
(6-18)
15-27
(6-18)
7.5-15
(3-6)
15-24
(6-9)
RM per ha
(a) x 100
15-24
(6-9)
7.5-15
(3.6)
1-3
(.4-1.2)
.5-2.5
(.2-1)
2.5-4.5
(1-2)
.5-1.73
(.2-.7)
Hrs/ha (a)2
Per irrigation
.25-1.24
(.1-.5)
.12-1.24
(.05-.5)
Approx.
Cost
2000-3000
2000-3000
2000-3000
2000-3000
2000-3000
Approx. Cost.
RM per hectare
Labor Required
.15
.15
.15
.15
.15
Labor Required
(hrs per hectare)
APPENDIX 4.C Factors Affecting The Selection Of Surface Irrigation Systems
Any
38
76
Any
Maximum Slope
Humid Areas
Arid Areas
No limit
5
5
No limit
No limit
Maximum Water
Intake Rate soils
(mm per hour)
Any
Level:
Level border
Type of System
Drip
Point-source Emitters
Line-source Emitters
Subsurface
Bubbler
Spray
Type of system
Maximum
Slope
APPENDIX 4.B Factors Affecting The Selection Of Micro Irrigation Systems
March 2009
APPENDIX 4.D Cost and Return Form

PART A- GENERAL INFORMATION
Item
1. Crop(s) to be irrigated
2. Expected increase in yield per ha from irrigation
3. Value of crop per unit (kg, tonnes, etc.)
4. Maximum soil water-intake-rate
5. Seasonal consumptive use of the crop
6. Peak-use demand rate of the crop
7. Number of hours to operate each day
8. Minimum days required for each irrigation
9. Number of irrigations expected per season
10. Number of hours operation per year
11. Shape and dimensions of field
12. Number of ha in field
13. Type of system
14. Number of ha in field
15. Pumping rate needed in L/m (gpm)
16. Source of water
17. Total height water is to be lifted
18. Total operating head
19. Size of power unit needed
20. Type of power unit
21. Interest rate
22. Stand-by charges for electricity
23. Hours labour per ha per irrigation
Information
PART B- DEPRECIATION COSTS

Item
WELL
Casing:
8 and 10 Gage
12 Gage
3/16 inch
Concrete
RESERVOIR PUMP
Line Shaft Propeller
Turbine
Centrifugal
POWER UNIT
Electric
Gasoline
Diesel
Natural Gas, LPG, or Propane
MISCELLANEOUS
Electric Switch
Gas Line:
Iron
Plastic
Fuel Tank:
Propane
Diesel or Gasoline
March 2009
Est. Years of
Life
Initial Cost
(RM)
Cost Factor
(RM)
Annual
Cost
(RM)
25+
15
25+
25+
20+
10
15
12
25
20
12
12
20
20
18
20
18
4A-3
Land Plane
15
WATER PIPE
Underground Pipe:
Concrete
25+
Steel
20+
Asbestos Cement
25+
Plastic
20+
Above-ground Pipe:
Aluminum
15
Galvanized Steel
15
PIPE TRAILER SPRINKLER
10
SYSTEMS
Hand-moved
15
Tractor-moved
10
Self-moved
12
Self-propelled
15
Permanent
20
SURFACE SYSTEMS
Land Grading
20
SUBSURFACE SYSTEMS
Ditches
20
Pipelines
25
LAND DRAINAGE, etc
20
Total investment (Initial Cost)
Taxes and insurance ( _______ total investment x .01):
Stand-by (fixed) charges for electricity:
Loss of income due to acreage out of production
RM ______ / ha x _____ ha:
TOTAL AMOUNT DEPRECIATION (OWNERSHIP) COST:
PART C- ANNUAL OPERATING COST
ITEM
1. Fuel
________ x
Number of
Hours
Operated
_______ x
2. Oil-Engine
________ x
_______ x
_________
__________
_____
3. Oil-Gear Drive or
Electric motor
4. Repair and Maintenance
(power unit)
5. Repair and Maintenance
( irrigation equipment)
6. Reservoir and Field
Maintenance
7. Additional Seed,
Fertilizer, Chemicals and
Harvesting Cost (estimate)
8. Labor
________ x
_______ x
_________
__________
_____
____ bhp x
__ hrs
_________
Per bhp.
_____
9. Total Amount Operating

Cost
Horse-power
Required
Cost Per
Unit of Fuel
(RM)
________
__________
_____
BHP Hours Per

Unit of Fuel
Total
(RM)
RM _____ initial cost x .005
_____
RM _____ initial cost x .005
_____
RM ____ anticipated additional expense per ha x

____ number acres*
_____
_____ hrs per ha per irrigation x No. of irrigations x

____ ha x RM ____ per hour
..
_____
_____
* This value is the amount that you expect to spend in addition to that which you would spend if you
did not irrigate. It varies with the crop. For some crops, you may not have any additional expenses.
4A-4
March 2009
PART D- RETURN ON INVESTMENT

Value per hectare (acre) of expected increase from irrigation:
____ yield per ha (a) (from Part A) x
RM ____per unit (kg, tonnes, etc.) (from Part A)
Total annual cost per ha (a) of irrigation:
RM ___ annual depreciation cost (from Part B) +
RM ___ annual opening cost (from Part C) = RM ____
RM ____ ___ number of acres (from Part A)
Expected Additional Profit Per ha (a) From Irrigating:
RM ___ value of expected increase less
RM ____ annual operating costs per ha (a)
March 2009
TOTAL (RM)
__________
__________
___________
4A-5
Part B Planning
Chapter 5 - Water Demand Estimation
Chapter 5 - WATER DEMAND ESTIMATION
Table of Contents
Table of Contents ..5-i
List of Tables. ..5-iii
List of Figures ..5-iii
5.1 INTRODUCTION.. ..5-1
5.2 WATER DEMAND IN IRRIGATED AGRICULTURE... ..5-1
5.3 SOIL-WATER-PLANT RELATIONSHIP... ..5-2
5.3.1 Crop Root Depth ..5-2
5.3.2 Soil Textural Diagram.................................... ..5-2
5.3.3 Soil-Water Holding Capacity... ..5-3
5.4 CROP EVAPOTRANSPIRATION (ETC)............................... ..5-7
5.4.1 Crop Coefficient (Kc)................................ ..5-7
5.4.2 Mathematical Models for Estimating ETo............... ..5-7
5.4.2.1 Penman-Monteith Method........................ ..5-7
5.4.2.2 Blaney-Criddle Method............................. ..5-8
5.4.2.3 Pan Evaporation Method.......................... ..5-8
5.4.3 Calibration of ETo for Local Conditions. ..5-8
5.5 WATER QUALITY ......................................................... ..5-8
5.5.1 Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR) ........................... ..5-9
5.5.2 Leaching Fraction (LF) ..........................................5-9
5.5.3 Leaching Requirements (LR) for Salinity Control ........................ ..5-10
5.5.4 Seasonal Leaching Requirements......................... ..5-10
5.6 WATER DEMAND ESTIMATION PROCEDURES................. ..5-11
5.6.1 Irrigation Efficiency.. ..5-12
5.6.1.1 Conveyance Efficiency (Ec) ..5-12
5.6.1.2 Distribution Efficiency (Ed) ..5-12
5.6.1.3 Application Efficiency (Ea) ..5-12
5.6.2 Net Irrigation Requirement (NIR) ..5-14
5.6.2.1 Upland Crops ..5-14
5.6.2.2 Low Land Paddy... ..5-15
5.6.3 Gross Irrigation Requirement (GIR) ..5-15
5.6.4 Water Demands for Rice..................................... ..5-16
5.6.4.1 Water Losses and Auxiliary Water Demand .. ..5-17
5.6.4.2 Recommended Water Depth for Rice Production ..5-17
5.6.4.3 Irrigation Duties. ..5-18
5.6.4.4 Determination of Irrigation Requirements ..5-18
5.6.4.5 Effective Rainfall (ERF)..................................... ..5-20
5.6.4.6 Application of Water Balance Equation.. ..5-20
5.6.4.7 Gross Irrigation Water Demand (GIR)........... ..5-21
5.6.5 Water Demands for Non-paddy Crops under Microirrigation ..5-22
5.6.5.1 Water Demands for Tree Crops. ..5-22
5.6.5.2 Net Irrigation Depth (dx) ..5-24
5.6.5.3 Daily Consumptive Use (Td) ..5-24
5.6.5.4 Seasonal Net and Gross Irrigation Depth and Volume.. ..5-25
March 2009
5-i
5.6.5.5 Water Demands for Row Crops. ..5-27

5.6.5.6 Irrigation Requirements Per Application (IRRI) ..5-27
5.6.5.7 Design Daily Irrigation Requirement (DDIR).. ..5-28
5.6.5.8 Design Daily Irrigation Requirement for a Farm (DDIRf). ..5-29
5.6.5.9 Seasonal Irrigation Requirements (SIR) ..5-29
5.6.5.10 Irrigation System Capacity (Qsys).. ..5-29
5.6.6 Water Demands for Non-paddy Crops under Sprinkler Irrigation.. ..5-30
5.6.7 Irrigation for Crops Grown under Special Considerations.. ..5-30
5.6.7.1 Shallow Watertable Condition................. ..5-30
5.6.7.2 Deficit Irrigation Technique.................... ..5-30
5.6.7.3 Irrigation with Limited Water.................. ..5-30
5.6.7.4 Water Saving Technology....................... ..5-30
REFERENCES. ..5-32
APPENDIX 5.A Typical Root Depths that Contain about 80% of the Feeder Roots in a
Deep, Uniform, Well-Drained Soil Profile. ..5A-1
APPENDIX 5.B Crop Coefficients (Kc) at Different Growth Stages of Given Crops. ..5A-3
APPENDIX 5.C Pan Coefficient KP for the Class A Pan Evaporation under Different Conditions ..5A-4
APPENDIX 5.D Water Quality Guidelines. ..5A-5
APPENDIX 5.E Nomograph for Determining the SAR Value of Irrigation Water and Estimating
the Corresponding ESP Value of a Soil at Equilibrium with the Water. ..5A-6
APPENDIX 5.F Crop Tolerance and Yield Potential of Selected Crops as Influenced by
Irrigation Water Salinity (ECw) or Soil Salinity (ECe) ..5A-7
APPENDIX 5.G Cropping Management of Direct Seeded and Transplanting Rice Fields. ..5A-9
APPENDIX 5.H Worked Examples......................................... ..5A-10
5.H.1 Presaturation Irrigation Requirements Calculation for Paddy.. ..5A-10
5.H.2 Water Demand for Paddy Irrigation.................................. ..5A-11
5.H.3 Water Demand for Crops under Microirrigation.. ..5A-15
5.H.4 Water Demand for Crops under Sprinkler Irrigation. ..5A-17
5.H.5 Water Demand for Multicrops Farming System.. ..5A-18
5-ii
March 2009
List of Tables
Table
5.1
5.2
Description
Page
Characteristics of Soil Separates
5-3
Typical Results for Field Capacity, Permanent Wilting Point and Available Water
5-5
for Different Soil Types

5.3
Ranges in Available Water Holding Capacity (AWHC) of Different Soil Textures
5-5
5.4
Available Water for Various Soil Textures
5-5
5.5
Classification of Saline Water
5-9
5.6
Water Application Efficiencies
5-14
5.7
Daily and Seasonal Water Use in Rice Production in the Tropics
5-17
5.8
Conversion Factors for Irrigation Depth
5-18
5.9
Crop Coefficients (Kc) at Different Growth Stages of Crop
5-22
5.10
Effective Soil Water Storage Factor (S)
5-24
5.11
Management Allowed Deficit (MAD) Values for Various Crops
5-24
5.12
Peak Period Transmission Ratios (TR)
5-26
5.13
Seasonal Transmission Ratios (TR)
5-26
List of Figures
Figure
Description
Page
5.1
Water Demand Categories for Different Irrigated Crops
5-1
5.2
Soil Textural Diagram
5-2
5.3
A Soil-Water Column
5-3
5.4
Schematic Illustration of the Soil Water Reservoir Concept
5-4
5.5
Total Soil-Water Content for Various Soil Textures with Adjustment for
5-4
Changes in Bulk Density

5.6
Factors Influencing Irrigation Water-Use Efficiency
5-11
5.7
Procedures of Irrigation Water Requirements Calculation
5-13
5.8
Variation of Actual Evapotranspiration Rate with Soil Water Content for Upland
5-15
Crops
5.9
Rice Planting Methods
5-16
5.10
Water Requirements for Paddy at Different Growth Stages
5-17
A Schematic of Watertable Depth Variation in a Irrigation Block with Respect to
5-18
5.11
the Irrigation Canal Networks

5.12
Water Balance Components in a Paddy Field
5-21
5.13
Factors Affecting Plant Water Requirements
5-23
5.14
Typical Point Source Microirrigation System
5-23
5.15
Typical Row Crops under Microirrigation Systems
5-27
March 2009
5-iii
(This page is deliberately left blank )
5-iv
March 2009
5 WATER DEMAND ESTIMATION

5.1
INTRODUCTION
Water demand estimation is the primary considerations for planning and design of any irrigation
system. The designer needs to understand how plants use water and how they interact with the soil
and atmosphere. These fundamental principles have resulted in several methods of measuring and
estimating crop water demands. Daily and weekly crop water use estimates are needed to schedule
irrigations, while longer term estimates are needed for planning, design, and development of
irrigation projects. Therefore, a unified procedure is needed to quantify irrigation water demands for
the diverse soils, climates, and crops in designing the farm irrigation systems. Indeed, the flow rate
potential must be known to operate irrigation systems.
The objective of this chapter is to demonstrate the water demand estimation principles in planning
and designing of irrigation systems. This includes soil-water-plant-atmosphere relationships,
determining crop evapotranspiration (ETc), net irrigation water requirement and water demand
estimation for the irrigation project.
5.2
WATER DEMAND IN IRRIGATED AGRICULTURE
Irrigated agriculture is the largest user (70%) of the developed water resources in Malaysia. Most
agricultural water is obtained from surface sources and very small percentage from groundwater.
The irrigation water must be adequate to meet crop water demand. Because irrigation is not fully
efficient, the water supply rate must exceed the rate of crop use. Water requirements strongly
depend on climate, crop, and the amount of available soil moisture in the field for upland crops and
ponding water for rice. Water use changes during the growing season and is difficult to predict.
Therefore, irrigation systems generally are evaluated using two criteria - seasonal water demands
and daily water demands. The irrigation supply must be sufficient to satisfy the requirements of the
irrigation system and supply enough water to meet crop needs. Water demand categories of
different irrigated crops are shown in Figure 5.1.
Water Demand
for
Irrigated Crops
Paddy
Crops Grown Under Special

Conditions
Non-Paddy Crops
a. Water Saving Technology

b. Irrigation with Limited Water
c. Irrigation under Shallow Water Table
d. Irrigation under Low Infiltration Soils
e. Deficit Irrigation Technique
Figure 5.1 Water Demand Categories for Different Irrigated Crops

Different crops use different amounts of water during crop growing periods. Due to these variations
in water use among crops, different methods of irrigation systems have been developed. A crop with
a deeper rooting depth has a greater volume of soil water to draw between irrigations than shallow
rooted crops. Crops also need different amounts of water at different times during the crop growing
seasons. Water requirement also depends on the type of crop.
March 2009
5-1
5.3
SOIL-WATER-PLANT RELATIONSHIP
Soil and crop characteristics determine how an irrigation system should be designed and operated.
The crops rooting depth and water requirements are very important to the design and management
of irrigation systems. Therefore, understanding how soil, water and plants work together is
important to both the design and operation of any irrigation system.
5.3.1
Crop Root Depth
The crop root depth determines the depth of soil profile from which the crop can extract soil water
and nutrients. Water moving beyond this depth is unavailable to the crop. For design and
management decisions, only the water within the root zone is considered. The effective rooting
depths of common crops are given in Appendix 5.A. These values are recommended to be used
when information is not available locally.
5.3.2
Soil Textural Diagram
Soil texture describes the size of soil particles, which is the relative proportion of sand, silt and clay
sized particles in the soil. Soil textures are usually represented using the Soil Textural Triangle as
shown in Figure 5.2. The sand, silt and clay are termed soil separates. Each of these particles has a
specific definition. Table 5.1 defines the size range for soil particles based upon the US Department
of Agriculture system (Foth, 1990).
10
100
20
90
30
80
40
Sandy
Clay
Clay
Loam
80
Sandy Clay
Loam
Loam
Sandy Loam
Silt Loam
10
Sand
Silt
Loamy
Sand
10
0
20
90
30
Silty Clay
Loam
70
40
60
Silty
Clay
50
50
rce
nt
60
t
Sil
nt
Pe
Clay
rce
Pe
Cla
y
70
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
0
10
Percent Sand
Figure 5.2 Soil Textural Diagram (USDA-NRCS, 1997)

As an example, through mechanical analysis, a particular soil was found to have 35% Clay, 52% Silt,
and 13% Sand. What is the soil textural class? By using Figure 5.2, the soil is silty clay loam.
5-2
March 2009
Table 5.1 Characteristics of Soil Separates (Foth, 1990)

Separate
Diameter (mm)
Very coarse sand

Coarse sand
Medium sand
Fine sand
Very fine sand
Silt
Clay
5.3.3
2.00-1.00
1.00-0.50
0.50-0.25
0.25-0.10
0.10-0.05
0.05-0.002
< 0.002
Soil-Water Holding Capacity
Soil properties are important in design, operation, and management of irrigation and agricultural
drainage systems. Soil characteristics determine how an irrigation system should be designed and
operated. A schematic view of soil-water column is shown in Figure 5.3. The relation between field
capacity, permanent wilting point and total available water are illustrated in Figures 5.4 and 5.5.
Tables 5.2, 5.3 and 5.4 provide available water holding capacity for various soil textures. Soil-water
characteristics must be known by the irrigation consultants and decision makers in order to
implement proper irrigation water management. Some important definitions are as follows:
Db =
Ws
Vs + Vp
Dp =
Ws
Vs
% Solid=
Vs
D
100 = b 100
Vs + Vp
Dp
D
% Pore Space = 100 b 100
Dp
W
% Water = w 100
Ws
% Volume of Water =
Vw
W
100 = w D b 100
Vs + Vp
Ws
% Volume of Water =
% Volume of Water d w
100
Air
V
Va
W
WwW
Water
V
VwW
Ws
W
s
Solids
V
Vpp
W
W
V
V
Vs
V
s
Figure 5.3 A Soil-Water Column
Where,
Db
= bulk density (gm/cm3)
Dp
= particle density or specific gravity (gm/cm3)
= weight of oven dried soils (gm)
Ws
Ww
= weight of soil water (gm)
= volume of solids (m3)
Vs
= volume of pores (m3)
Vp
Vw
= volume of water (m3)
Vs + Vp = total soil volume m3)
dw
= depth of water (mm/m)
W
= depth of wet soil column (m)
V
= volume of soil column (m3)
Bulk Density (Db): The mass of oven-dry soil per unit volume (natural state), g/cm3.
Particle Density (Dp): The mass of oven-dry soil per unit volume of solid particles, g/cm3. Dp of the
soil is usually taken at 2.65 g/cm3.
March 2009
5-3
Porosity (Vp): Porosity of a soil is the volume of all open spaces (pores) between the solid grains of
soil. The porosity is important as it defines the volume of water that can be held in a given volume of
the soil. The porosity is the percentage of the total soil volume not occupied by solid soil particles.
Saturation
Field capacity
Maximum
soil water
Available deficit
Total volume of
water in the soil
soil
moisture
Permanent wilting point
Complete Dryness
Figure 5.4 Schematic Illustrations of the Soil Water Reservoir Concept (Lamm et al. 2007)
1.3
30
1.5
1.7
1.6
1.8
5.6
4.5
(Example)
3.5
ca
pa
cit
y
20
3.0
Fie
ld
15
5.5
4.0
Available water
Excess water
5.0
Soil-water content (inches of water per foot of soil)
25
Soil-water content (percent by dry weight of soil)
1.4
ltin
Wi
o
gc
nt
icie
eff
2.5
2.0
10
1.5
1.0
Water not available for plant use
Clay
Clay
Loam
Silt
Loam
Silty
Clay
Loam
Loam
Sandy
Loam
Fine
Sandy
Loam
Loamy
Sand
Sand
0.5
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.7
1.6
Soil bulk density (gm/cc 3)
1.8
Soil Texture
Figure 5.5 Total Soil-Water Content for Various Soil Textures with Adjustment for Changes in Bulk
Density (USDA-NRCS, 1997)
5-4
March 2009
Table 5.2 Typical Results for Field Capacity, Permanent Wilting Point and Available Water for
Different Soil Types (Keller and Bliesner, 1990)
Soil Type
Total Pore
Space (%)
Moisture (% by weight)
Field Capacity
Permanent Wilting Point
(%)
(%)
45
30
Available Water
(mm/m of soil)
Clay
51-55
Clay Loam
Sandy Loam
Fine Sand
47-51
40-47
35-40
40
28
15
25
18
8
135
120
120
80
Sandy
32-42
55
Table 5.3 Ranges in Available Water Holding Capacity (AWHC) of Different Soil Textures
(Keller and Bliesner, 1990)
Soil Texture
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Very coarse texture very coarse sand

Coarse texture coarse sands, fine sands and loamy
sands
Moderately coarse texture sandy loams
Medium texture very fine sandy loams, loams and silt
loams
Moderately fine texture clay loams, silty clay loams
and sandy clay loams
Fine texture sandy clays, silty clays and clays
Peats and mucks
Water Holding Capacity

Range (mm/m) Average (mm/m)
33 - 62
42
62 - 104
83
104 - 145
125
125 - 192
167
145 - 208
183
133 - 208
167 - 250
192
208
Table 5.4 Available Water for Various Soil Textures (USDA, 1998)
Textures
Fraction Available
Water
Sands, and loamy sands and Less than sandy loams in which the sand
is not dominated by very fine sand
0.10
Loamy sands and sandy loams in which very fine sand is the dominant
sand fraction, and loams, clay loam, sandy clay loam, and sandy clay
0.10 - 0.15
Silty clay, and clay
0.10 - 0.20
Silt, silt loam, and silty clay loam
0.15 - 0.25
Moisture Content (%): It determines the total volume of water held in a soil. The soil moisture is
reported as a percentage of the dry weight of the soil sample.
Saturation: Saturation occurs when all the voids in the soil are completely filled with water. Although
plenty of water is available to the crop at saturation, water uptake is seriously curtailed by the lack of
oxygen in the soil at soil water contents greater than the field capacity.
Field Capacity (fc): It is the amount of water remaining in the soil when rapid drainage has ceased
and any further drainage occurs at a very slow rate. The downward water flow from gravity becomes
negligible at this level. Field capacity corresponds to a soil moisture tension of 0.1 to 0.5 bars (10 to
50 kPa).
Wilting Point (wp): It is the soil water content at which permanent wilting of the plant leaf occurs
and applying additional water will not relieve the wilted condition. Wilting point is usually taken as
the soil moisture content corresponding to a soil moisture tension of 15 bars.
March 2009
5-5
Available Water (AW): Available water is the amount of water that a soil can store that is available
for use by plants. It is the amount of water released between field capacity and permanent wilting
point within a crop root zone depth. The available water is expressed as:
Drz fc wp
AW =
Where,
AW =
=
Drz
=
fc
wp =
(5.1)
100
available water (cm)

depth of root zone (cm) [Appendix 5.A]
field capacity in percent by volume (%)
permanent wilting point in percent by volume (%).
Soil samples are taken from undisturbed soils if possible and the moisture content is determined by
drying in an oven at 105oC. The field capacity then can be determined using equation (5.2).
fc =
Loss in Weight
100
Final Dry Weight
(5.2)
Example 1:
Determine the amount of available water that can be held by the following layered soil profile.
Soil Texture
Sandy Loam
Loam
Clay
fc
14
22
27
wp
6
10
13
Depth (cm)
15
13
75
Solution:
The total amount of available water can be computed using Eq. 5.1.
AW =
15 (14 6 ) 13 (22 10 ) 75 (27 13)

+
+
100
100
100
= 13.26 cm
The rooting depth affects the total available water holding capacity in the soil. The available water or
soil water storage can be also determined using the information given in Table 5.3 as follows:
AW = Drz x AWHC
(5.3)
Where, AWHC is the depth of available water per meter of the soil depth.
Example 2:
A crop will be grown in clay loam soils. The average root zone depth of the crop is 1.5 m. Determine
the available water in the field?
Solution:
Using Table 5.3, the available water holding capacity (AWHC) is 183 mm/m
So, AW = 1.5 x 183 = 275 mm
Field Estimation of Available Water: The available water range is the moisture between field capacity
and permanent wilting point expressed as a percent of the dry weight of the soil. It must be
converted into mm of water for irrigation depth calculation. The total mass (Ww) is made up of the
oven dry soil and the water it contains. Consider a wet soil column of unit cross-sectional area.
Ww = (D A ) + (d I w )
5-6
(5.4)
March 2009
Where
Ww = total soil mass (gm)
D
= the depth of soil (m)
A
= the dry density of the soil mass (gm/cc)
d
= the equivalent depth of water held in the soil (m)
Iw
= the density of water (1 gm/cc)
Moisture content (M)
=
=
Weight of water
Weight of oven - dried soil
100
d
100
DA
(5.5)
If d is required in mm per mm of soil then,

(5.6)
d = 10 M D A
5.4
CROP EVAPOTRANSPIRATION (ETc)
Crop water use is determined by the crop evapotranspiration (ETc), which is the amount of water a
crop uses during a period. The determination of irrigation water demands and irrigation schedules
requires an accurate estimate of the crop water use rate. The major climatic factors that influence
the crop water needs are: sunshine, temperature, humidity and wind speed. Crop water use (ETc) is
computed using the reference crop evapotranspiration (ETo) and a crop coefficient (Kc).
(5.7)
ETc = K c x ETo
Where,
ETc
= Crop evapotranspiration (consumptive water use), mm/day.
Kc
= Crop coefficient (Appendix 5.B).
ETo
= Reference or potential crop evapotranspiration, mm/day.
Crop Coefficient (Kc)
5.4.1
When using the coefficients, it is important to know, how these were obtained. Appropriate crop
coefficient values are provided (Doorenbos and Pruitt, 1977) to estimate the ET for specific crops
which are given in Appendix 5.B. The following is an empirical relation between ETc and ETo:
Kc =
5.4.2
ET c
ET o
(5.8)
Mathematical Models for Estimating ETo
Many investigators have developed the equations that are already established. The Penman-Monteith
formula is considered the most precise which is recommended by the FAO and the USDASoil
Conservation Service (Allen et al. 1998). Nevertheless the Penman, Class A Pan Evaporation, BlaneyCriddle and Hargreaves-Samani equations, can also be used. More reliable results can be obtained
with local calibration for the given method.
5.4.2.1
Penman-Monteith Method
The FAO Penman-Monteith method for prediction of Reference Crop Evapotranspiration (ETo) is the
sole standard method (Allen et al. 1998). The FAO Penman-Monteith method requires radiation, air
temperature, air humidity and wind speed data. The Penman-Monteith equation is given as follows:
ETo =
March 2009
900
u2 (e s ea )
T + 273
+ (1 + 0.34u2 )
0.408 (R n G ) +
(5.9)
5-7
Where,
ETo
Rn
G
T
= reference crop evapotranspiration (mm day-1)

= net radiation at the crop surface (MJ m-2 day-1)
= soil heat flux density (MJ m-2day-1)
= air temperature at 2 m height (oC)
u2
e s ea
900
= wind speed at 2 m height (m sec-1)

= saturation vapour pressure deficit (kPa)
= slope of saturation vapour pressure curve (k Pa oC-1)
= psychometric constant (k Pa oC-1)
= conversion factor.
5.4.2.2
Blaney-Criddle Method
Jensen, et al. (1990) found that the Blaney-Criddle method modified by Doorenbos and Pruitt (1997)
was the most accurate temperature-based method evaluated for estimating crop ETo. They
recommended individual calculation for each month. This method is not very accurate and it provides
a rough estimate. This technique is commonly referred to as the FAO-Blaney-Criddle method. The
equation is given as follows:
ETo = C P (0.46 T + 8)
Where,
ETo =
T
=
P
=
C
=
5.4.2.3
(5.10)
Potential evapotranspiration (mm/day)

Monthly average temperature (C)
Percentage daily sunshine (%)
Correction factor (0 to 0.40) which depends on the local climatic condition.
Pan Evaporation Method
Class A Standard Pan is widely used to estimate reference crop water evapotranspiration. The
reference crop ET is determined as:
ETo = kp Epan
(5.11)
Where,
kp
= pan coefficient (Typical values are given in Appendix 5.C)
Epan = evaporation from the pan (mm/day)
5.4.3
Calibration of ETo for Local Conditions
Local calibration is always necessary to obtain reliable and good estimates of the crop water
demands. The Penman-Monteith equation can provide accurate estimations from a month to an hour
depending on the calibration method. For short periods, lysimeters can provide the necessary data
for the crop evapotranspiration (ETc).
5.5
WATER QUALITY
Water supply for irrigation in Malaysia is obtained from surface (river, reservoir, and lakes),
groundwater and other sources. Issues with respect to water supply and irrigation include both
quality and quantity. Good quality irrigation water is required to ensure food safety and must be in
sufficient quantity to meet the crops need. Irrigation with poor quality of water not only can harm
crops but may also harm the environment. Salts, heavy metals and pathogens make their way into
the soil and may be taken up by crops or may build up in the soil to unacceptable levels. Irrigation
system uniformity also can be affected by poor quality of water. Poor uniformity can lead to higher
application rates resulting in runoff in microirrigation and sprinkler irrigation systems. Water quality
classification based on electrical conductivity and salt concentration for irrigation greater than 0.72
dS/m and 5001500 mg/L respectively (Table 5.5).
5-8
March 2009
Table 5.5 Classification of Saline Water (Ayers and Westcot, 1994)

Water class
Electrical
conductivity (dS/m)
Salt concentration
(mg/L)
Type of water
Non-saline
< 0.7
< 500
Drinking and irrigation water
Slightly saline
0.7 - 2
500-1,500
Irrigation water
Moderately
saline
2 - 10
1,500-7,000
Primary drainage water and

groundwater
Highly saline
10 - 25
7,000-15,000
Secondary drainage water and

groundwater
Very highly
saline
25 - 45
15,000-35,000
Very saline groundwater
> 45
> 45,000
Seawater
Brine
The FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper No.29 on Water Quality for Agriculture provide detailed
guidance to farm and project managers, consultants and engineers in evaluating and identifying
potential problems related to water quality. The total salt content gives a reasonably correct idea of
irrigation water qualities. Water quality guidelines given by Schofiled (1935) and Christiansen are
presented in Appendix 5.D.
5.5.1
Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR)
The suitability of water for irrigation depends on the total amount and type of salts in the water, the
crops grown, soil properties, irrigation management, cultural practices and climatic factors. The
relative amount of various cations in the saturated-soil extract is used to characterize the soil water
(Appendix 5.E). Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR), the most often used term, is defined as:
SAR =
Na
(5.12)
Ca + Mg
2
Where, Na, Ca, and Mg are concentrations of sodium, calcium, and magnesium (mg/l)
Example 3:
Determine SAR
Ca
Mg
Na
from the water analysis report given below.

2.32 me/l
1.44 me/l
7.73 me/l
Solution:
Using Eq. 5.12, SAR can be determined as follows:
SAR =
5.5.2
7.73
2.32 + 1.44
2
= 5.64
Leaching Fraction (LF)
Leaching is accomplished by applying sufficient water so that a portion percolates through and below
the entire root zone carrying with it a portion of the accumulated salts. The fraction of applied water
that passes through the entire rooting depth and percolates below is called the leaching fraction.
March 2009
5-9
Leaching Fraction (LF ) =
Depth of water leached below the root zone

Depth of water applied at the surface
(5.13)
If the water salinity (ECw) and the leaching fraction (LF) are known or can be estimated, the salinity
of the drainage water that percolates below the root zone can be estimated. The salinity of the
drainage water can be estimated from the equation:
LF =
EC w
EC dw
(5.14)
Where,
= salinity of the drainage water percolating below the root zone (equals to salinity of soilECdw
water, ECsw)
ECw
= salinity of the applied irrigation water
LF
= leaching fraction
Example 4:
A crop is irrigated using water with an electrical conductivity (ECw) of 1.2 dS/m. The salinity of the
soil-water that is percolating from the bottom of the root zone (ECdw) is approximately 6.7 dS/m.
Determine leaching fraction?
Given:
ECw = 1.2 dS/m
ECdw = 6.7 dS/m
Solution:
Using Eq. 5.14, the leaching fraction is:
LF =
5.5.3
EC w
EC dw
1.2
6.7
= 0.18
Leaching Requirements (LR) for Salinity Control
Both the irrigation water salinity (ECw) and the crop tolerance to soil salinity (ECe) must be known to
estimate the leaching requirement. ECe ranges for optimum crop growth of some common crops are
given in Appendix 5.F. For more exact estimates for a particular crop, the leaching requirement
equation (5.15) (Rhoades 1974 and Rhoades and Merrill 1976) should be used.
LR =
EC w
5 EC e EC w
or
LR =
EC w
2(maxEC e )
(5.15)
Where,
LR
= the minimum leaching requirement needed to control salts within the tolerance (ECe) of the
crop with ordinary surface methods of irrigation
ECw = salinity of the applied irrigation water (dS/m) [Appendix 5.F]
ECe = average soil salinity tolerated by the crop as measured on a soil saturation extract
(Appendix 5.F). It is recommended that the ECe value that can be expected to result in at
least a 90 percent or greater yield be used in the calculation (Ayers and Westcot, 1994).
5.5.4
Seasonal Leaching Requirements
The total annual depth of water that needs to be applied to meet both the crop demand and
leaching requirement can be estimated using the Equation (5.16).
AW =
5-10
AETc
1 LR
(5.16)
March 2009
Where,
AW = depth of applied water (mm/year)
AETc = total annual crop water demand (mm/year)
LR
= leaching requirement expressed as a fraction
Example 5:
A maize crop is irrigated by furrow irrigation. The crop is planted in uniform loamy soil and river
water that has an ECw = 1.2 dS/m, is used for irrigation. The crop evapotranspiration (ET) is 800
mm/season. The irrigation application efficiency is 0.65. How much additional water must be applied
for leaching?
Given:
ECw = 1.2 dS/m
ECe = 2.5 dS/m (from Appendix 5.F for maize at a 90 percent yield potential)
ECe = 1.7 dS/m (from Appendix 5.F for maize at a 100 percent yield potential)
Solution:
The total amount of water that must be applied to meet crop ET demand is 800 mm/0.65 = 1230
mm/season.
LR is computed using Eq. 5.15,
LR =
1.2
= 0.10 for 90% yield potential
5 2.5 1.2
LR =
1.2
= 0.16 for 100% yield potential
5 1.7 1.2
and
The actual amount of water to be applied to supply both crop ET and leaching can be found by using
equation (5.16).
AW =
5.6
800
= 890 mm/season for 90% yield potential and 952 mm/season for 100%.
1 0.10
WATER DEMAND ESTIMATION PROCEDURES
Irrigation water requirements is defined as the quantity, or depth, of irrigation water in addition to
rainfall required to produce the desired crop yield and quality and to maintain an acceptable salt
balance in the root zone. The water balance components affecting the efficient use of the water for
irrigation is illustrated in Figure 5.6. The engineers and designers must care to solve these problems
through proper planning and design of the system.
Values in
mm-depth
of water
10.2
Taken from
sources
0.4
Water
evaporation
(est.)
0.7
Rainfall
5.3
Delivered to
farms
4.9
Conveyance and
regulation waste
6.0
Received
on land
4.4
Absorbed
by soil
1.6
Surface
runoff
(est.)
1.6 Used by crops
2.4
Deep
percolation
(est.)
Figure 5.6 Factors Influencing Irrigation Water-Use Efficiency (Schwab et al. 1966)
March 2009
5-11
A flowchart shown in Figure 5.7 describes the calculation of irrigation water requirements. Two well
recognized terms to determine the crop water demands are: (1) Net Crop Water Demand and (2)
Gross Crop Water Demand.
5.6.1
Irrigation Efficiency
Irrigation efficiency is the percentage of water delivered to the field that is used beneficially. It is
used as an index to quantify the beneficial use of water diverted for irrigation purposes to a farm,
field, or system. Irrigation efficiency can be divided into two components: water losses and
uniformity of application. Overall irrigation efficiency (IE) is defined as:
IE = Ec x Ed x Ea
(5.17)
Where,
= conveyance efficiency (decimal)
Ec
= distribution efficiency (decimal)
Ed
= application efficiency (decimal)
Ea
Three efficiency indicators are considered to give the overall scheme efficiency;
Conveyance efficiency (Ec), for lined canal this is assumed at 0.9, but for unlined could be
down to 0.7 (Halcrow et al. 1992).
If the distribution efficiency (Ed) is low, say less than 80%, then remedial measures should
be taken.
Field application efficiency (Ea) for well-run scheme could be as high as 80 percent.
The irrigation efficiency (IE) of a scheme with unlined canals, 80% distribution and application
efficiencies is calculated as follows:
IE = Ec x Ed x Ea
= 0.7 x 0.8 x 0.8
= 0.448
= 44.80%
45%
5.6.1.1
Conveyance Efficiency (Ec)
Water conveyance efficiency is the ratio of the volume of water delivered for irrigation to the volume
of water placed in the conveyance system. It can be defined as:
Ec =
5.6.1.2
Discharge reaching fields

100
Discharge released at system head
(5.18)
Distribution Efficiency (Ed)
It is a measure of the management losses incurred through spillage, wastage, incorrect allowance for
response time and travel time, and incorrect gate operation in the canal system. Distribution
efficiency over a period of time can be defined as:
Ed =
5.6.1.3
Flow volume reaching field

100
(Volume released at system head - Conveyance loss)
(5.19)
Application Efficiency (Ea)
Application efficiency is a measure of the water wasted in the field, being the amount of the
irrigation demand divided by the amount of water needed to satisfy the demand across the whole
field. It is defined as:
5-12
March 2009
Ea =
Volume of crop irrigation demand

100
Volume used to satisfy demand
(5.20)
Water application efficiency is very important both in system selection and design and in irrigation
management. Attainable water application efficiencies vary greatly with irrigation system type and
management. The ranges give some ideas of the efficiencies that may be achieved with reasonable
design management as shown in Table 5.6.
Start
Determine ine Crop Growing Periods and
Time Interval of the Water Balance
Choose Method pf Determining

Reference Crop Evapotranspiration (ETo)
Determine Crop Coefficient (Kc)
Determine Crop Evapotranspiration

(ETc)
Eatimate Effective Rainfall (ER)
Estimate Influent Contribution
Estimate Seepage Percolation
Calculate Net Irrigation

Requirement (NIR)
Determine Irrigation
Efficiency (IE)
Estimate Leaching
Requirements if Needed
Estimate Auxiliary Water
Requirements
Calculate Gross Irrigation

Requirements or Demand
No
IS the Time
Interval Ended
Yes
Stop
Figure 5.7 Procedures for Irrigation Water Requirements Calculation

March 2009
5-13
Table 5.6 Water Application Efficiencies, Ea (Solomon, 1988)

Irrigation Systems
Surface Irrigation
Basin
Border
Furrow
Hand Move or Portable
Traveling Gun
Center Pivot & Linear Move
Solid Set or Permanent
Trickle Irrigation
With Point Source Emitters
With Line Source Products
5.6.2
Attainable Efficiencies (%)

80 - 90
70 - 85
60 - 75
65
60
75
70
75
70
90
80
75 - 90
70 - 85
Net Irrigation Requirement (NIR)
5.6.2.1
Upland Crops
For upland crops, the net amount of water to be replaced for each irrigation cycle is the amount the
soil can hold between field capacity and the moisture level selected when irrigation is needed
(Moisture Allowable Deficit or MAD).
The net irrigation water requirement for upland crops is defined as:
NIR = AW MAD
(5.21)
Where, MAD is the maximum allowable deficiency or depletion. MAD for most crops is about 0.65.
MAD is used to estimate the amount of water that can be used without adversely affecting the plant.
On the other hand, MAD is the amount of water that can be removed from the soil before the plant
is stressed. MAD is defined as:
MAD =
RAW
AW
(5.22)
The volume per unit surface area of soil water contents above c is called Readily Available Water
(RAW), which can be computed by the following Equation:
RAW =
D rz ( fc c )
100
(5.23)
Where, c is the water content in percent by volume basis. Figure 5.8 shows the variation of a
typical plants actual evapotranspiration rate with soil water content and defines critical soil water
content. A higher crop yield and/or quality should be expected with moisture contents between
c and f c .
For example, if the total soil AW in the root zone is 20 cm and MAD = 45% then
Net irrigation = 20 x 0.45 = 9 cm
The irrigation requirement of upland crops also can be determined using Eq. 5.24.
NIR = D rz ( fc c ) + ET + LR ER
5-14
(5.24)
March 2009
Where,
ET
= crop evapotranspiration (mm/day)
LR
= leaching requirements
ER
= effective rainfall (mm/day)
Optimum
Growth
Where,
TAW: Total Available Water
RAW: Readily Available Water
MAD: Maximum Allowable Depletion
UWP: Ultimate Wilting Point
PWP: Permanent Wilting Point
c: Moisture Content
FC: Field Capacity
Sat: Saturation Level
RAW
TAW
MAD
ET or
Growth
Rate
UWP
PWP
FC
Saturation
Figure 5.8 Variation of Actual Evapotranspiration Rate with Soil Water Content for Upland Crops
5.6.2.2
Low Land Paddy
For paddy, the irrigation water requirement can be calculated using the following formula:
IRt = ETc + SAT + SP + SWD ER
(5.25)
Where,
IR
= irrigation water requirement (mm)
ETc = crop evapotranspiration (mm/day)
SAT = presaturation water requirement (mm)
SP
= seepage and percolation losses (mm/day)
SWD = maintained standing water depth in the field (mm)
ER
= effective rainfall (mm/day)
t
= daily or weekly interval
5.6.3
Gross Irrigation Requirement (GIR)
It is the actual amount of water supplied to meet crop evapotranspiration and/or percolation and
seepage observed under field conditions.
GIR =
IR
IE
(5.26)
Where,
GIR = gross irrigation requirements (mm)
IR
= irrigation water requirements (mm)
IE
= irrigation efficiency (%)
Example 6:
Seven cm of water is to be supplied to the paddy field for a particular week. The overall irrigation
efficiency is 45%. Determine the gross irrigation requirement.
Solution:
March 2009
GIR =
7
= 15.55 cm.
0.45
5-15
5.6.4
Water Demands for Rice
Water requirement for rice crop varies with the method of land preparation, method of crop
establishment and duration of the rice crop. It also varies with the soil, environmental conditions and
the management of the subsequent rice crop. Cropping management for direct seeded and
transplanting rice fields is shown in Appendix 5.G.
(a)
Wet Direct Seeding
The paddy fields are pre-saturated usually for 2 weeks until the standing water depth becomes 7080 mm. Then, water supply is stopped. After 3-4 days, farm lots are drained completely within 24
hours. Pre-germinated seeds are then broadcasted. After broadcasting, irrigation supply is continued
until water depth reaches 100 mm within 3 weeks. The normal irrigation water supply is then started
and continued for 80-90 days. Wet direct seeding method has an advantage in controlling weeds but
it needs much more water than the dry direct seeding method. Mid season drainage from 4th to 7th
week is normally practiced to allow maximum tillering by maintaining standing water depth at about
5 cm
(b)
Dry Direct Seeding
After land preparation, seeds are broadcasted on the dry paddy lots and irrigation is supplied
gradually to match the growth of rice plants. The start of water supply for presaturation depends on
the condition of seed germination. Irrigation supply is continued and gradually increased until water
depth reaches 100 mm within 3 weeks. The water depth is normally kept at 100 mm during the
normal irrigation period.
(c)
Transplanting Method
In this method, rice is grown in a nursery first and transplanted into well-puddled and prepared field.
A spacing of 15 to 20 cm by 15 to 20 cm is recommended. Transplanting is done at random and
straight row methods when seedlings are ready (Figure 5.9).
(a) Direct Seeding Method Using Blower (MUDA Irrigation Scheme)
(b) Transplanting Method Using a Transplanter (MUDA Irrigation Scheme)

Figure 5.9 Rice Planting Methods
5-16
March 2009
5.6.4.1
Water Losses and Auxiliary Water Demand
In paddy fields, water is lost through evaporation (E) from free water surface, transpiration (T) from
the crop, seepage and percolation from the soil, bund leakages and runoff from the field. Seepage
and percolation vary with the local condition. The main determinants of water requirement (WR) are:
Evapotranspiration (ET) rate
Seepage and Percolation (SP) rates
Desired ponding water depth to be maintained in the fields during rice growing period
5.6.4.2
Recommended Water Depth for Rice Production
Water requirement for a successful rice crop production varies with the method of land preparation,
method of crop establishment and duration of the rice crop. It also varies with the soil,
environmental conditions and the management of the subsequent rice crop. Figure 5.10 shows the
water requirements during crop growing periods. Maintaining a standing water depth right from the
inception of crop establishment is an effective method to reduce weed growth in paddy fields.
100 mm
100 mm
20-50 mm
Saturation
200 mm
0
10
PRE-SATURATED
45
24
59 66 73
REPRODUCTIVE
STAGE
VEGETATIVE STAGE
85
110 (Days)
RIPENING STAGE
Figure 5.10 Water Requirements for Paddy at Different Growth Stages (Ayers and Westcot, 1994)
Typical values of water outflows from a paddy field are given in Table 5.7. For crop growth duration
of 100 days (high-yielding varieties), the total water requirements vary from 675 to 4,450 mm.
Table 5.7 Daily and Seasonal Water Use in Rice Production in the Tropics (Ayers and Westcot, 1994)
Item
Daily (mm/day)
Seasonal (mm)
20
175750
Wet season
4-5
400500
Dry season
6-7
600700
1-5
100500
25-30
2,5003,000
Land preparation
Evapotranspiration
Seepage and percolation

Heavy clays
Loamy/sandy soils
Traditionally, rice is transplanted and grown under continuously flooded conditions. About 5 to 10 cm
or more standing water depth is maintained throughout the growing season. Recent studies by
March 2009
5-17
Hassan (2005) to investigate rice evapotranspiration using lysimeters in the Tanjung Karang paddy
fields show that the mean ET ranged from 5 to 5.3 mm/day for the first stage of growth. For the
mid-stage the mean ET ranged from 5.2 to 5.6 mm/day, and for the last stage the mean ET ranged
from 4.6 to 5.2 mm/day.
5.6.4.3
Irrigation Duties
The irrigation duties for presaturation and supplementary supply should be used depending on the
variability among schemes. In Malaysia, the total water requirement for rice production is about
1200 1500 mm. Conversion factors for irrigation duties are shown in Table 5.8.
Table 5.8 Conversion Factors for Irrigation Depth
Unit
mm/day
m3/ha/day
L/s/ ha
1 mm/day
10
0.12
1 m /ha/day
0.1
0.02
1 L/s/ ha
8.64
86.4
5.6.4.4
Determination of Irrigation Requirements
(i) Presaturation Irrigation Requirements

The first operation in paddy irrigation is the pre-saturation process of the field. Irrigation water is
required for filling all the voids in the soil profile up to the watertable, or in some cases up to a depth
of 50 cm, beyond which additional water is considered to be deep percolation loss. In a double
cropping paddy scheme, the fallow period between seasons is short and watertable may still be close
to the surface when the next irrigation is due. Furthermore, the watertable may not be at the same
depth with respect to distance of the field from the main canal. A more inefficient rice system, where
water is deeper in top end fields, means less water moving downstream, whereas below, a more
efficient system, perhaps using a higher density of canals, means a faster areal growth (Figure 5.11).
Canal
(a) Without Insufficient Canal Density
Canal Network
(b) With Sufficient Canal Density
Figure 5.11 A Schematic of Watertable Depth Variation in a Irrigation Block with Respect to the
Irrigation Canal Networks
The pre-saturation water depth to saturate the soil and standing water depth needed for puddling
the soil by rotavation of the paddy field can be determined by the following equation:
H = (D s D v ) + D w
Where,
H
Ds
DV
Dw
=
=
=
=
(5.27)
required pre-saturation water depth (mm)

depth of soil up to watertable or 50 cm (mm)
depth of pores in the soil profile (mm), to saturate, up to 50 % of soil depth
standing water depth (mm), minimum of 50 mm
Therefore, the discharge rate required for pre-saturation is determined as follows:

Q ls =
5-18
S H
86,400
(5.28)
March 2009
Where,
= discharge rate (m3/s)
Qls
S
= area to be supplied with irrigation water in one day (m2)
= water depth required for presaturation and puddling (m)
86,400 is the number of seconds in a day

If pre-saturation is to be completed longer than one day, then the discharge rate is reduced
accordingly.
Example 7:
Determine the discharge rate for pre-saturation of 10 ha paddy field with clay loam soil to be
completed in one day, and watertable is at 50 cm.
Solution:
From Table 5.2, porosity for clay loam soil is 50%. Pre-saturation is required up to 50 cm depth.
Assuming 10% is already available,
Ds = 50 cm, Dv = (50 10)/100 = 0.40 and Dw = 50 mm
Using Eq. 5.27,
H = [500 X (0.50-0.10)] + 50
= 250 mm = 0.25 m
Q ls =
S H
= 10 X104 X 0.25/86,400
86,400
= 0.289 m3/s or 289 l/s for 10 ha in one day.

From the second day onwards, there will be water loss due to deep percolation, evaporation and also
seepage to neighbouring lots. Typical local values for evaporation are 4.5-6 mm/day; deep
percolation loss for clay soils may be 1-3 mm/day.
(ii)
Thavaraj Method
This method is widely used to determine the presaturation requirement in Malaysia. The detailed of
this method is elaborated in DID Information Paper No 2. The calculation procedure is given in
Appendix 5.H. Presaturation requirement is estimated using this formula as follows:
q=
L Eu
+ Eu
1 e z
Where,
Z
q
L
Eu
T
F
=
=
=
=
=
(5.29)
T( L Eu )
F
irrigation requirement per unit area (mm/day/ha)

total lost from saturated soil (sum of evaporation and percolation)
evaporation loss from the unsaturated soil surface (mm/day)
presaturation period (days)
total field water depth which is sum of the water depth required for saturating the soil and
standing water depth (mm/day)
= 2.718 is the base of natural logarithm
March 2009
5-19
Irrigation requirements during the presaturation period depend on the following factors:
(iii)
Water required for saturating the soil

Evaporation from unsaturated soil surface
Evaporation while standing water depth is established
Infiltration and deep percolation
Standing water depth established in the field to facilitate ploughing, puddling and
transplanting.
Normal Irrigation Requirements
The supplementary irrigation would be required to meet the evapotranspiration and field losses for
this period.
NIS =
Where,
NIS =
SW =
EP
=
SP
=
ER
=
=
kp
=
Kc
IE
=
5.6.4.5
SW + EP * k p * K c + SP - ER
IE
(5.30)
normal irrigation duty during the crop growth stages (mm/day)

irrigation supply to maintain desired standing water depth (mm/day)
pan evaporation (mm/day)
seepage-percolation (mm/day)
effective rainfall (mm/day)
pan coefficient US Weather Service Class-A Pan
crop coefficient for rice
irrigation efficiency
Effective Rainfall (ERF)
Crop water demand is fully or partly met by rainfall. Rainfall for each period varies from year to year.
The monthly effective rainfall (ERF) is computed based on the 5 years low rainfall with 80%
probability of exceedance R5. One in 5-year dry dependable rainfall is recommended for designing
irrigation system. Effective rainfall can be estimated by the following equations:
For R5 < 200 mm
ERF = 0.6R5
(5.31)
For R5 > 200 mm
ERF = 0.3 (R5 + 200)
(5.32)
The effective rainfall (ER) can also be calculated using the following formulae (Brouwer et al. 1992):
ER = 0.8 RF -25
if RF 75 mm/month
(5.33)
ER = 0.60 RF -10
if RF > 75 mm/month
(5.34)
Where,
RF
= monthly rainfall (mm)
= expected monthly 1 in 5 years dry dependable rainfall (mm)
Rd
ERF
= monthly effective rainfall (mm)
5.6.4.6
Application of Water Balance Equation
A quantitative estimation of the important components of field water balance is essential to

determine the irrigation scheduling and characterize the irrigation delivery performance for rice
irrigation system. The various water balance components are shown in Figure 5.12.
The inflow to the field consists of the total water supplied through rainfall and irrigation, and the
outflow consists of water leaving the field through evapotranspiration, seepage and percolation, and
drainage and/or surface runoff. Analysis of water balance can give management decisions on how
5-20
March 2009
the scheme ought to be operated to ensure better distribution of irrigation water to the service
areas. The generalized water balance equation for the paddy field can be expressed as follows:
Rainfall (RFj)
SWj = Standing Water Depth

ERj = Effective Rainfall
Evapotranspiration (ETj)
Irrigation (IRj)
Drainage (DRj) & Runoff (ROj)
Canal
SWj
ERj
Seepage
Drain
Seepage-Percolation (SPj)
Hard pan
Water table
Figure 5.12 Water Balance Components in a Paddy Field (Bouman and Toung, 2001)
SWj = SWj-1 + IRj + ERj ETj SPj - DRj
Where,
SWj
SWj-1
IRj
ERj
ETj
SPj
DRj
j
(5.35)
= ponding water depth in the field during j-th day or week (mm)
= ponding water depth in the field during (j-1)-th day or week (mm)
= amount of irrigation water supplied during j-th day or week (mm)
= effective rainfall received during j-th day or week (mm)
= crop evapotranspiration during j-th day or week (mm)
= water lost through seepage and deep percolation loss during j-th day or week (mm)
= drainage requirement (mm)
= irrigation period in (day or week).
5.6.4.7
Gross Irrigation Water Demand (GIR)
The net water use in paddy fields consists of Evapotranspiration (transpiration of water by the plants
plus direct evaporation from the water surface, ETc), and Seepage and Percolation (SP) from the
paddy field. Gross crop water requirement for a particular period is expressed as below:
GIR j =
(SWmax - SW j ) + ETc j + SP j ER j
IE
(5.36)
Where,
SWmax = desired or maximum standing water depth during the period (mm)
= evapotranspiration from the paddy field during the period (mm)
ETcj
= average seepage and percolation loss from the paddy field during the period (mm)
SPj
ERj
= effective rainfall during the period (mm)
IE
= irrigation system efficiency expressed as a decimal.
Eq. 5.36 can be modified for the daily presaturation irrigation supply as follows:
Q prs =
March 2009
[ 0.001 t (SAT ER ) ] A
8.64 t IE
(5.37)
5-21
Normal irrigation supply during 2nd day until end of pre-saturation period (2nd to 15th days):
15 days
Qprs =
[ [0.001 t (NIS - ER )] ] (N 1)A
(5.38)
8.64 t IE
N=2
Where, N is the completed presaturation periods in days. The presaturation period may vary. It is
entirely dependent on the management strategy by the scheme authority. In Malaysia, presaturation
period will not exceed one month.
For normal irrigation supply after the presaturation period, the amount of water to be supplied can
be determined by the following equation.
end of season
Q rs =
[0.001 t (NIS - ER )] A
(5.39)
8.64 t IE
N = 16
The rice plants grow best in standing water. The required irrigation supply for a particular irrigation
period can be determined using the following relationship:
end of season
Q rs =
[(
0.001 SWmax - SW j + t ET j + SP j ER j
)] A
8.64 t IE
N =16
(5.40)
Where,
= recommended irrigation supply for a tertiary canal (m3/s)
Qrs
A
= targeted irrigation service area (ha)
t
= duration of water management period (day)
= irrigation efficiency.
IEf
86.4 = the factor for conversion of depth (mm) of water over the area during the period to units of
discharge measured in m3/s.
Table 5.9 shows Kc values for different growth stages of rice. Due to climatic variations of Malaysia,
the design rice evapotranspiration value, which from 5-7 mm/day is considered. This can be
estimated using a suitable technique described in Section 5.4.
Table 5.9 Crop Coefficients (Kc) at Different Growth Stages of Crop
Growth Stage
Crop
Rice
5.6.5
Initial
Vegetative
Development
1.10 - 1.15
1.10 - 1.50
Grain
Formation
Late
Period
1.10 - 1.30 0.95 - 1.05
Crop
Maturity
Total
Growth Period
0.95 - 1.05
1.05 - 1.02
Water Demands for Non-paddy Crops under Microirrigation
Evapotranspiration data can be used to schedule microirrigation systems using a plant water
requirement or water budget method. In both cases, the methodology is to balance the amount of
water applied with the amount taken out through evaporation and transpiration.
5.6.5.1
Water Demands for Tree Crops
Parameters that must be considered to determine the plant water requirement are shown in Figure
5.13. The typical illustration for tree crops is shown in Figure 5.13. They must be taken into
consideration. Plant water requirement for a microirrigation system design is expressed as follows:
LPD = ETo S A K c
(5.41)
Where,
LPD = plant water requirements litres/plant/day (LPD)
5-22
March 2009
=
=
=
=
peak evapotranspiration for location (mm/day)

effective soil water storage factor (decimal) [Table 5.10]
plant area (m2)
crop coefficient factor [Appendix 5.B].
Peak evapotranspiration rate
Crop coefficient
factor
S2
S1
ETo
S
A
Kc
Plant area
Effective soil water

storage factor
Figure 5.13 Factors Affecting Plant Water Requirements

Effective soil water storage capacity (ESWS) is expressed as:
ESWS = Wa D rz MAD
(5.42)
Where,
= available water holding capacity of the soil (mm/m) [From Table 5.3]
Wa
= plant root zone depth (m) [From Appendix 5.A]
Drz
MAD = management allowed deficit (%) [From Table 5.10]
(a) Banana
(b) Papaya
Figure 5.14 Typical Point Source Microirrigation System
March 2009
5-23
After computing ESWS, the water storage factor (S) can be interpolated using the peak
evapotranspiration rate (mm/day) and effective soil storage factor (S) as shown in Table 5.10.
Table 5.10 Effective Soil Water Storage Factor (S) (Gulik, 1999)
Effective Soil Water Storage
Capacity (mm)
76
Peak Evapotranspiration Rate

(mm/day)
6.35 - 7.62 or More
5.08 - 6.35
5.08
50
6.35 - 7.62 or More

5.08 - 6.35
5.08
0.85
0.80
0.75
25
6.35 - 7.62 or More

5.08 - 6.35
5.08
0.95
0.90
0.85
5.6.5.2
S Factor
0.80
0.75
0.75
Net Irrigation Depth (dx)
The maximum net depth per irrigation is the depth of water applied to replace the soil moisture
deficit at the Management Allowed Deficit (MAD), which is computed by:
dx =
Where,
dx
MAD
Pw
AWHC
Drz
MAD Pw
AWHC D rz
100 100
(5.43)
= maximum net depth of water to be applied per irrigation (mm)

= management allowed deficit (%) [From Table 5.11]
= the percentage wetted area (%)
= available water holding capacity of the soil (mm/m) [From Table 5.3]
= plant root zone depth (m) [From Appendix 5.A]
Table 5.11 Management Allowed Deficit (MAD) Values for Various Crops (Adapted from James, 1988)
MAD (%)
5.6.5.3
Crop Type
25-40
Shallow rotted, high value fruit crops and vegetables
40-50
Orchards, vineyards, star fruit, berries and medium rotted row crops
50
Forage crops, grain crops and deep rooted row crops
65
Deep rooted trees, Maize, pastures
Daily Consumptive Use (Td)
The transpiration rate is a function of the conventionally computed consumptive use rate and the
extent of the plant canopy (Shraples et al. 1985). A simple equation for estimating the average peak
daily consumptive use rate is:
Td = Ud 0.1 Pd0.5
(5.44)
Where,
= average daily transpiration rate during the peak-use month (mm/day)
Td
= estimated average daily consumptive use rate during the peak-use month (mm/day)
Ud
Pd
= percentage of soil surface area shaded by crop canopies at midday (%). The Td values
range from 0.1 Ud Td 100%.
5-24
March 2009
The net depth to be applied per irrigation to meet consumptive use requirements is computed as:
d n = Td f x
fx =
(5.45)
dn
(5.46)
Td
Where,
= net depth to be applied per irrigation to meet consumptive use requirements (mm)
dn
fx
= irrigation interval (usually 1 day)
= average daily evapotranspiration during peak-use period (mm)
Td
5.6.5.4
(i)
Seasonal Net and Gross Irrigation Depth and Volume
Net Seasonal Irrigation Depth (Dn)
The net seasonal irrigation depth is an important design parameter for estimating annual irrigation
requirements to meet seasonal transpiration requirements. Dn is computed by:
D n = (U R n M s ) 0.1(Pd )0.5
Where,
=
Dn
U
=
=
Rn
=
Ms
(ii)
(5.47)
net season irrigation depth (mm)

seasonal consumptive use (mm)
effective rain during the growing season (mm)
residual stored soil moisture from off-season precipitation (mm)
Seasonal Irrigation Efficiency (Es)
The seasonal irrigation efficiency (Es) is basically a function of application uniformity but it depends
on minor losses, unavoidable losses and avoidable losses due to poor scheduling. Es is the
percentage of the gross water applied that is beneficially utilized to meet crop consumptive use and
leaching requirements. When seasonal unavoidable deep percolation is less than or equal to the
leaching requirement i.e., TR 1.0/(1.0 LR), then:
Es = EU
(5.48)
Where,
= emission uniformity (%)
EU
When seasonal unavoidable deep percolation is greater than the leaching requirement i.e., TR >
1.0/(1.0 LR), the seasonal irrigation efficiency is computed as follows:
Es
EU
TR (1.0 LR )
(5.49)
Where,
Es
= seasonal irrigation efficiency (%)
= seasonal transmission ratio (5.13)
TR
The peak use period transmission ratio (TR) is the depth of irrigation water transmitted to exactly
satisfy Td divided by the depth of water actually transpired, Td.
(iii)
Gross Water Depths (dg)
March 2009
5-25
The gross depth is the sufficient amount of water per irrigation to allow unavoidable deep
percolation that satisfies leaching requirements. To minimize avoidable losses, systems should be
well designed, accurately scheduled and maintained. The gross depth per irrigation is computed as:
dg =
d n Tr
100
EU
(5.50)
when, LR > 0.1 or TR < 0.9/(1.0 LR):

dg =
Where,
dg
TR
EU
LR
100 Td
EU(1.0 LR )
(5.51)
= gross depth of water application per irrigation (mm)

= peak use period transmission ratio (Table 5.12)
= leaching requirement
Table 5.12 Peak Period Transmission Ratios (TR) [Keller and Bliesner, 1990]
Crop Root Depth

Shallow (< 0.8 m)
Medium (0.8 to 1.5 m)
Deep (> 1.5 m)
Very Coarse
1.10
1.10
1.05
Soil Texture
Coarse
Medium
1.10
1.05
1.05
1.00
1.00
1.00
Fine
1.00
1.00
1.00
Note: TR values are given for drip emitters. For spray emitters add 0.05.
Table 5.13 Seasonal Transmission Ratios (TR) [Keller and Bliesner, 1990]
Crop Root Depth
Soil Texture
Very Coarse
Coarse
Medium
Fine
1.35
1.25
1.15
1.00
Shallow (< 0.8 m)

Medium (0.8 to 1.5 m)
1.25
1.20
1.10
1.05
Deep (> 1.5 m)
1.20
1.10
1.05
1.00
Note: TR values are given for drip emitters. For spray emitters add 0.05.
Gross seasonal depth (Dg) of irrigation water required is:
Dg =
100 D n
E s (1.0 LR )
(5.52)
Where,
Dg
= gross depth of water application per irrigation (mm)
Dn
TRS
EU
LR
Es
= net season irrigation depth (mm)

= seasonal use period transmission ratio
= leaching requirement
= seasonal irrigation efficiency (%)
For the condition TRS > 1.0/(1.0 LR),

Dg =
5-26
D n TRS
100
EU
(5.53)
March 2009
For the condition TRS 1.0/(1.0 LRt),

Dg =
(iv)
Dn
100
EU(1.0 LR )
(5.54)
Gross Water Volumes (Vg)
The gross volume of water required per plant per day is a useful design parameter for selecting
emitter discharge rates:
Vg = K
Where,
=
Vg
=
Sp
Sr
=
=
dg
=
fx
K
=
(5.55)
fx
gross volume of water (L/day)

plant spacing in the row (m)
row spacing (m)
gross water depth (mm)
irrigation interval (day)
conversion unit 1.0 for metric units
Vs =
Where,
=
Vs
A
=
=
Dg
K
=
S p S r dg
Dg A
(5.56)
seasonal volume of water (m3/s)

area (ha)
gross seasonal depth (m)
conversion factor (1000)
5.6.5.5
Water Demands for Row Crops
The water budget method can be used for row crops, such as vegetables, strawberries or any crop
that is spaced close enough together so that the system is irrigating the entire field. If the plants or
rows are spaced far apart so that portions of the field are not irrigated, then the plant water
requirement method will be a better approach. Figure 5.15 shows row crops under microirrigation.
For row crops, the water requirement per row is first determined. Then, the total water requirement
can be determined. Equations in Section 5.6.5.3 and 5.6.5.4 can be used to calculate irrigation
requirements for closely spaced row crops. For more precise estimation of water requirements, the
area of each row can be considered.
(a) Cabbage field
(b) Lettuce field
Figure 5.15 Typical Row Crops under Microirrigation Systems

March 2009
5-27
5.6.5.6
Irrigation Requirements per Application (IRRI)
The irrigation requirement of a crop is the total amount of water that must be supplied by irrigation
to crop achieving full production potential under the given growing environment (James, 1988).
D rz fc pwp + ETc + LR ER
IRRI =
IE
Where,
IRRI
Drz
fc
pwp
ETc
LR
ER
IE
5.6.5.7
(5.57)
= irrigation requirement per application (mm)

= effective root zone depth (mm)
= field capacity in percent by volume (%)
= permanent wilting point at a particular time in percent by volume (%)
= crop evapotranspiration (mm)
= leaching requirement (mm)
= effective rainfall (mm)
= overall irrigation efficiency (80 - 90 %)
Design Daily Irrigation Requirement (DDIR)
The design daily irrigation requirement (DDIR) is usually the rate at which an irrigation system must
supply water to achieve the desired level of irrigation (Sections 5.6.5.3 and 5.6.5.4). The DDIR for
an irrigation system varies with crops, climate and soils of the farm. DDIR is determined using Eq.
5.58:
DDIR =
RAW = IRRI
fx
fx
(5.58)
Where,
DDIR = design daily irrigation requirement (mm)
RAW = readily available water (mm)
= irrigation interval (day)
fx
Soil Water Conservation Service (SCS) USDA has developed an equation for estimating DDIR values
from peak monthly evapotranspiration for various values of AD. This equation is:
DDIR = 0.034
ETm1.09
AD0.09
(5.59)
Where,
ETm = average total evapotranspiration for the peak month (mm)
AD
= soil water depletion allowed between irrigation (mm) (usually RAW)
Example 8:
A farmer plans to irrigate sweet corn (maize). Irrigation will be accomplished by allowing 65% of the
available water to be depleted between irrigations. The soil is 120 cm deep loam. Determine DDIR?
Consider fc = 31% and wp = 14%; and Pan Evaporation, EP = 200 mm for the peak month.
Solution:
Using Eqs. 5.22 and 5.23,
AD = MAD x AW
= MAD x
D rz fc
100
wp
= 0.65 x
120(31 14 )
= 13.26 cm
100
= 132.6 mm
Using Eqs. 5.7 and 5.11,
5-28
March 2009
ETm = kc x kp x EP
Consider Crop Coefficient (kc) for fruit formation stage of corn from Appendix 5B. The value obtained
is 1.10. Pan Coefficient kp = 0.80 from Appendix 5C.
We get, ETm = 1.10 x 0.80 x 200 = 226 mm for the peak month.
Using Eq. 5.59,
DDIR = 0.034
5.6.5.8
226 1.09
132.6 0.09
= 8.06 mm/day
Design Daily Irrigation Requirement for a Farm (DDIRf)
The design daily irrigation requirement for a farm (DDIRf) is determined by computing the
cumulative irrigation requirement for the farm.
n
(A )(DDIR )
i
DDIR f =
i=1
(5.60)
i=1
Where,
DDIRf
DDIRi
Ai
n
=
=
=
=
5.6.5.9
daily design irrigation requirement for the farm (mm/day)

daily design irrigation requirement for crop i (mm/day)
area of crop i (ha)
number of crops grown on farm
Seasonal Irrigation Requirements (SIR)
The total amount of water needed during an irrigation season for a given crop grown at a specified
location, which is estimated using Eq. 5.61.
SIR j,k =
Where,
SIRj,k
(ETs)j,k
ERj,k
IE
(ETs ) j,k (ER )j,k

IE
=
=
=
=
100
(5.61)
seasonal irrigation requirement for crop j during season k (mm)

total seasonal evapotranspiration for crop j during season k (mm)
seasonal effective rainfall for crop j during year k (mm)
overall irrigation efficiency which is usually 80-90%.
The total volume of water needed to irrigate the farm for a given season is calculated using Eq. 5.62
n
(SIf )k = K (SIR j,k ) A j
(5.62)
j=1
Where,
(SIf)j,k
K
Aj
5.6.5.10
= seasonal irrigation volume required for farm (m3)

= 10 unit constant when SIf is in m3.
= area of crop j (ha)
Irrigation System Capacity (Qsys)
The required irrigation supply for irrigation system can be determined using the Eq. 5.63.
March 2009
5-29
Q sys = 2.778
Where,
Qsys =
=
Ts
A
=
=
Igr
5.6.6
the
the
the
the
A I gr
(5.63)
Ts
design irrigation system flowrate (L/s)

system operating time per irrigation cycle (hr)
total irrigated area (ha)
gross irrigation depth (mm)
Water Demands for Non-paddy Crops under Sprinkler Irrigation
The computation procedure is the same as for microirrigation system under closed growing crops (P
= 100%). The same procedure is followed as described in previous section for microirrigation.
5.6.7
Irrigation for Crops Grown under Special Considerations
5.6.7.1
Shallow Watertable Condition
Soil moisture depletions between irrigations may be less than crop evapotranspiration. Upward
capillary rise or flow of water from the watertable into the root zone causes this phenomenon. This
flow can contribute up to 60% of the evapotranspiration requirements.
5.6.7.2
Deficit Irrigation Technique
Normally deficit irrigation is discouraged because of its potential adverse effect on crop yield.
However, deficit irrigation is regulated under shortage of water availability for irrigation supply and
uses less water with little or no effect on yield and in some cases benefits of better crop quality. This
system may be beneficial particularly in drought conditions. The amount of land to be irrigated and
the crop mix that maximizes the benefits of irrigation must be determined. Deficit irrigation is
considered by allowing planned plant stress during one or more periods of growing season.
Adequate water is supplied during critical growth stages to maximize water use efficiency.
5.6.7.3
Irrigation with Limited Water
A water supply may be inadequate to meet crop evapotranspiration needed for maximum yield due
to limited water supply. One recommendation to cope with a limited water supply is to change to
crops that are tolerant to mild water stress. This approach is not always practical for the changing of
cropping patterns, which in turn depends on cultural constraints, climate characteristics, water
quality, soil quality and so forth. If deficit irrigation is necessary, then the following approach is
recommended.
Replenish the soil moisture to field capacity with a preplant irrigation down to the depth of
the root zone. This will provide soil moisture for good root development and will be provided
stored soil moisture to be used later in the growing season.
Meet the evapotranspiration during early stages of growth; impose stress mid to late season
and cut off water earlier than normal.
Avoid any significant deficits during growth stages that are sensitive to water stress.
Minimize the number of irrigations during the initial stages, when partial canopy coverage
occurs. This consideration will reduce direct evaporation from the soil.
5.6.7.4
Water Saving Technology
The irrigation water, passing from its source to the field and then absorbed by crops and finally
enabling production, has gone through many links, including water resources allocation, conveyance,
distribution, irrigation application, soil evaporation and plant transpiration
5-30
March 2009
(a)
Irrigation Water Requirement
The irrigation of paddy fields should be made according to the controlled irrigational mode of being
thin, shallow, wet and sunny; the water requirement of crops of dry farmlands, fruit trees and
vegetables should be made according to their respective productivity; for areas of water shortage,
water requirement should be made according to the sensitivity of crops at each of their physiological
stage, and such irrigation methods as critical irrigation and insufficient irrigation should be
determined.
(b)
Irrigation Water Use Efficiency
It is the ratio of inlet water at the canal head to total amount deducted by the losses in the canal
system and fields, which is an integrated index to centrally reflect the conditions of irrigation
engineering and management level. It should not be less than 0.50, 0.60, and 0.70 for large,
medium and small irrigation areas, respectively. It should not be less than 0.80, 0.85 and 0.90 at the
groundwater tube well irrigation area, sprinkle or micro irrigated, and the drip or trickle irrigated
area, respectively.
(c)
Technical Requirements in Engineering
The water saving technology provides the following guidelines:
Canal Protection Ratio: it is the ratio of existing seepage-controlled area to the water
passage area. It should not be less than 40 percent for large irrigation areas, no less than 50
percent for medium irrigation areas, and no less than 70 per cent for small irrigation areas;
the well irrigation area should be set with fixed water pipes.
For water pipes in the well irrigation area, the consumption of field fixed pipelines should not
be less than 90m/km2. The branch pipes, when laid in a single direction, should have
intervals of no more than 75m; if in double directions, should have intervals of no more than
150m. The water outlet (hydrant) should be arranged at intervals of no more than 100m and
connected with soft pipes.
The sprinkling irrigation should meet requirements for evenness and atomization; the pipe
sprinkling irrigation system should have control, metering and safety protection devices;
central fulcrum, translational and windlass sprinkling irrigational machinery set should be
safe and reliable; for the light or small translational sprinkling irrigational machinery set, its
stand-alone control area should be 3 km2 and 6 km2 respectively.
For micro irrigation engineering, the water source should be strictly filtered and purified; the
requirement on evenness should be met; relevant control, metering and safety protection
devices should be installed
REFERENCES
Allen R.G., Pereira L.S., Raes D. and Martin M. (1998). Crop evapotranspiration: Guidelines for
computing crop water requirements. FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper No. 56, Rome, Italy.
March 2009
5-31
Ayers R.S. and Westcot D.W. (1994). Water quality for agriculture. FAO Irrigation and Drainage
Paper No. 29, Rome, Italy.
Brouwer C., Hoevenaars J.P.M., van Bosch B.E., Hatcho N. and Heibloem M. (1992). Irrigation Water
Management: Training Manual No. 6 - Scheme Irrigation Water Needs and Supply, FAO (Food and
Agricultural Organization), Rome Italy.
Bouman B.A.M, and Tuong T.P. (2001). Field water management to save water and increase its
productivity in irrigated rice. Agric. Water Manage. 49(1):1130.
Christiansen C. (2006). Pumping from shallow streams. Water Series QNRM05391, Natural Resources
and Water, Queensland Government, Australia.
Doorenbos J. and Pruitt W.O (1997). Guidelines for predicting crop water requirements, Irrigation
and Drainage Paper 24, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, 179 p.
(1977)
Foth H.D (1990). Fundamentals of Soil Science, 8th ed. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Halcrow, W. and Partners (1992). Infrastructure Operation and Maintenance Manual: Kapunga
Project. National Agricultural and Food Cooperation, Tanzania
Hassan S.M.S. (2005). Estimation of rice evapotranspiration in paddy fields using remote sensing and
field measurements. Unpublished PhD Thesis, Universiti Putra Malaysia.
IRRI (1997). Annual Report, International Rice Research Institute, Annual Los Banos, Philippines.
James L.G. (1988). Principles of farm irrigation system design. John Wiley & Sons, New York, pp.
543.
Jensen M.E, Burman R.D. and Allen R.G. (1990). Evapotranspiration and irrigation water
requirements, Manuals and reports on Engineering Practice, ASCE No. 70, 360 pp.
Keller J. and Bliesner R.D. (1990). Sprinkle and trickle irrigation. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York,
pp. 652.
Lamm F.R., Ayars J.E. and Nakayama F.S. (2007). Microirrigation for crop production: Design,
Operation and Management. Developments in Agricultural Engineering 13. Elsevier, Netherland, pp.
618, 2007.
Merwe, F. P.J.; Burger, H.J., Heyns, P.J., Koegelenberg, F.H., Lategan, M.T., Mulder, D.J., Smal,
H.S., Stimie, C.M. and Viljoen, P.D. (1997). Chapter 2, Irrigation terminology. Irrigation design
manual. ARC - Institute for Agricultural Engineering. Silverton, Pretoria, South Africa, pp 2.1-2.18.
Rhoades J.D. (1974). Drainage for salinity control. In: Drainage for Agriculture. Van Schilfgaarde J.
(ed). Amer. Soc. Agron. Monograph No. 17, pp 433462.
Rhoades J.D. and Merrill S.D. (1976). Assessing the suitability of water for irrigation: Theoretical and
empirical approaches. In: Prognosis of Salinity and Alkalinity. FAO Soils Bulletin 31. FAO (Food and
Agricultural Organization), Rome. po. 69110.
Richards L.A. (1954). Diagnosis and improvement of saline and alkali soils. USDA Agricultural
Handbook No. 60, US Department of Agriculture, Washington DC. 160 p.
Schwab G.O., Richard K.F., Talcott W.E. and Kenneth K.B. (1966). Soil and Water Conservation
Engineering. John Willey & Sons, Inc. New York.
5-32
March 2009
Solomon K.H. (1988). Irrigation Systems and Water Application Efficiencies. Center for Irrigation
Technology Irrigation Notes, California State University, Fresno, California
Schifield C.S. (1935). The salinity of irrigation water, Smithsonian Institute Report, Washington D.C.
Van der Gulik, T. (1999). B.C. Trickle Irrigation Manual. B.C. Ministry of Agriculture and Food.
USDA-NRCS (1997). Irrigation water management handbook, Publication No. 3396.
March 2009
5-33
5-34
March 2009
Deep, Uniform, Well-Drained Soil Profile (Adapted From USDA-NRCS, 1997)
Root Depth (m)
Crop
Minimum
Maximum
Asparagus
1.83
0.00
Banana
0.30
0.61
Bean (dry)
0.46
0.61
Bean (green)
0.46
0.61
Beans
0.91
1.52
Beet (sugar)
0.46
0.76
Beet
0.30
0.46
Berries
0.91
1.52
Broccoli
0.61
0.76
Brussels sprout
0.61
0.76
Cabbage
0.61
1.68
Cantaloupe
0.61
1.22
Carrot
0.46
0.61
Cauliflower
0.61
0.76
Celery
0.61
0.70
Chard
0.61
0.91
Cherry
0.76
1.22
Citrus
0.61
1.22
Coffee
0.91
1.52
Corn (grain and silage)
0.61
0.91
Corn (sweet)
0.46
0.61
Cotton
0.61
1.83
Cucumber
0.46
0.61
Eggplant
0.76
1.07
March 2009
5A-1
Deep, Uniform, Well-Drained Soil Profile (Adapted From USDA-NRCS, 1997)
(contd.)
Root Depth (m)
Crop
5A-2
Minimum
Maximum
Lettuce
0.15
0.46
Lucerne
1.22
1.83
Onion
0.30
0.40
Parsnip
0.61
0.91
Passion fruit
0.30
0.46
Pastures (annual)
0.30
0.76
Pastures (perennial)
0.30
0.76
Pea
0.46
0.61
Pepper
0.61
0.91
Pumpkin
0.91
1.22
Radish
0.30
0.40
Safflower
0.91
1.52
Sorghum
0.61
0.91
Sorghum (silage)
0.91
1.22
Soybean
0.61
0.76
Spinach
0.46
0.61
Squash
0.61
0.91
Strawberry
0.30
0.46
Sudan grass
0.91
1.22
Sugarcane
0.46
1.07
Tobacco
0.61
1.22
Tomato
0.61
1.22
Turnip (white)
0.46
0.76
Watermelon
0.61
0.91
March 2009
APPENDIX
5.B Crop Coefficients (Kc) at Different Growth

Given Crops (Adapted From Dorenbos and Pruitt, 1977)
Stages
of
Growth Stages
Initial
Vegetative
Development
Fruit
Formation
Late
Period
Crop
Maturity
Banana
0.35 0.40
0.70 - 0.85
1.00 - 1.10
1.90 - 1.00
0.75 - 0.85
Total
Growth
Period
0.70 - 0.80
Beans
0.30 - 0.40
0.65 - 0.75
0.95 - 1.05
0.90 - 0.95
0.85 - 0.95
0.85 - 0.90
Cabbage
0.40 - 0.50
0.70 - 0.80
0.95 - 1.11
0.90 - 1.00
0.80 0.95
0.70 - 0.80
Grape
0.35 - 0.55
0.60 - 0.80
0.70 - 0.90
0.60 - 0.80
0.55 - 0.70
0.55 - 0.75
Corn: Sweet
0.30 - 0.50
0.70 - 0.90
1.05 - 1.20
1.00 - 1.15
0.95 - 1.10
0.80 - 0.90
Corn: Field
0.30 - 0.50
0.70 - 0.85
1.05 - 1.20
0.8 - 0.95
0.55 - 0.60
0.75 - 0.90
Onion
0.40 - 0.60
0.70 - 0.80
0.95 - 1.10
0.85 - 0.90
0.75 - 0.85
0.80 - 0.90
Green
0.40 - 0.60
0.60 - 0.75
0.95 - 1.05
0.95 - 1.05
0.95 - 1.05
0.65 - 0.80
Pepper
0.30 - 0.40
0.60 - 0.75
0.95 - 1.10
0.85 - 1.00
0.80 0.90
0.70 - 0.80
Potato
0.40 - 0.50
0.70 - 0.80
1.05 - 1.20
0.85 - 0.95
0.70 0.75
0.75 - 0.90
Rice
1.10 - 1.15
1.10 - 1.50
1.10 - 1.30
0.95 - 1.05
0.95 - 1.05
1.05 - 1.02
Soy
0.30 - 0.40
0.70 0.80
1.00 - 1.05
0.70 - 0.80
0.40 0.30
0.75 - 0.90
Sugarcane
0.40 - 0.50
0.70 1.00
1.00 - 1.30
0.75 - 0.80
0.50 0.60
0.85 - 1.05
Tobacco
0.30 - 0.40
0.70 0.80
1.00 - 1.20
0.90 - 1.00
0.75 - 0.85
0.85 - 0.95
Tomato
0.40 - 0.50
0.70 0.80
1.05 - 1.25
0.80 - 0.95
0.60 0.65
0.75 - 0.90
Watermelon
0.40 - 0.50
0.70 0.80
0.95 - 1.05
0.80 - 0.90
0.65 - 0.75
0.75 - 0.85
Crop
March 2009
5A-3
APPENDIX
5.C
Pan Coefficient Kp for the Class A Pan Evaporation

Different Conditions (Adapted From Doorenbos and Pruitt, 1977)
Class A
Pan
Mean RH%
Wind**
(km/day)
Light
175
Moderate
175 425
Strong
425 700
Very
strong
> 700
Distance from
the green crop
(m)
0
10
100
1000
0
10
100
1000
0
10
100
1000
0
10
100
1000
Condition A
Pan surrounded by grass
Low Medium High
40
40 - 70
70
0.55
0.65
9.70
0.75
0.50
0.60
0.65
0.70
0.45
0.55
0.60
0.65
0.40
0.45
0.50
0.55
0.55
0.75
0.80
0.85
0.60
0.70
0.75
0.80
0.50
0.60
0.65
0.70
0.45
0.55
0.60
0.60
0.75
0.85
0.85
0.85
0.65
0.75
0.80
0.80
0.60
0.65
0.70
0.75
0.50
0.60
0.65
0.65
under
Condition B*
Pan surrounded by dry uncovered soil
Mean RH%
Low
Medium High
Distance from
the dry fallow
(m)
0
10
100
1000
0
10
100
1000
0
10
100
1000
0
10
100
1000
40
40 - 70
70
0.70
0.60
0.55
0.50
0.65
0.55
0.50
0.45
0.60
0.50
0.45
0.40
0.50
0.45
0.40
0.35
0.80
0.70
0.65
0.60
0.75
0.65*
0.60
0.55
0.65
0.55
0.45
0.45
0.60
0.50
0.45
0.40
0.85
0.80
0.75
0.70
0.80
0.70
0.65
0.60
0.70
0.65
0.60
0.55
0.65
0.55
0.50
0.45
* For areas of extensive uncovered and not developed agricultural soils.

Reduce values of KP by 20% under hot wind conditions and by 5 to 10 % for moderate wind
conditions, temperature and humidity.
** Total wind movement in km/day.
5A-4
March 2009
APPENDIX 5.D Water Quality Guidelines
5.D.1: Quality of Irrigation Water (Schofiled, 1935)

Total Dissolved Salts
Water
Classification
Concentration (meq/l)
Excellent
EC x 10-5
< 25
ppm
< 175
Sodium (%)
< 20
Chloride
<4
Sulphates
<4
Good
25 75
175 525
20 40
47
4-7
Permissible
75 200
525 1400
40 60
47
4-7
Doubtful
200 300
525 1400
40 60
7 12
7 -12
Unsuitable
> 300
> 2100
> 80
> 20
> 20
5.D.2: Quality of Irrigation Water by Christiansen (Christiansen, 2006)
Rating
EC
(mmho/cm)
Na+(%)
SAR
Na2CO3
Cl
(meq/l)
ES
Boron
TDS
(mg/l)
(Ppm)
500
40
0.5
0.5
275
1000
60
1.0
1.0
600
2000
70
2.0
10
16
2.0
1200
3000
80
12
3.0
15
24
3.0
1950
4000
90
15
4.0
20
32
4.0
2700
> 4000
> 90
> 15
> 4.0
> 20
> 32
>4
> 2700
March 2009
5A-5
APPENDIX 5.E Nomograph for Determining the SAR Value of Irrigation Water and
Estimating the Corresponding ESP Value of a Soil at Equilibrium with the
Water (Richards, 1954)
Na +
mg/l
20
Na
SAR
Ca + Mg
15
0.25
0.50
0.75
1.0
15
10
ES
TI 2
MA
TE
D
SO
D
IU
10
MAD
EQ
SO
UI 4
RP
5
LI
TI
BR
5
ON
IU
6
-R
M
6
EX
7 ATIO
7
CH
(S
AN
8
A
GA 8
9 R)
BL
10
9
ESO 10
12
DI
UM 12
14
-P
ER 14
16
CE
1
NT 6 1
20
AG
8
24
E
(E
SP 22
30
)
26
30
2
Where Na, Ca and Mg are sodium, calcium
and magnesium in mg/l from the
water analysis.
Ca++ +Mg++
mg/l
0
5A-6
20
March 2009
APPENDIX 5.F Crop Tolerance and Yield Potential of Selected Crops Influenced by
Irrigation Water Salinity (ECw) or Soil Salinity (ECe) (Ayers and Westcot,
1994)
Types of Crop
100%
90%
75%
50%
0%
maximum
ECe
ECw
ECe
ECw
ECe
ECw
ECe
ECw
ECe
ECw
Soybean (Glycine max)
5.0
3.3
5.5
3.7
6.3
4.2
7.5
5.0
10
6.7
Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata)
4.9
3.3
5.7
3.8
7.0
4.7
9.1
6.0
13
8.8
Groundnut (Arachis hypogaea)
3.2
2.1
3.5
2.4
4.1
2.7
4.9
3.3
6.6
4.4
Rice (paddy) (Oriza sativa)
3.0
2.0
3.8
2.6
5.1
3.4
7.2
4.8
11
7.6
Sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum) 1.7
1.1
3.4
2.3
5.9
4.0
10
6.8
19
12
Field Crops
Corn (maize) (Zea mays)
1.7
1.1
2.5
1.7
3.8
2.5
5.9
3.9
10
6.7
Broadbean (Vicia faba)
1.5
1.1
2.6
1.8
4.2
2.0
6.8
4.5
12
8.0
Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris)
1.0
0.7
1.5
1.0
2.3
1.5
3.6
2.4
6.3
4.2
Vegetable Crops
Squash, scallop (Cucurbita pepo)
3.2
2.1
3.8
2.6
4.8
3.2
6.3
4.2
9.4
6.3
Broccoli (Brassica oleracea botrytis)
2.8
1.9
3.9
2.6
5.5
3.7
8.2
5.5
14
9.1
Tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum)
2.5
1.7
3.5
2.3
5.0
3.4
7.6
5.0
13
8.4
Cucumber (Cucumis sativus)
2.5
1.7
3.3
2.2
4.4
2.9
6.3
4.2
10
6.8
Spinach (Spinacia oleracea)
2.0
1.3
3.3
2.2
5.3
3.5
8.6
5.7
15
10
Celery (Apium graveolens)
1.8
1.2
3.4
2.3
5.8
3.9
9.9
6.6
18
12
Cabbage (Br. oleracea capitata)
1.8
1.2
2.8
1.9
4.4
2.9
7.0
4.6
12
8.1
Potato (Solanum tuberosum)
1.7
1.1
2.5
1.7
3.8
2.5
5.9
3.9
10
6.7
Corn, sweet (maize) (Zea mays)
1.7
1.1
2.5
1.7
3.8
2.5
5.9
3.9
10
6.7
Sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas)
1.5
1.0
2.4
1.6
3.8
2.5
6.0
4.0
11
7.1
Pepper (Capsicum annuum)
1.5
1.0
2.2
1.5
3.3
2.2
5.1
3.4
8.6
5.8
Lettuce (Lactuca sativa)
1.3
0.9
2.1
1.4
3.2
2.1
5.1
3.4
9.0
6.0
Grapefruit (Citrus paradisi)
1.8
1.2
2.4
1.6
3.4
2.2
4.9
3.3
8.0
5.4
Orange (Citrus sinensis)
1.7
1.1
2.3
1.6
3.3
2.2
4.8
3.2
8.0
5.3
Grape (Vitus sp.)
1.5
1.0
2.5
1.7
4.1
2.7
6.7
4.5
12
7.9
Strawberry (Fragaria sp.)
1.0
0.7
1.3
0.9
1.8
1.2
2.5
1.7
2.7
Star fruit
1.8
1.2
2.4
1.6
3.4
2.2
4.9
3.3
8.0
5.4
Fruit Crops
March 2009
5A-7
APPENDIX 5.F Crop Tolerance and Yield Potential of Selected Crops as Influenced by
Irrigation Water Salinity (ECw) or Soil Salinity (ECe) (Ayers and Westcot,
1994) (contd.)
Types of Crop
100%
90%
75%
50%
0%
maximum
ECe
ECw
ECe
ECw
ECe ECw ECe ECw ECe ECw
Radish (Raphanus sativus)
1.2
0.8
2.0
1.3
3.1
2.1
5.0
3.4
8.9
Onion (Allium cepa)
1.2
0.8
1.8
1.2
2.8
1.8
4.3
2.9
7.4
5.0
Carrot (Daucus carota)
1.0
0.7
1.7
1.1
2.8
1.9
4.6
3.0
8.1
5.4
Other Crops
5.9
Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris)
1.0
0.7
1.5
1.0
2.3
1.5
3.6
2.4
6.3
4.2
Turnip (Brassica rapa)
0.9
0.6
2.0
1.3
3.7
2.5
6.5
4.3
12
8.0
Wheatgrass, tall (Agropyron

elongatum)
7.5
5.0
9.9
6.6
13
9.0
19
13
31
21
Wheatgrass, fairway crested

(Agropyron cristatum)
7.5
5.0
9.0
6.0
11
7.4
15
9.8
22
15
Bermuda grass (Cynodon dactylon)
6.9
4.6
8.5
5.6
11
7.2
15
9.8
23
15
Barley (forage) (Hordeum vulgare)
6.0
4.0
7.4
4.9
9.5
6.4
13
8.7
20
13
Ryegrass, perennial (Lolium perenne) 5.6
3.7
6.9
4.6
8.9
5.9
12
8.1
19
13
Trefoil, narrowleaf birdsfoot (Lotus

corniculatus tenuifolium)
5.0
3.3
6.0
4.0
7.5
5.0
10
6.7
15
10
Harding grass (Phalaris tuberosa)
4.6
3.1
5.9
3.9
7.9
5.3
11
7.4
18
12
Fescue, tall (Festuca elatior)
3.9
2.6
5.5
3.6
7.8
5.2
12
7.8
20
13
Wheatgrass, (Agropyron sibiricum)
3.5
2.3
6.0
4.0
9.8
6.5
16
11
28
19
Vetch, common (Vicia angustifolia)
3.0
2.0
3.9
2.6
5.3
3.5
7.6
5.0
12
8.1
Sudan grass (Sorghum sudanense)
2.8
1.9
5.1
3.4
8.6
5.7
14
9.6
26
17
Wildrye, beardless (Elymus

triticoides)
2.7
1.8
4.4
2.9
6.9
4.6
11
7.4
19
13
Cowpea (forage) (Vigna unguiculata)
2.5
1.7
3.4
2.3
4.8
3.2
7.1
4.8
12
7.8
Trefoil, big (Lotus uliginosus)
2.3
1.5
2.8
1.9
3.6
2.4
4.9
3.3
7.6
5.0
Sesbania (Sesbania exaltata)
2.3
1.5
3.7
2.5
5.9
3.9
9.4
6.3
17
11
Sphaerophysa (Sphaerophysa
salsula)
2.2
1.5
3.6
2.4
5.8
3.8
9.3
6.2
16
11
Alfalfa (Medicago sativa)
2.0
1.3
3.4
2.2
5.4
3.6
8.8
5.9
16
10
Lovegrass (Eragrostis sp.)
2.0
1.3
3.2
2.1
5.0
3.3
8.0
5.3
14
9.3
Corn (forage) (maize) (Zea mays)
1.8
1.2
3.2
2.1
5.2
3.5
8.6
5.7
15
10
Clover, berseem (Trifolium

alexandrinum)
1.5
1.0
3.2
2.2
5.9
3.9
10
6.8
19
13
Orchard grass (Dactylis glomerata)
1.5
1.0
3.1
2.1
5.5
3.7
9.6
6.4
18
12
Foxtail (Alopecurus pratensis)
1.5
1.0
2.5
1.7
4.1
2.7
6.7
4.5
12
7.9
Clover, red (Trifolium pratense)
1.5
1.0
2.3
1.6
3.6
2.4
5.7
3.8
9.8
6.6
Clover (Trifolium hybridum)
1.5
1.0
2.3
1.6
3.6
2.4
5.7
3.8
9.8
6.6
Clover, ladino (Trifolium repens)
1.5
1.0
2.3
1.6
3.6
2.4
5.7
3.8
9.8
6.6
Clover (Trifolium fragiferum)
1.5
1.0
2.3
1.6
3.6
2.4
5.7
3.8
9.8
6.6
5A-8
March 2009
APPENDIX 5.G Cropping Management of Direct Seeded and Transplanting Rice Fields
(Adapted from FAO, 1994)
5.G.1 Cropping Management of Direct Seeded Rice Fields
Average
Duration
Rice Growing Stages and Duration
Growth Stages
Reproductive
Ripening
Depth
Day After
Seeding
(days)
Seeding
Tillering
30
Gradual
Active Tillering
15
50
Maximum Tillering
30
15
50
Panicle Initiation
45
10
100
Reduction Division
58
15
100
Heading
70
100
Phase
Crop Establishment
and
Vegetative
Growth
Water Depth
Variation (+/-)
(mm)
Increase
Maintain/Constant
Grain Filling
80
10
100
Active Ripening
90
10
Harvesting
110
10
Maintain
Draining
5.G.2 Water Regime for Growing Stages of Direct Seeded Rice

Agricultural
Activities
Presaturation
Seeding
Days
15
1-3
Water
Depth (mm)
200
50
Tillering
Vegetative
Stage
Productive
Stage
Ripening
Stage
15-21
20-45
46-85
86-110
50-70
100
Draining
70-100
5.G.3 Water Regime for Growing Stages of Transplanted Rice

Agricultural
Activities
Nursery
Days
7-15
Water
Depth
(mm)
20
March 2009
Land
Preparation
At
Transplanting
After
Transplanting
5-7
150-200
20-30
50-70
Vegetative
Stage
Productive
Stage
Ripening
Stage
20-45
46-85
Days
86-110
Days
50-70
100
Draining
5A-9
APPENDIX 5.H Worked Examples

5.H.1 Presaturation Irrigation Requirements Calculation for Paddy
Provided Data
Presaturation period
Evaporation from Unsaturated Soil (Eu)
Pan Evaporation
Percolation Loss
Standing Water depth
Water Depth for Saturation
= 15 days
= 4.5 mm/day
= 7.5 mm/day
= 3 mm/day
= 100 mm
= 100 mm
Calculate presaturation irrigation requirement for the above data.
Note: Data should be taken based on the local condition

Solution:
Step 1: Determination of L
The total water loss due to evaporation from saturated soil and Percolation
L = (Pan Evaporation x Pan Coefficient) + Percolation Loss
= 7.7 x 0.75 + 3.0
= 8.77 mm
Step 2: Computation of F
F = Water Depth for Soil Saturation + Established Standing Water Depth
= 100 + 100
= 200 mm
Step 3: Computation of Z
The value of Z is computed using the following relationship:
Z=
T( L E u )
15 (8.77 - 4.5)
=
= 0.32 day
200
F
Step 4: Calculation of Presaturation Irrigation Requirements (q) using Eq. 5.30

q=
5A-10
L Eu
8.77 4.5
+ Eu =
+ 4.5 = 20.09 mm/day/ha
z
1e
1 - e -0.32
= 2.32 l/s/ha [1 mm/day/ha = 0.1157 l/s/ha]
March 2009
5.H.2
Water Demand for Paddy Irrigation
Rice is to be cultivated in Machang Irrigation Schemes of 3500 ha in wet season and 2000 ha in dry
season. Determine the scheme irrigation water demand and the required supply. The data for the
local crop environment is given in the Tables. Compute the water demand per hectare per season
and seasonal water demand for wet and dry seasons. Consider the maximum ponding or standing
water depth is 10 cm during normal irrigation supply period. The overall irrigation efficiency is
assumed to be 45%.
Table 5.H.2-1 Field Data for Paddy Cultivation
Description
Wet Season
Dry Season
Crop growing period
115 days
115 days
Presaturation Period
15 days
15 days
Presaturation Irrigation Depth
20 mm/day
20 mm/day
Normal Irrigation Depth
10 mm/day
10 mm/day
Start of Season
16 August
16 March
Table 5.H.2-2 Monthly Pan Evaporation, Pan Coefficient, Crop Coefficient and Rainfall
Month
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Max Evaporation
(mm)
161.20
182.00
173.60
162.00
145.70
138.00
136.40
148.80
144.00
158.10
153.00
142.60
Pan Coefficient
(Kp)
0.75
0.75
0.75
0.75
0.75
0.75
0.75
0.75
0.75
0.75
0.75
0.75
Crop Coefficient
(Kc)
1.05
1.05
1.10
1.20
1.40
1.40
1.10
1.10
1.20
1.40
1.40
1.10
Average Rainfall
RF (mm)
207.69
88.48
84.70
78.32
138.60
149.29
149.04
196.62
256.27
267.30
415.67
455.00
Solution:
Step 1: Determination of the Daily Presaturation Area.
Season
Cultivated Areas
(ha)
(Col 3)
Daily Presaturation Areas
(Col 1)
Presaturation
Period
(Col 2)
Wet Season
15
3500
233.33 ha
Dry Season
15
2000
133.33 ha
(Col 3)/(Col 2)
Step 2: Estimation of Water Demands for Presaturation Period.

Season
(Col 1)
Wet Season
Dry Season
March 2009
Daily Presaturation
Areas (ha)
(Col 2)
233.33
133.33
Presaturation
Period
(Col 3)
15
15
Required Depth
SAT (mm/day)
(Col 4)
20
20
Presaturation Water
Depth (mm)
(Col 3)x(Col 4)
300
300
5A-11
Step 3: Computation of Monthly and Daily Average Effective Rainfall using Eqs. 5.32 and 5.33.
Rainfall (mm)
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Monthly
208
88
85
78
139
149
149
197
256
267
416
455
Effective
115
43
41
37
73
80
79
108
144
150
239
263
Daily Effective
3.7
1.5
1.3
1.2
2.4
2.7
2.6
3.5
4.8
4.9
8.0
8.5
Step 4: Estimation of Daily Irrigation Supply for Presaturation periods (16 31 March/August).
Where
SAT = 20 mm/day
Normal Irrigation Supply (NIS) = 10 mm/day
ER = 3.5 mm/day for wet season
ER = 1.3 mm/day for dry season
Presaturation Period = 15 days
IE = 45% (Assumed)
The daily presaturation irrigation supply can be estimated using Eq. 5.36 and the normal irrigation
supply is estimated using Eqs. 5.37 to 5.40.
Wet Season (16-30 August):
Daily presaturation supply in Wet Season,
Qprs = [(0.001(20 3.5)) x 233.33]/(8.64 x 0.45) = (0.0165 x 233.33)/3.89 = 1.0 m3/s
Normal supply on the 2nd day in Wet Season,
Qns = [0.001(10 3.5) x (2-1) x 233.33]/(8.64 x 0.45) = (0.0065 x 233.33)/3.89 = 0.39 0.4 m3/s
Total irrigation supply on the 2nd day = 1.0 + 0.39 = 1.39 1.40 m3/s
Normal supply on the 3nd day in Wet Season,
Qns = [0.001(10 3.5) x (3-1) x 233.33]/(8.64 x 0.45) = (0.0065 x 466.67)/3.89
= 0.78 0.8 m3/s
Total irrigation supply on the 3nd day = 1.0 + 0.78 = 1.78 m3/s
Therefore, the daily total irrigation supply will be gradually increasing @ 0.39 m3/s.
Dry Season (16-30 March):
Daily presaturation supply in Dry Season,
Qprs = [(0.001(20 1.3)) x 133.33]/(8.64 x 0.45) = (0.0187 x 133.33)/3.88 = 0.64 m3/s
Normal supply on 2nd day in Wet Season,
Qns = [0.001(10 1.3) x (2-1) x 133.33]/(8.64 x 0.45) = (0.0087 x 133.33)/3.89 = 0.30 m3/s
Therefore, the daily total irrigation supply will be gradually increasing @ 0.30 m3/s.
Step 5: Daily Normal irrigation supply after presaturation periods (from 31st March/August)
For wet season, the daily irrigation supply considering with effective rainfall,
Qns = [(0.001(10 3.5)) x 3500]/(8.64 x 0.45) = (0.01 x 3500)/3.89 = 5.84 m3/s
If effective rainfall is not considered or ER = 0 then,
Qns = [(0.001(10 0)) x 3500]/(8.64 x 0.45) = (0.0065 x 3500)/3.89 = 8.99 9 m3/s
Note: The irrigation supply will be continued for 95 days for the main season.
5A-12
March 2009
For dry season, the Daily irrigation supply considering with effective rainfall,
Qns = [(0.001(10 1.3)) x 2000]/(8.64 x 0.45) = (0.0087 x 2000)/3.89 = 4.47 m3/s
If effective rainfall is not considered or ER = 0 then,
Qns = [(0.001(10 0)) x 2000]/(8.64 x 0.45) = (0.01 x 2000)/3.89 = 5.14 m3/s
Note: The irrigation supply will be continued for 85 days for the off season.
Step 6: Seasonal irrigation demands for the Wet Season
5.H.2-3 Water Demand for Wet Season
Date
Days
1-Aug-08
2-Aug-08
3-Aug-08
4-Aug-08
5-Aug-08
6-Aug-08
7-Aug-08
8-Aug-08
9-Aug-08
10-Aug-08
11-Aug-08
12-Aug-08
13-Aug-08
14-Aug-08
15-Aug-08
16 Aug to End
Col (1)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16-110
Planted
Areas
(ha)
Col (2)
233
467
700
933
1167
1400
1633
1867
2100
2333
2567
2800
3033
3267
3500
3500
PIS
(m3/s)
NIS
(m3/s)
TIS (m3/s)
Col (3)
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
0.0
Col (4)
0
0.39
0.78
1.17
1.56
1.95
2.34
2.73
3.12
3.51
3.9
4.29
4.68
5.07
5.46
5.46
Col (3) + Col(4)

1.0
1.4
1.8
2.2
2.6
3.0
3.3
3.7
4.1
4.5
4.9
5.3
5.7
6.1
6.5
5.5
Supply
(m3/s)
Volume
(MLD)
1.00
1.39
1.78
2.17
2.56
2.95
3.34
3.73
4.12
4.51
4.90
5.29
5.68
6.07
6.46
5.46
86.40
120.10
153.79
187.49
221.18
254.88
288.58
322.27
355.97
389.66
423.36
457.06
490.75
524.45
558.14
471.74
Supply
(m3/s)
Volume
(MLD)
0.64
0.94
1.24
1.54
1.84
2.14
2.44
2.74
3.04
3.34
3.64
3.94
4.24
4.54
4.84
4.20
55.30
81.22
107.14
133.06
158.98
184.90
210.82
236.74
262.66
288.58
314.50
340.42
366.34
392.26
418.18
362.88
Step 7: Seasonal irrigation demands for the Dry Season

5.H.2-4 Water Demand for Dry Season
Date
1-Mar-08
2-Mar-08
3-Mar-08
4-Mar-08
5-Mar-08
6-Mar-08
7-Mar-08
8-Mar-08
9-Mar-08
10-Mar-08
11-Mar-08
12-Mar-08
13-Mar-08
14-Mar-08
15-Mar-08
16 Mar to End
March 2009
Days
Col (1)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16-100
Planted
Areas
(ha)
Col (2)
133
267
400
533
667
800
933
1067
1200
1333
1467
1600
1733
1867
2000
2000
PIS
(m3/s)
NIS
(m3/s)
TIS (m3/s)
Col (3)
0.64
0.64
0.64
0.64
0.64
0.64
0.64
0.64
0.64
0.64
0.64
0.64
0.64
0.64
0.64
0.00
Col (4)
0
0.3
0.6
0.9
1.2
1.5
1.8
2.1
2.4
2.7
3
3.3
3.6
3.9
4.2
4.2
Col (3) + Col(4)

0.64
0.94
1.24
1.54
1.84
2.14
2.44
2.74
3.04
3.34
3.64
3.94
4.24
4.54
4.84
4.2
5A-13
5A-14
15-Aug-08
14-Aug-08
13-Aug-08
12-Aug-08
11-Aug-08
10-Aug-08
9-Aug-08
8-Aug-08
7-Aug-08
6-Aug-08
5-Aug-08
4-Aug-08
3-Aug-08
2-Aug-08
1-Aug-08
Nov-08
End
End
Jun-08
Oct 08
May 08
Sep-08
Apr-08
Figure 5.H.2-1 Water Demand for Wet Season

16 Aug 08
Days
Days
16-Mar-08
15-Mar-08
14-Mar-08
13-Mar-08
12-Mar-08
11-Mar-08
10-Mar-08
9-Mar-08
8-Mar-08
7-Mar-08
6-Mar-08
5-Mar-08
4-Mar-08
3-Mar-08
2-Mar-08
1-Mar-08
3 3 /s)
Supply(m
(m
Supply
/s)
3
Supply
(m
/s)
Supply
(m3/s)
Days
Days
Figure 5.H.2-2 Water Demand for Dry Season
March 2009
5.H.3 Water Demand for Crops under Microirrigation

The following information is provided. Determine the crop water demands for the star fruit Field.
Irrigation System
Crop
Crop Area
Unit
Drip
Star Fruit
ha
mmhos/cm
1.4
Water Quality
Good
Soil Texture
Silt Loam
10%
Root zone depth (drz)
1.5
MAD
30
Plant Spacing (Sp x Sr)
(m x m)
6.0 x 6.0
Average Peak ET (Ud)
mm/day
5.5
Water Quality (ECw)
Available Water holding capacity (AWHC)
Percent shaded area (Pd)
66
Wetted Area (Pw)
m2
48.61
Solution:
Step 1: Determine maximum net water depth (dx) using Eq. 5.43
Drz = 1.5 m, So that AWHC = 10% of root zone depth = 0.10 x 1.5 x 100 = 15 mm/m
dx =
30 48.61
15 1.5 = 3.28 mm
100
100
Step 2: Determine average peak transpiration rate (Td) using Eq. 5.44
Where, Average peak ET, (Ud) = 5.5 mm/day and Pd = 66%
Td = 5.5 0.1(66)0.5 = 4.47 mm/day
Step 3: Determine maximum irrigation interval (fx) using Eq. 5.46

f x = 3.28 4.47
= 0.73 days 1 day
Step 4: Irrigation interval (f)

For design purpose, it is usually most convenient to consider f= 1 day, then
Step 5: Net depth to be applied per irrigation (dn) using Eq. 5.45
dn = Td x fx = 4.47 x 1 = 4.47 mm/day
Step 6: Consider design emission uniformity (EU)
EU = 90% is a reasonable design target value.
Step 7: Determine leaching requirement (LR) using Eq. 5.15
March 2009
5A-15
Assume Max ECe for Star fruit = 8 dS/m

LR =
EC w
= 0.03 or 0.08
5 EC e EC w
Step 8: Gross depth per irrigation (dg) using Eq. 5.51

Peak period transmission ratio with crop root zone depth and medium textured soil from Table 5.12
is TR = 1.0.
dn = 4.47 mm/day; EU = 90%
dg =
4.47 1.0
100
90
= 4.96 mm
Step 9: Gross water required per plant per day using Eq. 5.56
Vg = K
S p S r dg
fx
= 1.0
6 6 4.96
x 0.4861 = 86.52 litre/day/plant
1
Step 10: Required total number of plants in 2 ha land

=
2 x 10000
6x6
= 555 trees
Step 11: Total water demand per day
= No of trees x Gross water required per plant per day
= 555 x 86.52
= 48 m3/day
Therefore, total water demand for 2 ha star fruits is 48 m3/day.
5A-16
March 2009
5.H.4
Water Demand for Crops under Sprinkler Irrigation
A 10-ha corn will be grown in IADP Northwest Selangor Project in the dry season (February to July).
The sprinkler irrigation system will be used for applying water in the fields. Assume no rainfall will
occur. The field data and monthly meteorological data are provided in Table 5.H.2-1. The maximum
root zone depth is 60 cm. Compute Seasonal water demands by the crop.
Table 5.H.4-1 Field Data
Month
ET (mm)
Drz
fc
IE
Feb
6.64
120
26
15
80
Mar
6.90
120
24
14
80
Apr
7.15
120
27
12
80
May
6.33
120
26
15
80
Jun
6.30
120
23
15
80
Jul
6.95
120
26
13
80
Solution:
Step 1: Compute Irrigation Requirements per Application (IRRI) using Eq. 5.57
Assume, LR = 0 and ER = 0
The IRRI obtained as follows:
Month
IRRI mm/week
Feb
82.58
Mar
75.09
Apr
112.59
May
82.58
Jun
60.08
Jul
97.59
Step 2: Compute Daily Design Irrigation Requirements (DDIR) using Eq. 5.59 where Irrigation
Interval is weekly basis.
Month
DDIR mm/day
Feb
11.80
Mar
10.73
Apr
16.08
May
11.80
Jun
8.58
Jul
13.94
Step 3: Compute Seasonal Volume of Water using Eq. 5.56

Month
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Volume (m3)
33033.2
33252.48
48252.59
36570.76
25748.04
43217.04
Volume (Mm3)
0.0330
0.0333
0.0483
0.0366
0.0257
0.0432
March 2009
5A-17
5.H.5
Water Demand for Multicrops Farming System
Different crops can be cultivated in an Irrigation Project. The project has 17,000 ha of paddy crop.
The monthly crop evapotranspiration and rainfall is provided for the respective crops in the Table.
The effective rainfall is considered only 25% of the total rainfall. Compute the seasonal amount of
water for the project.
Table 5.H.5-1 Monthly Rainfall and Daily Average Crop Evapotranspiration (ET)
Month
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Rainfall (mm)
208
88
85
78
139
149
149
197
256
267
416
455
ET (mm)/day
6.64
6.90
6.15
6.33
6.45
6.95
5.64
5.90
5.15
5.33
5.45
5.95
Table 5.H.5-2 Planted Areas of Different Crops

Crops
Planted Area (ha)
Growing Periods
Cabbage
Jan-Apr
Carrot
Jan-Apr
Cauliflower
10
Feb-May
Tobacco
Jan-June
Tomato
Feb-May
Solution:
Step 1: The water demand computation procedure for Paddy is different from other crops. The
seasonal water demand for paddy can be estimated in the similar manner as in Example
5.H-1 and 5.H-2. The appropriate information needs to be considered based on scheme
water management strategy.
Step 2: The seasonal irrigation requirements can be computed using Eq. 5.56 as follows. ER is
computed using Eqs. 5.33 and 5.34
Table 5.H.5-3 Computed Water Demand for Different Crops
Area
(ha)
Growing Periods
(Days)
Total ET
(mm)
Total ER
(mm)
SIR
(mm)
Volume
(m3)
Cabbage
120
580.65
91.84
489
39105
Carrot
120
769.05
15.66
718
35879
Cauliflower
10
120
571.6
66.65
505
50510
Crop
5A-18
Tobacco
181
1195.28
149.42
837
75302
Tomato
181
1226.78
192.58
827.35
57915
March 2009
Part B Planning
Chapter 6 - Hydraulic Fundamentals
Chapter 6 - HYDRAULIC FUNDAMENTALS
Table of Contents
6.1
INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................... 6-1

6.1.1
Steady and Unsteady Flow........................................................ 6-1
6.1.1.2
Uniform and Non-uniform Flow ................................................. 6-1
6.1.1.3
Combination of Flows............................................................... 6-1
Classification of Flow ................................................................................ 6-2
6.1.3
Governing Equation of Motion ................................................................... 6-2

6.1.3.1
Conservation of Mass ............................................................... 6-2
6.1.3.2
Conservation of Energy ............................................................ 6-3
6.1.3.3
Conservation of Momentum ...................................................... 6-4
Application of Conservation Theories ......................................................... 6-5
FREE SURFACE FLOW ............................................................................................ 6-5

6.2.1
6.2.2
6.2.3
6.3
6.1.1.1
6.1.2
6.1.4
6.2
Fluid Flow................................................................................................ 6-1
Steady Uniform Flow ................................................................................ 6-6

6.2.1.1
Chezys Formula ...................................................................... 6-6
6.2.1.2
Mannings Formula................................................................... 6-7
6.2.1.3
Specific Energy ........................................................................ 6-8
6.2.1.4
Specific Discharge.................................................................... 6-9
Steady Varied Flow .................................................................................. 6-9

6.2.2.1
Gradually Varied Flow .............................................................. 6-9
6.2.2.2
Rapidly Varied Flow.................................................................. 6-12
6.2.2.3
Hydraulic Jump........................................................................ 6-12
Unsteady Flow ........................................................................................ 6-13

6.2.3.1
Overland Flow ......................................................................... 6-14
6.2.3.2
Open Channel Flow.................................................................. 6-15
6.2.3.3
Flow through Ponds ................................................................. 6-15
PRESSURISED FLOW.............................................................................................. 6-15

6.3.1
Laminar Flow........................................................................................... 6-15
6.3.2
Turbulent Flow ........................................................................................ 6-16
6.3.3
Head Losses ............................................................................................ 6-18

6.3.3.1
Junctions ................................................................................ 6-18
6.3.3.2
Inlets and Outlets .................................................................... 6-18
6.3.3.3
Bends ..................................................................................... 6-18
6.3.3.4
Obstructions or Penetration ...................................................... 6-19
6.3.3.5
Branch Lines without a Structure............................................... 6-19
6.3.3.6
Expansion and Contractions ...................................................... 6-20
6.3.3.7
Compound Pipes...................................................................... 6-20
6.3.3.8
Branched Pipes........................................................................ 6-21
6.3.4
Varied Pipe Flow ...................................................................................... 6-21
6.3.5
Nozzle Flow ............................................................................................. 6-22
March 2009
6-i
6.4
6.7
6.3.5.2
Power Transmission through a Nozzle ....................................... 6-23
Pressure Surge ........................................................................................ 6-23
6.3.7
Hydraulics for Pipe Network ...................................................................... 6-25
GROUNDWATER FLOW .......................................................................................... 6-25

6.4.1
Darcys Law............................................................................................. 6-25
6.4.2
Unsaturated Flow..................................................................................... 6-27

6.4.2.1
Steady Flow ............................................................................ 6-27
6.4.2.2
Transient Flow ........................................................................ 6-27
Saturated Flow ........................................................................................ 6-28

6.4.3.1
Steady Flow ............................................................................ 6-28
6.4.3.2
Unsteady Flow......................................................................... 6-28
6.4.4
Combined Flow........................................................................................ 6-29
6.4.5
Unconfined Aquifer Flow........................................................................... 6-29
6.4.6
Unconfined Well Flow Hydraulics ............................................................... 6-29
6.4.7
Watertable Management in Coastal Areas .................................................. 6-30
POLLUTANT TRANSPORT ....................................................................................... 6-32

6.5.1
Definitions............................................................................................... 6-32
6.5.2
Governing Equations ................................................................................ 6-33
6.5.3
Transport Hydraulics in Ponds................................................................... 6-34
6.5.4
6.6
Velocity through a Nozzle ......................................................... 6-22
6.3.6
6.4.3
6.5
6.3.5.1
Transport Hydraulics in Porous Media ........................................................ 6-35

6.5.4.1
Unsaturated Media................................................................... 6-36
6.5.4.2
Saturated Media ...................................................................... 6-36
SEDIMENT TRANSPORT THROUGH BASIN ............................................................... 6-36

6.6.1
Theory of Sediment Movement ................................................................. 6-37
6.6.2
Settling Theory ........................................................................................ 6-37
6.6.3
Sediment Removal in Settling Basin ........................................................... 6-38

6.6.3.1
Ideal Settling Basin .................................................................. 6-39
6.6.3.2
Real Settling Basin ................................................................... 6-40
SEDIMENT TRANSPORT THROUGH CONVEYANCE .................................................... 6-40

6.7.1
Bed Load Transport ................................................................................. 6-41
6.7.2
Suspended Load Transport ....................................................................... 6-41
6.7.3
Total Load Transport................................................................................ 6-42
REFERENCES .................................................................................................................... 6-44

APPENDIX 6.A1 Design Charts.......................................................................................... 6-1
APPENDIX 6.B1 Design Example on Pressurised Flow Network ............................................ 6-9
APPENDIX 6.C1 Design Example on Pressure Surge............................................................ 6-11
6-ii
March 2009
List of Tables
Table
Description
Page
6.1
Hydraulic Features of the most Common Conveyance Sections
6-7
6.2
Characteristics of Flow Profiles
6-11
6.3
Drag Coefficients for Laminar Flow
6-37
List of Figures
Figure
Description
Page
6.1
Hydraulic Properties of Conveyance
6-2
6.2
Flow Control Volume for Conservation of Mass
6-3
6.3
Stream Tube for Conservation of Energy and Momentum
6-4
6.4
Various Types of Free Surface Flow Patterns
6-6
6.5
Specific-Energy Diagram
6-9
6.6
Gradually Varied Unsteady Flow
6-13
6.7
Waterbody for the Continuity Equation of Gradually Varied Flow
6-13
6.8
Rapidly Varied Unsteady Flow
6-14
6.9
Elements of Overland Flow to Channel
6-14
6.10
Moody Diagram
6-17
6.11
Branch Line for Pipe System
6-19
6.12
Sudden Expansion and Contraction
6-20
6.13
Energy Diagram for Compound Pipe (DID, 2000)
6-21
6.14
Branched Pipelines (DID, 2000)
6-21
6.15
Spraying Water through Nozzle
6-22
6.16
A Typical Nozzle
6-22
6.17
Surge for Incompressible Fluid
6-23
6.18
Propagation of Shockwave through a Pipeline
6-24
6.19
Typical Simple Pipe Networks
6-25
6.20
Parameters for Darcys Law and Darcy Manometer
6-26
6.21
Parameters for Steady Unsaturated Flow
6-27
6.22
Saturated Groundwater Flow
6-28
6.23
Hydraulic Nature of Unconfined (Phreatic) Aquifer
6-29
6.24
Schematic of an Unconfined Aquifer Drawdown
6-30
6.25
Example of Saltwater Intrusion Process
6-31
6.26
Dispersion in One-dimensional Flow
6-33
6.27
Ideal Sediment Basin
6-39
6.28
Typical Schematic Model for Suspension of Solid Particles
6-42
March 2009
6-iii
6-iv
March 2009
6
6.1
HYDRAULIC FUNDAMENTALS
INTRODUCTION
Appropriate planning and design of irrigation and drainage systems require understanding and
application of surface and groundwater hydraulics fundamentals. Hydraulics discussed in this chapter
deals with water, sediment and pollutant at rest or in motion.
This chapter provides general principles and formula that are necessary to support subsequent
planning and design chapters involving flow through channels, pipes, ponds, porous media and other
hydraulic structures.
Water movement in irrigation and drainage system can be steady or unsteady but usually nonuniform. Some materials of this Chapter are adapted from MASMA (DID, 2000).
6.1.1
Fluid Flow
Fluid flow is measured in terms of discharge, which is the volume of liquid flowing past a given
section per unit time (in cubic meters per second, m3/s). If the flow velocity (V) varies across the
section, then flow:
Q = vdA = VA
(6.1)
in which, Q is flow rate, A is cross-sectional area, v = velocity through very small area dA and V =
mean velocity over the section.
Flows can be classified based on two main parameters, time and space. According to time the flow
can be steady and unsteady while according to distance or space, uniform and non-uniform.
6.1.1.1
Steady and Unsteady Flow
A flow can be considered as steady if the parameters describing the flow (velocity, discharge,
pressure, depth, etc.) at a point remains constant with respect to time. On the other hand, the flow
is unsteady if the parameter changes either in magnitude or in direction with respect to time. Steady
flow is usually much easier to analyse and solve than unsteady flow. That is why, steady flow
equations are mostly preferred to analyse the flow pattern of a channel although a small degree of
unsteadiness usually exists in the system. However, steady flow equations give reasonably accurate
results when the unsteadiness occurs fairly slowly. For the more complex and real world problems,
unsteady solution is preferred.
6.1.1.2
Uniform and Non-uniform Flow
The flow is uniform if the parameters describing the flow do not vary with distance along the flow
path. If there is a change in any parameter, either in magnitude or in direction, along the
streamline, the flow is non-uniform. In flow around a bend of a pipe or channel, the direction
changes with distance and in flow with changing cross section, the magnitude changes with distance,
hence the flow is non-uniform.
6.1.1.3
Combination of Flows
The two main classifications of flow are not mutually exclusive. Some flows exhibit changes with
respect to both time and distance. However, most of the fluid flows will fall into one of the following
categories:
Steady uniform flow (flow through a long pipe of uniform diameter),
Steady non-uniform flow (flow through a canal during dry season),
March 2009
6-1
Unsteady uniform flow (pressure surge in pipe of uniform diameter), and
Unsteady non-uniform flow (flow through a canal during a rainy day).
6.1.2
Classification of Flow
Flow of water through a conveyance can be in the form of free surface flow (open or close but at
atmospheric pressure), pressurised flow (usually pipe or closed conduit) and porous media flow
(groundwater). The main differences in hydraulic properties of free surface and pressurised flow are
shown in Figure 6.1. The main difference between the pressurised and free surface flow is that the
hydraulic grade line (HGL) of the former is higher than the surface of the pipe (Figure 6.1a);
whereas the HGL of the free surface flow (open channel or closed conduit) is same as that of the
water surface, as shown in Figure 6.1b.
hf
Energy line
2
V2
Hydrau
lic grad
e line
2g
y1
v1
2
V1
Center lin
e of pipe
y1
z1
Datum line
(a) Pressurised Flow
(b) Free Surface Flow
Hydraulic Properties of Conveyance
Flow also can be classified into four different categories according to the variability of flow with time
and space, which are shortly defined below:
Steady Flow (Flow depth does not change with time),
Unsteady Flow (Flow depth changes with time),
Uniform Flow (Flow depth does not change with space or distance), and
Gradually varied Flow (Flow depth changes with space or distance).
6.1.3
Governing Equation of Motion
The flows in irrigation and drainage system are solved by application of the conservation of flow,
mass, momentum and energy. This section presents the general principles, which are later used in
developing specific flow, velocity, dispersion and settling equations through conveyance, pond and
porous media. Such equations and relationships are very useful for hand calculations and numerical
simulation using computer.
6.1.3.1
Conservation of Mass
The differential form of the conservation of mass (matter) in three-dimensional fluid space, for either
steady or unsteady, is derived based on (imaginary) control volume shown in Figure 6.2, with sides
having length dx, dy and dz. Let the velocity components in x, y and z direction be u, v and w,
respectively.
6-2
y2
z2
Datum line
Figure 6.1
2g
v1
Channel bott
om
v2
z2
V2
v2
y2
z1
hf
Energy line
Water
surface
2g
2g
Piezometer
tube
2
V1
March 2009
z
dz
u +
u
w
v
u
Figure 6.2
(u)
dx
x
dy
dx
Flow Control Volume for Conservation of Mass (DID, 2000)
According to the law, fluid mass must be conserved, i.e. the sum of the rates of mass inflow to the
control volume is equal to the time rate of change of the mass in the control volume.
Therefore, in x-direction the mass flow rate is:
(u)
u dy dz u +
dx dy dz = t dxdydz
dxdydz = dxdydz
t
x
(6.2)
(6.3)
For the control volume, in three dimensions, the equation is reduced to:
(u) (v ) (w )
=
x
y
z
t
(6.4)
which is the equation of continuity in its most general form. For steady incompressible fluid flow, it
forms:
u v w
+
+
=0
x y z
(6.5)
For steady flow from section to section and average velocity is used for each section, the continuity
equation can be written as:
Q = A 1 V1 = A 2 V2 = A 3 V3
(6.6)
in which the subscripts refer to different section. This is the most common formula practitioners
often use to check the continuity. The equation is valid if there is no inflow or outflow between the
sections and the area must be that of a plane perpendicular to the direction of flow.
6.1.3.2
Conservation of Energy
The law of conservation of energy is also known as energy equation. It applies to steady state fluid
flows. The energy equation can be derived from Newtons second law of motion. For onedimensional, or irrotational, steady flow, the following energy equation can be written for any two
cross sections 1 and 2 of the flow (Figure 6.3):
p1 V12
p
V2
+
+ z1 + E m + E H = 2 + 2 + z 2 + h L
2g
2g
March 2009
(6.7)
6-3
where (V12/2g) and (V22/2g) are velocity heads at sections 1 and 2 respectively, p1 / and p2 / are
the pressure heads at the two sections, z1 and z2 are potential or elevation heads above a certain
datum level, EM is the mechanical energy added between the sections, EH is the heat energy added,
p1 and p2 are pressures at the two sections, g is the gravitational acceleration, and is the specific
weight (g).
hL
V22 /2g
V12 /2g
P2, A2, V2
P2 /
P1, A1, V1
P1/
Section 2
Z2
Z1
Section 1
Figure 6.3
Datum
Stream Tube for Conservation of Energy and Momentum
If the fluid is assumed to be incompressible (1=2), external energy sources and losses are
ignored, the energy equation can be written as follows, which is also known as Bernoullis equation:
p1 V12
p
V2
+
+ z1 = 2 + 2 + z 2 = H
2g
2g
(6.8)
where H is the total head.

The energy equation, which contains scalar quantities, can be applied to the solution of such
problems as jets issuing from a sprinkler, flow under a gate, flow over a weir, siphons, transition flow
in pipes and open channels, flow associated with pumps and flow through porous media.
The sum of the pressure head and the elevation head is termed the piezometric head, h = (p/) + z.
The h represents the level to which liquid will rise in a piezometer tube. The piezometric head line,
or hydraulic grade line (HGL), is a line drawn through the tops of the piezometer columns. A pitot
tube, a small open tube with its open end pointing upstream, will intercept the kinetic energy of the
flow and hence indicate the total energy head, z + p/ + V2/2g. The vertical distance from the liquid
level in the piezometer tube to that in the pitot tube is V2/2g. For flow of an ideal fluid, the energy
line is horizontal since there is no head loss.
6.1.3.3
Conservation of Momentum
According to the Newtons second law of motion, the time rate of change of momentum between
section 1 and 2 in Figure 6.3 is equal to the net force applied in a given direction. A momentum
equation for an unsteady, non-uniform flow is:
6-4
March 2009
F = dt V.d + VV.dA
(6.9)
If non-uniform flow is steady it forms:
F = V V .dA
(6.10)
For a steady uniform flow it results in the forces applied to the system are in equilibrium:
F = 0
(6.11)
There are three forces acting on the fluid control volume: friction, gravity and pressure.
The momentum equation may be written for a volume of water between two cross sections in onedimensional flow as:
F = Q (V
V1 )
(6.12)
in which
F = vectorial sum of the component of all the external forces acting on the water in the flow
direction,
V2 = flow velocity at the downstream cross section, and
V1 = flow velocity at the upstream cross section.
6.1.4
Application of Conservation Theories
According to the conservation of mass, the mass of fluid into the system will be equal to the mass of
fluid leaving the system. Assuming the density of the fluids is constant; this conservation theory can
be applied to calculate the flow through a branched conveyance network. Similarly, the conservation
of energy and momentum theories got various invaluable applications in the numerical analysis of
fluid properties, which can be applied in the irrigation and drainage systems.
6.2
FREE SURFACE FLOW
Free surface flows include not only those which are completely open but also closed conduits which
are flowing partly full under atmospheric pressure. Examples of such closed conduits are tunnels,
drainage pipes, culverts and various types of conduits. The free surface flow actually has an interface
between two fluids having different specific weights, such as air and water. Figure 6.4 shows
various types of free surface flow patterns through a channel.
The most common types of flow in free surface channel in the irrigation and drainage system is
steady flow, which can be classified into the following categories:
Uniform or varied (gradually or rapid),
Laminar or turbulent, and
Tranquil (subcritical), rapid (supercritical) or critical.
Strictly uniform flow rarely exists. For practical purposes, flow under free surface condition is
generally considered as uniform if the depth of flow is approximately constant in the direction of
flow. The depth of uniform flow is called normal depth (yo). The non-uniform flow is divided into
gradually and rapidly varied flows.
March 2009
6-5
Varying depth
Varying
depth
Constant depth
Constant
depth
a) Steady Uniform Flow
b) Unsteady Uniform Flow
c) Unsteady Gradually Varied Flow (GVF)

RVF
GVF
RVF
GVF
d) Unsteady Rapidly Varied Flow (RVF)
GVF
RVF
GVF
RVF
GVF
e) Flow Patterns along a Channel Profile

Figure 6.4
Various Types of Free Surface Flow Patterns
Whether laminar flow or turbulent flow exists in an open channel depends upon the Reynolds
number (Re) of the flow, just as it does in conduits. Turbulent flow may be over either a smooth
boundary or a rough boundary, depending on the relative size of the roughness elements as
compared with the thickness of the laminar sublayer.
Depending on the effect of gravitational force, the flow can be in critical, subcitical and supercritical
condition, which is usually determined by calculating the Froude number (Fr).
6.2.1
Steady Uniform Flow
Hydraulics of a conveyance system with steady uniform flow is rather simple in nature. A few wellknown methods can be applied to determine the hydraulic properties of the flow. The most common
equations for uniform flow in open channels are the Chezys and the Mannings equations. Hydraulic
properties of three most common conveyance systems are given in Table 6.1, which are useful for
the steady uniform flow formula.
6.2.1.1
Chezys Formula
This equation, proposed by Chezy in 1769, may be written as,
6-6
March 2009
V = C
RS
(6.13)
where V is the mean velocity of flow, C is the Chezys discharge coefficient, R is the hydraulic radius
and S is the slope of the channel or the sine of the slope angle.
For laminar flow in a wide channel, assuming a parabolic distribution of velocity the value of C can
be determined by the following equation.
C
g
Re
8
(6.14)
For turbulent flow in wide channel, the velocity distribution is assumed to be logarithmic (Eq. 6.15).
(v V ) C = 2 log
V 8g
y
+ 0.88
y0
(6.15)
where v is the local velocity at a depth y, and y0 is the total depth. This equation, however, does not
apply near the bed or near the surface of the flow.
In alluvial channels, the magnitude of C depends upon the form of the boundary roughness.
Expressed in terms of the Darcy-Weisbach resistance coefficient f, the coefficient C is,
C=
8g
f
Table 6.1
(6.16)
Hydraulic Features of the Most Common Conveyance Sections
B
Section
y 1
x
b
Area, A
Wetted perimeter, P
Top width, B
Hydraulic radius, R
Hydraulic mean depth, D

m
6.2.1.2
Rectangle
Trapezoid
by
(b+xy)y
b+2y
b+2y
b+2xy
by
(b+xy)y
b+2y
1
8
1+x2
(b+xy)y
b+2xy
- sin
1
1+x 2
b+2y
Circle
2
sin
1
8
1-
) D2
sin
- sin
sin (1/2 )
Mannings Formula
In an effort to correlate and systematise existing data from natural and artificial channels, Manning
in 1889 proposed an equation which was developed into,
March 2009
6-7
1
V = R 2 / 3 S1 / 2
n
where n is the Mannings roughness coefficient.
equation the following relationship can be written.
C=
(6.17)
By comparing this equation with the Chezys
R1 / 6
n
(6.18)
This relationship indicates that the Chezys discharge coefficient is a function of the Mannings
coefficient and the hydraulic radius. The Mannings n was developed empirically as a coefficient
which remained approximately a constant for a given boundary condition, regardless of slope of
channel, size of channel, or depth of flow. As a matter of fact, however, each of these factors
causes n to vary to some extent. In other words, the Reynolds number, the shape of the channel,
and the relative roughness have an influence on the magnitude of Mannings n.
6.2.1.3
Specific Energy
The following specific energy equation is a very useful tool in analysing the flow in open channels.
Es = y +
V2
2g
(6.19)
For a rectangular channel:
Es = y +
q2
2gy 2
(6.20)
where, Es is the specific energy and q is discharge per unit width of the channel.
Equation 6.19 can be plotted to show how the specific energy Es varies with the depth of flow y for
progressively increasing values of discharges per unit width: q1, q2, q3, etc. This diagram (Figure 6.5)
shows that two different depths can exist with a given specific head H and discharge q. At one
depth the velocity is high and at the other depth the velocity is low. These depths are termed
alternate depths, because they can occur at the same specific head, but independent of each other,
depending only upon the boundary conditions of the channel. Also of significance is the fact that
there is a minimum value of specific head for a given discharge, as shown in Figure 6.5.
It can be shown that this minimum specific head corresponds to the condition of a critical flow. Thus
the depth of flow for the minimum value of the specific head H is equal to the critical depth yc . In a
rectangular channel, the critical depth can be evaluated by differentiating Equation 6.20 with respect
to y and setting it equal to zero and rearranging to yield:
q = gy 3c
(6.21)
From Equations 6.19 to 6.21,
yc =
2
Es
3
(6.22)
where Vc is the critical velocity.

For nonrectangular channels the equation for critical velocity Vc is,
6-8
March 2009
Vc =
gA c
K eB c
(6.23)
where Ac and Bc are, respectively, the cross section and top width of the critical flow, and Ke is the
energy-flux correction coefficient.
y=E
y
2
v1
2g
Subcritical flow
y1
y1 > y c
Alternate depths
2
vc
yc
yc
2g
y1
y2
y1
Supercritical flow
y 2 <y c
45
E
Figure 6.5
6.2.1.4
Specific Energy Diagram
Specific Discharge
When the discharge q in Equation 6.20 is plotted as a function of the depth of flow y for a constant
specific Energy Es, the resulting curve forms a specific discharge diagram. This curve indicates a
maximum discharge qmax. By differentiating q in Equation 6.20, with respect to y and setting dq/dy
= 0 it can be shown that this maximum discharge occurs at the critical-flow condition and is equal
to,
3
2
qmax = g E s = gy 3c
3
6.2.2
(6.24)
Steady Varied Flow
There are two types of non-uniform flow. In one the changing conditions extend over a long
distance, and this is called gradually varied flow. In the other the change may take place abruptly
and the transition is thus confined to a short distance and this is designated as rapidly varied flow.
6.2.2.1
Gradually Varied Flow
When the cross sections of flow in an open channel varies gradually along the channel so that the
resulting changes in velocity take place very slowly and thus the accelerative effects are negligible,
the flow is known as gradually varied flow. The water surface of a gradually varied flow is called the
flow profile or commonly known as the backwater curve.
March 2009
6-9
Changes in cross section of the flow may result either from a change in geometry of the channel,
such as change in slope or cross-sectional shape or an obstruction or from an unbalance between
the forces of resistance to retard the flow and the forces of gravity tending to accelerate the flow.
There are several types of flow profiles. In order to analyse these profiles, the total head H at a
channel section can be expressed as,
H =Ke
Q2
V2
+ y + z =Ke
+y+z
2g
2gA 2
(6.25)
where Ke is the energy-flux correction coefficient, y is the depth of flow, z is the elevation of the
channel bed above some arbitrary datum, Q is the discharge, and A is the cross section of the flow.
Since the variation of these terms with distance x along the channel is desired, assuming Ke = 1,
Equation 6.25 can be differentiated with respect to x to obtain,
dH
Q 2 dA dy dz
=
+
+
dx
gA 3 dx dx dx
(6.26)
Let dA = Bdy, where B is the top width of the cross section of flow. Then,
dH
Q 2B dy dy dz
=
+
+
dx
gA 3 dx dx dx
(6.27)
The gradient of total head dH/dx can be set equal to the negative of the slope obtained from the
Chezys equation, or S = (Q/A)2/C2R, and the bed slope is equal to dz/dx = - (Q/Ao)2/Co2Ro = - So for
uniform-flow conditions. The subscript o represents the uniform-flow condition. For simplicity,
however, a wide rectangular channel can be assumed, so that Q/B = q equal to the discharge per
unit width and the hydraulic radius R = A/B = y. Equation 6.27 then becomes,
q2
C2 y 3
dy
q2
1 3
dx
gy
q
C2 Y 3
o o
(6.28)
Furthermore, q2/g = yc3, so that Equation 6.28 can be rearranged to solve explicitly for dy/dx, which
is the rate of change of the depth of flow with respect to the distance along the channel (Eq. 6.29).
dy q2 / C 2o y 3o q2 / C 2 y 3
=
3
dx
1(y e / y )
(6.29)
which simplifies to:

1 (C o / C ) (y o / y )
dy
= So
3
dx
1 (y C / y )
2
(6.30)
If the change in the Chezys C is not great from one point to another along the channel, the ratio
Co/C can be considered equal to 1.0. However, the Mannings n is usually more nearly constant from
section to section. Hence Equation 6.17 can be used in Equation 6.30 to yield,
1 (n / n o ) (y o / y )
dy
= So
3
dx
1 (y c / y )
2
10 / 3
(6.31)
Using Equation 6.31 it is possible to classify the various flow profiles, which may occur in open
channels.
6-10
March 2009
(i)
Classification of Flow Profiles
The analysis of flow profiles depends first upon the sign of dy/dx. If dy/dx is positive, the depth is
increasing downstream, and if it is negative, the depth is decreasing downstream.
From
Equation 6.31 it can be seen that the slope dy/dx depends upon So, n/no, yo /y and yc /y. In the
following analysis, it is assumed that n/no = 1.0. Although this assumption is not justified for all
conditions, it may be taken as sufficiently accurate for the purpose of this analysis. Hence:
1 (y o / y )
dy
= So
3
dx
1 (y c / y )
10 / 3
(6.32)
The slope of the channel serves as the primary means of classification. If the bed slope So is
negative, the bed rises in the direction of flow. This slope is called an adverse slope, and the flow
profiles over it are known as A profiles. If So = 0, the bed slope is horizontal and the profiles over it
are H profiles. When So > 0, the bed slope may be mild, steep, or critical and the corresponding
flow profiles are M profiles, S profiles, or C profiles, depending upon the ratio of yo /yc . When yo /yc
> 1.0, an M profile exists; when yo /yc = 1.0, a C profile exists, and when yo /yc < 1.0, an S profile
exists. Typical characteristics of a few common water surface profiles are given in Table 6.2.
A further classification of flow profiles depends upon the ratios yc /y and yo /y. If both yc /y and yo /y
are less than 1.0, then the profile is designated as type 1, for example, M1, S1 and C1. If the depth y
is between the normal depth yo and the critical depth yc , then it is type 2, such as M2, H2, S2, and A2.
If both yc /y and yo /y are greater than 1.0, then the profile is type 3, such as M3, C3, S3, H3 and A3.
Table 6.2
y:yo:yc
Type
Symbol
Mild
So > 0
So > 0
So > 0
y > yo > yc
yo > y > yc
yo > yc > y
1
2
3
M1
M2
M3
Critical
So > 0
So > 0
So > 0
y > yo = yc
y < yo = yc
y > yc > yo
1
3
1
C1
C3
S1
So > 0
So > 0
yc > y > yo
yc > yo > y
2
3
S2
S3
Horizontal
So = 0
So = 0
y > yc
yc > y
2
3
H2
H3
Adverse
So < 0
So < 0
y > yc
yc > y
2
3
A2
A3
Class
Steep
(ii)
Characteristics of Flow Profiles
Bed Slope
Computation of Backwater Curves
By integrating Equation 6.32 a mathematical relation can be obtained to represent the surface profile
of a gradually varied flow. For practical purposes, however, a step method, described below is
widely used.
For a channel of length L which is sufficiently short so that the water surface can be approximated
by a straight line. By geometry or from Equation 6.26 it can be shown that H/L = So S or,
March 2009
6-11
L =
H
So S
(6.33)
where H is the specific head; S = -dH/dx, the average energy gradient; and S0 = -dz/dx. So is the
slope of the channel bed.
The energy gradient at a channel section can be computed by the Mannings equation as S =
Q2n2/(AR2/3)2. The average of the energy gradients at the two end sections of the reach is used for S
in Equation 6.33.
The step method is characterised by dividing the channel into short reaches and applying
Equation 6.33 by steps from one end of a reach to the other. To start the computation, the depth of
flow at the beginning section should be given or assumed. From a given discharge and channel
conditions, the specific heads at the two end sections and their difference H and the energy slope
at the two end sections and their average are computed. Substituting these quantities and the
channel slope So in Equation 6.33, the length of the reach is computed. By repeating the
computation for the subsequent reaches, the entire flow profile or backwater curve can be
determined. It should be noted that the step computation should be carried upstream if the flow is
tranquil and downstream if the flow is rapid. If carried in the wrong direction, the computation tends
inevitably to make the result diverge from the correct flow profile. For a comprehensive treatment of
the computation of flow profiles see Chow (1959).
6.2.2.2
Rapidly Varied Flow
Rapidly varied flow, on the other hand, produces abrupt changes in depth and velocity over very
short distances, as in the case of flow over an emergency spillway, through a hydraulic jump, or
beneath a sluice gate. Rapidly varied flow usually involves wave phenomena, which preclude the
use of uniform flow formulas. Non-uniform flow can also be unsteady, as in the passage of a flow
peak or flood wave through an agricultural drain or man-made canal.
6.2.2.3
Hydraulic Jump
The hydraulic jump is a rapidly varied flow phenomenon in which flow in a channel changes abruptly
from rapid/supercritical flow at a relatively shallow depth (less than yc) to tranquil/subcritical flow at
a greater depth (greater than yc). The depth before the jump is called initial depth, while the depth
after the jump is known as the sequent depth.
The hydraulic jump may be employed as a mechanism for the dissipation of excess energy, as where
a steep conveyance enters a larger conveyance at a junction. The hydraulic jump may be used to
avoid scour of earthen channels. Thus, the analysis of hydraulic jumps usually has three objectives.
First, the location of the jump is important because of the potential of unexpected surcharges or
channel scour. This can be determined by searching for pipe/channel elements where the flow is
supercritical upstream and subcritical downstream. Secondly, it is important to compute the two
depths, y1 and y2 , which are the initial and sequent depths, respectively (Figure 6.6).
Third, the energy loss HL dissipated by the jump is often an important design consideration. The
pertinent depth equation for a rectangular channel section is:
y2
= 0.5 1 + 8Fr2
y1
1/2
(6.34)
in which Fr is the Froude Number at the upstream section. The energy lost in the jump, HL is
obtained by subtracting the specific energy at section 2 from that at section 1 along the drain:
HL = H1 H2 =
6-12
(y 2
y1 )
4y1 y 2
(6.35)
March 2009
According to Chow (1959), a strong jump occurs when Fr>9, a steady jump occurs when 4.5<Fr<9,
an oscillating jump occurs when 2.5<Fr<4.5, a weak jump occurs when 1.7<Fr<2.5, and an undular
jump occurs when 1<Fr<1.7. According to Chaudhry (1993), the best jumps occur when 4.5<Fr<9.
Length of hydraulic jump in horizontal rectangular channel can be calculated as follows:
F 1
L j = 220y1 tanh r
22
(6.36)
Q = Total Discharge
F r = Froude Number- ( V1 / g y1
W = Width of Channel
E 1 = Energy Entering Jump
y j = Height of Jump
y c = Critical Depths
y 1 , y2 = Sequent Depths
E1- E2 = Energy Loss in Jump
E2 = Energy Leaving Jump
y 1 , y3 = Alternate Depths
E2 = y2 +
q = Discharge per meter width
V2
2g
2
2
1
30
Depth
y2
y2
V1
y1
V1
2g
C y3
y2
20
yj
10
0
Lj
E1= y1 -
O
10
A
20
30
40
Fr = 1
yc
y1
Energy
Hydraulic Jump on Horizontal Floor
Figure 6.6 Gradually Varied Unsteady Flow

6.2.3
Unsteady Flow
When the flow varies with time the situation is called unsteady flow. The unsteady flow through any
conveyance can be gradually varied or rapidly varied. Unsteady uniform flow is very rare in an open
channel.
The curvature of the wave profile in a gradually varied unsteady flow is mild and the change in water
depth with respect to time is gradual (Figure 6.7). The continuity equation for gradually varied
unsteady flow in a free surface channel can be written as given in Eq. 6.40.
dx
Water surface
after dt
dA
Initial
water
surface
Figure 6.7
March 2009
yy dt
t dt
t
Waterbody for the Continuity Equation of Gradually Varied Flow
6-13
One of the most common cases of occurring rapidly varied unsteady flow is due to sudden opening
of a gate in the open channel, as shown in Figure 6.8. Velocity of the mass of water between the
gate and propagating wave front increases from V1 to V2 and the momentum increases accordingly.
The absolute wave velocity (Vw) can be calculated by applying Newtons second law of motion and it
is given in Eq. 6.37.
Vw =
( A 2 y 2 A 1 y 1 )g
+ V1
A 1 (1 A 1 / A 2 )
(6.37)
Gate
V2
W A 2 y2
Figure 6.8
6.2.3.1
y2
VW
V1
y1
W A 1 y1
Rapidly Varied Unsteady Flow
Overland Flow
For overland flow (Figure 6.9), kinematic wave equation is valid and applied in which the inflow, free
surface slope and inertia terms of the momentum equation are all negligible in comparison to those
of bottom slope and friction. For a typical land surface, there will be fluctuations in depth and
roughness such that the flow regime may vary from laminar to turbulent. The solution of these
overland flow problems is thus contained in the following continuity and momentum equations,
respectively (Lighthill and Whitham, 1955):
2q
y q
= (i f ) + L
+
b
t x
(6.38)
q = y m
(6.39)
Where i is the water input, f is the infiltration rate, q is the total flow and b is the width of the
overland flow and m can be derived under laminar or turbulent flow conditions
L
Water Input, i
Agricultural
Runoff
b
qL
qL
Infiltration, f
q
(a)
Plan
Figure 6.9
6-14
(b)
Section A-A
Elements of Overland Flow to Channel (DID, 2000)
March 2009
The dynamic uniformity of this approach precludes solution which exhibit changes in surface profile
due to dynamic variations, thus Froude Number can be greater than or less than unity. Boundary
and initial conditions apply only to solution of the continuity equation; therefore, changes in water
surface profile will be caused only by changes in local flow rate and will be transmitted in the
direction in which a kinematic wave propagates.
6.2.3.2
Open Channel Flow
In channel flow both the inertia and pressure forces are important and if inflow terms are negligible
and for a wide channel/shallow water the following equations govern:
Continuity equation:
D
V
y y
+V
+
=0
x
x t
(6.40)
where, D=A/T, A is the cross sectional area and T is the top width of the channel (Figure 6.7).
Momentum equation:
y
V
V
+V
+ g = 0 + g
t
x
x
y
(6.41)
For flow in vegetated drain/small stream, the class of channelised flows to which the only significant
inputs, continuous along the stream axis, are rainfall, infiltration and overland flow. The continuity
equation for small stream can be written as:
A Q
= (i f )(b + 2y ) + 2qL
+
t x
(6.42)
where, A is flow cross-section, Q is discharge and y is slope.

6.2.3.3
Flow through Ponds
Small water bodies where ratio of depth over horizontal dimension is much less than 1.0 are
considered shallow and they are subject to circulation created by inflow-outflow. Water flows in a
shallow pond usually predominant in horizontal plane and variation of velocity and density in vertical
direction are small enough to be neglected. It is, thus, adequate to adopt the depth averaged
(vertically integrated) two-dimensional dynamic equations to solve the field problems (DID, 2000).
6.3
PRESSURISED FLOW
Flow in pressurised conduits, generally, involves a combination of laminar or turbulent flow over
smooth or rough surfaces. At the upstream end of a pipe there is a region of flow development in
which the boundary layer is developing and the flow is technically varied (non-uniform). Therefore
the velocity distribution changes from section to section.
6.3.1
Laminar Flow
Newtons law of viscosity can be used to evaluate shear stress in terms of velocity of flow through a
pressurised conduit having laminar flow. Hagen-Poiseuille formula (Eq. 6.43) can be derived from the
Newtons law to calculate head loss in the pipe due to friction in laminar flow region.
hf =
32VL
gD 2
(6.43)
where, hf is the friction loss, f is the friction factor.

March 2009
6-15
When Re is less than 2,000 the flow is laminar and f = 64/Re. When Re increases, the laminar
sublayer is penetrated by roughness elements and the flow becomes turbulent. The region between
Re = 2,000 to approximately Re = 3,500 indicates an indefinite transition for flow to change from
laminar to turbulent.
6.3.2
Turbulent Flow
Darcy-Weisbach formula (Eq. 6.44) can be used to calculate the friction loss in a pipe during the
turbulent flow. Equation 6.44 may also be applied to uniform and nearly uniform flows in open
channel (Chow, 1959).
hf =
fL V 2
x
D 2g
(6.44)
The value of friction factor (f) depends upon the Reynolds number and the relative roughness e/D,
where e is the average size of the roughness element. For laminar flow or for turbulent flow with a
smooth surface, the relative roughness is unimportant and hence f depends on Re alone. For a
rough boundary, Re is unimportant and then f depends on e/D alone. In this diagram the roughness
e for various pipe materials and inside coatings is given (Chow, 1959). The average value of the
range of e should be used unless additional information gives reason to use the smaller or larger
values of the range.
For turbulent flow, the resistance coefficient can be estimated from the following von Krmn-Prandtl
equations:
For turbulent boundary layer over smooth surface:
1
f
= 2 log R e
f 0.8
(6.45)
For turbulent boundary layer over rough surface:
1
f
= 2 log
D
+ 1.14
e
(6.46)
For the transition from smooth to rough surface, the above two equations can be combined to
produce the following semi-empirical form, which is known as the Colebrook-White equation (Eq.
6.47). This equation can be used to calculate very good results for commercial pipes.
e 9.35
= 1.14 2 log +
D R
f
e f
(6.47)
Pipes having a noncircular cross section but a simple geometrical shape, such as a rectangle, a
trapezoid, or an ellipse which does not differ markedly from circular, can be solved by Moody
diagram if the hydraulic radius equivalent to that of a circular pipe (R = D/4) is used. For turbulent
flow, this use of hydraulic radius gives reasonably accurate results. For laminar flow, however, it
gives increasingly inaccurate results as the shape of conduit differs more and more from circular. The
graphical relationship between f, Re and e/D is called Moody diagram (Figure 6.10). Moody also
presented an explicit formula for f, which is given in Equation 6.48. This equation can predict f up to
5% for 4,000< Re< 107 and for e/D < 0.01.

20,000e 10 6
f = 0.00551 +
+

D
Re
6-16
1/3
(6.48)
March 2009
Figure 6.10
Moody Diagram
March 2009
6-17
6.3.3
Head Losses
Losses due to obstructions, bends or junctions in pipelines may be expressed as a function of the
velocity of flow in the pipe immediately downstream of the obstruction, bend or junction as follows:
2
h s = K Vo / 2g
where,
(6.49)
hs = head loss at structure (m)

K = pressure change coefficient (dimensionless)
V0 = velocity of flow in the downstream pipe (m/s)
Pressure change coefficients K (sometimes referred to as structure loss coefficients) are dependent
on many factors, for example:
junction structure geometry;
pipe diameters;
bend radius;
angle of change of direction;
relative diameter of obstruction, etc.
6.3.3.1
Junctions
The pressure head loss is a function of the velocity head (V2/2g) of the flow in the conduit
downstream of the junction, thus:
P
= K u V 2 / 2g
(6.50)
where,
P/ = pressure head change at a junction (m)
Ku = pressure change coefficient (dimensionless)
Note that Equation 6.50 gives the pressure head change, not the energy change. The two figures are
likely to be different because of different pipe diameters and flow rates upstream and downstream.
The pressure head change is convenient for use in HHGL calculations (DID, 2000).
6.3.3.2
Inlets and Outlets
Where the inlet structure is an endwall (with or without wingwalls) to a pipe or culvert, an allowance
for head loss should be made. The design charts in Appendix 6.A provides entry and exit loss
coefficients Ke to be applied to the velocity head.
h e = K e V02 / 2g
(6.51)
where,
he = head loss at entry or exit (m)
Ke = entry or exit loss coefficient
V0 = velocity in pipe (m/s)
6.3.3.3
Bends
Under certain circumstances it may be permissible to deflect the pipeline (either at the joints or using
precast mitred sections) to obviate the cost of junction structures and to satisfy functional
requirements.
6-18
March 2009
Where pipelines are deflected an allowance for energy loss in the bends should be made.
energy loss is a function of the velocity head and may be expressed as:
h b = K b V 2 / 2g
The
(6.52)
where,
hb = head loss through bend (m)
Kb = bend loss coefficient
Values of bend loss coefficients for gradual and mitred bends are given in the design charts in
Appendix 6.A. Note that the head loss due to the bend is additional to the friction loss for the reach
of pipe being considered.
6.3.3.4
Obstructions or Penetration
An obstruction or penetration in a pipeline may be caused by a transverse (or near transverse)

crossing of the pipe by a service or conduit. Where possible, such obstruction should be avoided as
they are likely sources of blockage by debris and damage to the service. To facilitate the removal of
debris, a manhole should be provided at the obstruction or penetration.
The pressure change coefficient KP at the penetration is a function of the blockage ratio. Design
Chart 6.A4 in Appendix 6.A should be used to derive the pressure change coefficient, which is then
applied to the velocity head.
h p = K p V 2 / 2g
(6.53)
where,
hp = head loss at penetration (m)
Kp = pressure change coefficient of penetration
Where a manhole is provided at an obstruction or penetration it is necessary to add the structure
loss and the loss due to the obstruction or penetration based upon the velocity, V in the downstream
pipe.
6.3.3.5
Branch Lines without a Structure
Where branch connections are unavoidable, appropriate allowance for head loss at the junction
should be made. Pressure change coefficients for junctions with branch line connections should be
determined from the design charts in Appendix 6.A, with variables shown in Figure 6.11. Designers
should be aware that the pressure change coefficient and therefore the head loss at the junction
may be different for the main line and the branch line.
DU
DO
QU
QO
D
Q
Figure 6.11 Branch Line for Pipe System (DID, 2000)
March 2009
6-19
6.3.3.6
Expansion and Contractions
Sudden expansion or contractions in pipelines should normally be avoided. They may, however, need
to be installed as part of a temporary arrangement in a system being modified or upgraded, or in a
relief drainage scheme. Expansions and contractions (Figure 6.12) also can occur at the outlet and
inlet of a pipe drainage system.
(a) At a sudden enlargement
(b) At a sudden contraction
Figure 6.12 Sudden Expansion and Contraction (DID, 2000)

The pressure change due to the expansion or contraction can be derived using the energy loss
coefficients determined from the design charts in Appendix 6.A. The entrance loss coefficient should
be applied to the absolute value of the difference between the two velocity heads.
These form losses are sometimes called minor losses. Such a term represents the true situations
literally when the pipeline is relatively long and the friction loss coefficient f (L/D) in Equation 6.44 is
large compared to K. For shorter pipe however, the form losses caused by pressure resistance may
be of major importance.
6.3.3.7
Compound Pipes
The principles presented in all the forgoing discussion can be used in combination to solve problems
involving compound pipe. For instance a compound pipe may consist of an entrance, a sudden
expansion, a sudden contraction, a manhole, a bend, a gradual expansion, an outlet and pipes of
different diameters. Each of these items involves a head loss. The straight pipe involves friction
resistance, and each of the others involves both shear and pressure resistance to make up the form
losses. The energy equation may be written for sections a and b (Figure 6.13):
Va2 pa
V2 p
+
+ za = b + b + zb + hL
2g
2g
(6.54)
If the upstream inlet is chosen as section a and the downstream reservoir as b, then hL is the sum of
all the losses:
hL (total loss) = hL 01 (entrance loss) + h f1 (pipe loss) +

hL12 (expansion loss) + h f 2 (pipe loss) +
hL 23 (contraction loss) + h f 3 (pipe loss) +
hL 3 (manhole loss) + h f 4 (pipe loss) +
(6.55)
hL 45 (bend loss) + h f 5 (pipe loss) +

hL 57 (gradual expansion loss) + hL 67 (exit loss)
Each of the losses must be determined by the methods already discussed, and then added together
to get hL.
6-20
March 2009
h L01
hf2
hf1
2
V /2g
h L12
p
h L23
hf3
h L34
Velocity Head
h f5
h L45
Piezometric Head
hL
h4
h f6
Manhole
3
Main
Branch
z=0
Datum
Figure 6.13 Energy Diagram for Compound Pipe (DID, 2000)

6.3.3.8
Branched Pipes
In the case of a branched pipe system the flow into the junction must equal the flow out of the
junction. Furthermore the piezometric head at the junction is common for all three pipes. The three
piezometric readings at a, b and c (in Figure 6.14) can be considered as the water-surface elevations
in three inlets/reservoirs, as shown by broken lines, since the velocity head is considered as
insignificant in these problems when compared with the head losses due to boundary resistance.
A
B
Inlet
a
Pj
- Qb
+ Qa
Junction
c
+ Qc
C
Reservoir
Figure 6.14 Branched Pipelines (DID, 2000)

There are three different flow conditions for the continuity equation, any one of which may be
applicable for a given problem. Each flow condition depends upon the slope of the hydraulic
gradient as follows:
flow from pipe a into pipes b and c, so that the piezometric head line for pipe b slopes downward
to the right and Qa = Qb + Qc
flow from pipes a and b into pipe c, so that the piezometric head line for pipe b slopes downward
to the left and Qa + Qb = Qc
flow from pipe a into pipe c, with no flow in pipe b, so that the piezometric head line for pipe b is
horizontal and Qa = Qc while Qb = 0.
6.3.4
Varied Pipe Flow
In varied (non-uniform) flow the changes in velocity result in a change in momentum flux, which is
accomplished only by pressures against the fluid in addition to the pressures, which would be
March 2009
6-21
associated with uniform flow. When such changes in velocity occur, zones of separation and
secondary flow frequently result, and this consequently increases the shear and the turbulence at the
expense of the piezometric head. Hence head losses hL result. Since the foregoing changes in
velocity and the resulting head losses are caused by non-uniform distribution of pressures on the
boundary, the losses are termed structural/form losses because of pressure resistance and the
associated changes (usually increases) in shear resistance. The form losses can be expressed as:
hL = K
V2
2g
(6.56)
where K is called the form-loss coefficient, and V is mean velocity of flow.

6.3.5
Nozzle Flow
A nozzle is, usually, a tapered mouthpiece which is fixed at the outlet end of a pipe to increase the
exit velocity of water. The small opening of the nozzle converts the pressure into velocity (kinetic)
head at the exit point. Such high velocity is required to spray the water to a long distance or height
(Figure 6.15).
6.3.5.1
Velocity through a Nozzle
Velocity at the tip of the nozzle (Figure 6.16) can be calculated using Darcy-Weisbach formula
(Equation 6.44) and assuming that the losses occurs mainly due to friction and head loss due to
velocity at the nozzle outlet. If the lost head of water is H, then velocity of water at the tip of the
nozzle can be calculated from Eq. 6.57.
2gH
v=
1+
(6.57)
4 fLd2
D3
where, d and D are the nozzle and pipe diameters.
Figure 6.15 Spraying Water through Nozzle
D, V
d, v
L
Figure 6.16 A Typical Nozzle
6-22
March 2009
6.3.5.2
Power Transmission through a Nozzle
Flow through a nozzle can be used to transfer power from one place to another. Equation 6.57 can
be modified to calculate power transmission P (in kW) by Eq. 6.58.
4 fLd2 v 2
P = Q H
x
2g
D3
(6.58)
Diameter of a nozzle to transfer maximum amount of power can be determined by differentiating P

with respect to d and equating to zero (0). The resulting equation is
D5
d=
8fL
6.3.6
1/4
(6.59)
Pressure Surge
Sudden change in discharge in pressurised flow system can result in pressure surge (water hammer)
which propagate from the source in the forward (for pump) or backward (for valve) direction. Such
water hammer may cause significant damage to the hydraulic structures and machines if appropriate
measures are not taken to reduce pressure surge in fast flowing conduits. The most common
occurrence of water hammer in an irrigation and drainage system are operation of pumps, sudden
closer of gates and valves and sprinkler irrigation systems. For the sake of simplicity, if the fluid is
assumed to be incompressible mass of liquid in a pipeline of length L will be AL and the momentum
will be ALu, where u is the velocity of fluid (Figure 6.17). Now, if the velocity of flow is reduced
suddenly by a control valve at any downstream point then the rate of change of momentum will be,
dM
du
= AL
dt
dt
(6.60)
surge pressure line

static pressure line
F = pA
hydraulic gradient
(a) Pipeline system
hL
rl
(b) Surge pressure at valve
Figure 6.17 Surge for Incompressible Fluid (Andrew et al., 2004)

So the force (F) exerted by the valve will be equal to the area of the valve plate (A) times the
instantaneous increase in pressure (p) due to the surge in the pipeline. Therefore,
F = pA = AL
du
dt
p
L du
= h =
g
g dt
March 2009
(6.61)
(6.62)
6-23
As L is constant in a pipe network, p = f(du/dt), i.e. increase in pressure depends on the rate at
which the valve is closed. For incompressible liquids, the pressure surge travels linearly with distance
and propagate upstream of the valve.
p+ p
(a) Instant of valve closure

c = celerity of
shock wave
x (= tc )
p+ p
uo
u=0
t = x/c
(where t = tim
after closure)
shock wave
(b) Passage of shock wave
p+ p
u=0
t = L/c
(c) Fluid compressed throughout pipe
p+ p
uo
L/c < t < 2L/c

(d) Decompression
-uo
t = 2L/c
(e) Fluid decompressed throughout pipe
p - p
u=0
t = 3L/c
(f) Negative pressure throughout pipe
Figure 6.18 Propagation of Shockwave through a Pipeline (Andrew et al. 2004)
6-24
March 2009
The shockwave generated due to water hammer is shown in Figure 6.18. Assuming water is
compressible to some extent and it flows through conduits, which are sufficiently rigid
(incompressible, compared to water); application of mass balance theory and momentum equation,
the increase in pressure due to water hammer can be calculated using Eq. 6.63. It is also assumed
that the shock wave propagates at the speed (celerity, c) of sound through air, which again varies
with the temperature.
(6.63)
p = cu o
The effect of surge pressure can be minimised by closing the valve slowly. The maximum cavitation
will occur when the closure time (t) is less then 2L/c, where L is the distance from the source of
water hammer or surge. Surge protection valves are available in the market. Proper selection of such
valve would minimise the problems associated with surge and water hammer in pressurised pipe
network. Detail information on the surge in closed conduits can be available in the works done by
Fox (1989), Parmakian (1963) and Wylie and Streeter (1995).
6.3.7
Hydraulics for Pipe Network
Depending on the distribution and collection system, the pipe network of an irrigation and drainage
system can consists of series, parallel and branched pipelines of various sizes. Losses occurs at
various locations of the piping system, such as entrance, exit, bends, contractions, expansions,
valves, etc. These losses need to be considered appropriately to determine the head losses at various
points of the pipe network. Simple pipe networks (as shown in Figure 6.19) can be solved by
applying the energy balance and continuity equation for flow. Hardy-Cross (1936) method or
computer software (Creasy, 1982) can be used to quickly determine the pressure, flow and other
hydraulic parameters of a complex pipe network (low or high pressure).
qi
qi
hLi
hLi
(a) Loop Network
(b) Nodal Network
Figure 6.19 Typical Simple Pipe Networks

6.4
GROUNDWATER FLOW
Hydraulics for groundwater is more complex compared to the open channel and pressurised flow
system. Depending on the moisture condition, the hydraulics are different and can be classified as
saturated, unsaturated (vadose zone), steady, unsteady, transient, etc. The hydraulics of
groundwater also depends on the type of aquifer (confined, unconfined and purged). Groundwater
movement within various aquifers depends on the permeability (K) of the media.
6.4.1
Darcys Law
Darcys law was founded based on saturated sand column experiment, as shown in Figure 6.20a
(Darcy, 1856). Under steady condition/macroscopic section specific discharge or Darcys
velocity/Darcys flux:
March 2009
6-25
h
l
V =K
(6.64)
Assuming laminar flow, total discharge (flow) through the column would be:
Q = AK
h
l
(6.65)
where,
A
= cross-sectional area of flow (m2)
V
= Darcys velocity (mm/hr)
K
= hydraulic conductivity (m/hr)
h/l = hydraulic gradient
l
= distance (m)
Q
h
2
z2 z1 h2 h1
Q
Cross Section A
Datum z=0
Datum
(a) Experimental Setup for Darcys Law
(b) Darcy Manometer
Figure 6.20 Parameters for Darcys Law and Darcy Manometer

Microscopic or pore velocity:
vn =
V
n
(6.66)
where n = porosity.
This indicates that for a sand with a porosity of 33 %, vn = 3V. To define the actual flow velocity,
one must consider the microstructure of the material. Darcys law is valid for porous media flow in
any direction, saturated or unsaturated and steady or transient
The hydraulic head or fluid potential h = z + is basic to an understanding of porous media flow
and is a classical formulation of energy conservation or Bernoullis equation. Referring to Figure
6.20b, the total head would be:
H=z+ +
V2
2g
(6.67)
This equation is applicable for steady saturated or unsaturated flows, just as for steady flow in
conveyances.
6-26
March 2009
6.4.2
Unsaturated Flow
6.4.2.1
Steady Flow
In vadose zone it reflects that the water is held in media pores under surface-tension forces with
pressure head < 0 and termed as suction head or negative (-ve) pressure head. Measurement of
suction head is obtained using tensiometers (Figure 6.21a). In unsaturated flow both moisture
content and hydraulic conductivity K are functions of . K = K(), = (), and K = K().
h1
1
2 =0
h3
3
3
Direction
of Water Flow
Hydraulic
Head, h
+ve
0
h1
h2
Saturated
Pressure
Head,
0
+ve
-ve
Unsaturated
Tension-Saturated
h2
2
h3
Datum
3
(a) Tensiometer Variables
(b) Variation of Pressure and Hydraulic Head
Figure 6.21 Parameters for Steady Unsaturated Flow (Freeze and Cherry, 1979)
Darcys flux for steady vertical unsaturated flow in isotropic media is:
V = K ()
6.4.2.2
( + z)
z
(6.68)
Transient Flow
For general three-dimensional flow in an elemental control volume the equation of continuity gives
(Richards, 1931):
K ( ) x + y
= C( )
t
+ 1
K ( ) + K ( )
y
z
z
(6.69)
where C() is the specific moisture capacity /

In one-dimensional form (z-direction) the Equation 6.69 reduces to:
+ 1 = C( )
K ( )
z
t
(6.70)
or in independent variable it is:

+K=
D
z z
t
(6.71)
where D is the soil water diffusivity, K(/) or K()/C().
March 2009
6-27
6.4.3
Saturated Flow
6.4.3.1
Steady Flow
The following equation is derived for steady shallow infiltration that has achieved saturated
conditions in a homogeneous porous column (Figure 6.22a):
q1 2
P1
P
+ Z1 2 + Z 2
= AK
Z1 Z 2
(6.72)
where, q = flow and A = cross-sectional area of flow.

6.4.3.2
Unsteady Flow
Infiltration or groundwater movement, in steady or transient conditions, into underlying unconfined

(phreatic) aquifers can have impact on the watertable (Figure 6.22b). The watertable or the aquifer
storage capability to react with the designed infiltration/recharge magnitude can be analysed using
the following nonlinear partial differential equation (PDE) in general two-dimensional form
(Boussinesq, 1904):
h h
h
Kh + R = S
Kh +
x x y y
t
(6.73)
The Equation 6.73 is nonlinear because of hh/x and for possible solution it is linearised into h2,
forming the following PDE:
2h2
x 2
where
T
R
S
K
=
=
=
=
2h2
y 2
2R S h 2
=
K
T t
(6.74)
K.h (Transmissivity)
infiltration/recharge rate
storativity or specific yield Sy
saturated conductivity
Recharge Source
P1
t+
P2
Z1
Phreatic Aquifer
2
Z2
Datum
(a) Steady Flow
h (x,y,t)
K,S
Impermeable Base
(b) Unsteady Flow
Figure 6.22 Saturated Groundwater Flow
6-28
March 2009
The Equation 6.77 is valid for impermeable or clay horizontal base. In practical situation sometime
however the base is semipermeable or leaky and in such case leakage flow, upward or downward, be
incorporated into the equation. Solution of the equation (6.74), analytical or numerical, is usually
achieved based on Dupuit Forcheimer assumptions.
6.4.4
Combined Flow
An integrated flow, coupling unsaturated-saturated equations, is useful in comprehensive unconfined

aquifer modelling system for a regional irrigation scheme. Freeze (1971) described the integrated
mathematical model using unsaturated and saturated flow equations. The model is important for use
in the planning of subsurface drainage facilities especially in watertable management schemes.
6.4.5
Unconfined Aquifer Flow
Darcys law also can be applied for unconfined or phreatic aquifers, which is shown in Figure 6.23.
Assuming area varies along the path of flow and for unit width, area A will be equal to depth y. So,
flow for unit width will be (from Eq. 6.68),
dy
dl
q = Kyy
(6.75)
Total flow for the whole width considered will be,
q' = q
0 dL
= K
h1
y dy
(6.76)
Integration over h2 to h1 results in the following relationship, which is known as Dupuit equation.
q ' =K
(h12 h 22 )
(6.77)
2L
Water
table
h1
h2
Impermeable membrance
Figure 6.23 Hydraulic Nature of Unconfined (Phreatic) Aquifer

6.4.6
Unconfined Well Flow Hydraulics
Hydraulic of radial flow is important in the analysis and design of aquifer yield for irrigation water
from wells. Hydraulics of pumping wells are well established and applicable to both unconfined and
confined aquifers under steady or transient conditions (Bear, 1979). However, unconfined aquifer is
the most relevant for watertable management and, therefore, hydraulics of unconfined well is
discussed here.
The yield and permeability of an unconfined aquifer can be determined by performing a pumping test
from a well with observation wells similar to that done for the confined aquifers. The physical
situation of the well hydraulics in an unconfined aquifer is schematically shown in Figure 6.24. In this
case, the flow is assumed to be radial with a horizontal watertable. The flow rate can be calculated
following the relationship given in Equation 6.81.
March 2009
6-29
Q=K
(h12 h 22 )
ln(r1 / r2 )
(6.78)
r2
r1
r
Water table
before pumping
dh
curve
Drawdown cureve
during pumping d r
Observation
wells
h
h2
h1
Test well
Impermeable layer
Figure 6.24 Schematic of an Unconfined Aquifer Drawdown
6.4.7
Watertable Management in Coastal Areas
It is a groundwater hydraulic process by which salt water (from the sea) flows inland towards a
freshwater aquifer, as shown in Figure 6.25. This phenomenon is caused due to rapid groundwater
withdrawal for coastal irrigation or due to less flow from the river and through the soils. The
interface of fresh and salt water approximately varies by 40d from the sea level, when d is the depth
of fresh watertable above the sea level (Martin et al., 1997).
The flow of saltwater intrusion is limited to coastal areas. Pumping of fresh water from a coastal
aquifer reduces the water pressure and intensifies the effect, drawing salt water into new areas.
When freshwater levels drop, saltwater intrusion proceeds inland, in some cases reaching the
pumped well (Figure 6.25). Then saltwater, unfit for irrigation, is produced by the pump. To prevent
salt water intrusion, extensive monitoring schemes and numerical models are used to assess how
much water can be pumped without causing such effects. The models are based on 3-D or 2-D
numerical equations, which provide better results compared to manual calculation. Interface of the
salt water intrusion (depth of saline water from soil surface) can be determined by the simple
equation given below.
hs =
f
hf
( s f )
(6.79)
Aquifers can be multi-layered, for which the salt water movement is simulated by approximate
equations for fresh-saltwater interface (Inouchi et al., 1985). The governing equations are given by,
(Q + I)
S eff
eff
eff
(k x
) + (k y
) s w
=
d t
x
x
x
y
( s f )d 2
6-30
(6.80)
March 2009
s (Q w + I) G

eff 1

eff 1
2
2
=
(1 G} +
( (1 G)
K x G
k y G
2 t
x
x
y
2
2
( s f )d
y
s
( s f ) d 2
(Q s + I)
(6.81)
in which S, d and n are the storage coefficients, thickness, porosity of the aquifer; ks and ky are
hydraulic conductivities of the aquifer in x and y directions; f and s are densities of fresh and salt
waters; Qs and Is are pumping and leakage amounts of saltwater; Qw and I are combined pumping
and leakage amounts of fresh and saltwater. Effective piezometric head (eff) is defined by,
eff =
s ( H* ) ( / d) 2 1
+
( s f )d
2
2
(6.82)
where, piezometric head, is the thickness of saltwater layer.

(6.83)
G =/d
H* = d + f
s
(H d)
(6.84)
where, H is the height of the sea level.
Water table
hf
Sea level
Zon
Hs
e of
diffu
sion
Saltwater
(int
erfa
ce)
f
Fresh water
Fresh water
Well
Water table
Cone of depression
Sea level
Fresh water
Cone of ascension
Salt water intrusion
Figure 6.25 Example of Saltwater Intrusion Process
March 2009
6-31
6.5
POLLUTANT TRANSPORT
In order to investigate environmental concerns, specialists are usually called upon to study the
transport, settlement and retention of various substances in surface water and porous media. These
substances, referred to as constituents, may be contaminants, pollutants, artificial tracers, solid
particles or other materials. The motion, spreading and settling of a mass may be due to advection,
diffusion and dispersion. In this section, we shall first define commonly used terms and then present
the equation of transport of a constituent as well as particulate settling in a fluid.
6.5.1
Definitions
The amount of substance in water is specified by the concentration C, which is defined as the mass
of substance per unit volume of water. A constituent is said to be conservative if it does not decay,
is not absorbed or adsorbed, and does not undergo chemical, biological, or nuclear transformation.
The transport of a constituent due to bulk motion of the fluid is called advection. Dispersion caused
entirely by the motion of the fluid is referred to as mechanical dispersion, and that mainly due to
concentration gradient is called diffusion. The spreading of the constituent and its resulting dilution
is due to hydrodynamic dispersion. In order to illustrate these concepts, let us consider uniform,
laminar flow through a pipe. The velocity distribution in this flow at a cross section is parabolic. Let
a substance be introduced across the pipe cross section. Due to higher flow velocity at the centre of
the pipe, the substance will be carried to a greater distance near the centre than near the walls.
Thus, the material will be dispersed due to non-uniform velocity distribution (Figure 6.26a).
To illustrate different processes, let us consider steady uniform flow through a pipe. Let the flow
velocity be U and let the concentration of a constituent be initially zero. Let us assume that at time
to, we introduce at the upstream end of the pipe a constituent such that concentration Co is
maintained at the pipe entrance. Let us designate the concentration at any location in the pipe by C.
In order to plot the results in nondimensional form, we will use relative concentration, C/Co. The
time variation of C/Co will plot as a step function, as shown in Figure 6.26(b). If the constituent is
conservative and there is no dispersion and diffusion, then the constituent will propagate as plug
flow, as shown by the vertical dotted line in Figure 6.26(c). However, due to dispersion and
diffusion, the relative concentration at the outlet of the constituent front will first appear at time t1.
If we plot the relative concentration at different times as the front moves through the pipe, it will
appear as shown in Figure 6.26(d). Due to mechanical dispersion and molecular diffusion, some of
the constituent particles move faster than the average flow velocity, while others move slower.
The mass of diffusing constituent per unit time passing through a given cross section in a stationary
fluid is proportional to the concentration gradient. This is known as Ficks First Law and may be
expressed as:
F=D
dC
dx
(6.85)
where,
F
= mass flux per unit time per unit area
D
= diffusion coefficient
C
= constituent concentration
dC/dx = concentration gradient
Ficks law is based on molecular transport and states that a substance tends to equalise its
distribution; i.e., it flows from a zone of high concentration to a zone of low concentration. The
advection equation for a conservative substance may be written as:
C
C
+U
=O
t
x
6-32
(6.86)
March 2009
in which U = mean fluid velocity.

The Peclet number is the ratio of diffusion to advection over the characteristic length L. A small
Peclet number indicates that the transport of a substance is mainly due to diffusion (Liggett, 1994).
Continuous
Inflow of
Constituent at
Co after to
Outflow at C
after t
Flow
X
(a)
1
C/Co
to
Time, t
(b)
Breakthrough
1
First
Appearance
C/Co
With
Dispersion
Effect
t1
t2
Time, t
(c)
1
C/Co
0
X
(d)
Figure 6.26
6.5.2
Dispersion in One-dimensional Flow (Freeze and Cherry, 1979)
Governing Equations
It is necessary for the constituent within an elemental volume to satisfy the law of conservation of
mass, i.e.,
Net rate of change of mass of constituent
March 2009
= efflux of constituent out of the element influx of constituent into the element +
loss or gain of constituent due to reactions
6-33
We may combine the different transport processes to obtain the following general equation for onedimensional flow:
C
C C
+U
=
D + RC + S
t
x x x
(6.87)
In which R is the reaction rate and S is the source term. This equation is called advection-dispersion
equation. Note that this form of mass conservation is valid for transport in pipes, open channel,
ponds and porous media. The main difference is in the manner in which the dispersion is quantified
in each system, along with the fact that partitioning may take place in porous media due to the
presence of solid particles.
The dispersion coefficient D for pressurised flow may be determined from the following equation
(Holly, 1975):
D = 10.1 R o u*
(6.88)
where,
Ro = pipe radius
u* = shear velocity
For dispersion in free surface flow condition, the following equation (Holly, 1985) may be used to
estimate D:
D = 5.93uh
(6.89)
in which h = flow depth.

In porous media, one speaks of longitudinal and transverse dispersion, i.e.:
DL = L V
(6.90)
DT =TV
(6.91)
in which L and T are the longitudinal and transverse dispersivities and V is the seepage velocity.
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency suggests the following expressions (U.S. EPA, 1986),
L = 0.1x r
(6.92)
T = 0.33 L
(6.93)
where xr is the transport distance from the source.

6.5.3
Transport Hydraulics in Ponds
A significant amount of pollutants are removed in ponds or lakes, which requires consideration of
flow patterns and hydraulic routing. As the hydraulics in a pond is significant along the three
directions the flow and mass transport equation must be solved in two or three-dimensions. The
equation for two-dimension is:
HC HUxC HUyC
2C
2C
+
+
= HDx 2 + HDy 2
t
x
y
y
x
6-34
HR
(6.94)
March 2009
in which Dx and Dy are dispersion coefficients in longitudinal and transverse directions. R is a

reactive term and for particulate pollutants (e.g. total suspended sediments, organic nutrients and
heavy metals), term R is determined by settling or deposition process. This procedure is solved
together with Continuity Equation and Momentum Equation.
uH vH
+
+
=0
t
x
y
(6.95)
In x - direction:
u
u
u
1
1
+u + v +g +
bx
t
x
y
x Hx
Hx
H xx H xy
+
=0
y
x
(6.96a)
In y - direction:
v
v
v
1
1 H xy H yy
+u + v
+g +
by
+
=0
t
x
y
y Hy
Hy y
y
(6.96b)
where,
H = h+
h
= still water depth
= free surface displacement
bx and by are bottom shear stresses in which it is generally assumed that:
bx =
by =
g n2 u u2 + v 2
H1x / 3
g n2 v u2 + v 2
H1y / 3
where, u and v
coefficient
6.5.4
(6.96c)
(6.96d)
are depth-averaged velocity components and n is the Mannings roughness
Transport Hydraulics in Porous Media
As rainfall percolates into the soil, it carries with it dissolved chemicals from pollutants accumulated
on the land surface. Infiltration drives contamination into the soil through the vadose zone which
extends from the ground surface to the watertable and then past the watertable to the groundwater
zone in which the chemicals may be transported laterally for distances of thousands of feet or
meters. The presence of air in the soil complicates not only water flow but also flow of immiscible
fluids such as hydrocarbons which may vaporise. In some cases losses through adsorption of the
contamination on the soil, volatilisation to the atmosphere, degradation by micro-organisms, or
through other physical, chemical or biological processes may prevent the contamination from
reaching the watertable.
These factors determine the ability of the soil to adsorb and degrade pollutants (the soils
assimilative capacity) and whether chemicals are likely to accumulate within the soil profile or leach
through the profile and contaminate groundwater. Understanding these factors helps in identifying
proper agricultural runoff disposal sites and determining suitable remediation methods for
contaminated sites.
Finally, these factors determine the appropriate mathematical models to predict transport and fate of
chemicals in the unsaturated zone. For protection of public health and the environment, particularly
groundwater, it is desirable to enhance losses and retardation of contamination in the soil.
March 2009
6-35
Similarly the movement of dissolved constituents in unsaturated and saturated media is affected by
three factors:
1. advection of the constituent with the water flowing through the media
2. dispersion of the constituent
3. sources and sinks of the constituent within the volume such as chemical reactions or adsorption
onto the solid matrix
Mathematical models of solute transport are based on mass-balance equations that describe these
factors.
6.5.4.1
Unsaturated Media
The vertical convective dispersive equation that describes solute transport in unsaturated soils under
steady state water flow can be expressed as:
C
S
2C
C
+
= .D 2 .
t
t
z
z
(6.97)
where
t
z
C
S
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
time (T)
the distance (L)
the solute concentration in the liquid phase (M.L-3)
the sorbed concentration (M.L-3)
the volumetric water content (L3.L-3)
the bulk density of the porous medium (M.L-3)
a dispersion coefficient (L2.T-1)
the pore water velocity (L.T-1).
The solution of Equation 6.21 requires the knowledge of S/t or S in terms of C as given in the
Freundlich isotherm often used to characterise adsorption equilibrium:
S = K dC b
(6.98)
where S is the sorbed concentration (M.L-3), C is the solute concentration (M.L-3), Kd is the sorption
constant and b is a real exponent, 0 < b < 1.
6.5.4.2
Saturated Media
The governing transport equation in saturated media under similar conditions, is identical except that
effective porosity (ne) is used instead of water content (). As the irrigation excess water and runoff
spread into the larger groundwater system, the one-dimensional transport equation of saturated
media can be extended to two-dimension and three-dimension for practical uses.
6.6
SEDIMENT TRANSPORT THROUGH BASIN
Sediment transport through the irrigation and drainage network is a critical issue in tropical and
humid farmlands. Erosion and scouring in the conveyance system undermine the structural integrity
of the system and increases the cost of operation and maintenance of the network. Although the
mechanism of sediment transport through the open and closed conveyance systems is very complex,
as two materials (solid particle and water) are involved, the basic hydraulics related to the sediment
transport need to be understood and taken care of by the technical persons involved in design,
construction and maintenance of agricultural irrigation and drainage system.
6-36
March 2009
6.6.1
Theory of Sediment Movement
Flow around a submerged particle develops two basic types of resistance or drag: shear drag and
pressure drag. Movement of the sediment particle will start once the drag force (FD) is higher than
the weight of the particle. The general drag equation for flow around a sediment particle is:
FD =
C D AVo2
2
(6.99)
where FD is the drag, CD is a drag coefficient, A is the projected cross-sectional area of the object in
the direction of flow, is the density of the fluid, and Vo is the velocity of the ambient fluid. When
the Reynolds number is very small, say, Re < 0.5, the flow about a submerged object is laminar and
the shape of the object is of secondary importance in regard to the drag as compared with the size
of the object, the viscosity of the fluid, and the velocity of flow. The drag coefficients for various
objects in laminar flow are shown in Table 6.3.
For purely laminar flow around a sphere, Stokes developed a theory, which has been proved by
experiment to be accurate. The theory involves the following: (1) The shear drag is two-thirds and
the pressure is one-third, of the total drag; (2) at all points on a sphere the longitudinal components
of shear drag and pressure drag are combined to produce the same value of unit total drag over the
entire surface of the sphere; and (3) the total drag on the sphere is equal to the product of the
surface area of the sphere and the unit total drag, or:
FD = d2
3Vo
= 3 d Vo
d
(6.100)
where d is the diameter of the spherical particle, is the dynamic viscosity and Vo is the terminal
velocity of the sphere. When combined with Equation 6.99 this equation will produce the drag
coefficient for a sphere as listed in Table 6.3.
Table 6.3
Drag Coefficients for Laminar Flow

Range of Re
Value of CD
Sphere
<0.5
24/Re
Disk perpendicular to flow
<0.5
20.4/Re
Disk parallel to flow
<0.1
13.6/Re
Circular cylinder
<0.1
8/Re (2.0 lnRe)
Object
For the easiness of calculation, sediment particles are generally considered as spherical in shape. The
theoretical terminal or fall velocity Vo of a spherical or nearly spherical particle in a water is
calculated by the following equation:
V0 =
6.6.2
( s w )gD 2
18
(6.101)
Settling Theory
The primary technology for removal of soil particles is through settling or sedimentation.
Sedimentation occurs when particles have a greater density than the surrounding liquid. Under
laboratory quiescent conditions, it is possible to settle out very small particles; the smallest practical
settling size in the field is around 0.01 mm (Metcalf & Eddy, 2003). Soil particles settle through
water under the influence of gravity and follow one of three modes of settling:
1. Particles settle as separate elements with little or no interaction among them. This type of
settling is usually found in waters with relatively low solids concentrations and is called free or
ideal settling.
March 2009
6A-37
2. Independent particles coalesce or clump together during sedimentation. The larger resulting
particles settle at a faster rate. This type of settling is often aided by the addition of chemicals
which pull particles together.
3. At some concentration higher than in free settling, particles will start to interact and hinder
settling. Instead of falling freely, the particles will settle as a group. This is called zone settling.
The Newtons and Stokes laws are often used to quantify the sedimentation process.
For spherical particles falling through a liquid, Newton suggested the following formula to define their
maximum settling velocity:
Vs =
4 dg rp - rv
3
C drv
)
(6.102)
where,
Vs
d
rp
rv
g
Cd
=
=
=
=
=
=
settling velocity of the particle

diameter of the particle
density of the particle
density of the fluid
acceleration of gravity, and
drag coefficient of the particle
The drag coefficient, Cd, will depend on whether the flow around the particle is laminar or turbulent
and is a function of the Reynolds Number, Re. The drag coefficient can be approximated using the
following equations:
For turbulent flow, 1 Re 10,000
Cd =
24
+
Re
3
Re
+ 0.34
(6.103a)
For laminar flow, Re 1.0

Cd =
24
Re
(6.103b)
The settling velocity is directly proportional to the square of the particle diameter and the difference
in the densities between particle and fluid. Stokes law is applicable to particles having an equivalent
spherical diameter of up to 0.10 mm. If the dynamic viscosity of the water and the density of the
particles are known, the settling velocity can be calculated as a function of particle diameter.
Vs can be measured in the laboratory using a standard settling cylinder/tube. Settling velocities of
round soil particles can be calculated and plotted for a range of particle sizes and water
temperatures. More information on sedimentation theory, including Stokes and Newtons laws, can
be found in other references (Hazen, 1904).
6.6.3
Sediment Removal in Settling Basin
The design of sediment basins assumes free or ideal settling. It also assumes round soil particles
and relatively uniform specific gravities. In reality, suspended particles are often rods, disks, or
irregular lumps which settle more slowly than round particles. Variations in parent material can
result in small particles with mass greater than that of larger particles. However, for the purposes of
agricultural runoff quality control, the generalised assumptions are adequate.
6-38
March 2009
Once particles have settled to the bottom of a basin, they may be resting on other particles or be
separated from them by electrostatic repulsion. Considerable water can be trapped among the
particles. This water may be:
driven out as the weight of more particles is added to the top of the mass
drained slowly at the bottom of the mass through capillary action as particles shift and settle, or
evaporated when the overlying layer of water is removed
The efficiency () of a sedimentation basin or trap is measured as the proportion of the incoming
pollutant load retained in the trap.
6.6.3.1
Ideal Settling Basin
A simple model of an ideal sediment basin illustrates the fundamentals of basin design. For
simplicity, it is assumed that soil particles have a uniform density. In Figure 6.27, a flow (Q) enters a
basin of settling depth (D), width (W), and length (L). It is assumed that a plug flow in the basin
i.e., uniform flow in one direction.
A particle will travel horizontally with the water through the basin and will fall at a vertical velocity Vs
in accordance with Stoke's Law. The time (mean hydraulic residence time) for the particle to
traverse the length of the basin will be:
th =
L
(Q / WD )
(Horizontally)
(6.104a)
The time for the particle to fall to the storage zone will be:
tv =
D
Vs
(Vertically)
(6.104b)
Pa
th
Vs
Outlet
Outlet
Zone
Zone
Q / WD
of
Pa
rtic
le
Riser
Riser
Outlet
Outlet
'P'
Settling
Settling Zone
Zone
Storage Zone
Zone
Storage
L
Figure 6.27
Ideal Sediment Basin (DID, 2000)
In a properly designed basin, the smallest particle to be captured will fall to the storage zone just
before or as it reaches the outlet zone. Thus th = tv , and setting the transit and falling times equal
gives the following surface area of the basin:
A= W L =
March 2009
Q
Vs
(6.105)
6A-39
We now have an ideal basin sized for removal of certain particles. The trap efficiency of an ideal
basin is:
=
Vs t h
dm
(6.106)
where dm is the basin mean depth.

6.6.3.2
Real Settling Basin
The ideal basin is never constructed; it is only approximated. Several factors affect performance;
they include short circui1ting, turbulence, bottom, scour, riser design, temperature and wind.
Turbulence in a basin is travel by water and particles in other than a straight line between inlet and
outlet, i.e. travel in apparently random currents and swirls. Quiescent conditions, with little wasted
motion of particles and laminar flow of the water, approximate the ideal sediment basin. Turbulent
condition will lower basin efficiency (Hazen, 1904 and the US Bureau of Reclamation, 1973). To
operate efficiently under turbulent conditions, a basins surface area must be increased above the
theoretical value of Q/Vs .
The recommended sizing method which is based on the work of Einstein (1965), is summarised in
Equation 6.107:
Ph = 100 (1 e 1.0548LUs / qh )
(6.107)
where,
L
Ph
qh
Us
=
=
=
=
basin length (m)

percentage of sediment deposited in any given hour
hourly discharge per unit width (m2/s)
fall velocity of sediment particle (m/s)
The trapping efficiency of a basin is a function of the particle size distribution of the inflowing
sediment. Assuming ideal settling conditions, all particles of size equal to or larger than those of the
design particle will be retained in the basin.
Therefore, ideal basin efficiency corresponds to the percent of soil equal to or larger than the design
particle size. For example, if a sediment basin on a site is designed to capture the 0.02 mm particle
and 64 % of the particles on this site are greater than or equal to 0.02 mm, the maximum efficiency
of the basin is 64 %. The only practical way to increase this efficiency is to increase surface area of
the basin.
6.7
SEDIMENT TRANSPORT THROUGH CONVEYANCE
Sediment transport through a conveyance (either free surface or pressurised flow system) occurs in
terms of suspended load and bed load. Suspended load consists of the particles those are very fine
in nature. Total load can be calculated by adding suspended to the bed load.
Much of the literature discusses about the sediment transport and settling in open channel and
reservoirs/settling basin. In the case of pipe system the theories are mainly available for sewerage
systems; where reduction in flow velocities, surcharged condition and existence of numerous pits
causes sedimentation problem. However, the main effect of sediment load in the pressurised
conveyance system mainly causes increased head loss and abrasion of the pipe material, which is not
a serious issue pertaining to the conveyance of irrigation and agricultural through pipe conveyance.
On the other hand, the pipe conveyance can easily be designed as self cleansing systems. Therefore,
sediment transport through pipes and closed conduits are not discussed here.
6-40
March 2009
Various theories are available for the estimation of sediment transport and deposition in a lined or
unlined conveyance system (Nalluri and Featherstone, 2001; Andrew et al., 2004 and Raudkivi,
1998). Lined channels are less prone to erosion and deposition of sediments as higher flushing
velocity can be applied to keep them self cleansing system, except for the manhole or pits where the
sediments tend to settle due to reduced velocity. However, the erosion and deposition of sediments
are common in erodible channels, which needs appropriate attention during the planning, design and
construction phases of an agricultural irrigation and drainage system.
6.7.1
Bed Load Transport
Einsteins empirical equation is a popular formula used to estimate bed load through an irrigation or
drainage channel. According to his theory, transport parameter () is a function of shear intensity
(), where,
=
( s w )D p
(6.108)
w RS o
where Dp is the particle mean size (in mm) and So is the bed slope (in fraction). The bed load
(m3/ms) can be estimated by
qb =
( s w )gD p3
w
(6.109)
The value of can be estimated by Eq. 6.113, which is valid for > 0.04 (Rouse, 1950).
1
= 40
6.7.2
(6.110)
Suspended Load Transport
The Prandtl model of turbulence (Andrew et al., 2004) can be used as a basis for a suspended
sediment load model, assuming that the sediment concentration C varies, as shown in Figure 6.28,
and equilibrium condition exists. Equating the upward and downward transport rate of particles at
equilibrium condition equal to zero, the concentration of suspended load at any depth can be
calculated by,
y Y y
C
= r
C r y Y y r
U
s
a=
K gRS
o
(6.111)
(6.112)
where,
C = Sediment concentration
Y = Water depth
yr = Reference height from the channel bed
Cr = Reference concentration at depth yr
Us = Fall velocity of a sediment particle
K = Assumed constant, usually taken as 0.4 for a clear fluid
R = Hydraulic radius of the river section
March 2009
6A-41
+ u
uu +
u
c - c
C- C
Particles
sweptupward
upwardby
by flow
flow
Particles
swept
c+
c C
C+
uu -- u
u
yr
Figure 6.28
6.7.3
Typical Schematic Model for Suspension of Solid Particles
Total Load Transport
Although total sediment load can be calculated by adding the individual estimated values of bed load
and suspended load, the practitioners prefer to use different methods to directly estimate the total
transport of sediment load through the channel. Among a few formulae, Ackers and White formula is
well known for the estimation of total sediment load, which is given below.
Acker and White established transitional relationship to account for the intermediate particle sizes
besides the course particles (bed load) and fine particles (suspended load). They proposed
dimensionless quantities, Ggr (a sediment transport parameter based on stream power), Fgr (a particle
mobility number which is a function of shear stress/immersed weight of particles) and Dgr
(relationship between immersed weight of particles and viscous force).
1
Dgr
s
3
1
g

= Dp w
(6.113)
1n
Fgr =
(gRSo )n
gDp s 1
10Dm
32 log
Dp
(6.114)
Fgr
q s D m gRS o
G gr =
=C
1
A gr
qD p V
(6.115)
where,
Dp = Typical particle size
Dm = Hydraulic mean depth
V = Average velocity (Q/A)
6-42
March 2009
The value of n is related to Dgr. For fine grains n = 1, for coarse grains n = 0 and for transitional
sizes n=f(logDgr). The value of n, m, Agr and C varies as follows:
i)
For Dgr > 60 (coarse sediment with D50 > 2mm)
ii)
For 1 < Dgr < 60 (transitional and fine sediment with D50 in the range of 0.06 2.0
mm)
N = 0, m = 1.78, Agr = 0.17 and C = 0.025
N = 1 0.56 logDgr
M = 1.67 + 6.83/Dgr
Agr = 0.14 + 0.23/Dgr
LogC = 2.79 logDgr 0.98 (logDgr)2 -3.46
March 2009
6A-43
REFERENCES
Andrew C., John M. and Martin B (2004). Hydraulics in civil and environmental engineering. Fourth
Edition, Spon Press, Taylor & Francis Group, London and New York.
Bear J. (1979). Hydraulics of Groundwater. McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York.
Boussinesq J. (1904). Recherches Theoriques sur Iecoulement des Nappes deau Infiltrees dans le
Sol et sur le Debit des Sources . Journal de Mathematiques pures et Appliquees, (50 series), Vol. X.
Sec. 1.
Chaudhry, M.H. (1993). Open Channel Flow. Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Chow V.T. (1959). Open Channel Hydraulics. McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York.
DID (2000). Urban stormwater management manual for Malaysia. Department of Irrigation and
Drainage, Ministry of Agriculture, Malaysia.
Freeze R.A. (1971). Three-dimensional, Transient, Saturated-unsaturated Flow in a Groundwater
Basin . Water Resources Research, Vol. 7, pp. 347-366.
Freeze R.A. and Cherry J.A. (1979). Groundwater. Prentice-Hall Inc.
Holly F.M. (1975). Two-Dimensional Mass Dispersion in Rivers. Hydraulic Paper No. 78, Colorado
State University, Fort Collins, Colorado.
Holly F.M. (1985). Dispersion in Rivers and Coastal Waters1. Physical Principles and Dispersion
Equations . In Developments in Hydraulic Engineering 3, Novak P. (ed.), Elsevier Applied Science
Publishers, London, pp. 18.
Inouchi K., Kishi Y and Kakinuma T. (1985). The regional unsteady interface between freshwater and
saltwater in a confined coastal aquifer. Japan. J. Limnol., 45(2): 100-11.
Liggett J.A. (1994). Fluid Mechanics. McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York.
Lighthill M.H. and Whitham G.B. (1955). On Kinematic Waves I. Flood Movement in Long Rivers,
Proc. Roy. Soc., Sec. A, Vol. 229, pp. 281-316.
Metcalf & Eddy Inc. (2003). Wastewater Engineering, Collection, Treatment, Disposal. McGraw-Hill
Book Company, New York.
Nalluri C. and Featherstone R.E. (2001). Civil engineering hydraulics. 4th Ed., Blackwell Science. UK.
Raudkivi A.J. (1998). Loose boundary hydraulics. 4th Ed., Balkema, Rotterdam.
Richards L.A. (1931). Capillary Conduction of Liquids through Porous Mediums. Physics, Vol. 1, pp.
318-333.
Rouse, H. (1950). Engineering Hydraulics (editor). Wiley, New York.
U.S. Bureau of Reclamation (1973). Design of Small Dams. Washington DC.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, U.S. EPA (1976). Erosion and Sediment Control Surface
Mining in the Eastern U.S. EPA-625/3-76-006, Washington DC.
6-44
March 2009
APPENDIX 6.A1 Design Charts
Type of Structure and Design of Entrance
Coefficient Ke
Concrete Pipe
Projecting from fill, socket end (groove end)
0.2
Projecting from fill, square cut end
0.5
Headwall or headwall and wingwalls:

Socket end of pipe (groove end)
0.2
Square edge
0.5
Rounded (radius = D/12)
0.2
Mitered to conforming to fill slope
0.7
End section conforming to fill slope
0.5
Hooded inlet projecting from headwall
See note 1
Corrugated Metal Pipe
Projecting from fill (no headwall)
0.9
Headwall or headwall and wingwall square edge
0.5
Mitred to conform to fill slope
0.7
End section conforming to fill slope
0.5
Reinforced Concrete Box
Headwall parallel to embankment (no wingwalls)

Square edged on 3 edges
0.5
Rounded on 3 edges to radius of 1/12 barrel

dimension
0.2
Wingwalls at 30 to 75 to barrel
Square edged at crown
0.4
Crown edge rounded to radius 1/12 barrel

dimension
0.2
0.5

Wingwalls parallel (extension of sides)
Design Chart 6.A1
March 2009
0.7
Entrance Loss Coefficients
6A-1
Type
Kb
90 double mitred bend
0.47
0.25
45 single mitred bend
0.34
22.5 single mitred bend
0.12
Source: ARR-1977 (p.327)
Design Chart 6.A2
Type
Kb
0.47
0.25
45 single mitred bend
0.34
22.5 single mitred bend
0.12
Design Chart 6.A3
6-2
Bend Loss Coefficients
Pressure Loss Coefficient at Mitred Fittings
March 2009
Radius of
Curvature (r)
0.3
r/D
Loss Coefficient
0.2
r/D >
0.1
0.0
0o
20 o
40 o
60 o
Deflection Angle in
Design Chart 6.A4
March 2009
80 o 90 o 100o
Degrees
Penetration Loss Coefficients
6A-3
100.0
h cL
c
Head Loss & Pressure Change Coefficient ( Kp )
1.2
D
h cL
c
1.1
0.9
s
ue
d Val
D
0.6
0.2
0.4
0.8
0.6
1.0
0.01
Blockage Ratio
0.8
1.5
0.7
2.0
2.5
3.0
4.0
5.0 6.0
7.0 8.0
9.0
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.9
U
o
90
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Design Chart 6.A5
6-4
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
0.55
0.6
0.8
0.7
0.7
0.6
0.8
0.5
0.9
0.4
0.3
0.2
U
o
90
0.1
0.0
0.0
Flow Ratio Q L /Q o
A L /A o or (D L /D o ) 2
0. 8
0.6
0.2
0.4
8
0.
KL
A L /A o or (D L /Do ) 2
0.9
0.2
Blockage Ratio
1.0
-0.5
-0.4
-0.2
0.0
1.0
KU
0.5
0.5
0.10
0.4
0.1
0.7
7
0.
0.65
0.
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.8
1.0
0.3
(hc)
D
1.0
10.0
0.2
1.3
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Flow ratio Q L /Q o
Pressure Loss Coefficients at Branch Lines
March 2009
1.0
0.9
Sudden
Enlargement
0.8
0.7
0.6
Energy Loss Coefficient C U
0.5
0.4
0.3
d
Sudden
Contraction
0.2
0.1
0.0
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
Expansion & Contraction

Ratio d/D
Design Chart 6.A6
March 2009
Expansion and Contraction Loss Coefficients
6A-5
Qg /Qo = 0.00
Qg /Qo = 0.50
2.4
Qg /Qo = 0.50
2.2
2.0
Qg /Qo = 0.00
2.0
Ku
Ku
2.2
1.8
S/Do = 1.5
1.8
S/D o = 2.0
1.6
1.4
1.6
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
D u /Do
0.9
0.5
1.0
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
D u /Do
2.5
Qg /Qo = 0.00
Qg /Qo = 0.00
Qg /Qo = 0.50
Qg /Qo = 0.50
2.0
Ku
1.8
1.6
Ku
1.5
S/D o = 2.5
1.4
S/Do = 3.0
1.2
1.0
1.0
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
0.5
1.0
0.6
0.7
D u /Do
0.8
0.9
1.0
D u /Do
PLAN
Do
1.8
Qg /Qo = 0.00
Ku
1.6
Qg /Qo = 0.50
1.4
Du
Qo
Qu
S/Do = 4.0
1.2
1.0
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
D u /D o
0.9
1.0
ELEVATION
Qg
HGL
HGL
Qu
Design Chart 6.A7 Head Loss Chart for Entry Pit
6-6
March 2009
Qg
HGL
Du
P =WSE=K u . Vo2
2g
HGL
Do
2
Qu
(K u>0)
Qo
ELEVATION
0.50
0.40
0.30
0.20
Q g /Qo
0.10
0.00
-1
Ku
PLAN
-2
-3
Qg
HGL
HGL
Du
-4
ELEVATION
2
P =WSE=K u. Vo
2g
Do
Qu
Qo
NEGATIVE PRESSURE HEAD CHANGE

(K u<0)
-5
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
Diameter Ratio Du /Do
Design Chart 6.A8
March 2009
Head Loss Chart for Pit with 0
6A-7
8
Qg
0.20
0.15
Vo2
2 gD o
Q o= Qg
Do
0.30
0
0.4 .35
0
0
0.5 .45
0
0.
80
0
1. .90
1. 00
1. 10
20
0. 6
0
0.7
0
Kg
0.25
h g = K g . Vo2
2g
HGL
Curve B
Outflow in Same
Direction as Inflow
Curve B
Outfall at 90
to Inflow
40
1.
60 0
1.
1.8 .00
2
0
2.5
0
3 .0
Pivot Point
for HGL
at Obvert
0
0
Measure H/Do From Here

Submergence Ratio (S/D o )
Do
Do
Qg
Do
CURVE A
Design Chart 6.A9
6A-8
Qg
CURVE B
Head Loss Chart for Pit with 90 deflection
March 2009
APPENDIX 6.B1 Design Example on Pressurised Flow Network
Problem:
For the pipe loop shown in Figure 6.B1 is located at the top of a small hill. The pressure heads at
points B, C and D if the pressure head at A is 70 m and A, B, C and D have the same elevations. All
pipes are 300 mm in diameter with roughness 0.03mm (Adapted from Andrew et al., 2004).
Find the discharges in all pipes in the loop.
Solution:
a) It is convenient for hand solution to use a tabular layout in conjunction with the Hydraulic
Research Station (HRS) charts or Tables (Andrew et al., 2004) for finding hf from q and d. Initial trial
(assume values for q),
Table 6.B1 Calculation for First Trial
Pipe
q (L/s)
hL (m)
hL/q
A-B
+60
+2.00
0.0333
B-C
+40
+0.93
0.0233
C-D
A-D
-40
-0.93
0.0233
2.00
0.0799
Note that the positive clockwise sign convention for q and hL.
100 L/s
20 L/s
1000 m
A
1000 m
1000 m
C
1000 m
40 L/s
40 L/S
Figure 6.B1 Simple Network for Pressurised Flow
March 2009
6A-9
Apply factor
q= 2/2(0.0799) = -12.5 L/s
Second trial (new discharge = q - 12.5)
Table 6.B1 Calculation for First Trial
Pipe
q (L/s)
hL (m)
hL/q
A-B
+47.5
+1.3
0.0274
B-C
+27.5
+0.48
0.0175
C-D
-12.5
-0.12
0.0096
A-D
-52.5
-1.58
0.0301
+0.08
0.0846
q=0.08/2(0.0846)=-0.5 L/s
As q =-0.5 L/s which is very small, this solution is sufficiently accurate for practical purpose.
(b) To find the pressure heads (P/g) at B, C and D apply the energy equation.
Ignoring velocity heads and recalling that elevation are the same at A, B, C and D
PB /g=PA/g - hL(A-B)= 70 - 1.3 = 68.7 m
PC /g=PB/g - hL(B-C) = 68.7 - 0.48 = 68.22m
PD /g=PA/g - hL(A-D) = 70 - 1.58=68.42m
As a Check
PC /g=PD /g - hL(D-C) = 68.42 - 0.12 Comparing with the estimate (PC/g=68.22 ) the difference
is equal to hL (the closing error).
Note: The example is given to demonstrate manual calculation for a simple pipe network. For the
design and analysis of complex pipe networks, computer softwares should be used.
6A-10
March 2009
APPENDIX 6.C1 Design Example on Pressure Surge
Problem:
A valve is placed at the downstream end of a 6 km long pipe line. Water is initially flowing along the
pipe at a mean velocity of 4.0 m/s. What is the magnitude of the surge pressure generated by a
sudden and complete valve closure? Also calculate the time required for the shock wave to create
negative pressure at the valve. Assume celerity of sound as 1500 m/s and density of water is 1000
kg/m3 (Adapted from Andrew et al., 2004).
Solution:
Increase in pressure is estimated from Eq. 6.63.
p = cu = 1500 x 1000 x 4.0 = 6,000 KN/m2
Following the cycle of events in Figure 6.18 (a to f), at the valve the increase in pressure will be
maintained while the decompression wave returns to the valve at time of,
t = 2L/c = (2 x 6000)/15000 = 8 sec.
March 2009
6A-11
(This page is deliberately blank)
6A-12
March 2009
Part B Planning
Chapter 7 - Computer Applications
Chapter 7 - COMPUTER APPLICATIONS
Table of Contents
Table of Contents 7-i
List of Figures 7-iii
7.1 INTRODUCTION...7-1
7.2 APPLICATIONS OF COMPUTER MODELS AND SOFTWARE.. 7-1
7.2.1 Basic Principles . 7-1
7.2.2 Importance of Computer Models and Software... 7-2
7.2.3 Training Needs .................................................. 7-2
7.3 OVERVIEW OF AVAILABLE SOFTWARE.. 7-2
7.3.1 Classification Schemes.. 7-2
7.3.1.1 Planning Level. 7-3
7.3.1.2 Analysis and Design Level 7-3
7.3.1.3 Operation and Management Level . 7-3
7.3.1.4 Quantity Level. 7-3
7.3.1.5 Quality Level 7-4
7.3.2 Software Selection...7-4
7.3.3 Public Domain or Commercial Software .. 7-4
7.4 IRRIGATION SYSTEMS APPLICATION ............................................ 7-4
7.4.1 Planning Software.... 7-4
7.4.1.1 CROPWAT. 7-4
7.4.1.2 CLIMWAT7-5
7.4.1.3 CUP 7-5
7.4.1.4 WaSim. 7-5
7.4.1.5 CSUID .7-5
7.4.2 Design Software... 7-6
7.4.2.1 SIRMOD III . 7-6
7.4.2.2 SURDEV . 7-6
7.4.2.3 FIDO v2 . 7-6
7.4.2.4 WinSRFR 2.1 .. 7-7
7.4.2.5 SPRINKMOD 7-7
7.4.2.6 IrriCAD Pro 7-7
7.4.2.7 DRIPD..7-8
7.4.2.8 FERGON. 7-8
7.4.2.9 MICROS 7-8
7.5 DRAINAGE SYSTEMS APPLICATION.. 7-8
7.5.1 Planning and Design Software.. 7-8
7.5.1.1 WellDrainW . 7-8
7.5.1.2 EnDrain . 7-9
7.5.1.3 LANDDRAIN. 7-9
7.5.2 Agro-hydrology Models .. 7-9
March 2009
7-i
7.5.2.1 DRAINMOD . 7-9

7.5.2.2 MODFLOWSurfact Flow . 7-10
7.5.2.3 SWAP . 7-11
7.5.3 Salinity Prediction Models. 7-12
7.5.3.1 SALTMOD . 7-12
7.5.3.2 DRAINSAL 7-12
7.5.3.3 WATSUIT . 7-12
7.6 HYDRAULICS APPLICATION.. 7-12
7.6.1 CanalMan . 7-12
7.6.2 SIC .. 7-13
7.6.3 WinFlume . 7-13
7.6.4 NETAFIM Hydro-Calc 7-13
7.6.5 WADISO 7-13
7.6.6 HEC-RAS .. 7-14
7.6.7 FLOW PRO .. 7-14
7.6.8 HYDROFLOW 2.0.....7-14
7.6.9 PumpBaseTM 2.0 7-14
7.6.10 HydroCAD. 7-15
7.7 DRAWINGS AND DOCUMENTS PREPARATION... 7-15
7.7.1 LandCad(R) 7-15
7.7.2 AgStar 7-15
7.7.3 CAD and GIS ..7-16
7.8 OPERATION AND MANAGEMENT .. 7-16
7.8.1 Importance of ICT Application 7-16
7.8.2 ICT in Operation and Management. 7-16
7.8.3 ICT Tools and Software. 7-17
7.8.3.1 GIS and DSS.7-17
7.8.3.2 IrriWise Manager . 7-17
7.8.3.3 SCADA 7-18
7.8.3.4 Web-based Technology. 7-19
REFERENCES 7-20
APPENDIX 7.A: List of Computer Modeling Software .. 7A-1
APPENDIX 7.B: Worked Examples.
7A-5
7.B-1: Simulation of Irrigation Supply for a Canal-based Irrigation System 7A-5

7.B-2: Simulation of Subsurface Drainage System Design Information Using
Drainmod Software .. 7A-11
7-ii
March 2009
List Of Figures
Figure
Description
Page
7-1
Schematic Diagram of the Simulated Water Management System Using

DRAINMOD
7-10
7-2
Cross-section Depicting the Vadose Zone, C, Water Table, and Phreatic or

Saturated Zone
7-11
7-3
IrriWiseTM A powerful Management Tool
7-18
7-4
Components of SCADA System
7-18
March 2009
7-iii
7-iv
March 2009
7 COMPUTER APPLICATIONS
7.1
INTRODUCTION
Irrigated agriculture is a complex system that requires a multi-disciplinary knowledge of water

movement, plant dynamics and soils. Many models and software have been developed during the
past three decades in all aspects of agriculture. Nowadays, computer models are indispensable tools
for irrigation and drainage professionals in the planning, design, operation, maintenance and
management of irrigation and drainage systems. An engineer with access to computer facilities
should normally choose one of these tools according to the design objectives and the available
resources. However, it should be borne in mind that proper use of such a new method or tool
requires a good knowledge of the detailed operations that the model or software can perform.
The objective of this Chapter is to familiarize users with the application of available computer
software for planning, design and evaluation of irrigation and drainage systems and preparation of
technical reports and drawings. The Chapter discusses and recommends potential computer models
and software for engineers, decision-makers and managers of irrigation projects; agricultural
consultants; and others involved in design and operation of agricultural systems will find this
informative.
In this Chapter, the computer softwares are grouped according to their field of application. The
generic characteristics and a few well-known specific applications are also described. No software is
provided but ample references are made to public sources where the programs and other software
can be procured. In addition, application of two computer softwares is demonstrated in planning and
designing of irrigation and drainage systems.
7.2
APPLICATION OF COMPUTER MODELS AND SOFTWARE
Computer application in the field has grown significantly with recent advances in computer hardware
and software. Advances in modelling and simulation methodology, concurrent with dramatic
increases in computer capabilities and reductions in computer hardware costs, have meant that the
benefits of computer application can be extended to areas that previously have been impractical.
Application of models requires a thorough understanding of:
7.2.1
the role of the models in the overall management and decision-making process and the
questions to be answered by the modeling exercises,
the real-world processes being modeled and the capabilities and limitations of methods for
representing these processes with mathematical equations,
computational techniques for solving the equations,
data availability and limitations,
model calibration and verification techniques,
the availability of computer software and hardware and the skills required to use these tools.
Basic Principles
The following basic principles apply to all forms of computer modelling:
All computer models require site-specific information to be supplied by the user. This may range
from relatively simple data such as rainfall or drainage system data, through to detailed
parameters for physical, chemical and biological processes.
While modelling generally yields more information, simpler methods may provide sufficient
information for developing a control strategy. In general, the simplest method that provides the
desired analysis should be used. The risk of using a more complex (and presumably "better")
model is that it requires more expertise, data, support, etc. to use and understand, with a
consequent higher probability of misapplication.
March 2009
7-1
If water quality problems are being considered, it still may not be necessary to simulate quality
processes since most control strategies are based on hydrologic or hydraulic considerations.
Quality processes are very difficult to simulate accurately and they generally incorporate many
heuristic procedures that require extensive data and calibration. If abatement strategies can be
developed without the simulation of water quality parameters, the overall modelling program will
be greatly simplified.
Models sometimes may be used to extrapolate beyond the measured data record. It is important to
recognize, however, that models discussed in this Chapter do not extend data but rather generate
simulated numbers that should never be assumed to be the same as data collected in the field.
7.2.2
Importance of Computer Models and Software
Designing irrigation and drainage systems that have the potential to be operated effectively and
efficiently is a complex task. It requires a wide range of temporal and spatially distributed
information and contributions from a range of professions. In addition, newly emerging technologies
are being increasingly integrated into irrigation and agricultural drainage systems. Field testing of
different alternatives required in proper planning and designing a system is usually prohibitively
expensive and time consuming. Computer models are traditionally used to reduce trial time and costs
of the fieldwork as well as for evaluation and design of those systems.
Computer models play a fundamental role for simulation of various processes in addressing a range
of irrigation and drainage planning, designing systems for irrigated agriculture, on-farm irrigation
system design, water resources planning and management, environmental and social problems.
Therefore, Computer Models in Irrigation and Drainage" are indispensable decision-making tools for
governmental and non-governmental researchers, engineers, consultants and managers for the
design, planning, operation, maintenance, performance assessment, rehabilitation and improvement
of irrigation and drainage systems. The analytical power of computer method gives major
advantages over manual techniques. This is likely to result in more accurate designs, with cost
savings by avoiding over- or under-sizing.
Computer models allow some forms of simulations that could rarely be performed manually. It
should always be borne in mind however, that use of measured data is usually preferable to the use
of simulated data. Indeed, the capabilities of computer application have been playing central roles in
the remarkable success irrigation and drainage systems in agriculture. However, modelling is not a
good substitute for data collection. Models input data requirements enable researchers to properly
plan data collection procedures of field experiments. Computer codes developed over the past 30
years to simulate the different processes encountered, and to evaluate alternative management
practices are numerous. Model development is dynamic and ongoing. Some models are being
continuously refined, upgraded, and integrated with other models and support software, while other
models remain static and are eventually abandoned.
7.2.3
Training Needs
An often-quoted proverb with computer applications is 'garbage in, garbage out'. It is essential to
understand that incorrect application of a computer model can lead to totally misleading results. All
computer models and software require some skill and knowledge such as hydraulics, hydrology and
other relevant technical background although the depth of training required varies considerably.
7.3
OVERVIEW OF AVAILABLE SOFTWARE
7.3.1
Classification Schemes
Several classification schemes can be developed for models and software, to differentiate the type
and versatility of various models. One way of looking at modelling is to consider that there are
several levels of the process/application from planning, analysis and design to operation that can be
used for classifying software.
7-2
March 2009
7.3.1.1
Planning Level
Planning is the process of compiling information and using whether information to develop an
irrigation and drainage plan for a new or rehabilitation and/or upgrading of irrigation and drainage
system where this is needed. It requires the ability to compile and analyze complex information,
interpret statistical data and measurements, develop plans and reports, and use a range of irrigation
and information management software. Developing an irrigation and drainage plan requires
knowledge of measuring and monitoring procedures, soil-plant-water relationships, readily available
water, watertable and salinity, methods and techniques of irrigation, irrigation system options, and
computerized irrigation systems.
7.3.1.2
Analysis and Design Level
At the analysis/design level, the detailed analysis of an existing system, proposed system, or system
improvements is investigated. The general philosophy is that the irrigation system shall be designed
and operated to make beneficial use of water and is also necessary to prevent excessive irrigation
and subsequent negative impact on the irrigated lands. Design models must be capable of
performing realistic simulation of crop water simulation, hydrologic, hydraulic and possibly, water
quality phenomena.
7.3.1.3
Operation and Management Level
Effective decision support tools to assist managers to schedule and monitor water releases at the
main system level must be able to operate in an environment where much of the operations data will
not be reliably available or completely accurate. Knowledge of areas planted, the crop mix and dates
of planting will, almost always, be imprecise. Values for field application efficiencies, seepage and
percolation losses and conveyance losses at all levels in the canal network will be estimated,
occasionally supported by limited field validation. Quantifying demands at the field level must
account for losses in the tertiary system and main canal network, adjust for contributions from
rainfall and allow for rotational and/or physical capacity constraints of the system, to derive a
workable schedule of releases.
Operational control facilities/structures are devices that function to ensure that scheduled volumes
are actually delivered, striving to control and stabilize a hydraulic network where farmer activities do
not always complement their actions. The operational rules and performance of these devices can be
simulated using appropriate computer software in order to optimize their operation rules and design.
7.3.1.4
Quantity Level
Quantity modelling is relatively well understood. Many models are available for reasonably accurate
prediction of agro-hydrological components as well as hydraulic simulation. Important division of
models is into deterministic and stochastic types.
Deterministic models attempt to consider a definite law of certainty but not any law of probability. In
the stochastic model, the chance of occurrence of the variable is considered thus introducing the
concept of probability. Stochastic model is time dependent while probabilistic model is time
independent. Both stochastic and deterministic models can be sub-classified as:
(a)
Conceptual Models
In conceptual models, mathematical models are conceived based on the consideration of physical
processes, which when subjected to input variables, produces the output variables.
(b)
Empirical Models
Empirical models are based on empirical formulae or relationship. In practice many models use a
mixture of the two techniques.
March 2009
7-3
7.3.1.5
Quality Level
Quality modelling is quite different. The general conclusion is that modelling of quality parameters
should be performed only when really necessary, and only when requisite calibration and verification
data are available. Nevertheless, modelling without measured calibration and verification data can
still be used to assess the relative effect of control strategies. This can be a valuable planning tool.
7.3.2
Software Selection
Models are used in essentially every area of irrigation and agricultural drainage planning, designing
and management. They vary greatly in their capabilities and limitations and must be carefully
selected and used by knowledgeable professionals. The interest here is limited to representing the
planning and design of irrigation and agricultural drainage and related systems with mathematical
formulations which are solved using a computer.
The software selection criteria for planning, design, operation and maintenance and management of
irrigation and drainage systems are the identifying technical alternatives that are feasible to apply to
greater interests. The software selection process solely depends on technical, economic and
institutional input data. The selection of proper software depends on:
7.3.3
Does the software achieve the objectives?

Does the software satisfy the defined criteria?
Is the software applicable within the context of interests?
Does it address the needs?
Are the organizations and institutions capable to adapt with the software?
have enough resources (financial, skilled manpower, institutional organization) to sustain the
software uses?
Is the software applicable under the physical conditions of the project area?
Public Domain or Commercial Software
A computer program is in the public domain when its development has been supported through
public funds, and no distribution restrictions, copyrights or patents apply. Public domain software can
be freely copied and distributed. Nowadays, many application softwares are available in the Website.
The popular commercially available software packages, which are widely used in irrigation and
agricultural drainage field, are available in the market. A summary of some of the currently available
software and their procurement is given in Appendix 7.A. Users can access to website for detail
information about a particular item.
7.4.
IRRIGATION SYSTEMS APPLICATION
Irrigation software provides an accessible tool to train the irrigator and to optimise management and
design practices. However, this technology is yet to be adopted at the farm level (Raine and Walker,
1998) with even the most recent simulation-models suffering from complex operation, unreliability,
and a requirement for excessive input data leading to extensive field measurement.
7.4.1
7.4.1.1
Planning Software
CROPWAT
CROPWAT is a decision support system developed by the Land and Water Development Division of
FAO. Its main functions are to calculate reference evapotranspiration, crop water requirements and
crop irrigation requirements in order to develop irrigation schedules under various management
conditions and scheme water supply and to evaluate rain-fed production, drought effects and
efficiency of irrigation practices. CROPWAT is meant as a practical tool to help agro-meteorologists,
agronomists and irrigation engineers to carry out standard calculations for evapotranspiration and
crop water use studies, and more specifically the design and management of irrigation schemes. It
allows the development of recommendations for improved irrigation practices, the planning of
7-4
March 2009
irrigation schedules under varying water supply conditions, and the assessment of production under
rain-fed conditions or deficit irrigation. Calculations of daily crop water requirements and irrigation
requirements are carried out with inputs of climatic and crop data.
The development of irrigation schedules and evaluation of rain-fed and irrigation practices are based
on a daily soil-water balance using various options for water supply and irrigation management
conditions. Scheme water supply is calculated according to the cropping pattern provided. Standard
crop data are included in the program and climatic data can be obtained for 144 countries through
the CLIMWAT database.
7.4.1.2
CLIMWAT
CLIMWAT is a climatic database to be used in combination with the computer program CROPWAT
and allows the ready calculation of crop water requirements, irrigation supply and irrigation
scheduling for various crops for a range of climatological stations worldwide. The CLIMWAT database
includes data from a total of 3262 meteorological stations from 144 countries. CLIMWAT is published
as Irrigation and Drainage paper No 49 in 1994. The climatological data included are maximum and
minimum temperature, mean daily relative humidity, sunshine hours, wind speed, precipitation and
calculated values for reference evapotranspiration and effective rainfall. The reference
evapotranspiration has been calculated for all stations according the Penman Monteith method.
7.4.1.3
CUP
CUP (Consumptive Use Program) is a user-friendly Excel application program. It was developed to
help growers and water agencies to determine their crop coefficient (Kc), crop evapotranspiration
(ETc) and evapotranspiration of applied water (ETaw), which is a seasonal estimate of the irrigation
water requirement for evapotranspiration of a crop minus any water supplied by effective rainfall and
effective seepage. By using newly improved methods, CUP computes ETo using the daily PenmanMonteith equation, and then it uses a curve fitting technique to drive one year of daily weather and
ETo data from monthly data. In addition, the program accounts for rainfall, cover crops, and
immaturity factors for estimating crop evapotranspiration. In addition to using monthly climate data,
the program uses daily measured weather data to estimate daily soil water balances for surfaces that
account for ET losses and water contributions from rainfall, seepage, and irrigation. Soil waterholding characteristics, effective rooting depths, and irrigation frequency are used with rainfall and
ETc data to calculate a daily water balance and determine effective rainfall and ETaw, which is equal
to the seasonal cumulative ETc minus the effective rainfall. ETaw information is needed to determine
the demand side of water requirements. The application also can be used to study the impact of
climate change on evapotranspiration and irrigation water needs. It outputs a wide range of tables
and charts that are useful for irrigation planning.
7.4.1.4
WaSim
WaSim is a computer-based training package for irrigation, drainage and salinity management.
WaSim simulates the soil water salinity relationships in response to different management strategies
(e.g. drainage designs and water management practices) and environmental scenarios (e.g. weather
data, soil types, and cropping patterns). WaSim DRAINSPACE module can be used to design drain
spacing and WaSim ET module is provided to calculate reference evapotranspiration from weather
station data. The major applications are: Soil water balance simulation, calculation of irrigation
requirements, testing of water management scenarios, watertable simulation in drained and
undrained environments and evaluating the medium-term salinity build-up in the soil under different
water management systems.
7.4.1.5
CSUID
The Colorado State University Irrigation and Drainage Model (CSUID) is used for the design and
management of conjunctive irrigation and drainage systems (Garcia et. al. 1995). The model is fully
interactive and is provided with a graphic user interface (GUI). The GUI for CSUID is a combination
of window, menu, and icon selection designed to allow movement quickly and easily through the
March 2009
7-5
model. The GUI makes tasks of data entry, editing, or viewing easier and faster with editing tools
that allow the uses to graphically specify the data. Different irrigation and drainage scenarios (drain
spacing, depth from the ground surface, irrigation depth, irrigation duration, and irrigation
frequency) can be easily formulated for sensitivity analysis. It provides the user with a way of
qualitatively and quantitatively describing the performance of the irrigation and drainage system
from the results of water and solute transport simulations; flow into the drains; drainage effluent in
collectors; salinity level; degree of water logging; and soil moisture deficit. The management
submodel consists of a description of management activities influencing the state of the root zone.
7.4.2
7.4.2.1
Design Software
SIRMOD III
SIRMOD III is a multi-lingual version of Utah State University's comprehensive surface irrigation
software package. The software package provides simulation, evaluation, and design capabilities for
border, basin, and furrow irrigation. These systems can be studied under either continuous or surge
flow operations. The simulation of the hydraulics of surface irrigation systems at the field level uses
hydrodynamic, zero-inertia, or kinematic-wave algorithms which can be used to select an optimal
combination of sizing and operational parameters that maximize application efficiency. The
evaluation algorithms utilize the "two-point solution" of the "inverse" problem allowing the
computation of infiltration parameters from the input of advance data. The design algorithms utilize
a standard volume balance procedure. Walker and Skogenboe (1987) and Walker (1989) reported all
of these algorithms. The SIRMOD III software runs on Windows Platform and is available on CD
media or can be downloaded directly from Utah State University.
7.4.2.2
SURDEV
SURDEV-package is a WINDOWS-based computer package that allows the users to simulate surface
irrigation. It consists of three programs: BASDEV for basins, FURDEV for furrows and BORDEV for
borders. BASDEV has been developed by International Land Resources Institute (ILRI). FURDEV and
BORDEV have been jointly developed by ILRI and International Land and Water Management
(ILWM). The software package can be used to design, operate and evaluate the three surface
irrigation systems.
7.4.2.3
FIDO v2
FIDO (Furrow Irrigation Design Optimiser) is a decision support system for the design and
management of furrow irrigation. It integrates an optimisation engine with a proven hydrodynamic
simulation-model to allow automatic determination of design and management parameters as well as
prediction of infiltration and roughness parameters. An optimization engine has been integrated with
the simulation-model to both determine the design and management parameters and to calibrate the
model. The input data requirements are minimized through calibration by estimating the semiempirical infiltration parameters and/or the Manning n from more readily measured field-variables
such as irrigation advance and/or runoff. FIDO also incorporates a database allowing seasonal trends
and variations in performance to be monitored. The objectives of FIDO include:
7-6
accurate simulation of all phases of an irrigation event under a range of design and
management conditions
the ability to calibrate the model using a range of parameters and input data so as to
minimize field measurement requirements
the ability to automatically determine the optimum design or management strategy for a
range of parameters and objective functions
robustness of the DSS for all simulation, calibration and optimization operations
inclusion of a response surface generator for any combination of two parameters and
objective function
inclusion of a relational database to allow seasonal trends and variations to be monitored;
a simple user interface and extensive graphical output.
March 2009
7.4.2.4
WinSRFR 2.1
WinSRFR is an integrated hydraulic analysis application for surface irrigation systems that combines
a simulation engine with tools for irrigation system evaluation, design, and operational analysis. New
features include: surface irrigation design and operations for furrow based fields; additional MerriamKeller based irrigation event analysis functions and an updated SRFR simulation engine. Not in detail
but main components are provided for user to grasp in designing irrigation systems. The project
management window of WinSRFR is displayed. WinSRFR is the successor to irrigation modeling
software developed over the past 20 years by the USDA-Agricultural Research Service.
The major components are:
SRFR - One dimensional simulation of basin, border and furrow irrigation
Design Furrow Field

Evaluate Furrow Irrigation
Simulate Furrow Irrigation
BASIN - Level-Basin irrigation design and operations
Design Basin Field

Operate Basin Irrigation
Simulate Basin Irrigation
BORDER - Sloping-Border irrigation design and operations
Design Border Field

Operate Border Irrigation
Simulate a Border Irrigation
7.4.2.5
SPRINKMOD
The SPRINKMOD software is intended to be used to simulate pressure and discharges along
existing or newly designed sprinkler irrigation systems. This user-friendly software combines features
from water distribution models together with important characteristics of irrigation models and is
capable of describing hydraulics of most pressurized irrigation systems. The layout of an irrigation
system can be drawn on the screen. By clicking on lines and shapes data can be entered and edited.
Results can be displayed in tables and charts that can be sent to text files or to a printer.
SPRINKMOD calculates pressure and discharge distributions along laterals and mainlines. The
software is able to simulate wheel line, hand line, solid set, centre pivot and linear move laterals, and
can evaluate the effects of booster pumps, pressure regulators, flow control nozzles, looped
mainlines, parallel pipes, multiple pumping stations and water sources, changes in nozzle size, and
uneven topography.
7.4.2.6
IrriCAD Pro
IrriCAD Pro (Irrigation Design Software) is the next generation in powerful pressurized irrigation
design Software. Netafim has been working with A.E.I. Software (IrriCAD Pro developers) since
January 2006 to enhance and develop "IrriCAD Pro" to a superior level demanded by all the top
irrigation designers worldwide. At present Netafim globally utilizes "IrriCAD Pro" as its premier design
software and represents one of the largest users worldwide. IrriCAD Pro is a significant design tool in
todays competitive and ever changing market. It combines accuracy with the ability to provide
optimal irrigation solutions. IrriCAD Pro provides the quick and easy solution for a design and
drawing package that supplies the consultant with a detailed plan and bill of materials to meet this
demand. It offers substantial benefits to designers of all types of pressurised irrigation
systems. IrriCAD Pro is a totally integrated, stand alone design facility which removes most of the
tedious aspects of design, yet still allows the designer to make important decisions. The package
provides an opportunity to maintain a high level of client service. Details of the new enhancement of
the software can be obtained website.
March 2009
7-7
7.4.2.7
DRIPD
DRIPD for designing drip irrigation system has been developed at Precision Farming Development
Centre (PFDC), IARI, New Delhi, India. It is user friendly and interactive software namely, DRIPD
(Drip Irrigation Design) was developed in Visual Basic to design the drip irrigation system. DRIPD
consists of eight basic elements that help to estimate:
7.4.2.8
irrigation water requirement

capacity of drip main line
number of drippers and laterals
capacity of sub-main and lateral pipes
diameter of lateral pipe
diameter of main and sub main pipe and
size of pumping unit.
FERGON
FERGON for designing fertigation system has been developed at Precision Farming Development
Centre (PFDC), IARI, New Delhi, India. Inadequate availability and high cost of liquid fertilizers
restrict their use among the farmers. The use of the commercially available granular fertilizers poses
a few problems, including their solubility, in the effective implementation of fertigation process.
Different fertilizers have different solubility. Therefore experiments to determine solubility of
commonly used granular fertilizers were conducted as a part of the present study. Fertigation is a
complex process and requires the estimation of:
7.4.2.9
irrigation water requirement

drip system capacity
requirement of Nitrogen, Potassium and Phosphorous nutrients of the crop
nutrient concentration in irrigation water
capacity of fertilizer tank
injection rate and efficient utilization of fertilizers.
MICROS
Software MICROS was developed using Visual BASIC 6.0 for the design and evaluation of Microsprinkler systems at Precision Farming Development Centre (PFDC), IARI, New Delhi, India. The
procedure adopted in the development of the software was similar to that adopted and described in
case of a drip system. The only difference was the effective area irrigated by each microsprinkler
based on its water spread in place and considering the plant spacing in drip irrigation system. Micro
sprinklers permit larger lateral spacing resulting in the reduced cost of the system. Micro sprinkler
thus, are considered superior over drip irrigation systems particularly in case of closely spaced field
crops.
7.5
DRAINAGE SYSTEMS APPLICATION
Computer applications are widely used throughout the drainage planning, design, operation and
maintenance instead of the laborious conventional method. Many of the conventional methods have
now been replaced by new methodologies and concepts along with tremendous development of
computer programs. The computer programs on the other hand provide insights which conventional
methods do not provide. Drainage engineers and professionals should therefore be familiar which
both methodologies and use them interactively.
7.5.1
7.5.1.1
Planning and Design Software

WellDrainW
The WellDrainW computer program calculates the drainage discharge, hydraulic head, or spacing
between pumped wells (open dug wells, tubewells, vertical drainage) and shows the curvature of the
7-8
March 2009
watertable. The computations are needed for the design of subsurface drainage systems by open
wells or tube-wells of rainfed or irrigated agricultural land and soil salinity control. The wells may be
partially or fully penetrating the aquifer.
The well spacing calculations are based on the traditional concepts of the Darcys law and water
balance or mass conservation equations. The program allows for the presence of three different soil
layers with different hydraulic conductivity and permeability: one layer above and two below drain
level. The last two layers can also have different horizontal and vertical hydraulic permeability
(anisotropy).
7.5.1.2
EnDrain
The EnDrain computer program calculates the drainage discharge, hydraulic head, or spacing
between parallel subsurface drains: pipe/tile drains or open ditches, with or without entrance
resistance and shows the curve of the watertable. The computations are needed for the design of
subsurface drainage systems of rainfed or irrigated agricultural land and soil salinity control. The
drain spacing calculations are based on the concept of the energy balance of groundwater flow.
7.5.1.3
LANDDRAIN
LANDRAIN is a computer program which assists the designer of a tiled pipe drainage system to
quickly and successfully layout the network, bury the network, determines the required pipe grades
and size the pipe. It has flexible flow calculation and pipe sizing capabilities. The program allows
easy access of topographical data and its powerful editing.
Rapid contour mapping facilitates the layout of the proposed drainage network using easy layout
procedures for defining the drainage network. Powerful layout tools provides to analyze the new
network and to match up with an existing network. Graphic burial procedures (of the network)
enables to rapidly find, diagnose and remedy any potential depth or slope problems with the
preliminary network as proposed. Powerful assistance is rendered to the users by the unique 2-D, 3D and Profile Viewing capabilities of LANDRAIN. Comprehensive output tables provide all burial and
flow constraints, pipe installation details, total network costs, and cost per unit for each pipe size.
7.5.2
Agro-hydrology Models
Models are now available which can reliably simulate the soil moisture, salinity and watertable
regimes expected to prevail under given climate, land use and water management conditions.
Historical records are used for calibration and validation and the calibrated models can then be used
for a wide range of prediction, evaluation and scenario assessment purposes. The three models most
widely used for drainage and watertable management purpose are DRAINMOD, MODFLOW-SURFACT
FLOW and SWAP.
7.5.2.1
DRAINMOD
The DRAINMOD (Drainage, watertable management systems) approach is a method presently

available for the complete analysis and design of a subirrigation and subsurface drainage system
(Figure 7.1). The model was designed for use in humid regions, and its routine application is limited
to those regions. The DRAINMOD model uses computerized simulations of a watertable control
system based upon past long-term weather records (rainfall and temperature) and on-site soil
parameters. The model predicts the effects of drainage and associated water management practices
on watertable depths, the soil water regime and crop yields. It has been used to analyze the
hydrology of certain types of wetlands and to determine whether the wetland hydrologic criterion is
satisfied for drained or partially drained sites. The model is also used to determine the hydraulic
capacity of systems for land treatment of wastewater. The model has been successfully tested and
applied in wide variety of geographical and soils conditions.
The latest version combines the original DRAINMOD hydrology model nitrogen sub-model and
salinity sub-model into a Windows based program. The new version includes a graphical user
March 2009
7-9
interface that allows easy preparation of input data sets, running simulations as well as displaying
model outputs. The input data to DRAINMOD-S include several drainage system parameters (drain
depth, drain spacing, pipe radius), soil parameters (soil water characteristic curve, saturated
hydraulic conductivity, depth to impermeable layer and initial soil and groundwater salinities),
weather and management variables (rainfall, evapotranspiration, quantity, quality and timing of
irrigation water), crop data (root depth function, planting/harvesting dates of each crop in the
rotation, susceptibility factors due to planting delay, excess and deficit water and soil salinity).
The model outputs include the daily results of watertable depth midway between drains, actual
evapotranspiration, lateral drain outflow, infiltration, runoff, irrigation, rainfall, and deep seepage.
Monthly or yearly summaries of these hydrologic processes can be obtained. The output also include
daily soil salinity profiles and lateral outflow salinity. Seasonal crop yield values accounting for wet,
drought, planting delay and salinity stresses can be obtained. It is public domain software.
Evapotranspiration
Irrigation and Rainfall

Infiltration
Drainage
Runoff
Water Table
Upflux
Deep Seepage
Restrictive Layer
Figure 7.1 Schematic of the Simulated Watertable Management Using DRAINMOD

7.5.2.2
MODFLOW-SURFACT Flow
MODFLOW-SURFACT Flow groundwater simulation software features many robust methods and
enhanced simulation capabilities for handling complex saturated and unsaturated subsurface flow
(Figure 7.2). MODFLOW (Groundwater, hydrology, hydrogeology, and aquifer flow simulation) is the
world leader groundwater modeling software. Movement of water within the vadose zone is studied
within soil physics and hydrology, particularly hydrogeology, and is of importance to agriculture. The
Richards equation is often used to mathematically describe the flow of water, which is based partially
on Darcy's law. It allows for accurate delineation and tracking of watertable position, taking into
account flow in the unsaturated zone, delayed yield, and vertical flow components. The process of
building the input data file for a groundwater flow and/or transport model is often the most timeintensive and tedious task associated agricultural watertable management.
Integrating the latest methods for visualizing and managing projects, generating and sharing input
data, and presenting modeling results, MODFLOW-SURFACT FLOW allows modeling of unsaturated
zone modeling to effectively predict flow within the unsaturated zone. The logical structure and
layout of the Visual MODFLOW Pro interface provides users step-by-step necessary guidance to build
a groundwater flow model. In addition, the many powerful and easy-to-use graphical tools give all
the flexibility need to assign complex property distributions, multiple pumping wells and steady-state
or transient boundary conditions.
The enhancement of MODFLOW through a GIS interface has recently been developed at the USGS
(1998). The preparation of the MODFLOW groundwater model consists of the following basic tasks:
7-10
Creation of three-dimensional model grid (x, y, z) cells
Creation of surface elevation model from Digital Elevation Model (DEM) or interpolation
between known points
Creation of underlying layer elevations
Description of default soil hydraulic parameters: Hydraulic conductivity, porosity, specific

yield, specific storage
March 2009
Description of flow boundary conditions: Constant head, river head, drainage head, among
others.
Placement of pumping, recharge or observation wells.
Definition of pumping rates and time-series.
Description of flux boundary conditions: Recharge and Evaporation at top layer, No flux
boundaries.
Vadose
Zone
Capillary
Fringe
Water
Table
Zone of
Saturation
r
d wa t e
g r ou n
f
o
F l ow
Figure 7.2 Cross-section Depicting Typical Groundwater System (Source: USGS, 2008)
7.5.2.3
SWAP
SWAP (Soil Water Atmosphere Plant) is one of the most sophisticated agro-hydrological simulation
software packages, which integrates water flow, solute and heat transport and crop growth. SWAP
can be used for a wide range of research and practical applications in the field of agriculture, water
management and environmental problems. The model capability includes design and monitoring of
field irrigation and drainage systems, surface water management, soil and groundwater pollution by
salts and pesticides and crop water use and crop production studies. SWAP employs the Richards'
equation for soil water movement in the soil matrix. The soil hydraulic functions are described by
analytical expressions or by tabular values. Hysteresis can also be taken into account. Root water
extraction at various depths in the root zone is calculated from potential transpiration, root length
density and possible reductions due to wet, dry, or saline conditions. The top boundary condition is
flexible (allowing for alternating conditions of shallow groundwater table and ponding). Also various
bottom boundary conditions of the soil profile (either in the unsaturated or saturated part of the soil)
are possible.
SWAP can simulate various solute transport processes to evaluate pesticide and salt transport,
including the effect of salinity on crop growth. SWAP can also simulate spatial soil heterogeneity,
shrinking and swelling clay soils and water repellent soils. Various methods can be used to simulate
the potential and actual evapotranspiration rates. SWAP contains three crop growth routines.
Irrigation can be prescribed at fixed times or scheduled according to a number of criteria, thus
allowing for the evaluation of alternative application strategies. The timing criteria include allowable
daily stress, allowable depletion of readily available water in the root zone, allowable depletion of
totally available water in the root zone, and critical pressure head or water content at a certain
depth. Field drainage can be calculated with a linear flux-groundwater level relationship, with a
tabular flux-groundwater relationship, or with drainage equations (Hooghoudt 1940 and Ernst 1962).
The interaction between soil water balance, crop growth and surface water management can be
simulated at sub-regional level.
March 2009
7-11
7.5.3
7.5.3.1
Salinity Prediction Models

SALTMOD
SALTMOD (Salinity Model) is computer program for the prediction of the salinity of soil moisture,
groundwater and drainage water, the depth of the watertable, and the drain discharge in irrigated
agricultural lands, using different hydrologic conditions, varying water management options,
including the use of ground water for irrigation, and several cropping rotation schedules. SALTMOD
is used to simulate different water-management options impact on soil salinity and the salt contents
of groundwater and drainage effluent in irrigated agricultural land. SALTMOD can also be used to
calculate the depth of the groundwater table and the drain discharge at the long term. The
calculations are based on water and salt balances.
Various hydrologic conditions, water management options, soils and crop rotation schedules can be
simulated. The water management options include irrigation, drainage, and the use of subsurface
drainage water from pipe drains, ditches or wells for irrigation. The output of SALTMOD is given for
each season of any year during any number of years as specified by the user. The output consists of
the seasonal average depth of the watertable, the average salt concentration of the different soil
reservoirs, of the drainage and mixed irrigation water, as well as some indicators of irrigation
efficiency and sufficiency. The model can be downloaded from the ILRI website.
7.5.3.2
DRAINSAL
Kamra et.al. (1994) developed DRAINSAL at the Central Soil Salinity Research Institute (CSSRI) in
India. This two-dimensional, finite element model provides long-term predictions of the soil salinity
conditions and the effluent salinity in a subsurface drained soil. The simulation in the unsaturated
and saturated zones is based on the growing fundamental laws but also includes the effects of
convective supports, dispersion and linear adsorption.
The model can be used to analyse drainage design criteria for salinity control, to study the effect of
long-term use of poor quality waters and to estimate the rates and salinity as well the
seasonal/annual volume and the salt load of drainage effluent. The model can also be modified to
predict the losses of nutrients and trace elements to the drains. Relevant user information can be
obtained from the CSSRI institute. More information is also listed at the Irrisoft website.
7.5.3.3
WATSUIT
All the models described above only to predict the salt concentration (EC-values) but not the
composition of the solute. Sodicity hazards under these conditions may be evaluated based on the
composition of the irrigation water. This evaluation, however, does not fully take into account all
composition changes and evaluation on the basis of a simulated composition of the soil solution
would be preferable. The WATSUIT model developed by the US Soil Salinity Laboratory, Riverside
California predicts the salinity, Sodicity and toxic-solute concentration.
7.6
HYDRAULICS APPLICATION
7.6.1
CanalMan
CanalMan was developed for performing hydraulic simulations of unsteady flow in branching canal
networks. The model can be used to simulate canal operations in a manual mode, and it can
generate proposed operating schedules through a centralized automatic mode. Several common local
gate automation schemes are also included in the model, and these can be easily selected and
calibrated through the model interface. It is highly interactive and includes integrated data editing
capabilities, with numerous options for canal system configuration, hydraulic simulations, and output
of results. Structure settings and discharges can be specified through time graphs entered before a
simulation, they can be changed at any time during a simulation, structure settings can be generated
through "gate scheduling", and local gate automation algorithms can be applied.
7-12
March 2009
7.6.2
SIC
The SIC (Simulation of Irrigation Canals) software (Version 4.28) is a mathematical model which can
simulate the hydraulic behaviour of most of the irrigation canals or rivers, under steady and unsteady
flow conditions. The main purposes of the model are simulation of the hydraulic behaviour of
irrigation canals and rivers. The SIC model is an efficient tool allowing canal managers, engineers
and researchers to quickly simulate a large number of hydraulic conditions at the design or
management level.
7.6.3
WinFlume
WinFlume is a stand-alone Windows-based computer programme providing the capability to design

and calibrate long-throated flumes and broad-crested weirs. These structures provide a practical,
low-cost, flexible means of measuring open-channel flows in new and existing irrigation systems,
with distinct advantages over other flume and weir devices. These include the lowest head loss
requirement of any critical flow device, and custom design and calibration via the computer program,
which is based on well-established hydraulic theory. This allows the design of structures that meet
unique operational and site requirements, eliminates the need for laboratory calibration, and allows
post-construction calibration of structures using as-built dimensions.
7.6.4
NETAFIM Hydro-Calc
NETAFIM has developed the HydroCalc Irrigation Planning software for the irrigation community. It
is a simple and easy calculation tool to perform some basic hydraulic computations. It has the ability
to consider elevations, check drip tube flushing and valve head loss. The use of HydroCalc allows the
designer, dealer or end- user to evaluate the performance of micro irrigation in-field components:
Drip laterals and micro sprinklers Sub mains and manifolds, main lines, valves, and energy
calculation.
7.6.5
WADISO
WADISO (Water Distribution System Analysis and Optimization) is a comprehensive application built
for the analysis and optimal design of water distribution systems. This software was used to analyze
hydraulic systems of MARDI Jelebu in Negeri Sembilan, which is biggest microirrigation project in the
country. The program performs steady state and time simulation analysis with the capability to
optimize pipe, pump and tank sizes for planning purposes, as well as water quality modeling.
WADISO offers some unique features, superior to any other available water distribution system
modeling software.
WADISO consists of three major parts: steady state computer simulation, optimization, and extended
period simulation. The steady state simulation portion computes flows and pressures in pipe
networks under steady state conditions. The optimization portion optimally sizes pipes in a water
distribution system and selects optimal pipes for cleaning and lining. The extended period simulation
or time simulation computes pressure and flow distribution in pipe networks taking into consideration
fluctuating tank water levels and varying water use patterns over time. All parts of the program can
handle virtually and typical water distribution system and allow for the presence of pumps, pressure
reducing valves, check valves, and multiple supply points. The program accepts input interactively
from the terminal via keywords. Typically the program used is to size the pipes in an expansion of an
existing system, or to improve the pressure condition in an existing condition by reinforcing the
system through the cleaning of selected pipes or the addition of pipes parallel to existing pipes.
WADISO provides for easy interfacing with other application software, including most GIS
applications, specifically the ESRI shape file standard and REGIS/Autodesk World FEA format. An
interface between the GIS and the WADISO database typically allows:
Updating and editing of the model characteristics and parameters

Updating of water demands, if there is a link between the sales records and the GIS
Updating reports on the analysis results directly from GIS.
March 2009
7-13
7.6.6
HEC-RAS
HEC-RAS (Analyzes Networks of Natural and Man-made Channels) is designed to perform onedimensional hydraulic calculations for a full network of natural and constructed channels. The
following is a description of the major capabilities of HEC-RAS. The HEC-RAS system contains four
one-dimensional river analysis components for: (1) steady flow water surface profile computations;
(2) unsteady flow simulation; (3) movable boundary sediment transport computations; and (4) water
quality analysis. A key element is that all four components use a common geometric data
representation and common geometric and hydraulic computation routines. In addition to the four
river analysis components, the system contains several hydraulic design features that can be invoked
once the basic water surface profiles are computed.
7.6.7
FLOW PRO
FLOW PRO (Open channel hydraulic design) is a powerful and accurate solution for common
hydraulic design problems. It quickly calculates flow and channel properties such as critical depth
and slope, hydraulic radius and wetted perimeter, normal depth, channel roughness, and much more
using Manning's equation and numerical integration for state-of-the-art accuracy. Flow Pro designs
steady-state water surface profiles for open channels. It helps engineers visualize design
alternatives, exports to Excel spreadsheets, and prints graphical surface profile reports, handles both
sub critical and supercritical flow types and includes many useful tools for designing weirs, orifices,
and underflow gates. This is commercial software and inexpensive.
7.6.8
HYDROFLOW 2.0
HYDROFLOW 2.0 is a powerful software tool that assists piping system designers in the modeling
and analysis of single source/single discharge, recirculating and gravity flow piping systems. These
systems are widely used in irrigation applications among others. The models created with
HYDROFLOW can consist of up to 10 parallels and hundreds of elements (pipes, valves, fittings,
pumps and tanks). Virtually any type of system element can be described from the wide variety of
available elements available on HYDROFLOW's menus. Element head losses can be described using
flow vs head loss curves, fixed head loss curves and custom friction coefficients.
HYDROFLOW models systems conveying any type of incompressible fluid and solves for the full-pipe,
steady-state pressures and flows. Hydraulic grade line plots are displayed in the workspace of solved
systems so that suction and high-head conditions are easily observed. The Hazen-Williams equation
is available for use with water systems and the Darcy-Weisbach equation is available for use with
any type of incompressible fluid. Once a system's total dynamic head and flow are found,
PumpBase can be used to find the best pump for your application. Systems are built by dragging
and dropping both individual and groups of elements onto the workspace. HYDROFLOW's new
clipboard is available for mass storage, moving and copying of elements. The clipboard can be saved
separately from project data; so that a collection of pumps and/or other elements can be brought
into any design. Fly-over element inspection (placing the mouse cursor over elements) rapidly allows
to identify the system components. Elements can be stretched and/or increased in image size for
easier viewing. It allows depicting the most of the possible situations that arise in system design.
7.6.9
PumpBase 2.0
PumpBase helps to select the best pumps for fluid conveyance application. PumpBase provides
graphic output of pump performance, system and NPSHR curves by specifying up to 40 selection
criteria. PumpBase's database contains thousands of curves from dozens of participating pump
manufacturers. Detailed reports are created that can be submitted to pump manufacturers and sales
representative for further confirmation of proper application and price quotes. Summary of pump
selection reports list all pumps suitable for a specific application. It provides the following features:
7-14
Complete pump curve database access and editing.
Communicates with HYDROFLOW for system curve development.
Quick affinity law conversions for speed and trim.

March 2009
Extensive and editable liquid property database.
Automatic viscosity corrections to pump curves.
Efficiency and NPSHR curves are plotted on pump graphics.
Both English and SI (metric) units.
User Project files save all selection information.
Technical Bulletins/Dimensional Schematics available.
Liquid temperature rise calculations.
7.6.10 HydroCAD
HydroCAD is a Computer Aided Design tool used for modeling stormwater runoff. HydroCAD is ideal
for all types of drainage projects from small runoff studies to complex detention pond designs. The
capabilities of this software can be usefull for planning and design of agricultural drainage systems.
HydroCAD provides a wide range of commonly used drainage calculations including:
7.7
SCS, NRCS, SBUH runoff hydrographs

Rational Method with automatic IDF curves
Hydrograph routing through ponds & reaches
Coupled ponds with tailwater
Automatic hydraulics and culvert calculations
Automatic pond storage calculations, including embedded storage chambers
Easy management and reporting of multiple rainfall events
Runs on any Windows PC - No other CAD software required
DRAWINGS AND DOCUMENTS PREPARATION
Most design drawings can be readily digitized and computer printed. This applies to the various types
of situational drawings (topographic maps, layout maps, site maps etc), longitudinal and cross
sectional profiles of canals and various structures. These drawings may be GIS and CAD software
based. GIS and CAD can usually be easily scaled up and down to suit convenient use.
7.7.1
LandCad(R)
LandCad is used worldwide in surveying companies, by engineers and contractor companies, at

state institutions, municipalities, energy companies, colleges and universities, in all land survey tasks,
and as an intelligent, value-adding connection between GPS-equipment/total stations at one hand,
and Geographical Information Systems at the other. LandCad is handling all types of user-friendly
graphical land surveying, all types of 2D- and 3D-transformation, circle-circle-calculation, line-linecalculation, wire registration, volume calculation, cut/fill calculation, 3D-visualization, GIS with
database-connection, WMS/WFS-internet-maps and professional plotting, from A4- to A0-oversizeformat. LandCad can handle UTM-coordinate system and local coordinate systems with and without
deformation. LandCad can communicate with all types of GPS-equipment and total stations, and is
fully 3D. LandCad can translate data between CAD/GIS-data formats:
7.7.2
AutoCAD DWG and DXF with header information, blocks etc.

Micro Station - DGN with cell-libraries
MapInfo - MIF (map data) and MID (database-information)
ESRI Shape (map data) and dBase (database-information)
3D-Terrainmodel-formats for Machine Control for Excavators (e.g. Mikrofyn Visual Digger)
Character-separated text files of any format, with advanced possibilities
Direct translation between e.g. AutoCAD DWG and ESRI Shape
AgStar
Agstar offers a complete package of land-leveling tools for agricultural and irrigation purposes. It
carries a versatile suite of commands designed to simplify and speed up the professional surveyor's
work, as well as reduce costs by minimizing the amount of dirt to move.
March 2009
7-15
For data collection, Agstar supports a wide range of GPS RTK receivers, including such popular
brands as Navcom, Ashtech, Leica, Sokkia, and Trimble.
Agstar handles both the survey and the design sides of land-leveling, allowing to survey large fields
with GPS, and then determine the optimal field design requiring the least amount of dirt moved. The
field design tool can be set to a user-specified field slope, or to search for the optimal slope. A host
of other design parameters can be specified, including cut/fill ratio, amount of dirt to import or
export, and constraints on the range of slopes to search. Agstar can also subdivide the field and
assign different designs to each subdivision, which is useful if crowns in the field. Agstar is the latest
in a long line of powerful software survey tools produced by Carlson Software, including SurvCADD,
Carlson Field, and Carlson Survey. In addition to its basic land survey and design commands, it
contains many of the useful features of its predecessors, allowing viewing and manipulating survey
data in a wide variety of ways.
7.7.3
CAD and GIS
CAD is drawing-based and manages data as drawing files or a set of drawing files. The set of
drawing files can be a set of map tiles that share a common coordinate system but are physically
disjointed. The main product of a CAD system is a paper map. CAD layers are nothing more than an
entity property, such as color or line type, sometimes enhanced with the use of a layer tag. CAD
standards do not always separate object systems by layer; objects could be differentiated just as
well by color or line style. CAD is well suited for design drawings. It is not an information system.
GIS is database-oriented and thus tends to handle data in a single seamless database. Because GIS
has always held the possibility of managing data over a wide geographic extent, it includes many
tools for map projections and for handling large data volumes. GIS employs the concept of layering,
of segregating different kinds of features into more easily managed layers, typically one layer per
feature type. Layers can have different data requirements and behaviors. ESRI GIS software has
features that enable integration of CAD data, despite the differences in data models. GIS can use
CAD data without conversion. ArcGIS, for example, can display CAD data in DGN, WF, and DWG files
directly and in the same map display as GIS layers. ArcGIS symbolizes CAD data as defined in the
CAD file.
GIS can control how the data is symbolized and use the CAD data in GIS analysis so long as
the CAD data is added as simple point, line, and polygon features to a GIS layer.
GIS allows the selection of CAD layers within a CAD file and allows adjustment of what
features to display.
When converting data from CAD files, the GIS can impose additional data quality by
checking CAD attributes against the business rules for a GIS layer.
Once converted, GIS data automation tools can further "clean" data, fixing geometric errors
such as unclosed polygons and unconnected lines.
7.8
OPERATION AND MANAGEMENT
7.8.1
Importance of ICT Application
The need for greater water use efficiency and productivity has remained the main driver of many
new innovative application of ICT that has rapidly been gaining momentum in irrigation and drainage
management. Modern agriculture is a large-scale water consumer, which must adjust as well as
possible its consumption in adequacy with its needs, while preserving the natural resources and the
quality of the productions. Wireless networks and Web technologies enable to ensure the monitoring
and the remote control of the irrigation equipment, in a more precise way and in conformance with
the crop's requirements.
7.8.2
ICT in Operation and Management
Modern agriculture is a large-scale water consumer, which must adjust as well as possible its
consumption in adequacy with its needs, while preserving the natural resources and the quality of
7-16
March 2009
the productions. ICT offer solutions to make possible a finer approach of the irrigation of the crop by
facilitating the work of the farmers. The work exposed in this article shows the contribution of ICT to
manage irrigation pivots in a farm. The technologies used are adhoc wireless networks and Web
technologies. The farmer can, via the Internet, ensure the monitoring and the remote control of the
irrigation equipment, in a more precise way and in conformance with the crop's requirements.
7.8.3
ICT Tools and Software
Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) offer solutions to make possible a finer
approach of the irrigation of the crop by facilitating the work of the farmers. Some of the IT
strategies are remote sensing (RS), Geographical Information System (GIS), Decision support
systems (DSS), web-technologies and automatic control systems.
7.8.3.1
GIS and DSS
Water is a scare resource and there is a growing importance in efficient use of water in agriculture.
Remote Sensing and GIS techniques are currently widely used for monitoring irrigation water use
and productivity. Geographic Information Systems (GIS) based Decision Support System (DSS)
enables the real time water demand estimation in distributaries and allocation. The DSS dynamically
links a field irrigation demand prediction model for the area irrigated by a distributary with a GIS of
the canal network. The system allows interactive selection of distributaries and on-line real time
estimation of water demands in each distributary over the entire network. The system can effectively
include spatial variability of soil, crop, water supply and environment in dealing with the complex
problems of irrigation and water resources management. Advances in remote sensing, GIS and
modeling offer irrigation managers a novel way for obtaining accurate spatial data on actual water
use, water demand, allocation and distribution of water, and crop yield. Some of the scopes are:
Irrigation water management

Integrated crop land inventory
Crop yield estimation
Monitoring and evaluation of irrigation system
Management of drainage water.
In Malaysia, GIS is widely using in irrigation and water resources management. A typical example of
of the GIS based customized software is called RIMIS (Rice Irrigation Management Information
System) (Rowshon and Amin, 2006). Application of the RIMIS is provided in Appendix 7-B1. A
computerized system for equitable irrigation supply to the command areas based on river-fed
fluctuating water availability was successfully developed for the Tanjung Karang Irrigation Scheme in
Malaysia. The modern GIS technique coupled with mathematical models has been incorporated with
the spatially distributed information in irrigation water management. RIMIS is able to correctly
estimate the available water resources for irrigation supply; and simulate the recommended irrigation
supplies among tertiary canals that match the available discharge at the system head with the crop
water demand for the actual field conditions. RIMIS dynamically links a field irrigation demand
prediction model for the area irrigated by a canal network in GIS. The system can correctly The userinterface was developed using ArcObjects and Visual Basic for Application (VBA) programming
languages in ArcGIS software. RIMIS can give information on the uniformity of water distribution and
the shortfall or excess and what decisions to adopt for the next day. It ensures equal sharing of
water for the tail-end users. The system helps to keep input and output databases always updated
with respect to the real field conditions. The results are displayed on the computer screen together
with colour-coded maps, graphs and tables in a comprehensible form. This will help irrigation
managers to enhance decision-making in the management and operation of the irrigation system.
This program is currently being modifying to be upgraded from customized to standalone program
considering with real-time data inputs.
7.8.3.2
IrriWise Manager
IrriWiseTM Powerful Management Tool (Figure 7.3) enables to view and analyze real-time data,
continuously collected from field, thereby providing better control over irrigation scheduling and
March 2009
7-17
production resources. The data is presented in user-friendly software, enabling easy data
interpretation and improving real-time decisions.
IrriWiseTM is easy to install, simple to operate and maintain, and offers a reliable and affordable
solution with a high return on the investment. The system allows user to download data and provide
real- time advice with fewer visits to the farm. IrriWiseTM Manager ensures better performance of the
irrigation system and works in real time to achieve optimal results. Data is transmitted from the field
units (transmitters) to the PC using a unique radio and data transfer technology that provides high
performance, reliability and simplicity.
Figure 7.3 IrriWiseTM A powerful Management Tool

7.8.3.3
SCADA
SCADA (Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition) system refers to the combination of telemetry and
data acquisition. It consists of collecting information, transferring it back to a central site, carrying
out necessary analysis and control, and then displaying this data on a number of operator screens.
The SCADA system is used to monitor and control a plant or equipment. Control may be automatic or
can be initiated by operator commands. Real-time flow measurement and monitoring are important
components of modern SCADA systems used on irrigation delivery and drainage projects.
Components of a SCADA System are composed of the following: (i) Field instrumentation (ii) Remote
stations (iii) Communications network and (iv) Central monitoring station
Communication
Network
Central Monitoring
Station
Communication
Remote
Station
Figure 7.4 Components of SCADA System

7-18
March 2009
REFERENCES
Ernst, L.F. (1962). Groundwater storming in de verzadigde zone en hun berekeningen bij
aanwezigheid van horizontale evenwijdige open leidingen. Cited in Modern Land Drainage by
Smedema et al. 2004.
Garcia G.A., Manguerra H.B. and Gates T.K. (1995). "Irrigation-drainage design and management
model: Development", J. of Irrigation and Drainage Engineering, ASCE., Vol. 121, No. 1, 83-94. 220.
Hooghoudt, S.B. (1940). Bijdragon tot de Kennis van Eenige Natuurkundige Groothen van den
Grond. Cited from Modern Land Drainage by Smedema et al. 2004. Verslagen van Landbouwkundige
Onederzoekingen 46(7), 515707, the Hage, The Netherlands.
Kamra, S.K., Singh, S.R. and Rao, K.V.G.K (1994). Effect of depth of impervious layer and adsorption
on solute transport in tile-drained irrigated lands. J. Hydrology, 155: 251- 264.
Raine, S.R. and Walker, W. (1998) A decision support tool for the design, management and
evaluation of surface irrigation systems. Irrigation Association of Australia, National Conference and
Exhibition, 19-21 May 1998.
Rowshon, M.K. and Amin, M.S.M. (2004) RIMIS: Rice Irrigation Management Information System for
Precision Farming of Rice. The paper presented in the 1st Asian Conference on Precision Agriculture,
Legend Hotel, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, May.
Walker, W.R. and Skogerboe, G.V. (1987). Surface Irrigation: "Theory and Practice". Prentice-Hall
Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New Jeresy. 386 pp.
Walker, W.R. (1989). Guidelines for designing and evaluating surface irrigation systems. FAO
Irrigation and Drainage Paper 45, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome,
Italy, 137p.
7-20
March 2009
March 2009
Surface irrigation software

package
Design and management of

furrow irrigation System
SIRMOD III
(Public Domain)
FIDO v2: Furrow

Irrigation Design
Optimizer
(Commercial)
WinSRFR 2.1
(Public Domain)
Irrigation
Drainage
Hydrology/
Hydraulics
Agricultural
Land
Management
The Water Resources, Development and

Management Service
FAO
Viale delle Terme di Caracalla
00100 Rome, Italy
Tel: +(39) 06 57055541, Fax: (39-06)
57056275, email: FAO-water@fao.org
http://www.fao.org/nr/water/infores_dat
abases_cropwat.html
Software Engineering Division
Biological & Irrigation Engineering
Department
Utah State University
4105 Old Main Hill
Logan, Utah 84322-4105
USA
Email: bieusu@cc.usu.edu
http://www.bie.usu.edu/index.cfm?fuseac
tion=software
National Centre for Engineering in
Agriculture (NCEA), Australia
Queensland, Australia
http://ncea.vweb1.usq.edu.au/
Clemmens, Albert J
Water Management and Conservation
Research, USDA-ARS
21881 North Cardon Lane
Maricopa AZ 85239, USA
http://www.usda.gov/
Suppliers
Note: This list contains a summary and information on the computer modelling software referred in this Chapter. The list does not include all
available software. Programs that are not listed may be equally or more suitable for particular applications.
Design, system evaluation and

operational analysis for surface
irrigation systems (Basin, Furrow
and Borders)
Reference evapotranspiration,
Crop water requirements, Crop
irrigation requirements,
planning of irrigation
scheduling, and design and
management of irrigation
schemes.
Description
CROPWAT for
WINDOWS
(Public Domain)
Program Group &

Software Name
APPENDIX 7.A List of Computer Modeling Software
Chapter 7 COMPUTER APPLICATIONS
7A-1
7A-2
Pressurized irrigation design

system
Open channel hydraulic design
Microirrigation Water
Management
Sprinkler Simulation Model
Design irrigation structure
FLOW PRO
(Commercial)
Irricalc 3.0
(Public Domain)
SPRINKMOD
(Public Domain)
WinFlume
Description
IrriCAD Pro
(Commercial)
Program Group &

Software Name
Irrigation
Drainage
Hydrology/
Hydraulics
Agricultural
Land
Management
Suppliers
Netafim Australia
MELBOURNE - HEAD OFFICE
213-217 FITZGERALD ROAD
LAVERTON NORTH, VIC. 3026
P.O. BOX 248, LAVERTON VIC 3028
Phone: 61 3 9369 8777
Fax: 61 3 9369 3865
Email: support@irricad.com
Web site : www.Netafim.com.au/
B.C. Cook, P.E., Ph.D.
Associate Professor of Civil Engineering,
Portland State University
http://www.irricad.com/
Software Republic
Sales Phone: (936) 372-9884
Fax: (936) 372-9869
Sales Email: sales@raincad.com
http://www.softwarerepublic.com/irricalc/
Dept. Biological and Irrigation
Engineering, Utah State University
Logan, UT 84322-4105
USA. Email : allenric@cc.usu.edu
tion=software
Water Resources Publications, LLC
P.O. Box 260026 Highlands Ranch, Co
80163-0026, U.S.A.
Fax 720.873.0173 / 800.616.1971
e-mail: info@wrpllc.com
http://www.wrpllc.com
APPENDIX 7.A List of Computer Modeling Software (Contd.)
March 2009
March 2009
Drainage, water table

management systems
Groundwater Modeling and

Water Table Management
Groundwater Modeling System
Hydraulic simulations of
unsteady flow in branching
canal networks.
Analyzes Networks of Natural

and Man-made Channels
Advanced Pump Selection
MODFLOWSURFACT FLOW
(Commercial)
GMS
(Commercial)
CanalMan
(Public Domain)
HEC-RAS
(Public Domain)
HYDROFLOW 2.0
(Commercial)
Description
DRAINMOD 6.0
(Public Domain)
Program Group &

Software Name
Irrigation
Drainage
Hydrology/
Hydraulics
Agricultural
Land
Management
Suppliers
R. Wayne Skaggs
Biological & Agricultural Engineering
150 Weaver Labs
North Carolina State University
http://www.bae.ncsu.edu/soil_water/drai
nmod/
Schlumberger Water Services
Waterloo Hydrogeologics, Inc.
460 Phillip Street - Suite 101
Waterloo, Ontario, Canada
N2L 5J2
http://www.swstechnology.com/
EMS-i
1204 W. South Jordan Parkway, Suite B
South Jordan, UT 84095-4612
http://www.ems-i.com/
Biological & Irrigation Engineering Dept.
Utah State University, USA
tion=software
Department of The Army
Corps of Engineers
Institute for Water Resources
Hydrologic Engineering Center (HEC)
http://www.hec.usace.army.mil/software/
hec-ras/hecras-hecras.html
Tahoe Design Software
PO Box 187, Nevada City, CA 95959 USA
Fax: (530) 470-0996
Email: support@tahoesoft.com
http://www.tahoesoft.com/html/products
.htm
7A-3
7A-4
Land-leveling Tools for

Agricultural and Irrigation
Purposes
Subsurface Drainage System
Design
Water Balance Model
Stormwater Modeling
AgStar
(Commercial)
WaSim
(Public Domain)
HydroCAD
(Commercial)
LANDDRAIN
(Commercial)
Land surveying CAD-system
LandCAD
(Commercial)
Water Distribution System

Analysis and Optimization
WADISO
(Commercial)
Irrigation
Description
PumpBase 2.0
(Commercial)
Program Group &

Software Name
Drainage
Hydrology/
Hydraulics
Agricultural
Land
Management
http://www.hydrocad.net/
Reader in Water Management

Location: Building 53, Cranfield campus
Email: t.hess@cranfield.ac.uk
Tel: +44 (0)1234 750111 x2763
http://www.cranfield.ac.uk/
HydroCAD
P.O. Box 477
Chocorua, NH 03817 USA
Fax: 603 323 7467
Email: sales@hydrocad.net
Suppliers
PO Box 187
Nevada City, CA 95959 USA
Fax: (530) 470-0996
GLS Software (Pty) Ltd, PO Box 814,
Stellenbosch, 7599, South Africa.
http://www.gls.co.za/Gls/pages/wadiso/ov
erview.html
Centre for Tropical Ecosystems Research,
University of Aarhus, DK
http://www.landcad.dk/English.htm
Carlson Software, Inc.
102 W Second St. Maysville, KY 41056
http://www.carlsonsw.com/PL_agstar.html
A B Consulting Co., Inc
Lincoln, Nebraska, USA
http://www.abconsultingcompany.com/44
36/10163.html
Email: info@abconsultingcompany.com
Dr Tim Hess
March 2009
APPENDIX 7.B-1 Simulation of Irrigation Supply for a Canal-based Irrigation System

The Tanjung Karang Rice Irrigation Scheme is located at about 3025/ ~ 3045/ N latitude and 100058/
~ 101015/ E longitude of the state of Selangor in Malaysia. The total command area of the scheme is
about 19,848 ha. The paddy is grown two times mainly August to January (main or wet season) and
February to July (off or dry season) in a year. The Bernam River is the only source for the irrigation
supply diverted by Bernam River Headwork (BRH) into the feeder canal. Then water is conveyed into
Tengi River and thence to the intake point of main canal at Tengi River Headwork (TRH). Irrigation
water is delivered directly from the main canal to tertiary canals through Constant Head Orifices
(CHO). The scheme is divided into three irrigation service areas where water is delivered staggering
by one month. The detail feature of the irrigation distribution networks and irrigation compartments
under each irrigation service areas for the scheme are illustrated in Figure 7B-1. Simulate the daily
irrigation supply for the tertiary canals of the scheme. GIS-based customized software will be used to
simulate the daily irrigation supply for the scheme.
Figure 7B1-1 Irrigation Canal Network of Tanjung Karang Irrigation Scheme
Procedures for Simulation of Irrigation Supply

GIS-based customized software called Rice Irrigation Management System (RIMIS) is used to
allocate the available irrigation water among tertiary canals. RIMIS is developed using ArcObjects
and Visual Basic for Application (VBA) programming languages to structure the framework inside the
powerful ArcGIS software. The system can correctly simulate and evaluate recommended irrigation
supplies among tertiary canals by matching the available discharge at the system head with the
actual water use pattern of the field conditions. To simulate daily irrigation deliveries for tertiary
canals, the model incorporates allowable and design irrigation supply based on the actual water
demand and available water resources for irrigation supply.
Step 1: Run the RIMIS Software
On activation of ArcGIS Software, the menu RIMIS appears directly on the Menu Bar in the
software window. By selection of the menu item Open RIMIS, the program allows to view the
March 2009
7A-5
dialog wizard of the RIMIS as shown in Figures 7B1-2 and 7B1-3. RIMIS allows the irrigation
manager to run the day-to-day irrigation management and operation activities.
Figure 7B1-2 RIMIS Menu and Tanjung Karang Irrigation Scheme in ArcGIS.
Figure 7B1-3 Rice Irrigation Management Information System (RIMIS)

Step 2: Illustration of Simulation Procedures
A step-by-step schematic flowchart as shown in Figure 7B1-4 describes the procedure to simulate
irrigation supply for all tertiary canals as the season advances.
7A-6
March 2009
Start
Start
Season Selection
Season
Selection as
as
Season Progresses
Season
Progresses
Net Irrigation
Irrigation Areas
Net
Areas
by ISA
ISA
FAO-Penman Monteith
FAO-Penman
Monteith
Method
(ETo)
Method (ETo)
Irrigation Day
Irrigation
and Period
Period
and
RIMIS
RIMIS
ArcGIS-VBA
ArcGIS-VBA
Framework
Framework
Select Crop
Select
Crop
Coefficient
(kc)
Coefficient (kc)
"Dialog
Dialog Wizard"
Wizard
Equitable Irrigation
Irrigation
Equitable
Deliveries
Deliveries
Stochastic
Stochastic
Expected
Expected Rainfall
Rainfall
(SER)
(SER)
Present and
Present
and
Recommended
Recommended
Standing Water
Standing
WaterDepth
Depth
Water
Analysis for
for
Water Balance Analysis
Different
Conditions
Different Conditions
Irrigation Delivery
Irrigation
Performance and
Performance
and
Remedial
Remedial Measures
Measures
Irrigation
Water
Irrigation Water
Requirements by
by ISA
ISA
Requirements
Simulation of
of Irrigation
Irrigation
Simulation
Diversion for
for Each
Each Tertiary
Tertiary
Diversion
Canal (Off
take) and
and Total
Total
Canal
(Offtake)
Required
Required Supply
Supply (Q
(Qreq
req))
Parameters
Parameters
Optimization
Optimization
Simulation of
of Available
Available Inflow
Simulation
Inflow
for Irrigation
Irrigation Supply
for
Supply in
in the
the
Main
Canal
(Q
)
Main Canal (Qav
av)
Is
Is
Q
>
Qav
Qreq
av > Q
req
No
No
Yes
Yes
Compute
Supply for
for
Compute Allowable
Allowable Supply
Each
TertiaryCanal
Canal(Off
(Offtake)
Each Tertiary
take)
Compute
Compute Desired
Desired Supply
Supply for
for
Each
as Field
Field
EachTertiary
Tertiary Canal
Canal as
Water Demand
Demand
Water
Display
Display
Graph
Graph
Edit
Edit
Records
Records
Analysis
Analysis
Prepare
Irrigation
Prepare Irrigation
Scheduling
Scheduling Report
Report
Build
Build
Database
Database
Retrieve Records
Records
Retrieve
Tabular
Tabular
Output
Output
Delete
Delete
Records
Records
Characterizing
Irrigation
Characterizing Irrigation
Delivery Performance
Delivery
Performance
End
End
Figure 7B1-4 Schematic Flowchart for Simulation of Irrigation Supplies for Tertiary Canals of the
Tanjung Karang Irrigation Scheme
March 2009
7A-7
Step 3: Required Inputs

To run the program, the following inputs are required: Present Standing Water Depth (SW),
Recommended Ponding Water Depth (SWmax or ASW), Reference Crop Evapotranspiration (ETo),
Seepage-Percolation (SP), Expected Daily Rainfall (RF), Crop-coefficient (kc) and Irrigation Efficiency
(IE). All input information is adjustable and the irrigation manager can update according to the
actual field condition.
Step 4: Run Module for Irrigation Deliveries for Tertiary Canal
A dialog wizard shown in Figure 7B1-3 will appear by clicking on the Command Button
Recommended Tertiary Canal Supply in Figure 7B1-5. The dialog wizard displays with required
inputs and relevant information to allocate irrigation supply on 20 October 2003 for the main season.
Figure 7B1-5 Dialog Wizard for Recommended Irrigation Supply for Tertiary Canals.
Step 5: Recommended Irrigation Deliveries for Tertiary Canals

To optimize the irrigation supply among tertiary canals for a particular day, the total recommended
irrigation supply should not exceed the total available Supply i.e., 17.21 < 18.21 m3/s shown in the
Dialog Wizard. This condition together with tight gate control can ensure irrigation supply to the
target service areas with the available irrigation water. The total required discharge for the
recommended supply is automatically computed and displayed in the Text Box (i.e. 17.21 m3/s)
while updating inputs in the Dialog Wizard. The recommended supply is simulated through the
parameter optimization with respect to the available irrigation water and actual water demand
pattern by the targeted areas. Afterwards, the recommended irrigation deliveries among tertiary
canals are seen by clicking on the Command Button Equitable Irrigation Supply in Figure 7B1-5.
The output window can be viewed instantly as shown in Figure 7B1-6.
7A-8
March 2009
Figure 7B1-6 Simulated Irrigation Supplies for Tertiary Canals with Respect to the Design Supply
The recommended supply among tertiary canals with respect to the allowable and design or target
supplies on the 20th October for the main season are shown in Figure 7B1-7.
Figure 7B1-7 Recommended, Allowable and Design Irrigation Supply for the Tertiary Canals, 20
October 2008 in Main Season
March 2009
7A-9

By selecting the item Volumetric Irrigation Supply by Block in ListBox from Figure 7B1-5, spatial
variations of irrigation supply on 20 October 2008 for irrigation blocks under respective tertiary
canals are shown in Figure 7B1-8. The output dialog wizard allows plotting the recommended,
allowable and design irrigation supply for an individual tertiary canal simply by clicking on the
Command Button Daily Supply for Each CHO on the selection of items in ListBoxes under
Irrigation Supply by CHO in Figure 7B1-6.
Figure 7B1-8 Volumetric Irrigation Distribution throughout the Scheme

Note: RIMIS is also capable for using to determine the water demand for planning and design
purpose. In this case user needs to feed right inputs. The rainfall amount should be zero and crop
evapotranspiration should be considered during the peak irrigation period. The new module will be
developed for the planning and design of irrigation canal networks. It is intended that the RIMIS will
be extended for 8 large-scale irrigation schemes in Malaysia inside the one platform. In near future,
the Department of Irrigation and Drainage (DID) will be able to apply it with real time information
for the design, planning and operation & management activities in rice irrigation schemes from one
platform.
7A-10
March 2009
APPENDIX 7.B-2 Simulation of Subsurface Drainage System Design Information Using

DRAINMOD Software
The irrigation field has to be provided with subsurface drainage system. The field has total soil
thickness of 2.90 m and hydraulic conductivity of 1.1 m/day (4.58 cm/hr). Simulate the watertable
condition, required design parameters and optimum drain spacing for the farm. Field crops will be
grown in the farm. Assume the drainage coefficient is 2.5 cm/day in the farm.
Required Data
Daily rainfall duration and amount
Daily temperature
Soil data
Crop data
Input Data Window
Step 1: Preparation of DRAINMOD Inputs
Weather information is entered through a screen accessed by selecting Weather from the Input
Menu (Figure 7B2-1). The Weather input screen displayed depends on the type of weather file
specified in the project file.
(a) Weather File Creator Window
(b) Weather Parameter Editor
Figure 7B2-1 Weather Inputs Creator and Editor Windows

The rainfall files or the irrigation routine must be modified to ensure that the irrigation amounts and
timing are correct for this application of the model. The detail guidelines for creating input data
format are provided in the software. They can be accessed through Help Menu.
The DRAINMOD input file for temperature consists of daily maximum and minimum air temperature
in degrees Fahrenheit for each day. These are organized by year, month, and a six digit station
identifier. Each line of data contains the station ID in columns 1-6, the year in columns 8-11, and the
month in columns 12-13. The remainder of the line contains the hourly rainfall amounts. A new line
is started whenever the month changes.
DRAINMOD can also use files containing daily PET data. There are two lines for each month. The
first line contains the station ID in columns 1-6, the year in columns 8-11 and the month in columns
12-13.
Hints: Use your favourite editor to look at your rainfall, temperature or PET files. The FORTRAN
statements are provided to read the Weather files in the Help documents.
March 2009
7A-11
Step 2: Import Inputs

After preparing the input files, they are fed into the DRAINMOD project file as shown in Figure 7B22. At first, soil data is needed. It is chosen from the Window in Figure 7B2-2 simply by clicking on
the option Soil and the appropriate file is browsed. Secondly, weather data is needed. It includes
daily rainfall and temperature. Rainfall and temperature inputs are accessed through the Window like
that Figure 7B2-2, which is chosen from the Window in Figure 7B2-2 simply by clicking on the option
Weather and the appropriate files are browsed. Then crop input data file is entered for the
simulation.
Figure 7B2-2 Data Input Window

The General Information screen is used to input the title of the simulation, select output options,
specify period of simulation and specify the water management options. Two lines are available for
inputting a title to identify the DRAINMOD input data set (Figure 7B2-3). Then water management
option is chosen and it gives different water management options for surface and subsurface water
(Figure 7B2-4).
Figure 7B2-3 General Information Screen
7A-12
March 2009
Figure 7B2-4 Water Management Option

Step 3: Watertable Simulation
To simulate watertable in the project area, a huge amount of data is required. In this reason, a
sample data was used to simulate the watertable. The simulated watertable of the project area is
shown in Figure 7B2-5.
Figure 7B2-5 Simulated Watertable in the Project Area

Step 4: Optimum Drain Spacing Determination
The trial and error method is followed to get the optimal drainage spacing. The drainage design
window is shown in Figure 7B2-6. A typical configuration of drainage design specification using
DRAINMOD is provided in the Figure 7B2-7. Using the actual field information, DRAINMOD gives a
clear picture about the watertable condition and possible measures to be taken for the particular
crop. For field crops, drain should be provided at the depth of 75 cm or more from the ground
surface. When average watertable will be lower than the 75 cm for a particular condition then drain
spacing can be considered as optimal.
March 2009
7A-13
Figure 7B2-6 Drainage Design Window
Figure 7B2-7 Optimum Drain Spacing using DRAINMOD
7A-14
March 2009
March 2009
Surface irrigation software

package
Design and management of

furrow irrigation System
SIRMOD III
(Public Domain)
FIDO v2: Furrow

Irrigation Design
Optimizer
(Commercial)
WinSRFR 2.1
(Public Domain)
Irrigation
Drainage
Hydrology/
Hydraulics
Agricultural
Land
Management
The Water Resources, Development and

Management Service
FAO
Viale delle Terme di Caracalla
00100 Rome, Italy
Tel: +(39) 06 57055541, Fax: (39-06)
57056275, email: FAO-water@fao.org
http://www.fao.org/nr/water/infores_dat
abases_cropwat.html
Biological & Irrigation Engineering
Department
Utah State University
4105 Old Main Hill
Logan, Utah 84322-4105
USA
Email: bieusu@cc.usu.edu
tion=software
National Centre for Engineering in
Agriculture (NCEA), Australia
Queensland, Australia
http://ncea.vweb1.usq.edu.au/
Clemmens, Albert J
Water Management and Conservation
Research, USDA-ARS
21881 North Cardon Lane
Maricopa AZ 85239, USA
http://www.usda.gov/
Suppliers
Note: This list contains a summary and information on the computer modelling software referred in this Chapter. The list does not include all
available software. Programs that are not listed may be equally or more suitable for particular applications.
Design, system evaluation and

operational analysis for surface
irrigation systems (Basin, Furrow
and Borders)
Reference evapotranspiration,
Crop water requirements, Crop
irrigation requirements,
planning of irrigation
scheduling, and design and
management of irrigation
schemes.
Description
CROPWAT for
WINDOWS
(Public Domain)
Program Group &

Software Name
APPENDIX 7.A List of Computer Modeling Software
7A-15
7A-16
Pressurized irrigation design

system
Open channel hydraulic design
Microirrigation Water
Management
Sprinkler Simulation Model
Design irrigation structure
FLOW PRO
(Commercial)
Irricalc 3.0
(Public Domain)
SPRINKMOD
(Public Domain)
WinFlume
Description
IrriCAD Pro
(Commercial)
Program Group &

Software Name
Irrigation
Drainage
Hydrology/
Hydraulics
Agricultural
Land
Management
Suppliers
Netafim Australia
MELBOURNE - HEAD OFFICE
213-217 FITZGERALD ROAD
LAVERTON NORTH, VIC. 3026
P.O. BOX 248, LAVERTON VIC 3028
Phone: 61 3 9369 8777
Fax: 61 3 9369 3865
Email: support@irricad.com
Web site : www.Netafim.com.au/
B.C. Cook, P.E., Ph.D.
Associate Professor of Civil Engineering,
Portland State University
http://www.irricad.com/
Software Republic
Sales Phone: (936) 372-9884
Fax: (936) 372-9869
Sales Email: sales@raincad.com
http://www.softwarerepublic.com/irricalc/
Dept. Biological and Irrigation
Engineering, Utah State University
Logan, UT 84322-4105
USA. Email : allenric@cc.usu.edu
tion=software
Water Resources Publications, LLC
P.O. Box 260026 Highlands Ranch, Co
80163-0026, U.S.A.
Fax 720.873.0173 / 800.616.1971
e-mail: info@wrpllc.com
http://www.wrpllc.com
March 2009
March 2009
Drainage, water table

management systems
Groundwater Modeling and

Water Table Management
Groundwater Modeling System
Hydraulic simulations of
unsteady flow in branching
canal networks.
Analyzes Networks of Natural

and Man-made Channels
MODFLOWSURFACT FLOW
(Commercial)
GMS
(Commercial)
CanalMan
(Public Domain)
HEC-RAS
(Public Domain)
HYDROFLOW 2.0
(Commercial)
Description
DRAINMOD 6.0
(Public Domain)
Program Group &

Software Name
Irrigation
Drainage
Hydrology/
Hydraulics
Agricultural
Land
Management
Suppliers
R. Wayne Skaggs
Biological & Agricultural Engineering
150 Weaver Labs
North Carolina State University
http://www.bae.ncsu.edu/soil_water/drai
nmod/
Schlumberger Water Services
Waterloo Hydrogeologics, Inc.
460 Phillip Street - Suite 101
Waterloo, Ontario, Canada
N2L 5J2
http://www.swstechnology.com/
EMS-i
1204 W. South Jordan Parkway, Suite B
South Jordan, UT 84095-4612
http://www.ems-i.com/
Biological & Irrigation Engineering Dept.
Utah State University, USA
tion=software
Department of The Army
Corps of Engineers
Institute for Water Resources
Hydrologic Engineering Center (HEC)
http://www.hec.usace.army.mil/software/
hec-ras/hecras-hecras.html
PO Box 187, Nevada City, CA 95959 USA
Fax: (530) 470-0996
.htm
7A-17
7A-18
Land-leveling Tools for

Agricultural and Irrigation
Purposes
Subsurface Drainage System
Design
Water Balance Model
Stormwater Modeling
AgStar
(Commercial)
WaSim
(Public Domain)
HydroCAD
(Commercial)
LANDDRAIN
(Commercial)
Land surveying CAD-system
LandCAD
(Commercial)
Water Distribution System

Analysis and Optimization
WADISO
(Commercial)
Irrigation
Description
PumpBase 2.0
(Commercial)
Program Group &

Software Name
Drainage
Hydrology/
Hydraulics
Agricultural
Land
Management
http://www.hydrocad.net/
Reader in Water Management

Location: Building 53, Cranfield campus
Email: t.hess@cranfield.ac.uk
Tel: +44 (0)1234 750111 x2763
http://www.cranfield.ac.uk/
HydroCAD
P.O. Box 477
Chocorua, NH 03817 USA
Fax: 603 323 7467
Email: sales@hydrocad.net
Suppliers
PO Box 187
Nevada City, CA 95959 USA
Fax: (530) 470-0996
GLS Software (Pty) Ltd, PO Box 814,
Stellenbosch, 7599, South Africa.
http://www.gls.co.za/Gls/pages/wadiso/ov
erview.html
Centre for Tropical Ecosystems Research,
University of Aarhus, DK
http://www.landcad.dk/English.htm
Carlson Software, Inc.
102 W Second St. Maysville, KY 41056
http://www.carlsonsw.com/PL_agstar.html
A B Consulting Co., Inc
Lincoln, Nebraska, USA
http://www.abconsultingcompany.com/44
36/10163.html
Email: info@abconsultingcompany.com
Dr Tim Hess
March 2009
7.8.3.4
Web-based Technology
The advent of the Internet and its related technologies provides opportunities for new applications
and new ways of collaboration between groups of people having common interests. A web-based
application with centralized knowledge and information management systems provides extended
personalization and internationalization characteristics. Web-based, real-time irrigation management
system is user-friendly platform which, gives the power to manage irrigation systems at convenience
- no matter what brand, no matter where the users are. These applications are available at any time
and place with an Internet connection, thus overcoming the problem of availability. Web portal gives
a quick view of every irrigation systems, provide information on location, irrigation equipment status
and water usage. In addition, users can have direct access for regular weather updates and access
to other important information. The portal is accessible from the internet and gives the freedom to
monitor the systems away from farm or office.
March 2009
7-19
Part C Irrigation Design

Chapter 8 - Water Intake Facilities
Chapter 8 - WATER INTAKE FACILITIES
Table of Contents
Table of Contents. 8-i
List of Tables.. 8-iii
List of Figures. 8-iii
8.1 INTRODUCTION... 8-1
8.2 TYPES OF IRRIGATION INTAKE 8-1
8.2.1 River Intake.... 8-1
8.2.1.1 Gravity-fed River Intake.8-1
8.2.1.2 Pumped River Intake8-1
8.2.2 Impoundment Intake.. 8-2
8.2.3 Groundwater Intake. 8-2
8.3 PLANNING AND DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS. 8-3
8.3.1 Intake Site Selection 8-3
8.3.1.1 River Intake.. 8-3
8.3.1.2 Impoundment Intake 8-3
8.3.1.3 Groundwater Intake..8-3
8.3.2 Water Quantity Abstraction and Reliability.. 8-4
8.3.3 Water Quality and Treatment. 8-4
8.3.4 Debris and Sediment Trapping . 8-4
8.3.5 Intake Structures.. 8-4
8.3.6 Minimum Flow Requirement 8-4
8.4 SURFACE WATER INTAKE DESIGN. 8-5
8.4.1
Structures of Surface Water Intake ..... 8-6

8.4.1.1 Canal Head Works. 8-6
8.4.1.2 Reservoir Outlet Works 8-6
8.4.1.3 Pumping Station.. 8-6
8.4.1.4 Small Diversion Intake Structures. 8-7
8.4.1.5 Intake Aqueduct. 8-9
8.4.2 Diversion Head Works Design Procedures 8-10

8.4.2.1 Components of Diversion Head Works..8-10
8.4.2.2 Design Criteria for Diversion Head Works 8-13
8.4.2.3 Design Steps for Canal Head Regulator 8-14
8.4.2.4 Sediment Excluder 8-21
8.4.2.5 River Bank and Intake Structure Protection 8-24
8.4.3
Pumped Intake Design Procedures 8-24

8.4.3.1 Common Irrigation Pumps.. 8-24
8.4.3.2 Components of Pumped Intake. 8-25
8.4.3.3 Design Consideration . 8-25
8.4.3.4 Pump Design and Selection 8-26
8.4.3.5 Small Capacity Pumped Intake Design..8-30
March 2009
8-i
8.4.3.6 Large Capacity Pumped Intake Design.. 8-35

8.5 GROUNDWATER INTAKE DESIGN 8-39
8.5.1 Water Wells..... 8-39
8.5.2 Understanding of Groundwater Formation.. 8-39
8.5.3 Tubewell Components 8-40
8.5.4 Tubewell Design Procedures 8-41
8.5.4.1 Well Casings 8-42
8.5.4.2 Gravel Pack Design ... 8-45
8.5.4.3 Well Screen ... 8-46
8.5.4.4 Casing and Well Screen Materials 8-49
8.5.4.5 Annular Sealants or Cementing 8-50
8.5.4.6 Well Development 8-50
8.5.4.7 Pumping Test. 8-51
8.5.4.8 Surface Protection Structure.. 8-51
8.5.4.9 Power Requirements and Pump Selection.. 8-53
REFERENCES.. 8-56
APPENDIX 8A Water Quality Guidelines 8A-1
APPENDIX 8B Pump Sump Design 8A-3
APPENDIX 8C Grain Size Distribution Analysis.. 8A-10
APPENDIX 8D General Recommendations Well Materials and Strength.. 8A-12
APPENDIX 8E
Additional Pump Characteristics Curves 8A-13
APPENDIX 8F
Worked Examples. 8A-15

F-1 Design Canal Head Works 8A-15
F-2 Tubewell Design .. 8A-27
F-3 Design and Selection of Irrigation Pump. 8A-32
8-ii
March 2009
List of Tables
Table
Description
Page
8.1
A Chart for Desirable Pump Types Used for a Given Range of Flow Rates and TDH
8-26
8.2
Recommended Minimum Diameters for Well Casings and Screens
8-42
8.3
Diameter and Thickness of the Housing Pipe of Tubewells
8-43
8.4
Criteria for Selecting Gravel Pack Material
8-46
8.5
Diameters and Weights of Screens
8-47
List of Figures
Figure
Description
Page
8.1
Irrigation Water Intakes from River
8-1
8.2
Pumping Water from River into the Main Canal in Kerian Rice Irrigation Scheme
8-2
8.3
Gravity-fed Irrigation Intake from Reservoir
8-2
8.4
Groundwater Pumping for Irrigation Supplies
8-3
8.5
Different Methods for Surface Water Intake
8-5
8.6
Gravity-fed Irrigation Water Intake Structures for Large Scale Irrigation Scheme
8-6
8.7
Gravity-fed Reservoir Intake Structure for Kerian Irrigation Scheme
8-6
8.8
Pumped Intake in Sg. Kerian for Large Scale Rice Irrigation Scheme
8-7
8.9
Diversions on River by Lagoon
8-7
8.10
Diversions on River by Settling Basin
8-8
8.11
Gravity-fed with Slopping Trash Rack
8-8
8.12
Standard Centrifugal Pump Intake
8-9
8.13
Centrifugal Pump Intake for Shallow Water Level
8-9
8.14
Centrifugal Pumped Intake for Deep Water Levels
8-9
8.15
General Layout of Diversion Head Works
8-10
8.16
A Canal Head Regulator Downstream of Convex Bend
8-11
8.17
Typical Sections of Weir and Barrage
8-11
8.18
Sectional View of Fish Ladder
8-12
8.19
Effect of Subsurface Flow below a Head Regulator or Barrage
8-14
8.20
Seepage Line Gradient Changes of a Head Regulator
8-14
8.21
Alignment of Head Regulator
8-14
8.22
Typical Layout of Canal Head Regulator
8-15
8-23
Sectional View of Canal Head Regulator
8-15
8-24
Canal Head Regulator Section with Sediment Excluder
8-16
8-25
Head Regulator for Monlithic Trough Section
8-16
8.26
Upstream Block Protection
8-20
8.27
Downstream Block Protection
8-20
8.28
Loose Stone Protection in Downstream
8-21
8.29
Components of the Total Dynamic Head (TDH) for Surface Water
8-28
8.30
The Operating Point for a Given Centrifugal Pump and Water System
8-28
March 2009
8-iii
8.31
A Typical Pump Curve for a Horizontal Centrifugal Pump
8-29
8.32
Pump Intake Arrangements
8-30
8.33
Pump Submergence Requirements
8-30
8.34
Excavated Well Sump
8-31
8.35
Vortex Cover
8-32
8.36
Intake from a Stream Using Well
8-32
8.37
Plywood Frame Screen Constructions
8-33
8.38
Drum Screen Constructions
8-34
8.39
Self Cleaning Screens for Gravity Intake
8-34
8.40
Groundwater Occurrence and Flowpaths
8-40
8.41
Components of Well
8-41
8.42
Well Screen Installation in Shallow (Unconfined) and Deep (Confined) Aquifers
8-44
8.43
A Well Design for Multiple Aquifers
8-44
8.44
Well in Pumping Condition
8-52
8.45
Well Structure Protection
8-52
8.46
Components of the Total Dynamic Head (TDH) for Groundwater Pumping System
8-53
8.47
Deep Well Turbine Pump Curve
8-54
8-iv
March 2009
8
8.1
WATER INTAKE FACILITIES
INTRODUCTION
Farmers access irrigation water by gravity or pumping from surface or groundwater sources or
having it delivered by an irrigation district or other water purveyor. Therefore, supplying water into
irrigation systems often requires diversions and intakes. The intake structure is built at the entry to
the irrigation system. It directs water from the original sources of supply, namely from pond, river,
reservoir and aquifer, into the irrigation system. The construction of the intakes must be ensured
that downstream water demands and aquatic resources will not be impacted. This Chapter provides
design guidance on the more commonly used irrigation diversions and intake systems for application
in Malaysia.
8.2
TYPES OF IRRIGATION INTAKE
There are mainly three types of intakes used. They are as follows:
8.2.1
River Intake
Availability of water in a river is fluctuating and subjected to considerable variation in flow, quality
and level. Hence, intake structures must be designed so that the required flow can be diverted
directly or pumped at all times despite during extreme low flow. The design considerations include
topography, soil conditions, hydrology and hydraulics, design discharge of the off-taking canal, water
availability, low flow conditions, irrigation water transmission and distribution and socio-economic
feasibility. The net abstraction or diversion is only estimated for irrigation supply after ensuring
sufficient flow for downstream reach as well as fisheries.
8.2.1.1 Gravity-fed River Intake
Irrigation schemes that take water directly from a river through some form of diversion structure is
called gravity-fed intake or run-of-the -river intake. A diversion headwork performs the tasks of
diverting the river water to the canal as well as regulating the quantity of water entering the canal
(Figure 8.1).
Feeder Canal
Figure 8.1 Irrigation Water Intakes from River
8.2.1.2 Pumped River Intake
In some cases, the irrigation water source lies below the level of the irrigated fields. Then a pump
must be used to supply water to the irrigation system (Figure 8.2). There are several types of pumps
but the most commonly used in irrigation is the axial or mixed flow pump for low head, high
discharge irrigation pumping and centrifugal pump for pressurized irrigation systems.
March 2009
8-1
Figure 8.2 Pumping Water from River into the Main Canal in Kerian Rice Irrigation Scheme
8.2.2
Impoundment Intake
Impoundment intake involves the construction of a dam and creates a storage reservoir (Figure 8.3).
Water from such schemes can usually be supplied by gravity and is generally of better quality than
water abstracted directly from rivers. In case of pond and lake, pump must be used to withdraw
water for the irrigation supply, but at small scale. The design considerations include topography, soil
conditions, hydrology and hydraulics, water demands, water availability and quality, storage draft
relationship, irrigation water transmission and distribution and socio-economic feasibility. In the case
of concrete or masonry dam, draw-off pipes may be incorporated into the dam structure. For earthen
dams, it is considered as safe to use draw-off pipes due to the risk of fracture caused by differential
settlement and the potentially damaging erosive effects of leaked water.
Main Canal
Figure 8.3 Gravity-fed Irrigation Intake from Reservoir

8.2.3
Groundwater Intake
Groundwater for irrigation is abstracted by shallow or deep wells (Figure 8.4). It provides timely
irrigation leading to an increase in crop intensity and productivity (FAO, 2003). Groundwater is
generally of better quality. Since it does not require the construction of costly storage reservoirs and
long transmission lines, it is often an economical alternative or supplement to surface water supplies.
The withdrawal of groundwater under safe yield condition should be maintained. Design
considerations include water demand for irrigation scheme, groundwater hydraulics, assessment of
groundwater yield, well design, construction and development, water treatment works, transmission,
distribution of water and economic feasibility.
8-2
March 2009
Figure 8.4 Groundwater Pumping for Irrigation Supplies (Irrigation Wikipedia, 2008)
8.3
PLANNING AND DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
8.3.1 Intake Site Selection

8.3.1.1 River Intake
Several important considerations affect planning and site selection for irrigation intakes. The safe
operation, maintenance, and emergency functions must be available at all times. Hydraulic
conditions will have primary importance in site selection, but site appearance and sound attenuation
should be also assessed. The choice of a site for an intake is an important part of the scheme. It
involves the following considerations:
The site shall be free from change of stream centre, rise or fall in the river bed level with a
calm and gentle flow
The site and its surrounding shall be of good geological formation and safe from landslides
and scouring. However, sites of poor geological formations may be used but piling, bank and
intake toe protection if no better sites can be found
The quality of water at the site shall be safe from pollution and the intrusion of saline water
The site shall be of easy access and spacious so that future extensions and maintenance
works can be accommodated
The location of any existing or proposed diversion structures, water treatment plant and/or
flood mitigation works may affect the quantity of water to the intake
The intake must also be able to operate reliably under high flow conditions and be able to
tolerate the large flood events that occasionally occur
8.3.1.2 Impoundment Intake

The main elements of a storage scheme are the dam, spillway, the reservoir. Therefore it has to
decide the type of dam to be constructed, the type of spillway as well as the reservoir storage
capacity. Planning for the elements of a storage scheme requires extensive data such as demand
estimation, hydrology, hydraulics, geology, economic aspects, social aspects and environmental
aspects. In addition intake site should be closed to the irrigation canal as possible. The site shall be
provision of good road access so that construction and maintenance works can be performed easily.
For safety of the dam as well as outlet works, the site should be so that the excess water of the
reservoir can be spilled out to the located nearer to the natural drainage system.
8.3.1.3 Groundwater Intake
Site will be selected based on good aquifer condition. It should be located centre of the irrigation
project as possible and/or close to irrigation project. The location of the tubewells should not be
within the radius of influence among multiple wells. Water quality must be taken into considerations.
March 2009
8-3
8.3.2 Water Quantity Abstraction and Reliability

The amount of water that is allowed to be abstracted from the water sources is dependent on many
factors, including agricultural water demand, available water resources for irrigation supply, water
quality, hydrologic and hydraulic conditions, regulation of withdrawal and environmental conditions.
The information requires on inventory of existing public and private water supplies and wastewater
discharges, a projection of future demands, and comparison of the future demands with the capacity
of the available water resources.
8.3.3
Water Quality and Treatment
Water suitability for irrigation depends on the type of crop to be grown, irrigation method and
agronomic practices. Water quality for agricultural uses should be technically and economically
feasible. When determining water availability for irrigation, information is required on its quality. The
enhancement of water quality is essential prior distributing irrigation water into conveyance systems
for the quality crop production.
Water quality is typically separated into three basic categories: physical, biological, and chemical.
The suitability of water for irrigation is governed by its mineral constituents. In general, any water
with low salts concentration is suitable but this depends upon the crop and soil requirement.
Therefore it is necessary to know the suitability of water before deploying for irrigation purposes.
The total salt content gives a reasonably correct guideline of irrigation water qualities shown in
Appendix 8.A.
The irrigator must know the quality of water used for irrigation. If contaminants are present, the
type and concentration must be determined before irrigating to crops. Water quality guidelines
provide information on the type of water quality required for specific crop water uses. The existing
water quality data are available in the related departments. Physical contaminants and organic
particles can adversely affect some irrigation systems. Physical contaminants include suspended
debris, and submerged aquatic plants. Algae and bacterial slimes are organic particles. The type of
water treatment will depend on crop tolerance and irrigation system.
8.3.4
Debris and Sediment Trapping
Sediments and floating debris in irrigation water can cause malfunction of flow meters, measuring
devices, plugging of siphon tubes, and gates in gated pipe. Debris can also accumulate within and
potentially plug almost any water control structure. Sediment in the water supply can cause wear on
pump impellers and sprinkler nozzles. When irrigation water contains suspended sediment, additional
settling, screening, and filtering are necessary for the microirrigation systems. Settling basins of
substantial size and cyclone sand separators can be used to reduce the size and cost of filtering
systems, especially when using sand media filters.
8.3.5
Intake Structures
The flow of irrigation water in the main canals must always be under control. For this purpose, intake
structures are required. They help regulate the flow and deliver the correct amount of water to the
conveyance and different branches of the irrigation system and onward to the irrigated fields. There
are no standard designs for intake structures. Each design is unique and may take on many forms
and variations. The type of intake selected depends on whether it is to be used for surface or
groundwater abstraction. It depends on site, size of irrigation scheme, type of water source,
topography, water levels during flood, drought conditions, water demand and project requirements.
8.3.6
Minimum Flow Requirement
Many irrigation systems in Malaysia utilize run-of-river intakes as a source of water, as opposed to
using reservoirs which store water and regulate downstream flows. In response to growth in water
supply demand, the system may need to increase the water flow. During normal to high flow
periods, the increased withdrawal will usually not significantly affect downstream flows. However,
8-4
March 2009
during dry periods an expanded withdrawal has the potential to adversely affect water quality,
aquatic life, and other instream uses of flowing water. This is especially problematic for relatively
large run-of-river withdrawals from relatively small streams.
8.4
SURFACE WATER INTAKE DESIGN
The primary function of the intake structure is to permit withdrawal of water over a range of water
levels. The different types of intake have already been adopted for abstracting water from rivers,
reservoirs and ponds in Malaysia (Figure 8.5).
Diversion structures are often used to divert water away from water sources into the irrigation
system. The type of diversion depends on the size of the stream or river whether the irrigation
system is gravity fed or pumped and the fishery usage. Abstraction must be possible at all times,
whatever the level of water in the river. It may be necessary to build a weir downstream of the
intake location to ensure adequate water depth at the intake at all stages of river flow. It is
important to determine the influence of the weir on upstream water levels under flood conditions.
Gate
U/S water level
Sprinkler
D/S water level

Pipeline
Pump
Water level
Outlet
Offtaking
canal
Pump sump
Ground surface
(a) Gated Control Gravity Intake
Pump
Pipeline
(b) Pump Located below Water Surface
Motor
Sprinkler
Water level
Pipeline
Water level
Ground surface
Pump
Pump sump
(c) Pump Located above Water Surface
(d) Vertical Centrifugal Pump for Surface Water
Figure 8.5 Different Methods for Surface Water Intake

Pumping plants are required when water must be lifted from the water source. Horizontal centrifugal
pumps are normally used with surface sources of water and springs. The pump and power unit can
be positioned above the water surface or in a dry pit below the water surface. Vertical centrifugal
pumps can be used with either surface or ground water sources. The pump house floor level must be
above maximum flood level; hence the excavation extent may be considerable. Vertical centrifugal
pumps are more difficult to maintain but do not require priming since the pump is in submerged
condition.
March 2009
8-5
8.4.1
Structures of Surface Water Intake
8.4.1.1 Canal Head Works

Irrigation canals carry water from rivers or streams to the distributary canals. To divert the water for
irrigation supplies in the canal, the works constructed at the point of take-off are called the Head
Works. Two irrigation structures are necessary to construct one across the river and the other at the
head of the off-taking canal. The structure constructed at the head of the canal is called Head
Regulator (Figure 8.6a). Normally when the river discharge is not sufficient to meet the maximum
demand for irrigation supply, barrage or low head diversion dam is constructed across the river to
divert the required irrigation supply into the offtaking canal (Figure 8.6b). A canal head works
perform the tasks of diverting the river water to the canal as well as regulating the quantity of water
entering the canal. Control of the sediment entering the canal may also be a function of the
headworks.
(a) Head Regulator in Sg. Muda
(b) Barrage in Sg. Bernam
Figure 8.6 Gravity-fed Irrigation Intake Structures for Large Scale Irrigation Scheme
8.4.1.2 Reservoir Outlet Works
A dam is constructed with intake structures and spillways for taking water from reservoir into
irrigation canal (Figure 8.7). Spillways are provided for storage to release surplus water or floodwater
that cannot be contained in the allotted storage space. Intake structures regulate or release water at
a dictated rate into canals or pipelines impounded by a dam.
Outlet
Main canal
(a) Outlet Structure
(b) Bukit Merah Reservoir
Figure 8.7 Gravity-fed Reservoir Intake Structure for Kerian Irrigation Scheme
8.4.1.3 Pumping Station
Centrifugal pumps are the most commonly used types of pumps for withdrawing water for large
scale irrigation supply from rivers (Figure 8.8). Although the river flow is adequate, the water level at
8-6
March 2009
the suitable site may not be high enough at all times to provide the amount of inflow required into
the intake. If the topography is suitable, this problem can be solved by the constructing of structure
across the river causing the water behind it to pond and thus raise the water level. A typical example
is the supplement irrigation supply through pumping for the Kerian Irrigation Scheme.
(a) Pumped Intake
(b) Barrage
Figure 8.8 Pumped Intake in Sg. Kerian for Large Scale Rice Irrigation Scheme
8.4.1.4 Small Diversion Intake Structures
(a)
Side Lagoon or Settling Basin
Water is diverted into side canal or lagoon when difficulties are aroused to build diversion across the
river. A 90o diversion will allow less debris into the intake. Figure 8.9 describes a method of diverting
water to the irrigation intake. Settling basins are essential for diversions from rivers with high silt
content. The water velocity must be reduced to 0.15 m/s or slower to allow sand and silt to settle
out. Settling basins should be at least 15 25 m in length and can be built by forming lagoons or
canals. The configuration of a settling basin depends on site specifics.
Gabion weir 1/4 to 1/3
width of river
Rip rap
(piled rocks)
Dredged
area
10 W
Gate and trash

rack
2W
Lagoon
Floating boom
5W
W = width of canal
Gabion weir 1/3
width of river
Figure 8.9 Diversions on River by Lagoon

Figure 8.10 shows a concrete settling basin with trash rack and intake pipe. Intake design
incorporates a stage discharge relationship between intake flow, orifice or gate size and head of
water at the weir. The abstraction flowrate to a irrigation system is a function of following factors.
March 2009
8-7
the design of the intake capacity

the number of irrigation intakes feeding that system
any operation of these intakes that adjusts their discharge
the flow of water in the river which affects the head of water at the intake
Rip rap
Downstream
Reinforced
concrete
Tie bars
Slower
moving
water
Stilling basin
System intake
valve
Gabion weir
Spillway
Gabion weir
Cleanout
valve
(a) Perspective
Side Gate
Trash Track
0.6-0.7 H
0.3-0.4 H
Tie Bars
Intake Pipe
(b) Elevation
Figure 8.10 Diversions on River by Settling Basin
(b)
Gravity-fed Intake Structure
This type of intake is suitable for small rivers with shallow flow. Water is abstracted either by gravity
or pumping from the pond behind it. Gravity-fed intakes should not be subjected to high flow
velocities. The maximum flow velocity at the intake should not be exceeded 0.30 m/s. Where high
flow velocities occur, the intake is recommended to be diverted from the source by directing the flow
through ditch or small reservoir. Air vents must be installed on the pipeline close to the intake.
Figure 8.11 shows a simple gravity-fed intake.
Shutoff valve
Vent
Slide gate
Slide gate
Trash rack
Screen
Flow
Intake pipe
Figure 8.11 Gravity-fed with Sloping Trash Rack

8-8
March 2009
(c)
Pumping Intake Structures
A flexible rubber hose system (Figures 8.12 to 8.14) allows the intake to adjust for different water
elevations. An air tight connection must be maintained to prevent air from entering into the suction
pipe.
Flexible rubber
Flexible Rubber
hose section
Hose Section
Cross Logs to Raise Intake
Cross logs to raise intake screen

Screen
30 cmbottom
aboveof Bottom
30 cm above
river
of River
Figure 8.12 Standard Centrifugal Pump Intake

Flexible
hoseHose
section
Flexiblerubber
Rubber
Section
Screen
Screen
Figure 8.13 Centrifugal Pump Intake for Shallow Water Level

Flexible
hose
section
Flexiblerubber
Rubber
Hose
Section
Float
Float
Screen
Screen
Figure 8.14 Centrifugal Pump Intake for Deep Water Levels

8.4.1.5 Intake Aqueduct
Intake aqueducts will be required to convey water into the pump sump by open channel or conduits
from rivers if the intake site is located far from the water source. This water can be abstracted by
gravity or pumped. Intake aqueduct shall be of sufficient capacity to convey peak water demand for
the irrigation supplies.
March 2009
8-9
8.4.2
Diversion Head Works Design Procedures
In Malaysia, the diversion of water by canal head works is widely practiced to divert water from river
to rice irrigation scheme. The diversion head works comprises hydraulics structures that are provided
at the head of the canal networks to supply water to the off taking canal. These structures help to
regulate flow into the canal as well as the water level in the river so that the canal would be enabled
to draw the required amount of water with the available sufficient head. Especially during low flow
season when the level of water in the river is very low to feed canal, the weirs/barrage play
important role.
8.4.2.1
Components of Diversion Head Works
A typical diversion head works plan for irrigation supply is shown in Figure 8.15. The following are
the components of the diversion head works:
Undersluice portion
Canal head regulator
Weir/Barrage portion
Divide wall
Fish ladder/passage
Piers and abutments
Protection works
River training works
Guide bund
River flow
Weir/barrage
Canal
Sediment
excluder
Under sluices
Fish ladder
Canal
Sediment
excluder
Under sluices
Divide wall
Guide bund
Figure 8.15 General Layout of Diversion Head Works

(a)
Undersluices
Undersluices are the gate controlled openings in the weir with crest at a low level. They are located
at the same side of the offtake canal. If two canals take off on either side of the river, undersluices
would be necessary to provide on the both sides. It scours silt deposited in front of canal regulator
and control silt entry in the canal. Discharge capacity of the undersluices is kept based on the
followings:
(b)
Two times the maximum discharge in the offtake canal

20% of maximum flood discharge
Maximum flow in dry season
Canal Head Regulator
The hydraulic structures provided at the head of the off-taking canal from a reservoir/river are
termed as canal head regulator. The purposes are as follows:
8-10
To regulate the irrigation supply in the canal

To control the entry of silt in the canal.
March 2009
The location of canal head regulator is interlinked with the location of diversion work. The head
regulator should be located upstream as close to the diversion structure as possible and preferably at
the end of the outer curve (convex bend), if available, to minimize the sediment entry into the offtaking canal (Figure 8.16).
Flow
Upstream
approach
Axis of
barrage
Upstream
convex bend
Upstream
Undersluice
Impervious Floor
Piers
Axis of
regulator
Downstream
approach
Canal
Figure 8.16 A Canal Head Regulator Downstream of Convex Bend

(c)
Weir/Barrage
The weir is a structure built across the river to raise the water level on the upstream side to ensure
the required diversion of water to the canal. The raising of water level is carried out by providing a
raised crest in the weir and with the help of shutters over the crest. In some works, the crest height
is very small or even zero and the control is by means of gates, in which case the work is known as a
barrage. Typical sections of weir and barrage are shown in Figure 8.17.
Pond level
Loose protection
1:3
Upstream cutoff
Falling shutter
Weir crest
1:5
Loose protection
Intermediate
cutoff
Downstream
cutoff
(a) Weir
Pond level
Loose protection
Vertical
lift gate
1:5
Loose protection
(b) Barrage
Figure 8.17 Typical Sections of Weir and Barrage
(d)
Divide Wall
The divide wall is a masonry wall constructed perpendicular to the axis of the weir, and separates
the weir from the undersluice. The divide wall extends on the upstream side beyond the beginning of
the canal head regulator and on the downstream side it extends up to the end of loose protection of
March 2009
8-11
the undersluice. The top of the divide wall is kept at the crest level of the weir. The divide wall is
placed on the well foundation that is below the deepest scour depth.
The floor level of the undersluice is generally kept lower than the floor level of the weir. Hence, a
divide wall is essential to separate the two floors. This can prevent the turbulent action. The divide
wall creates stilling pocket in front of canal head regulator. This helps in more silt deposition in the
pocket and entry of clear water in to the canal.
(e)
Fish Ladder or Fish Passage
Fish ladder is generally provided which is located adjacent to the divide wall near Undersluices
because there is always some water in the river section. A sectional view of fish ladder is shown in
Figure 8.18. The general requirements of fish ladder are:
The slope of the fish ladder should not be steeper than 1:10 and ensure current of velocity
not exceeding 2 m/s.
The compartments of bays of the pass must be of such dimensions that the fish do not risk
collision with the sides.
The water supply should be enough at all times
The top and sides of a fishway should be above ordinary high water level.
Divide Wall
Baffles
Figure 8.18 Sectional View of Fish Ladder

(f)
Sediment Excluder
A canal taking off water from a river or any other channel draws a larger proportion of sediment
compared to the proportion of water it draws. This necessitates the provision for control of excess
sediment entering the canal or extracting the excess sediment once it has entered the canal. The
excluder is provided adjacent to the canal head regulator. These works are constructed at the canal
headworks and consisted of tunnels which prevent water from the bottom layers from entering the
canal by discharging it to the downstream side through the undersluice. The design of excluders is
based mostly on rules of thumb. Thus the discharge through the tunnels is kept around 20% of the
canal full supply discharge, while the velocity through them is kept more than about 1.5 m/s so as to
be a self cleansing velocity for the sediment size encountered in the river.
(g)
Piers and Abutments
Piers are provided at an interval of 10 20 m. the piers support bridge decking and working platform
for the operation of gates. Piers should be provided with separate foundations.
(h)
Protection Works
The floor of barrage is protected on the upstream as downstream by loose apron.

(i)
River Training Works
River training includes all measures required to guide and regulate the flow of a river. Training works
could be for various purposes such as flood control, sediment control, navigation, guiding the flow or
bank protection. The following river training works are generally provided on canal head works.
8-12
March 2009
Marginal bunds
Guide bunds
Spurs and
Groynes
8.4.2.2 Design Criteria for Diversion Head Works

The detailed design of weir/barrage portion of diversion head works is beyond of the scope of this
manual. The design of hydraulic structures, specially the ones constructed in rivers or canals has to
be based on both surface and subsurface flow considerations. The design of any hydraulic structure
comprises of two steps:
Hydraulic design, to fix the overall dimensions and profiles of the structure, and
Structural design, where the various sections are analyzed for stresses under different loads
and reinforcement or other structural details are worked out.
The dimensions fixed by hydraulic design through available empirical formulae are further refined by
testing a scale model of the structure in a hydraulic model testing laboratory. The structural design
uses the hydraulic forces expected from the given hydraulic parameters and produces a detailing
that will keep the structure safe against those forces and loadings.
For canal head regulators, there are two different sets of hydraulic conditions. The first is due to
subsurface flow conditions that occurs due to a water level difference on the upstream and down
stream of a head regulator. The other is due to surface flow conditions which occur while the gates
are open during floods. In this section we shall discuss each of these hydraulic conditions for the
main diversion structure of a head regulator to evaluate the forces generated by them. The hydraulic
conditions of barrages are also quite similar, with seepage flow dominating during gate closed
condition and free flow during gate open condition.
(a)
Hydraulic Design for Surface flow
The water flowing over the structures may result in hydrostatic pressures on some parts of the
structure. Formation of a hydraulic jump is another possibility while talking of surface flow. Also the
flowing water, especially during floods, can cause scour in the river bed upstream or downstream of
the structure. All these have to be accounted in the design and come under the surface flow
considerations.
(b)
Hydraulic Design for Subsurface flow
Water can seep underneath the structure unless it is founded on solid rock, which is very rare in
rivers and canals. The seeping water results in an upward pressure on the floor of the structure. This
uplift pressure needs to be accounted in the design. This may continue upstream and form a cavity
underneath the structure and result in the collapse of the structure. Khoslas theory is used to solve
this problem. Hydraulic grade line and exit gradient are required to determine for a given geometry
of the structure.
The sub-surface flow below a head regulator/barrage causes two definite instability problems, as
listed below and illustrated in Figure 8.19.
Uplift forces due to the sub soil pressure that tends to lift up the barrage raft floor, and
Upward rising seepage forces through the river bed just down stream of the solid apron
causes sand particles to erupt upwards and tends to piping failure of the foundation.
Seepage forces would be the most dominating for gates closed condition, but would also exist during
some cases of full flow conditions, as shown in Figure 8.20. It may be noticed that during the flow
conditions, a part of the uplift forces due to seepage flow is negated by hydraulic pressure of the
water on the downstream. Under the closed gates condition, the downstream water depth is rather
small.
March 2009
8-13
Low tail water level
High pond level
Possible location of
sand piping due to
upward rising
seepage flow
Downstream
sheet pile
Uplift pressure
below raft floor
Upstream sheet pile
Direction of seepage flow due to difference in

water levels on upstream and downstream
Figure 8.19 Effect of Subsurfa ce Flow below a Head Regulator or Barrage

W.L
Gate (closed)
Seepage line
gradient
Gate (hafly opened)

Seepage line
Seepage line
gradient
W.L
gradient
Gate (fully opened)
W.L
Flow
Flow
Head regulator
(a) Steepest during Low Flow
Head regulator
Head regulator
(b) Average during Medium Flow
(c) Almost None during High Flood
Figure 8.20 Seepage Line Gradient Changes of a Head Regulator

8.4.2.3 Design Steps for Canal Head Regulator
It is very important that the design of the head regulator is made carefully for satisfactory hydraulic
and structural performances. The various aspects of a canal head regulators design is discussed in
this section.
(a)
Location and Layout
The canal head regulator should be properly aligned to reduce silt entry into the canal to avoid
backflow and formation of stagnant zones in the pocket. To achieve this, the axis of canal head
regulator should be positioned at an angle of 90o to 110o with respect to the axis of the diversion
work (Figure 8.21). This may, however, be confirmed from physical model studies, if necessary.
90
to
11
0
Head works
Figure 8.21 Alignment of Head Regulator

8-14
March 2009
Site selection for the construction of weir should fulfill the following requirements:
A narrow well defined channel with banks is the best

Availability of suitable foundation material
Ease of accessibility
Minimum idle length of canal
A typical layout of a canal head regulator is shown in Figure 8.22. A longitudinal section through the
structure is shown in Figure 8.23 and one off-taking by the side of a sediment excluder is shown in
Figure 8.24.
Loose apron
Axis of barrage
Toe wall
Sheet pile
Block protection
Crest
Pier
Axis of regulator
Downstream sheet pile
Slope 1:2
Inverted filter
Wing wall supported on
Loose apron
backfill
Canal
Axis of head
Toe wall
Figure 8.22 Typical Layout of Canal Head Regulator
High flood level
Breast wall
Gate
Pond level
Downstream
canal bed
Crest of canal
head regulator
Undersluice floor level
Upstream cutoff
Loose protection
Canal
Downstream
cutoff
Loose protection
Figure 8.23 Sectional View of Canal Head Regulator
March 2009
8-15
Trash groove
Cement concrete lining
Max pond level

Gate groove
Steel plate
Steel lined
Granite stone
Pier foundation
Stopping groove
Granite facing
Boulder set facing

Pressure relief valve
Figure 8.24 Canal Head Regulator Section with Sediment Excluder

The head regulator can be constructed independent of the abutment separated from it by suitable
joints and seals or it can be made monolithic with it. The abutments of the head regulator
themselves can be separated from its floor by longitudinal joints and seals or they can be made
monolithic with the raft floor of the head regulator and the whole structure can be designed as a
trough section (Figure 8.25)
Abutment
Pier
Soil
Raft
Figure 8.25 Head Regulator for Monolithic Trough Section

The regulation of water through a head regulator is provided usually by vertical lift gates. However,
nowadays radial gates are also becoming common, though they are preferred for headworks having
a relatively large difference in elevation between pond level and the canal full supply level which
would ensure non-submergence of the radial gates trunnion pin. Usually, a road bridge is also
provided across a head regulator for vehicular traffic or for inspection purposes and would be
suitably connected by road to the bridge across the main barrage structure. For the operation of the
gates, a working platform across the head regulator has to be provided.
(b)
Hydraulic Design
The hydraulic design of a canal head regulator consists of the following:
Fixation of pond level of the pool behind the barrage

Fixation of crest level, width and shape of sill
Fixation of waterway, number and width of spans and height of gate openings, requirement
of breast wall, etc
Shape of approaches and other component parts
Safety of the structure from surface flow condition
Safety of the structure from sub-surface flow conditions, and
Energy dissipation arrangements
Above mentioned aspects are discussed in the following sections in detail:

Pond Level: Pond level, in the under-sluice pocket, upstream of the canal head regulator should
generally be obtained by adding the working head to the designed full supply level in the canal. The
working head should include the head required for passing the designed discharge into the canal and
the head losses in the regulator. If under certain situations there is a limitation of pond level, the full
supply level should be fixed by subtracting the working head from the pond level. In regions of high
8-16
March 2009
altitude where there is a possibility of ice formation, a cover of ice of about 0.5 m may be added to
the working head.
Crest Level and Width of the Waterway: The fixing up of the crest level and width of waterway are
amongst the first steps towards the design of the head regulator. The crest of the canal head
regulator is kept above the sill level of the undersluice. The difference between the two is also
governed by the provision or otherwise of a sediment excluder at the headworks. The discharge
through the canal head regulator is determined by:
Q = C ( L K n H )H
Where,
Q
=
L
=
n
=
H
=
K
=
(8.1)
discharge (m3/s)
width of the canal head regulator (m)
number of end contractions
head over the crest (m)
coefficient depending upon the shape of the nose of piers
Since H is the difference between the pond level and the head regulator crest level, the width should
be such that the full supply discharge of the canal can pass over the head regulator with this head
over the crest. In order to keep provision for future expansions etc., the width provided is such that
the canal may be able to draw its full supply discharge with about 50% of the working head H. The
width is divided suitably onto a number of bays, normally 8 to 10m span, and separated by piers.
Each bay has gates to control the discharge. The gates, generally of steel, move in gate grooves
provided in the piers. The height of gates is kept equal to the difference between the pond level and
the head regulator crest level. In order to prevent spilling of water over the gates during floods, an
RCC breast wall is provided, spanning between adjacent piers, from the pond level to the high flood
level. This is done so as to keep the height of the gates, which would otherwise have to extend upto
the high flood level, within a reasonable value.
The total water way between the abutments including piers should be worked out from the following
formula:
Lt = Le + 2 (N Kp + Ka) He + W
(8.2)
Where,
Lt = total waterway (m)
Le = effective waterway (m)
N = number of piers
Kp = pier contraction coefficient
Ka = abutment contraction coefficient
He = head over crest (m)
W = total width of all piers (m)
Recommended values of Kp are as follows:
For square nose piers with corners rounded with radius equal
To about 0.1 of the pier thickness
Kp = 0.02
For rounded nose piers:
Kp = 0.01
For pointed nose piers:
March 2009
8-17
Kp = 0
Recommended values of Ka are as follows:
For square abutments with head walls at 90o to the direction of flow:
Ka = 0.2
For rounded abutments with head walls at 90o to the direction of flow for
0.5He r 0.15 He
Kp = 0.1
For rounded abutments where r > 0.5He and head wall is placed not more than 45o to the direction
of flow.
Kp = 0
Where, r = abutment rounding radius
Sill Level: Sill level should be fixed by subtracting from pond level. The head over the sill required to
pass the full supply discharge in the canal at a specified pond level. To obtain control on entry of silt
into the canal it is desirable that the sill of head regulator should be kept as much higher than the sill
of under sluices, as possible, commensurate with the economic waterway and the driving head
available. If a silt-excluder is provided, the sill level of head regulator should be determined in
conjunction with the design requirements of silt-excluder.
Required Head Over Sill: The required head over the sill He for passing a discharge Q with the
effective waterway Le should be determined from the following formula:
3
Q = CL e H e 2
(8.3)
Where,
Q = discharge (m3/s)
C = a coefficient
Le = effective waterway (m)
He = required head over the crest for passing a discharge Q (m)
The value of C may be taken as 0.6 for preliminary design. The values of C should be determined by
the model studies where values based on prototype observations on similar structures are not
available.
When the outflow is controlled by partly open gates, conditions similar to sluice flow develop. The
required head in this case may be computed by the following equation.
Q=
Where,
Q
=
C
=
Le
=
H1
=
H2
=
8-18
3
2
3
C 2g L e H1 2 H2 2
3
(8. 4)
discharge (m3/s)
a coefficient (C= 0.6)
effective waterway (m)
total heads to the bottom of the orifice (m)
total heads to the top of the orifice (m)
March 2009
Width and Shape of Sill: Width of sill should be kept according to the requirements of the gates,
2
trash and stop logs subject to a minimum of He .
3
The edges of sill should be rounded off with a radius equal to He. The upstream face should
generally be kept vertical and the downstream sloped at 2:1 or flatter.
(c)
Shape of Approaches and Other Components Parts
The followings are the guidelines for the shape of approaches and other component parts:
(d)
At the upstream inlet a smooth entry should be ensured by providing circular, elliptical or
hyperbolic transitions at shown in Figures 8.16 and 8.21. The splay may be of the order of
1:1 to 3:1.
At the downstream side, straight, parabolic or hyperbolic transitions should be provided as

shown in Figures 8.19 and 8.20. The splay may be of the order of 3:1 to 5:1.
Wing walls should normally be kept vertical up to the end of the impervious floor beyond
which they should be widen from vertical to the actual slope of the canal section. However,
the wing walls may be kept vertical up to the toe of glacis and beyond this. They may be
flared gradually to 0.5:1.
Safety of Structure on Permeable Foundation from Surface Flow Consideration
In the case of regulators on permeable foundation, the factors enumerated in this section should be
determined. In case of downstream non-erodible beds protective measures may not be necessary.
Depth of Upstream Cut-Off in Relation to Scour: On the upstream side of the head regulator, cut-off
should be provided and taken to the same depth as the cut-off stream of diversion work.
Basin Dimensions and Appurtenances: These should be provided in accordance with Malaysian
Standards
Thickness of Floor on Sloping Glacis with Reference to Hydraulic Jump: The hydraulic jump profile
should be plotted under different conditions of flow. Average height of the jump trough should then
be obtained by deducting the levels of the jump profile from corresponding hydraulic gradient line.
This will be taken as the unbalanced head for which safety of glacis floor should be ensured. As a
rough guide the unbalanced head may be assumed to be (d1 d2)/2 where dl and d2 are conjugate
depths at the beginning and end of the hydraulic jump.
Length and Thickness of Upstream and Downstream Loose Aprons: Just at the end of concrete floor
on the downstream an inverted filter 1.5 to 2D long (D being the depth of scour below bed),
consisting of 600 to 900 mm deep concrete blocks with open gaps (100-150 mm to be suitably filled
with coarse material) laid over 500 to 800 mm graded filter, should be provided. The graded inverted
filter should conform to the following design criteria:
D15 of Filter
D15 of Filter
5
D15 of Foundation
D 85 of Foundation
Where, D15 and D85 mean the grain sizes than which the percentage indicated by the subscript is
finer.
Upstream of the impervious floor blocks and loose apron should be provided which should be similar
to that provided in the corresponding weir or barrage. The cement concrete blocks of size around
1.5m x 1.5m x 0.9m are generally used in alluvial rivers. The length of the upstream block protection
may be kept equal to a length D, that is, the design depth of scour below the floor level (Figure
8.26).
March 2009
8-19
Upstream Floor
Flow Direction
D
Upstream Sheet Pile
Figure 8.26 Upstream Block Protection

Downstream of the inverted filter, loose apron 1.5D long consisting of either boulders of not less
than 40 kg in weight or wire boulder crates should be provided so as to ensure a minimum thickness
of 1 m in launched position.
The length of the downstream block protection has to be approximately equal to 1.5D, where D is
the design depth of cover below the floor level. Where this length is substantial, the block protection
with inverted filter may be provided in part of the length and block protection only with loose stone
spawls in the remaining length as shown in Figure 8.27.
1.5 D
Gravel pack in the gaps
Downstream end sill
Loose stone spawls

Inverted filter
Masonry Cutoff Wall

Downstream sheet pile
Figure 8.27 Downstream Block Protection

Beyond the block protection on the upstream and down streams of a barrage located on alluvial
foundation, a layer of loose boulders or stones have to be laid, as shown in Figure 8.28. The boulder
size should be at least 0.3m and should not weigh less than 40kg. This layer of boulders is expected
to fall below at an angle, or launch, when the riverbed down stream starts getting scoured at the
commencement of a heavy flood. The length of river bed that has to be protected with loose stone
blocks shall be around 1.5D, where D is the depth of scour below average riverbed.
8-20
March 2009

Boulder
protected
Block protected
Natural
river bed
(a) After Initial Laying
Launching of boulder protection
(b) After Scour of Downstream Riverbed
Figure 8.28 Loose Stone Protection in Downstream

(e)
Safety of Structure on Permeable Foundation from Subsurface Flow Considerations
The factors enumerated should be considered in this section.

Exit Gradient at the End of Impervious Floor: It should be determined from accepted formulae and
curves. The factors of safety of exit gradient for different types of soils should be as follows:
Shingle
Coarse sand
Fine sand
4 to 5
5 to 6
6 to 7
Total Floor Length of Impervious Floor and Depth of Downstream Cut-Off: These two parameters are
inter-related. Total floor length can be decreased by increasing the depth of downstream cut-off and
vice versa, but increase in the depth of downstream cut-off should result in increase in the
concentration of uplift pressures, specially in the lower half of the floor. A balance between the two
should be arrived at on the basis of economic studies and other requirements, if any. Minimum of
total floor length required should be the sum of:
horizontal floor in the downstream from surface flow considerations

length required to accommodate sloping glacis and crest; and
about 3 m extra, upstream of the crest or length required from other considerations.
Depth of downstream cut-off should be worked out for this floor length to ensure safe exit gradient.
If depth of downstream cut-off so calculated is excessive, it can be reduced in increasing upstream
floor length. As a rough guide depth of downstream cut-off should not be less than (d/2 + 0.5),
where d is the water depth in meter corresponding to full supply discharge.
(f)
Thickness of Downstream Floor with Reference to Uplift Pressure
Uplift pressures at key points on the floor should be determined from the accepted curves and
formulae, corresponding to the condition of high flood level in the rivers upstream of head regulator
and no water in the canal downstream of head regulator. Upstream of sill, only nominal floor
thickness of about 1 m should be provided.
8.4.2.4 Sediment Excluder
A sediment excluder is provided in some headworks to control the entry of excess sediment into the
canal. The excluder is provided adjacent to the canal head regulator. It is a device constructed in the
river bed in front of a canal head regulator to prevent, as far as possible, sediment entering into the
off taking canal. Sediment exclusion becomes necessary where sediment entering the canal is
harmful.
Stream carries most of sediment load of coarser grade near the bottom. If these bottom layers are
intercepted and removed before the water enters the canal, most of the sediment load causing
silting up would be withdrawn. This is generally achieved by constructing:
March 2009
8-21
(a)
tunnel type sediment excluders suitably located in front of different bays of the head
regulators, and
a curved channel with skimming weir towards the canal as shown in Figures 8.21 and 8.22.
Design Criteria for Straight Channel Sediment Excluder
The river approach plays an important part and it should be kept straight to the mouth of the tunnels
as far as possible. The following guidelines should be followed:
Location and number of tunnels - The excluder tunnels are located in front of the canal head
regulator and their alignment is generally kept parallel to the regulator. The number of
tunnels is determined by the available discharge for escapades, approach conditions and
length of the canal regulator. Usually four to six tunnels are provided. Any change in the
alignment, if found necessary, should be on smooth curves.
Spacing and bell mouthing of tunnels - The tunnel nearest to the head regulator has to be
the same length of the regulator. The consecutive tunnels should be spaced at such
distances that the mouth of the one nearer to the head regulator comes within the suction
zone of the succeeding tunnels and no dead zone is left between the two to permit sediment
deposition. The extent of suction and distance between the mouths of the two tunnels
should normally be determined by model studies. Generally a distance of about 12 m may be
adequate. The tunnels should be suitably bell mouthed at the inlet to minimize entry losses
and improve suction. Bell mouthing should be done within the thickness of divide wall and
may be done on any suitable elliptical curve.
Size of tunnels - Size of tunnels depends upon the number of tunnels, self clearing velocity
of flow required to be provided, which may be kept 3 m/s for the alluvial and 4.0 to 4.5 m/s
for the boulder stage river, and the discharge available for escapade. Besides, the
convenience of a man for inspection and repairs should also be kept in view.
Roof and bed of tunnels - The roof slab of the tunnels should be kept flush with sill of the
canal regulators and the bed kept at the upstream floor level of weir/anicut/barrage.
Exit All the tunnels outfall into the stilling basin through one or two undersluice bays of the
weir or anicut next to the canal regulator. It is usually one in case of sandy reaches and two
in the case of rivers in shingle or boulder stage. The tunnels should be suitably throttled
laterally or vertically or both to produce accelerating velocities in the tunnels, maximum
being at the exit end so that sediment material once extracted does not deposit anywhere in
the tunnels.
Bend radius - Straight tunnels should be preferred for the sediment excluders; however if a
bend becomes inevitable its radius may vary from 5 to 10 times the tunnel's width.
Transitions - All transitions to piers in bell mouthing at top or sides should preferably be
elliptical, the major axis being in the direction of flow and two to three times the minor axis.
Control Structure: The excluder tunnels are operated by undersluice gates. These should be
regulated either for the tunnels to run full bore or to remain completely closed.
Outfall Channels: No separate outfall channel is required for the sediment excluders. In the case of
shingle or boulder bed rivers a provision of some additional contrivance that is, a sort of guide wall in
the stilling basin may become necessary to eliminate formation of big deposits there.
Escapage Discharge and Minimum Working Head: Seepage discharge is generally governed by
sediment size and load. Escapage discharge of 15 to 20 percent of canal discharge is generally
required. A minimum of 0.5m to 0.75m working head is required for sediment excluders on sandy
rivers and a minimum of 1.0m to 1.25m for excluders on shingle or boulder beds.
Losses in Tunnels: These should comprise friction losses and losses at the bends and transitions and
should be computed by the following formulae:
Friction loss
8-22
March 2009
hf =
Where
hf
=
V
=
L
=
n
=
R
=
V 2L n 2
R
(8.5)
head loss (m)

Velocity (m/s)
Length of tunnel (m)
roughness coefficient
hydraulic mean depth (m)
Loss due to bend

hb = f
V2
2g 180
(8.6)
( 2r )
f = 0.124 + 3.134 S
(8.7)
Where
hb
= head loss due to bend (m)
f
= friction factor
g
= acceleration due to gravity (m/s2)
= angle of deviation in degrees

S
=width of tunnel (m)
r
= radius of bend along centre line of tunnel (m)
Transitional loss due to change of velocity in expansion
V 2 V 2
he = K 2 1
2g
2g
Where,
K
=
he
=
V1
=
V2
=
g
=
(b)
(8.8)
coefficient which may vary from 0.1 to 0.5 from gradual to abrupt transitions
transitional loss due to change of velocity in expansion (m)
velocity before the transition (m/s)
velocity after the transition (m/s)
acceleration due to gravity (m/s2)
Design Criteria for Curved Channel Sediment Excluder
It is desirable to verify the hydraulic design of curved channel sediment excluder through model
studies. Some factors relevant to such a design are:
river flow variability

sediment transport rates in the river
availability of water for sluicing purposes
availability of head for sluicing purposes, and
river mobility
Design Principle: Water surface in curved channel flow becomes super elevated (higher on the
outside) and a spiral flow develops. The bottom current moves towards the inside of bend and the
sediment will be moved away from the outside of the bend provided the current is sufficiently strong.
Water Requirement for Sluice Flow: A sluice flow of about 10 to 20 percent of the canal flow should
be provided for sediment exclusion.
March 2009
8-23
Tail Water Level: The efficiency of the curved channel sediment excluder is strongly dependent upon
tail water level. To preserve the curvature effect of the sluice, channel velocities should not be too
low and hence depths of flow should not be too large.
8.4.2.5 River Bank and Intake Structure Protection
The intake structure shall be protected against damage by the logs. The provision of R.C. piles are
protruded from the river bed to a height slightly above the top of the intake structure. The piles shall
be arranged such that the logs would be diverted from the intake structure without affecting the flow
into it.
If the river at the intake site is subjected to changes in channel course or scouring, river training and
protection works upstream and downstream of the intake structure shall be provided to protect the
intake structure and river bank. Steep banks may be protected by the use of steel sheet piles while
gently sloping banks may be protected against scour by gabion mattresses filled with metal blocks or
by pitched metal blocks.
8.4.3
Pumped Intake Design Procedures
Pumps are the most important equipment where irrigation supply is abstracted from low flowing
surface water sources. Failure of pumping facilities will hamper to provide sufficient water supply to
meet crop water demand. Therefore, it is evident that planning and design of pumping facilities will
have a great impact on the efficient management of water supply. Pumped intake can be divided
into two major categories as:
Pumped intake for small scale and/or pressurized irrigation systems

Pumped intake for large scale irrigation
8.4.3.1 Common Irrigation Pumps
Commonly used pumps for irrigation include centrifugal, turbine, submersible, and propeller and
booster pumps. Brief description is given below:
(a)
Centrifugal Pumps
Centrifugal pumps are used to pump from reservoirs, lakes, streams and shallow wells. Centrifugal
pumps are designed for either horizontal or vertical operation. Horizontal centrifugal pumps are the
most common in irrigation systems. They are generally less costly, require less maintenance, easier
to install and more accessible for inspection and maintenance than a vertical centrifugal. Vertical
centrifugal pumps may be mounted so the impeller is under water at all times. The caution is that
the bearings are constantly under water, a higher level of maintenance may be required. The
theoretical maximum height that water can be lifted using suction is 10 m.
(b)
Turbine Pumps
Turbine pumps are adapted for use in cased wells or where the water surface is below the practical
limits of a centrifugal pump. Turbine pumps are also used with surface water systems. Since the
intake for the turbine pump is continuously under water, priming is not a concern. Turbine pump
efficiencies are greater than most centrifugal pumps. They are usually more expensive than
centrifugal pumps and more difficult to inspect and repair.
(c)
Submersible Pumps
Submersible pumps are turbine pumps close-coupled to a submersible electric motor. Both pump and
motor are suspended in the water. Because the pump is located above the motor, water enters the
pump through a screen located between the pump and motor. Submersible pumps can be selected
to provide a wide range of flow rate and TDH (Total Dynamic Head) combinations. Submersible
8-24
March 2009
pumps more than 25 mm in diameter generally are costly than deep well turbines because the
motors are more expensive.
(d)
Propeller Pumps
Propeller pumps are used for low lift, high flow rate conditions. They come in two types, axial flow
and mixed flow. A single-stage propeller pump typically will lift water no more than 6 m. By adding
another stage, heads from 10 to 12 m are obtainable. The mixed-flow pump uses either semi-open
or closed impellers similar to turbine pumps.
(e)
Booster Pumps
Booster pumps are used to increase the water pressure. Therefore the required booster pump
pressure is simply the desired pressure minus the existing pressure. Let say your irrigation system
needs 35 m to operate correctly but existing pressure is 25 m. So the system requires adding a
booster pump to create more pressure. The pressure increase needed is 35 - 25 = 10 m. So a
booster pump is needed that will produce 10 m of pressure at whatever flow rate the irrigation
system requires. These pumps come with everything you need pre-assembled and ready to go.
8.4.3.2 Components of Pumped Intake
The essential components that require to be considered in the preparation of the layout for the
pumping station are as follows:
Overflow weir and control gate structures

Water level raising structure (Barrage/Weir when river flow is low)
Storage reservoir (Optional)
Screen
Girt chamber
Pump sump
Inflow channel from the river to the main conveyance system
Control panel and switchboard room
Sub-station and/or generator room
Access road and ramp, parking space
8.4.3.3 Design Considerations
(a)
General Considerations
Pump selection is the process of choosing the most suitable pump for a particular irrigation system.
The performance requirements of the system must be specified and the pump type must be
selected. Alternate pumps that meet the requirements of the system also should be specified.
Normally, the most suitable pump is chosen from these pumps considering economic factors.
Selected pump shall provide the required system flowrate (Qs) and TDH and also operate at a high
efficiency. Pump characteristics curves are a useful tool in the selection process. They show the head
and volume range of a given pump, as well as the efficiencies at which the pump operates within
this range. All pump characteristics curves are related to the discharge. Pump efficiency is usually
given by manufacturers.
Capacity, head, power, efficiency, required net positive suction head, and specific speed are
parameters that describe a pump's performance. During the pump selection process, only pumps
having high efficiencies (above 70%) for the design discharge should be considered for a system. It
is common practice to select a pump capable of producing higher head and larger flowrate
(approximately 10%) than the design parameters. This will assure that as the pump wears, its
performance will remain adequate.
Centrifugal pumps are a good choice to pump water from lakes, rivers and shallow wells. The suction
head condition is less than 10 m. The pump selected should provide the operating requirements of
March 2009
8-25
the irrigation system at or close to its best efficiency point (BEP). The BEP of centrifugal pumps vary
from 45% to 80% but consideration should be given to selecting pumps that have efficiencies of
65% or higher. A centrifugal pump should not be operated at less than 80% of its BEP.
Turbine and submersible pumps are used for well and high lift installation. Wells exceeding 8 to 10 m
in the depth should choose a turbine or submersible pump. Turbines are generally used for total
pressure requirements exceeding 150 m of total dynamic head. For optimum life, turbines should not
exceed 1800 rpm. Submersible pumps usually operate at 3600 rpm.
(b)
Provision for Chemical Pre-treatment
According to the water quality standard for pressurized irrigation systems, chemical pre-treatment
process is the good step to control the growth of microorganisms. This has been explained detailed
in the respective Chapter 11. The chemical most often is applied for this purpose is copper sulphate
in doses ranging from 0.12 mg/l to 0.3 mg/l. The dose required is influenced by the water quality
level. This is not really required if water is supplied for paddy farming.
8.4.3.4 Pump Design and Selection
The heart of many irrigation systems is a pump. The pumps in the system must be sized to deliver
the quantities of water needed by each irrigator. Pump must be chosen for the particular conditions
of head and discharge. The size of the motors is related to the volume of water being pumped,
elevation changes, flow losses in pipe and the desired pressure at the ends of the pipe branches.
(a)
Pump Selection Criteria
The most suitable pump is chosen based upon the pump characteristics curves supplied by the
manufacturers. The selection of an irrigation water pump is based almost entirely on the relationship
between pump efficiency and the total dynamic head (TDH) of the pump for a specific flow rate.
These parameters are also the basis of the pump characteristic curve. Table 8.1 can be used to
narrow the selection of a pump type for a broad range of flow rates and total dynamic heads. If the
application needs to lift the water to the pump then a centrifugal pump will have to be used.
(b)
Pump Performance Parameters
The following parameters are essential to select the right pump using pump characteristics curves.
Head
Flowrate
Power
Efficiency
Net positive suction head (NPSH)
Characteristic curves
Table 8.1 A Chart for Desirable Pump Types Used for a Given Range of Flow Rates and TDH
Discharge
Total Dynamic Head (TDH)
L/s
m3/s
< 15 m
15 152 m
> 152 m
20
< 0.02
Propeller
Centrifugal
20 - 315
0.02 0.32
Propeller
> 315
> 0.32
Propeller
Centrifugal
Vertical Turbine
Submersible
Centrifugal
Vertical Turbine
Submersible
Centrifugal
Vertical Turbine
Propeller
Submersible
Centrifugal
Vertical Turbine
Submersible
Centrifugal
Vertical Turbine
Submersible
Centrifugal
Vertical Turbine
8-26
March 2009
(c)
Pump Selection Procedures
The flow rate depends on the physical characteristics of the system such as friction which depends
on the length and size of the pipes and elevation difference which depends on difference of the pipe
end discharge height and the water surface level. The steps to select a centrifugal pump are:
Step 1: Determine the flow rate
To size and select a centrifugal pump, first determine the flow rate. The rate of pumping depends
upon area under different crops, rotation period (interval between two successive irrigation of a
crop) and the duration of pump operation. Mathematically rate of discharge of pump is:
Q = 27.78
Where,
Q
=
A
=
Y
=
R
=
T
=
AY
RT
(8.9)
discharge capacity of the pump (L/s)

area under crops (ha)
depth of irrigation (cm)
rotation period (days)
duration of pumping (hrs/day)
Step 2: Determine the static head (Hs)

The static head is the vertical distance between the free water surface at the suction and discharge
sides of the pump. There is an allowable limit to the suction head on a pump and the net positive
suction head (NPSH) of a pump sets that limit. NPSH is a measure of the energy (pressure) in a
liquid above the vapour pressure. The cavitations start when the pressure drops below the vapour
pressure.
Step 3: Determine the friction head (HF)
The friction head depends on the flow rate, the pipe size and the pipe length. It represents the
friction losses between the entrance and discharge ends of the pump installation.
Step 4: Determine the pressure head (HP)
Sprinkler and drip irrigation systems require pressure to operate.
Step 5: Determine the velocity head (HV)
Velocity head is the kinetic energy released when water is discharged at the end of the outlet, hence,
it is proportional to flow and cross sectional area of the outlet pipe. Velocity head is the energy of
the water due to its velocity. This is a very small amount of energy and is usually negligible when
computing losses in an irrigation system. Velocity head is calculated using the following equation:
HV = 82550
Q2
D4
(8.10)
Where,
Hv
= velocity head (m)
Q
= pump capacity (L/s)
D
= diameter of the discharge pipe (mm)
Step 6: Calculate the total dynamic head (TDH)
The total dynamic head is the sum of the total static head, the total friction head and the pressure
head. An explanation of these terms is given below and graphically shown in Figure 8.29. Hence the
total dynamic head can be expressed as:
TDH = HS + HF + HP + HV
March 2009
(8.11)
8-27
Where,
TDH =
HS
=
HF
=
HP
=
HV
=
total dynamic head (m)

static head (m)
friction head (m)
pressure head (m)
velocity head (m)
Sprinkler
Pressure
Preasurehead
head
Total static
head
Lift
Fr
ict
io
n
he
ad
Pressure
Preasuregauge
gage
Suction
Cantrifugalpump
pump
Centrifugal
Figure 8.29 Components of the Total Dynamic Head (TDH) for Surface Water
(d)
Pump Operating Point
A centrifugal pump can operate at a combination of head and discharge points given by its H-Q
curve. The particular combination of head and discharge at which a pump is operating is called the
pump operating point. Once this point is determined brake horse power, efficiency, and net positive
suction head required for the pump can be obtained from the set of pump curves. The operating
point is determined by the head and discharge requirement of the irrigation system. A headdischarge characteristic curve of the pump is used to determine the pump operating point (Figure
8.30). The operating point is where the head discharge requirements of the system are equal to the
head-discharge produced by the pump.
H-Q Pump Curve
Operating Point
Head (m)
Operating Head
Discharge of the
Pump
System Curve
Capacity (l/min)
Figure 8.30 The Operating Point for a Given Centrifugal Pump and Water System
(e)
Pump Selection using Characteristics Curve
Various curves allow direct selection of pumps when the system design conditions are known. Each
pump can add different amount of head to water depending on the flow rate. A typical characteristic
8-28
March 2009
curve shows the total head, brake horsepower, efficiency, and net positive suction head all plotted
over the capacity range of the pump. Pump manufacturers provide performance characteristics called
pump characteristic curves. A typical pump curve is shown in Figure 8.31. All pump curves are
plotted with the flow rate on the horizontal axis and the TDH on the vertical axis.
MOTOR INPUT (KW)

PUMP EFF%
METERS
FEET
The key thing to remember when reading a pump curve is all curves are based upon the principle of
plotting data using the x and y axis. With this in mind, the curves typically plotted are head vs.
capacity, power input vs. capacity, and pump efficiency vs. capacity. Therefore the constant between
each curve is the capacity or x-axis. To determine the performance data at a particular point, first
locate the operating point of the pump. This is the point where the system head curve crosses the
pumps head vs. capacity curve. From this point move horizontally to the left until you intersect the
y-axis. This will give you the head at which the pump will operate. Next go back to the operating
point. By moving vertically down to the x-axis, you can find the capacity that the pump will operate.
Now, at the determined flow rate, move vertically to the input power curve intersection, then move
horizontally to the kW input y-axis the appropriate value for motor input can be read. In like manner
the pump efficiency can be read by keeping the flow constant once again. By using this method and
Figure 8.30 the design point is 1220 L/min (320 GPM) and 6.80 m (22 ft) of TDH. The power input
and pump efficiency are 3.4 kW and 53%, respectively.
2.5" SOLID PASSING - 4" DISCHARGE
48
14
PUMP EFFICIENCY
44
12
40
10
38
32
HE
A
28
8
D
CA
8
24
50
40
PA
CI
TY
30
22
6
E
URV
AD C
E
H
EM
SYST
20
16
MOTO
12
5
4
0
US GALLONS
LITERS
40
0
200
80
120
400
180
600
200
240
280
20
3.4
3
INPUT
320
TOTAL DYNAMIC HEAD
10
53
320
1200
800
1000
FLOW FOR MINUTE
360
1400
400
10
0
440
1600
480
1800
520
2000
Figure 8.31 A Typical Pump Curve for a Horizontal Centrifugal Pump
March 2009
8-29
(f)
Power Requirement
The system flowrate and total dynamic head must be known to determine the power requirement
and pump horse power. Once the total dynamic head is defined, the power is often referred to as
the water power (KW) can be determined using the formula below:
WP =
Q TDH
102
(8.12)
Where,
WP = required power (KW)
Q
= pump discharge (L/s)
TDH = total dynamic head (m)
Pump manufacturers provide these relationships in the form of pump curves for their various pump
designs and operating conditions.
8.4.3.5 Small Capacity Pumped Intake Design
The sufficient depth of water must be maintained both above and below the pump intake. The pump
intake should clear the stream bed by a depth that is at least half the diameter of the suction pipe
(Figure 8.32). This ensures sands and sediments are not drawn up through the intake. The inlet
must also be submerged enough to prevent a vortex from forming and causing the pump to draw in
air. The required depth of submergence is dependent on both the diameter of the suction pipe and
the discharge rate, as shown in the Figure 8.33.
To Pump
Suction pipe
Water Surface
Submergence
Stream bed
Pump intake
Bed Clearance > D/2
Figure 8.32 Pump Intake Arrangements (Christiansen, 2006)

1000
17
15
12
75
10
600
400
SU
50
Submergence (mm)
800
N
IO
CT
PE
PI
A
DI
ER
ET
m
(m
200
200
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
Discharge Rate (L/s)
Figure 8.33 Pump Submergence Requirements (Christiansen, 2006)
8-30
March 2009
(a)
Intake Pipe Position
The top of the intake pipe should be positioned to ensure that it is below the water surface at all
times. The following formula can be used to determine the minimum water depth required over the
top of the pipe.
H=
Where,
H
=
Q
=
D
=
K
=
K Q2
(8.13)
D4
minimum submergence (cm)

system flowrate (L/s)
pipe diameter (cm)
conversion factor [K = 1650 x 106 when Q in m3/s and D in cm]
The rack bars should consist of 6.5 mm x 25 mm steel bars welded to 6.5 mm x 50 mm mounting
bars with a 20 mm space between bars. The clear opening between the trash rack and the pipe inlet
should be greater than twice the actual pipe diameter. The flow velocity at the intake should be
limited to 0.30 m/s at the trash rack. If the height of the intake area (H) is limited, a sloped trash
rack can be used to increase the area without increasing the height. Trash collection is then easily
raked on the access platform for disposal.
The size of the trash track can be determined using the continuity equation when v = 0.30 m/s as
follows:
Q
A tr =
(8.14)
v
Where,
Q
= system flowrate (m3/s)
= size of the trash rack (m2)
Atr
(b)
Suction Arrangements
The following arrangements may be used to avoid pumping difficulties:

Excavated well: A common method is the excavation of a well sump for the pump suction (Figure
8.34). The excavation may be lined with rocks, concrete or a length of large diameter concrete pipe
to provide a more permanent facility. These wells require regular maintenance to remove deposits of
silt and debris.
Water surface
p
To Pum
Natural
bed level
Pump intake
Excavated well
Figure 8.34 Excavated Well Sump

Vortex Cover: If sufficient submergence is not obtainable a vortex cover can be used to prevent the
pump from drawing air (Figure 8.35). A vortex cover is a circular plate placed horizontally just above
the pump intake. The diameter of the plate should be at least five times that of the suction pipe.
Ensure that the plate is submerged at all times when the pump is in operation.
March 2009
8-31
p
To Pum
5D
Water surface
Stream bed
Vortex
cover
D
Pump intake
Figure 8.35 Vortex Cover

Buried Intake: A buried intake can be provided as low maintenance solution where the river bed
consists sand and gravel. The arrangement consists of a screen intake fitted as Figure 8.36a. The
screen intake is usually installed horizontally, but may be placed vertically. It should be buried deep
enough to allow for the water level being drawn down when the pump is operating. This
arrangement consists of a well adjacent to and below the level of the stream channel. Water flows to
the well through a pipe and screen intake system (Figure 8.36b).
(c)
Screen Intake
A screen intake should consist of a screen surrounded by a graded gravel filter. The screens are the
same as those used in irrigation bores to prevent sand from entering the bore and distribution
system. The screen diameter, length and aperture (slot) size is determined by the:
particle sizes of the stream bed material

required pumping rate.
To pump
Water surface
Foot valve
Natural
bed sand
Screen intake
Gravel filter
(a) Vertical Well

mp
To pu
Water surface
Pump well
Stream bed
Screen
intake
Pump intake
Gravel
filter
(b) Horizontal Well

Figure 8.36 Intake from a Stream Using Well
8-32
March 2009
The gravel in the filter should be:
uniform in size
rounded in shape
at least 300 mm thick around the screen.
Where it is likely that the gravel filter will be disturbed during flooding, it should be placed within a
wire basket and/or filter cloth. Unless local conditions have shown that a particular arrangement
works, the design of a screen intake should be carried out by experienced in the field.
Screens: When drawing water from rivers or lakes, a screen is often required to keep debris from
entering the irrigation system. A trash rack may be used to prevent large obstacles from damaging
the screen. An irrigation system withdrawing water from a fish bearing river or lake must restrict the
flow velocity through the screen to 3 cm/s. The percentage of open area of the screen must be
established and taken into account when calculating screen area required.
Manufacturers provide specifications for standard market grade wire mesh. This mesh wire cloth is
available in brash, aluminium, bronze, stainless steel and other alloys. Fisheries recommendations
suggest screen mesh sizes with clear openings that do not exceed 0.25 mm and open screen areas
that are not less than 50% of the total screen area.
Screen can be constructed in a variety of shapes and sizes. Figures 8.37 and 8.38 provides details on
constructing screens by using plywood or used oil drums as frames. A gravity-fed intake often
requires a large screening surface and one that is itself cleaning. Figure 8.39 presents a relatively
simple method to accomplish this. The detail recommendations can be obtained in the JKR manual.
5 cm x 5 cm painted framing covered

with bronze screen
Cap on end of pipe
(8 mesh wire cloth with 6-8 mm dia wire)
50 c m
50 cm
20-25 mm
removable
plywood
Flange
80
-1
Pump suction
hose
00
cm
50-100 mm std. pipe
Figure 8.37 Plywood Frame Screen Constructions
March 2009
8-33
Standard pipe
Cut opening for pipe at top
weld flanges top and bottom
Bronze wire wrapping

around drum
Drum stiffener
Leave 7.5 - 15 cm
sections uncut
9 Openings
2
approx 25 x 45 mm
Figure 8.38 Drum Screen Constructions

Delivery
i
Screen
Debris
plate Access port to tank
Baffle
Tank
overflow
Debris
overflow
Access
V l
Settling
tank
Cleanout
Irrigation
intake
Figure 8.39 Self Cleaning Screens for Gravity Intake

Precautions: It is essential that fine sands and sediments are prevented from entering the suction
line. Infiltration of fine material through the intake can occur during pumping immediately after
construction of the intake.
8-34
March 2009
To avoid this happening:
start pump before the delivery line is connected

vary the pumping rate over a range of discharges
keep pumping until the water clears of sediment.
Fine material can also be drawn through the screen if there is a surge in the flow as happens when a
delivery main ruptures or bursts. Adequate switching gear should be provided to shut down the
pump in such an emergency. Even a well designed screen intake may, over a long time, become
blocked by silt and organic matter. A back-flushing facility should be incorporated into the pumping
arrangement to clear occasional blockages of the screen. If back-flushing is not possible, screen and
filter sizes should be as large as practicable to reduce the potential for blockages.
(d)
Suction Pipe Strainer Opening
The strainer should be aluminium and have openings with an effective area of two times the bore of
the inlet pipe.
(e)
Pump Sump Volumes
Inflow into a pump sump must be greater than the design pumping rate. The minimum pump sump
volume between start and stop levels shall be equal to a detention of 1.5 minutes. However, where
the inflow is half the pumping rate which is the condition when the pump starts most frequently, the
minimum sump volume for one duty pump shall be determined from the following formula:
V=
T Qp
4
(8.15)
Where,
V
= minimum sump volume between start and stop levels (m/s)
T
= cycle times in minutes (time between starts) which should be based on the
recommended 10 to 15 starts per hour.
= pumping rate (L/s)
Qp
8.4.3.6 Large Capacity Pumped Intake Design
In Malaysia, the large capacity pumping station is commonly installed for diverting water from river
to irrigation canal of the rice irrigation scheme. This section provides dimensions for the sump and
station layout of the pump station for the large scale irrigation supply. The river inflow hydrograph
and stage-discharge relationship is required which can be developed from the hydrological historical
records. A study on water availability for irrigation diversion is to be carried out to ascertain the
future need for irrigation demand. The discharge of the pump station is often controlled by local
regulations or physical factors. The designer must follow federal and/or state government
regulations. The hydraulic analysis of a pump station involves the interrelationship of two
components:
the river inflow hydrograph
the discharge rate of the pumping system
(a)
Design Parameters
The following pump and station parameters are required to design pumping station.
Maximum design head

Design heads at rated pumping station capacity
Capacity requirements
Type of pump
Estimated pump physical size
March 2009
8-35
(b)
Power required at the design points

Pump speed
Station Net Positive Suction Head Available (NPSHA) and pump NPSHR
Sump dimensions
Design Procedures
The procedure for pump station design for large scale irrigation supply is illustrated in the following
section.
Step 1: Required Pumping Rate (Q)
The first consideration in selection of a pump and design of a pumping plant must be the
determination of the required discharge capacity. This depends on the demand created by the
irrigation systems. The design irrigation discharge rate is determined based on the peak water
demand for the scheme considering all losses and other requirements. The equation 8.1 can be used
to compute the required discharge capacity for the pumping station.
Step 2: Stage Discharge Relationship
The stage discharge relationship curve is essential to operate the pumping station. The river flow
must be higher than pumping rate to maintain the minimum flow requirement in the downstream
side of the river. Sometimes, head regulator structure (Figure 8.9b) is constructed to augment the
flow towards pumping station if river flow is low during low flow periods.
Step 3: Estimate Pumping Rate and Number of Pumps
A trial and error approach is usually necessary for estimating the pumping rates based on reliable
water resources and the required pumping rate to meet the peak period irrigation supply. A wide
range of combinations may produce an adequate design. The goal is to develop an economic balance
between required diversion and pumping capacity. Some approximation is necessary to produce the
first trial design.
One approach is to select the pumping rate based on peak water demand by the irrigation scheme.
Second approach is based on reliable water resources for irrigation supply. The maintaining of
minimum flow in the river must be considered. Once an estimated reliable flow is determined, the
size and number of pumps can be determined for the design irrigation diversion rate. Therefore, a
detail hydrologic study is needed to determine the available water resources after remaining the
minimum flow requirements at the downstream. The flow of a river is quite irregular when
considered over long time periods. Continuous flow/stage forecasting is recommended to enable the
operator to make decisions as to actions they may wish to take with regard to high or low flows.
The total pumping rate may be set by the peak irrigation demand, reliable diversion amount and the
desirable pump size. Three would be the minimum number of pumps required. Size and thus
numbers of pumps may be controlled by physical constraints such as portable standby power.
Step 4: Pump Operating Hours
In the design of pumping systems, pumps should not be operated more than 10 hours continuously
in a day. If a pumping installation is designed more than 10 hours daily, additional duty pumps shall
be provided in addition to standby pumps. This criterion is distinct from the duty pump which is
dependent upon the number of hours of operation of the plant to produce the desired daily amount.
The number of standby pumps to be provided depends on the size of duty pumps, the locality of
installation and factor of safety desired. A stage-discharge relationship must be developed. This will
help to estimate available volume of water to be pumped and how many pump could be operated for
particular times.
8-36
March 2009
Step 5: Aqueducts Structure to Convey Water to the Pump Sump

In some case, aqueduct structure may need to be constructed to convey water into the pump sump
if the water source is far. Detailed design procedures are provided in Chapter 9 and Chapter 16.
Step 6: Pump Sump Design
The detail design procedure of the pump sump is given in Appendix 8B. The following factors should
be considered when design a pump sump:
pump sumps will ensure uniform and steady flow with maximum average velocities of about
0.6 m/sec for flow into a pumping station and less than 0.3 m/sec for the approach to bell
mouths
the kinetic energy associated with changes in level, whether down a slope, step or a weir,
should be dissipated well away from the final approach to the pumps
obstructions such as supporting pillars, should be streamlined to obviate flow separation near
the intake section
areas where stagnant water occur should be filled in
pump sumps shall preferably be sized and arranged to allow each pump sump to be isolated
for cleaning and maintenance without interrupting the normal abstraction of the station
the minimum number of sumps should be two
pump sumps shall be built as near the pumps as possible to shorten suction piping with
minimum number of bends so as to reduce suction losses and may be jointed or separated
from the intake structure
screens and grit chambers should be provided to ensure longer pump life
adequate lifting equipment should be provided to facilitate operation and maintenance.
horizontal sections of suction piping should have a slight upward slope to the pump to avoid
air pockets with flange type joints being recommended
pump sumps should be reinforced concrete and designed to BS 8007.
Step 7: Trial Pumps and Pump Station Piping

The designer must select a specific pump in order to establish the size of the discharge piping that
will be needed. This is done by using information either previously developed or established. The
designer must study various manufacturers literature in order to establish reasonable relationships
between total dynamic head, discharge, efficiency and energy requirements. This study will also give
the designer a good indication of discharge piping needed since pumps that produce the desired
results will have a specific discharge pipe size.
All designers should make a study of a pump performance curve. Each type of pump has a unique
performance curve that has been developed by the manufacturer. More precisely, a family of curves
is shown for each pump, because any pump can be fitted with various size impellers. These
performance curves are the basis for the pump curve plotted in the system head curves. The
designer must have specific information on the pumps available in order to be able to specify pumps
needed for the pump station.
Any point on an individual performance curve identifies the performance of a pump for a specific
Total Dynamic Head (TDH) that exists in the system. It also identifies the required power and the
operation efficiency of the pump. It can be seen that for either an increase or decrease in TDH, the
efficiency is reduced as the performance moves away from the eye of the performance curve. It
should also be noted that as the TDH increases, the power requirement also increases. The designer
must ensure that the specified motor is adequate over the full range of TDH that will exist. It is
desirable that the design point be as close to the eye as possible. The range of the pump
performance should not extend into areas where substantially reduced efficiencies exist.
March 2009
8-37
Step 8: Total Dynamic Head (TDH)

Total Dynamic Head is the sum of the static head, velocity head and various head losses in the pump
discharge system due to friction. It has described in earlier section 8.4.4.5.
Step 9: Design Operating Point
The required operating point of the pump is determined by the intersection of the system curve and
the pump curve (For detail, please see Section 8.4.4.5).
Step 10: Power Requirements
To select the proper size pump motor, compute the power required to raise the water from its lowest
level in the pump sump to its point of discharge. This is best described by analysing pump efficiency.
Pump efficiency is defined as the ratio of pump power output to the power input applied to the
pump. The efficiency of the pump is then expressed as:
Efficiency, =
Pump output power

Pump motor rating
(8.16)
The pump power output can be determined using the Eq. 8.9:
P=
Q TDH
1000
(8.17)
Where,
P
= power output from the pump (kW)
= specific weight of water (9800 N/m3)

Q
= pump flow rate (m3/s)
TDH = pump head (m)
(c)
Screen Design
Screening is the important step for the removal of suspended or floating matter in river water. It is
usual to remove the larger floating solids by simple straining by coarse and fine screens and
suspended matter in the girt chambers and silt basin. This is very essential if water is supplied for
microirrigation and sprinkler irrigation systems irrigation water is applied through small passage
emitters and nozzles. These substances simply can block the flowpaths of emitters and nozzles. Even
for surface irrigation supply, screening can play important role to protect canal bed from siltation.
Detailed design guideline should be followed as JKR manual.
Coarse Screens: Coarse screens are provided at intakes to prevent floating material of fairly large
size entering the works. The galvanised steel bars forming the screen are normally used. It has
about 25 mm diameter and a spaced about 100 m apart. The screens are often fixed at
approximately 700 to the horizontal to facilitate racking accumulated debris. The velocity of flow
through the screen openings should not exceed 0.5 m/sec.
Fine Screens: Fine screens are required to install if the water is supplied for microirrigation and
sprinkler irrigation systems. Emitters and nozzles are very sensitive to clogging which can
permanently stop the systems. These are normally placed immediately after the coarse screens.
Screens mesh needs frequent cleaning due to blocking.
(d)
Grit Chamber
After screening, mainly inorganic material is removed by allowing the water to pass slowly through a
chamber where it settles down to the bottom. It may be constructed if the water is supplied for
pressurized irrigation systems such as microirrigation and sprinkler systems.
8-38
March 2009
Grit chambers should be designed to:
have a mean flow velocity of 2 to 7 cm/sec.

removed grit particles of 0.2 mm diameter and above of specific gravity 2.65. The settling
velocity of the said particle size is assumed to be 2.1 cm/sec. In the case of a rectangular
basin, the length of the chamber shall be calculated by the formula in Eq. 8.1.
have a standard width of 1/3 to 1/8 of the length,
have an effective depth of 3.0 to 4.5 m with an allowance for one weeks collection of grit,
have the bottom sloping towards the middle with a gradient of 1:50 and lengthwise with a
gradient of 1:100 towards the outlet.
L=
Where,
L
=
H
=
U
=
V
=
K
=
8.5
K H V
U
(8.18)
length of basin (m),

effective depth of flow (m),
settling velocity of particle to be removed (cm/sec),
mean velocity of flow (cm/sec),
factor of safety 1.5 to 2.0.
GROUNDWATER INTAKE DESIGN
The well is the "heart" of irrigation systems with groundwater supplies. It must be properly designed
and compatible with the pump and distribution system to ensure for long life, and economic
operation. Therefore, irrigation wells must be capable of producing adequate water during peak
seasonal use and under drought conditions. This section presents detailed design procedures of
tubewells for underground water abstraction for irrigation supplies.
8.5.1
Water Wells
Water well is a hole, usually vertical, excavated in the earth for withdrawal of underground water.
The basic design and construction principles for a well are as follows:
8.5.2
location should be selected after a systematic ground water investigations

should not impact significantly on neighbouring wells or on the environment
should be of sufficient diameter, depth and straightness for the pump and for monitoring
and maintenance equipment
should be stable and not collapse
should prevent sand and silt particles from the aquifer during pumping
should abstract water from the aquifer zone of highest and safe yield potential
should be protected from contamination
should be reasonable by selecting the depth, diameter and construction materials for the
well.
Understanding of Groundwater Formation
Aquifer can be divided into three broad classes for the purpose of well design. Figure 8.39 illustrates
the water bearing formation in different forms. They are:
Unconsolidated aquifers
Consolidated aquifers
Crystalline aquifers
March 2009
8-39
Unconfined
Confined
Recharge area
for aquifer 1
Spring
Aquifer 1
Aquiclude
Flowing (artesian) well

screened in aquifer 1
Perched aquifer
Aquiclude
Aquitard
Aquifer 2
Water table
Potentiometric surface
Groundwater flow direction
Figure 8.40 Groundwater Occurrence and Flowpaths

Each of these is further usually classified as shallow aquifer (unconfined aquifer) and deep aquifer
(confined aquifer). First two types are usually suitable and economical for agricultural use. The
consumption of agricultural water use is high, so that, crystalline aquifers are not suitable for
agricultural purposes. The yield of water wells in crystalline aquifers is low about 10 20 m3/day and
rarely exceeding 250 m3/day.
The subsurface occurrence of groundwater is divided into major two zones of aeration and
saturation. The saturation zone extends from the upper surface of saturation down to underlying
impermeable rock. Water occurring in the zone of saturation is commonly referred to simply as
groundwater.
An aquifer is said to be unconfined where its upper boundary consists of a free groundwater surface
at which the pressure equals atmospheric. This free surface is known as the water table and often
aquifers are recognized as water table aquifers. An aquifer is said to be confined when it is fully
saturated and its potentiometric surface lies in an overlying, low permeability confining layer. Very
low permeability layers bounding aquifers are known as aquicludes.
8.5.3
Tubewell Components
Three key components of a well are the pump, the lining pipe (pump casing) and the intake section.
Key well components are illustrated in Figure 8.41 and include:
Pump Chamber or Well Casing: Pump chamber casing or well casing comprises all casing above the
screen in wells of uniform diameter. It provides stability to the well and protects the pump against
debris falling into the well from the sides of the borehole.
Intake Section: The intake section may be lined with slotted casing (well screen) or left open hole if
the borehole walls are free standing and there is no risk of future collapse.
Centralizers: Centralizers are installed around the casing and screen to hold them in the middle of
the borehole thus provide a regular annular space for the gravel pack.
Gravel Pack: Gravel pack is placed artificially surrounding the well screen. It stabilizes the aquifer,
minimizes sand pumping, permits use of a large screen slot with a maximum open area and provides
an annular zone of high permeability, which increases the effective radius and yield of the well.
8-40
March 2009
Bail Plug: Bail plug or bottom plug is a short length of casing installed at the base of the well screen
to act as a sediment trap.
Grout Seal: The grout seal is provided between the conductor casing and the main pump chamber
casing to prevent movement of contaminants downwards from the surface through the annular
space to the well and aquifer.
Dip Tube: Dip tube is installed for monitoring water levels inside the well and in the gravel pack
between the screen and borehole.
Casing String: The lengths of pump chamber casing and well screen jointly together in a well are
usually known as the casing string.
Pump String: The pump and rising main are often referred to together as the pump string.
Air valve
Concrete
apron
Conductor
casing
Dip tube
Non return valve
Flanged well top

Drain hole
Grout seal
Rising main
Pump bowls
Pump
chamber
casing
Intake
Motor
Reducer
Dip tube
in annulus
Screen
Drilled hole
Gravel pack or
formation stabilizer
Centralizer
Bottom (bail)
plug
Figure 8.41 Components of Well

8.5.4
Tubewell Design Procedures
Design of tubewell involves selecting the appropriate dimensions of the various components and
choosing the proper materials to be used in its completion of construction. A good design should aim
at efficient utilization of the aquifer (optimum discharge at minimum drawdown), long useful life, low
initial cost and low maintenance and operation costs. The information about well log is required for
designing of a tubewell (Figure 8F2-1 in Appendix F). It provides information to determine depths of
groundwater, quality of water and physical characteristics of aquifers without expense for a regular
well. After a well has been drilled, it must be completed shortly. This involves placement of casing,
cementing of casing, placement of well screens and gravel packing.
March 2009
8-41
The following elements to be designed for a given discharge are:
Diameter of the well

Well depth
Length of the screen and location
Slot size of the screen
Shape of the opening and percentage open area
Gravel pack design
8.5.4.1 Well Casings
(a)
Well Diameter and Well Depth
Well Diameter: The casing diameter of the pumping well should accommodate an appropriately sized
pump with adequate clearance for installation and hydraulically efficient operation. Bore size of a
tubewell should be at least 5 cm larger in diameter than the casing pipe in order to facilitate the
lowering of pipe. If gravel pack is to be used then the bore size is to be increased based on thickness
of the gravel pack.
Well Depth: The depth of a tubewell depend on the location of water bearing formations, recharge
and economic situation. It is usual to drill the well to the bottom of the aquifer so that full aquifer
thickness is available giving maximum yield. The total depth of the pumping well should be selected
based on lithologic information obtained from the following sources:
Geologic cross sections
Geologic logs
Geophysical logs
(b)
Diameter of Housing Pipe
The housing piping is enlarged section of the well casing at the top of the well, in order to house a
deep well turbine pump or submersible pump. It should be large enough to accommodate the pump
with adequate clearance. The annular space between the pump and the inner diameter of the
housing pipe also permits the measurement of the depth to pumping water level. Generally, the
pump chamber casing should have a nominal diameter at least 5 cm larger than the nominal
diameter of the pump bowls. The recommended minimum diameters of surface casing are given in
Table 8.2. Michael and Khepar (1989) recommended nominal diameter of pump, diameter of housing
pipe and thickness for designing well which are shown in Table 8.3.
Table 8.2 Recommended Minimum Diameters for Well Casings and Screens (Todd and Mays, 2005)
Naturally
Developed Wells
Gravel Packed
Wells
< 270
Nominal Pump
Chamber
Casing
Diameter (cm)
15
25
45
Nominal
Screen
Diameter
(cm)
5
270 680
20
30
50
10
680 1900
25
35
55
15
1900 4400
30
40
60
20
4400 7600
35
45
65
25
7600 14000
40
50
70
30
14000 19000
50
60
80
35
19000 - 27000
60
70
90
40
Well Yield
(m3/day)
8-42
Surface Casing Diameters (cm)
Housing
Pipe
Thickness
(mm)
1.5 2.0
1.5 3.5
1.5 3.5
2.0 3.5
2.0 5.0
2.0 6.0
2.0 6.0
March 2009
(c)
Depth of Housing Pipe
The depth of housing pipe below the ground level is selected such that the pump is always
submerged in water. Since the pump is lowered in the housing pipe, it must be set a few meters
below the lowest drawdown level, taking into account the seasonal fluctuations in the water table,
interference from adjoining tubewells and the likely lowering of the water table due to future
development of groundwater in the area.
Table 8.3 Diameter and Thickness of the Housing Pipe of Tubewells (Michael and Khepar, 1989)
(d)
Discharge (l/min)
Nominal Diameter of
Pump (cm)
Diameter of Housing
Pipe (cm)
Thickness of the
Housing Pipe (mm)
475
12.5
15.0 20.0
1.5 3.5
1150
15.0
20.0 25.0
1.5 3.5
2275
20.0
25.0 30.0
2.0 3.5
4550
30.0
35.0
2.0 5.0
7500
35.0
40.0
2.0 6.0
11500
40.0
45.0
2.0 6.0
Diameter of Well Casing Pipe
The diameter of the pipe of the well section below the pump housing is fixed by the permissible
velocity of water through the pipe. A velocity of 2.5-3.0 cm/s (1.5 1.8 m/min) is the most suitable.
The following relationship is used.
a=
Q
Ve
(8.19)
Where,
Q
= the design flowrate of the well (m3/s)
Ve
= the permissible velocity of water through pipe (m/s)
a
= the cross-sectional area of the pipe (m2)
Then diameter of the pipe (d) below pump housing is determined using the relationship below:
a=
(e)
d2
4
(8.20)
Selection of the Strata for Well Screen
A well log gives clear picture for the location of water bearing formation. From the well log, the
water bearing formations where well screen has to be installed are identified. In deep wells and/or
multiple aquifers (Figures 8.42 and 8.43), the casing and screen can be placed in several sections
with reducers between each section. If the various casing or screening sections are to be installed in
separate sections, then it is to be ensured that they will nest inside each other. The intermediate
casing must be large enough for the screen to pass and be small enough to pass through the pump
chamber casing. The pump chamber has to be large enough to accommodate the pump and
monitoring access tube.
March 2009
8-43
Static water level

Static
water
level
Grout
seal
Grout seal
350mm
350m
m hole
drilled
drilled hole
250mm
250mm Pump
Pump
chamber
chamber
casing
300mm Pump
300mm Pump
chamberchamber
casing
400mm
400m
m
drilled
holehole
drilled
Pumping water
Pumping water
level
level
Conical
Conicalreducer
reducer
Aquiclude
Aquiclude
Pumping water level

Pumping water level
Conical
reducer
Conical reducer
Centralizer
Centralizer
200mm
Screen
200mm
Screen
Gravel pack or
Gravel pack or
Aquiclude
Aquiclude
Bottom
(bail)(bail)
plug plug
Bottom
350mm
350mm
drilled hole
drilled hole
150mmScreen
Screen
150mm
Aquiclude
Aquiclude
Figure 8.42 Well Screen Installation in Shallow (Unconfined) and Deep (Confined) Aquifers
Grout
Static
water level
200mm
Casing
Pumping
water level
Sand seal
300mm Hole
Aquifer
Formation
stabilizer
Centralizer
Aquifer
200mm
Screen
Aquifer
Bail plug
Figure 8.43 A Well Design for Multiple Aquifers

8-44
March 2009
(f)
Casing Cleaning Requirements
Well casing and screen materials should be cleaned prior to installation to remove any coatings or
manufacturing residues. All casing and screen materials should be washed with a mild nonphosphate detergent/potable water solution and rinsed with potable water. Hot pressurized water
should be used to remove organic solvents, oils or lubricants from casing and screens composed of
materials other than plastic.
8.5.4.2 Gravel Pack Design
Gravel packed well contains an artificially placed gravel screen or envelop surrounding the well
screen. A sieve analysis should be prepared for the strata comprising the portion of the aquifer
where the screen will be set (Appendix C). Gravel packing makes the zone immediately surrounding
the well screen more permeable by removing the formation materials and replacing them with
artificially graded coarser materials. The size of this artificially graded gravel should be chosen so
that it retains essentially all of the formation particles. The well screen slot opening size is then
selected to retain the gravel pack. A uniform gravel pack has significantly greater permeability. The
gravel pack material should consist of clean and well-rounded grains that are smooth. These
characteristics increase the permeability and porosity of the gravel pack. In addition, the particles
should consist of siliceous rather than calcareous material. The calcareous material should be limited
to less than 5 percent. Gravel pack has the following advantages:
Stabilize the formation

Prevent or reduce pumping of fines and sand
Enable larger screen openings
Establish transitional velocity and pressure fields between the formation and the well screen
Maximum grain size of a pack material should be near 1 cm while the thickness should be in the
range of 8 to 15 cm. This thickness will successfully retain formation particles regardless of how high
the water velocity tends to carry the particles through the gravel pack. When more than 8 inches of
gravel pack is provided, development of the aquifer is hampered. The natural gravel pack can be
produced by the development of the aquifer formation itself. An aquifer is suitable for natural pack if
it is coarse gained and poorly sorted (D10 > 0.25 mm). The different gravel pack size selection
recommendations are given here.
Option I (Brandon, 1986):
For uniform gravel pack when Uc < 3;
1.
D50 = 4 to 6 d50
2.
U pack < 2.5
Where,
D50 = the sieve opening size that allows 50% of the gravel pack material to pass
d50
= the sieve opening size that allows 50% of the aquifer materials to pass
Upack = the uniformity coefficient of the gravel pack materials.
For graded gravel pack when Uc > 3;
1.
D15 4 to 6 d15
2.
D85 4 d85
3.
Upack Uc
Where,
D15 = the sieve opening size that allows 50% of the gravel pack material to pass
March 2009
8-45
d15
D85
d85
= the sieve opening size that allows 50% of the gravel pack material to pass
Option II (US Army Corps of Engineers, 1998):

Criteria conformed by field experience are summarized in Table 8.4.
Thickness of Gravel Pack
The gravel pack thickness (GPT) corresponds to the thickness of the annulus between the well
screen and borehole wall. It can be determined as:
GPT =
Db D s
2
(8.21)
Where,
GPT = gravel pack thickness (mm)
Db
= is the diameter of the borehole in the screen section (mm)
Ds
= is the outside diameter of the screen (mm)
Table 8.4 Criteria for selecting gravel pack material (Todd and Mays, 2005)
Uniformity Coefficient (Uc)
< 2.5
2.5 - 5
>5
(a)
Gravel Pack Criteria

Uc between 1 and 2.5, the 50% size (D50)
of the gravel pack should not greater than
six times of the 50% size of the aquifer.
i.e., D50 6 d50
(b)
If (a) is not available, Uc between 2.5 and

5, the 50% size (D50) of the gravel pack
should not greater than nine times of the
50% size of the aquifer. i.e., D50 9 d50
(a)
Uc between 1 and 2.5, the 50% size (D50)

of the gravel pack should not greater than
nine times of the 50% size of the aquifer.
i.e., D50 9 d50
(b)
If (a) is not available, Uc between 2.5 and

5, the 50% size (D50) of the gravel pack
should not greater than nine times of the
50% size of the aquifer. i.e., D50 12 d50
(a)
Multiply the 30% passing size (d30) of the

aquifer by 6 and 9 and locate the points
on the grain-size distribution graph on the
same horizontal line.
(b)
Through these points draw two parallel

lines
(c)
Select gravel pack material that falls

between the two lines.
Screen Slot Size
10% passing size

of the gravel pack
10% passing size

of the gravel pack
10% passing size

of the gravel pack
8.5.4.3 Well Screen
The well screen is the most important component of a well. It is more expensive than the casing so
the efficient use of the screen must be determined to reduce the capital cost of the well. The top of
the screen must be below the lowest pumping water level in the tubewell keeping in view possible
8-46
March 2009
lowering of the water table in future 15-20 years. The life of well is governed mainly by the life of
the screen, which should be carefully designed. The basic requirements of well screen should be:
(a)
resistant to corrosion and deterioration.

strong enough to prevent collapse.
maintained minimum resistance to the flow of water.
Prevented the movement of sand into the well.
Diameter of the Screen
The diameter of the screen should be at least 150 mm to allow readily access for work over tools in
maintenance operations. The example of diameters and weights of screens from the manufacturers
is as shown below in Table 8.5.
Table 8.5 Diameters and Weights of Screens (Johnson Filtration Systems, 1992)
(b)
Nominal Diameter
(mm)
External diameter
(mm)
100
150
200
255
305
355
406
455
505
610
114
168
219
273
324
356
406
457
508
610
Internal Diameter
(Slot size)
(mm)
95
146
197
247
298
330
374
425
476
577
Resistance to Crushing
and Weight of Screen
(bar)
(kg/m)
9.1
104
33
13.3
17.4
15
33
35.2
20
41.7
15
45.8
10
52.3
7
58.9
5
65.4
3
78.5
Minimum Length of the Screen
The length of the screened interval of the pumping well directly influences both the flow of water to
the well and the amount of water that can be extracted by the well.
Homogeneous Unconfined Aquifer: Screening of the bottom one third to one half of an aquifer less
than 45 m thick provides the optimum design. For thick or deep aquifers, 80% of the aquifer may be
screened. The well screen is positioned in the lower portion of the aquifer.
Heterogeneous Unconfined Aquifer: The basic principle is same as homogeneous unconfined aquifer.
The well screen is positioned in the most permeable layer of the lower portion of the aquifer so that
maximum drawdown of two thirds of the aquifer saturated thickness is available.
Confined Aquifer: 80% to 90% of the thickness of the aquifer should be screened. The well screen is
positioned in the centre of the water bearing formation or aquifer.
To prevent rapid clogging, the minimum length of the well screen for non gravel pack well is
designed on the basis of following equation.
h=
Where,
h
=
Q
=
Ao
=
Ve
=
Q
A o Ve
(8.22)
minimum length of the well screen (m)

maximum expected discharge capacity of the well screen (m3/min)
effective open area per meter length of the well screen (m2)
entrance velocity (3 cm/s or 1.8 m/min) (m/min)
March 2009
8-47
Desirable entrance velocity is usually considered to be 3 to 7.5 cm/s based on the open area of the
screen Driscoll (1985). Field experience and laboratory tests show that average entrance velocity of
water moving into the screen should not exceed 3 cm/s (Driscoll, 1985). Numerous observations also
indicate the best value of the entrance velocity through the well screen is 3 cm/s.
(c)
Screen Slot Size
The size of the screen openings (screen lot size) should be large enough to permit efficient entrance
of groundwater and it must prevent aquifer materials to entering the well. In a naturally developed
well, the screen slot size is selected so that most of the finer materials of the water bearing
formation near the borehole are brought into the screen and pumped from the well during well
development. The typical approach is to select a slot size through which 60% of the material will
pass and 40% will be retained.
Selecting the optimum selection between these two parameters is arguably the most critical phase of
the screen design. Two parameters dictate this selection:
Entrance velocity of groundwater

Size of the various fractions of the aquifer porous media.
The screen entrance velocity should be less than 0.03 m/s. The average entrance velocity is
calculated by dividing the well yield by the total opening areas of the screen. Three possible changes
such as larger screen diameter, longer screen section and larger slot size can decrease the possible
entrance velocity.
A significant characteristic of a well screen is to determine the slot size. Screen slot size is selected
based on grain size distribution curve. The most widely used method to determine grain size
distribution is by laboratory sieve analysis on representative aquifer samples. The grain size
distribution analysis is presented in Appendix 8.C. The most commonly used uniformity coefficient is
defined as:
Uc =
d 60
d10
(8.23)
Where,
d60
= the sieve opening size that allows 60% of the sample by weight to pass and therefore
retains 40% of the sieve diameter that allows 10% of the sample to pass thus retaining
90%.
d10
= the sieve diameter that allows 10% of the sample to pass and thus retaining 90%.
The lower the uniformity coefficient represents the more uniform or well graded materials. Large
values of Uc represent a wide range of grain sizes and generally poorly graded porous materials. The
criteria for determining the slot size of the screen are:
For naturally developed well,
If Uc 5 for the aquifer sample, the slot size should retain 40 to 50 percent of the aquifer
material (Slot Size d40 to d50)
If Uc > 5 for the aquifer sample, the slot size should retain 30 to 50 percent of the aquifer
material (Slot Size d30 to d50)
For an artificially placed gravel packed well,
The size of the screen slot is governed by the size of the gravel. The size of slots in artificially gravelpacked well is generally recommended to be around D10 of the pack material (Driscoll, 1986; ASCE,
1996; NGWA, 1998). It indicates that the screen should retain at least 90 percent of the gravel pack
materials. The minimum screen open area of 10% is desirable. The width of the slot size should be
8-48
March 2009
between D15 and D0 of the gravel pack that is a slot size that will retain between 85% to 100% of
the pack. To minimize the well losses and screen clogging, entrance velocities should be kept within
specified limits. The equation 8.24 can be applied to express the permissible velocity.
Ve =
Q
c ds L s P
(8.24)
Where,
= the optimum screen entrance velocity (3 cm/s or 1.8 m/min)
Ve
Q
= well discharge (m3/s)
C
= clogging coefficient (0.5 on the basis of approximately 50% of the open area of a screen
will be blocked)
ds
= the screen diameter (m)
Ls
= the screen length (m)
P
= the percentage of open area in the screen available from Manufactures information.
A final check must be applied by using Theims Eq. 8.25.
Q=
2.72( H h w )
R
log10
rw
(8.25)
Where,
= the diameter of the well screen (m)
rw
(H-hw) = drawdown (m)
T
= transmissibility (m2/day)
R
= radius of influence (m)
Screen Open Area
(d)
The percentage of open area of the screen should be equal or greater than the porosity of the sand
and gravel in the water-bearing formation and artificial gravel pack supported by the screen. Where
the irrigation well screening device provides only 2% to 5% open area, as in perforated pipe, flow
restrictions are unavoidable. This is one of the most common reasons for low efficiencies of irrigation
wells. Suppose that the water-bearing sand has 30% porosity (voids) and the screening device
installed has only 5% open area. With such a small open area, there will be constriction of flow. As a
result, there will be additional drawdown caused by increased head loss as water moves toward and
into the well. Adequate open area should be provided by the well screen to allow the desired or
design yield to enter the well at velocity of 3 cm/s. This hydraulic characteristic of the screen is
known as transmitting capacity.
If the amount of open area of a screen is known and the recommended entrance velocity of 3 cm/s
is used, then the transmitting capacity of that screen can be calculated. For example, a 40-cm
diameter well screen of continuous slot construction with 0.3704 m2 of open area per linear meter of
screen can transmit 667 lpm per meter of screen with entrance velocity of 3 cm/s (Q = V x A = 0.03
m x 0.3704 m2 = 0.0111 m3/s = 11.11 L/s or 667 L/min. This amount is generally halved to allow for
blockage of the screen openings by the gravel pack to arrive at a well yield per meter of screen.
Note that the transmitting capacity of a screen is a hydraulic characteristic of that screen and not a
measure of the yielding capability of the water-bearing formation in which the screen is installed.
8.5.4.4 Casing and Well Screen Materials
The commonly used casing materials are:
PVC (plastic);
Steel, in particular; black steel;
galvanized black steel;
steel covered with a plastic film
March 2009
8-49
aluminium chrome steel;

stainless steel.
Appendix 8.D1 presents the general recommendation for selection of well casing materials based on
the depth of well and the quality of groundwater (USEPA 1991). Comparative strength of well casing
is shown in Appendix 8.D2.
Screens are made of a variety of metals and metal alloys, plastic, concrete, asbestos cement,
fiberglass-reinforced epoxy, coated base metals and wood. Nonferrous metals, alloys and plastics are
often selected to prolong well life and efficient operation because well screen is susceptible to
corrosion and incrustation.
8.5.4.5 Annular Sealants or Cementing
Proper sealing of the well annulus is required to prevent contamination of samples and the ground
water. Adequate sealing prevents the well annulus from serving as a conduit for contaminant
transport. The two most commonly used materials for annular seals are cement and bentonite. For
shallow wells, it is common to grout the annulus with bentonite from the annular seal above filter
pack to the annular seal at the ground surface. For deeper wells, there is often inert material,
typically sand, between these two seals. When using bentonite pellets, install the top of the filter
pack in sequential, one-foot thick layers. Hydrate each 1/3 m layer by pouring an approximate equal
volume of water down the borehole before placing the next layer of pellets. Continue this process
until the required minimum 2/3 m seal thickness is installed.
(a)
Cement
The annular space above the top of gravel pack is grouted with concrete to a considerable depth to
keep the tube well from contamination.
(b)
Bentonite
Bentonite grout is a specially designed product, which is differentiated from a drilling fluid by its high
solids content, absence of cement and its pump ability.
(c)
Grouting Methods
seal the well casing to the adjacent soil formation.

seal with bentonite pellets, bentonite slurry, or similar material a minimum of two feet above
the filter pack and two feet below the ground surface.
Install bentonite pellets in one-foot thick layers
hydrate before placing the next layer.
seal the annular space with materials such as:
- neat cement grout
- sodium based bentonite slurry with a mud weight of at least 10.00 pounds per gallon
- sodium based bentonite granules
- sodium based bentonite pellets or
- bentonite cement grout
8.5.4.6 Well Development
The development of a tubewell is essential to obtain an efficient and long lasting tubewell. The well
development involves removal of finer material from the aquifer, there enlarging the passages in the
water bearing formation to facilitate entry of water into the tubewell. The common methods for
developing wells are described by Aller et al. (1989) and Driscoll (1986) include: pumping, surging,
use of compressed air, hydraulic jetting, addition chemicals, hydraulic fracturing and use of
explosives.
The following is a general procedure for developing a well by surging and pumping of fines:
8-50
March 2009
Record the static water level and total well depth.

Set the pump and record the pumping rate. Pump until turbidity reaches the desired level as
measured using a turbidity meter.
Discontinue pumping and begin surging using a properly designed surge block and proper
surging technique.
Measure and record well depth to determine the amount of fines, and repeat Step 2. If the
well has been properly designed, the amount of pumping required to achieve the desired
turbidity level will be substantially less than the amount of pumping required during the first
pumping cycle.
Repeat surging and pumping until the well yields water of acceptable turbidity at the
beginning of a pumping cycle. A good way to ensure that development is complete is to shut
the pump off during the last anticipated pumping cycle, leaving the pump in place, and restart it at a later time. The turbidity of the discharge water should remain low.
8.5.4.7 Pumping Test
Following completion of development, the well should be test pumped. The well should be pumped
for at least 12 hours at a constant pumping rate, during which time drawdown measurements are
taken within the pumped well and any nearby observation wells. The primary objectives of the
pumping test are to obtain information about the performance and efficiency of the well and to
collect data which are used to select the permanent pumping equipment to ensure the maximum
pump efficiency. The information is used to evaluate the success of the design and development
procedures and provides the basis to make other performance judgments and evaluations. In some
cases, this information indicates that further development is necessary. Well testing also allows
collection of data from which the hydraulic characteristics of the aquifer can be evaluated.
Measurements of water table recovery at the end of a pumping test (rate at which the water table
rises after pumping stops) can be beneficial in evaluating performance of irrigation wells. This data
can also be used to make calculations of the aquifer hydraulic characteristics. Drawdown is the
distance that the water level in well drops after pumping begins (Figure 8.44). Accurate
measurements of drawdown are important so that the pump can be properly positioned in a well. As
wells are pumped they draw water from a specific area that is determined by:
Qualities of the rock, gravel or sand of the groundwater aquifer

Steepness of the gradient
Rate and frequency that water is being pumped
8.5.4.8 Surface Protection Structure
The potential for physical damage is lessened by the installation of padlocked, protective iron/steel
casing over the monitoring well and iron/steel posts around the well. Figure 8.45 below shows the
well structure protection with concrete based. The casing and posts should be new. The protective
casing diameter or minimum dimension should be 100 mm greater than the nominal diameter of the
monitor well, and the nominal length should be 1.5 m. The protective posts should be at least 80
mm in diameter and the top modified to preclude the entry of water. If extra protection is necessary,
the protective posts can be filled with concrete. Nominal length of the posts should be 1.8 m. Special
circumstances necessitating different materials should be addressed in the drilling plan.
Erosion and/or ponding in the immediate vicinity of the monitoring well may be prevented by
assuring that the ground surface slopes away from the monitoring well protective casing and by the
spreading of a 150 thick, 2.4 m diameter blanket of 19 to 75 mm gravel around the monitoring well.
The validity of the water samples is enhanced by a locking cover on the protective casing. The cover
should be hinged or telescoped but not threaded. Lubricants on protective covers should be avoided.
Threaded covers tend to rust and/or freeze shut. Lubricants applied to the threads to reduce this
closure tend to adhere to sampling personnel and their equipment. All locks on these covers should
be opened by a single key and, if possible, should match any locks previously installed at the site(s),
and be made of non-corrosive material, such as brass.
March 2009
8-51
Q of well
Ground surface
2r = Diameter of well
Static water table
Well
losses
Water table
while pumping
Drawdown
H==H-h
Drawdown curve
Water level at well

Water-bearing
formation
Water level in well

hh
R
Radius of influence
Depth of well
Cone of depression
Impervious formation
Figure 8.44 Well in Pumping Condition

Pump house
Monitoring
line
Wellhead
or pump
To storage
Sloping slab
Large diameter
boring
Grout seal
Static water table

Riser pipe
Drawdown
Bentonite filler
or grout seal
Grout seal
Gravel pack
Pumping
level
Well loss
Pump intake or
submersible pump
Boring wall
Screen
Sump
Radius of well
influence
Figure 8.45 Well Structure Protection
8-52
March 2009
8.5.4.9 Power Requirements and Pump Selection
To select the proper size of pump motor, compute the energy required (using Eq. 8.15) to raise the
water from its lowest level in the pump pit to its point of discharge as shown in Figure 8.46. This is
the best described by analyzing pump efficiency. Pump efficiency is defined as the ratio of pump
energy output to the energy input applied to the pump. The energy input to the pump is the same as
the driver's output and is called brake kilowatts.
The designer should study pump performance curves from several manufacturers to determine
appropriate efficiency ranges. A minimum acceptable efficiency should be specified by the designer
for each performance point specified. To compute the energy required to drive a pump, assume that
the pump will operate at 80% efficiency. The following equation can then be solved for brake
kilowatts.
Brake Output =
P=
Pump Output
Q TDH
1000
(8.26)
Where,
P
= power output from the pump (kW)
= specific weight of water (9800 N/m3)

Q
= pump flow rate (m3/s)
TDH = pump head (m)
= pump efficiency (%)
Preasure head
head
Pressure
Total
static
head
Lift
Preasuregauge
gage Motor
Pressure
Static water level
Pumping
lift
Drawdown
Vertical
furtine
pump
Pumping
water level
Figure 8.46 Components of the Total Dynamic Head (TDH) for Groundwater Pumping System
(a)
Pump Characteristics Curve
Pump curves provide a graphical representation of the characteristics that typically display Flow,
TDH, Brake power and Net Positive Suction Head Required (NPSHR). Most pump manufacturers
provide multi-line curves that display pump characteristics over either a range of speeds or
diameters. The rated operating point is marked on the pump curve with a design flow rate and Total
March 2009
8-53
Dynamic Head (TDH). This rated operating point, specified by the designer is based on an analysis of
the system where the pump is to be used. The amount of TDH required for any given flow may be
plotted on a system curve. The designer can then use software or published hydraulic tables to
calculate the system head for any particular flow.
Prior to selecting a pump to operate, accurate information about the capabilities of the well must be
available. This information is far more critical for larger, higher producing discharge such as would be
employed for large scale agricultural projects. Every pump is designed and manufactured to operate
within specific limits. Graphically, pumping capacity versus the total head forms the pumps
engineered curve, whose characteristics are specific for each individual pump. Within this curve are
efficiency points in which the pump is designed to operate. If a pump is undersized for the pumping
conditions, or operating to the left of its curve, there will be excessive head against the pump. The
unit is susceptible to insufficient motor cooling and down thrust conditions against motor bearings
and impeller stack and premature failure of the unit could occur.
A thorough production test should be performed and data analyzed to determine pump capacity and
efficiency. Optimum pumping levels as decided by the specific capacity of the well will determine
pump setting. Once pump setting and well capacity are determined, system capacity requirements
are established, and total dynamic head is calculated, a pump that will meet these criteria can be
selected. It is important to remember that a pumping system will always operate at the intersection
of the pump curve and the system curve. The pump and system curve always intersect. This should
be kept in mind when troubleshooting.
(b)
Submersible Pump Characteristics Curve
The operating characteristics of deep well turbine pumps are determined by test and depend largely
on the bowl design, impeller type and the speed of the impeller shaft. Flow rate, TDH, BHP,
efficiency, and RPM are similar to those given for centrifugal pumps. Vertical turbine pumps are
generally designed for a specific RPM setting. A vertical turbine pump curve is shown in Figure 8.47.
7.72
25
Impeller diameter (Inches)
TOTAL HEAD PER STAGE IN FEET

TOTAL HEAD PER STAGE IN FEET
55
20
50
15
7.13
45
10
73
40
76
6.56
35
NPSH - FEET
60
78
79
30
75
80
26
76
73
125
125
BRAKE HORSEPOWER
BRAKE HORSEPOWER
25
100
100
7.5
75
6.5
65
50
50
25
25
0
Efficiency
lines
7.72
Brake
horsepower
curves
7.13
6.56
100
200
300
400 500 600 700 800

US GALLONS PER MINUTE
900 1000 1100 1200
Figure 8.47 Deep Well Turbine Pump Curve
8-54
March 2009
Conversion Factor for Figure 8.47:

1
1
1
1
inch = 2.54 cm
ft = 0.3048 m
US gpm = 3.79 L/min
horsepower = 0.746 KW
1
1
1
1
cm = 0.394 inch
m = 3.28 ft
L/min = 0.265 US gpm
KW = 1.34 horsepower
This pump curve is similar to the centrifugal pump curve except instead of curves for various RPM's,
the curves are for different diameter impellers. Decreasing the diameter of impellers is called
"trimming." Manufacturers will trim impellers to the proper size to match the TDH and flow rate
requirements of a specific irrigation installation. Pump curves for turbine pumps are normally shown
for a single stage so the TDH obtained will be determined by multiplying the indicated head on the
pump curve by the number of stages. The brake horsepower requirements must also be multiplied
by the number of stages. Note that the flow rate will not change no matter how many stages are
added. The brake horsepower and total head are for one stage. If the pump has five stages, multiply
the brake horsepower and the total head values by five. The gallons per minute will stay the same
no matter how many stages are added.
Example: Suppose the pump curve in Figure 8.46 is for a 5-stage pump, with a 7.13 inch impeller
supplying 800 GPM. What would be the TDH and BHP values?
Solution: Follow the dashed vertical line from 800 GPM up to where it meets the 7.13-inch impeller
curve on the upper portion of the chart. Follow the dashed horizontal line left to where it shows 26
feet of TDH. Multiplying 26 by 5 gives 130 feet of TDH. Next, follow the dashed vertical line from 800
GPM up to the 7.13-inch impeller BHP curve on the lower portion of the chart and then follow the
horizontal dashed line left to where it shows 6.5 BHP. Multiplying 6.5 BHP by 5 stages produces a
32.5 BHP requirement for this pump. Also note that the pump is operating at its peak efficiency of 80
percent. At this efficiency the calculated BHP (using Eq. 8.24) is 32.8%.
Note: Deep well turbine pumps are adapted for use in cased wells or where the water surface is
below the practical limits of a centrifugal pump. Turbine pumps are also used with surface water
systems. Since the intake for the turbine pump is continuously under water, priming is not a concern.
Turbine pump efficiencies are comparable to or greater than most centrifugal pumps. They are
usually more expensive than centrifugal pumps and more difficult to inspect and repair. Additional
pump characteristics curves are given in Appendix 8.E.
(c)
Recommendations
Proper pump selection and sizing is essential to insure efficient and reliable operation at
specified head and flow rates.
Sufficient information should be available to accurately determine specific capacity and
pumping level. If not readily available, thorough production testing of the well must be
performed.
Adequate submergence of pump in water, according to manufacturers recommendations,
should be verified to insure operation within efficiency curve
System demand requirements should be determined
Friction losses and pressure drops from all sources should be calculated. These would
include, but not be
limited to, expected flow rates, pipe sizes, and total piping runs, including fittings
Minimum and maximum total dynamic head should be determined
The pump should be sized to efficiently operate within and comply with the manufacturers
performance curve characteristics
Verify motor horsepower will not be affected by water temperature. If pumping water at
elevated
Temperatures, select a rated motor horsepower as necessary.
March 2009
8-55
REFERENCES
Aller L., Bennett T.W., Hackett G.R.J., Petty J.H., Lehr H.S., Nielsen D.M. and J.E. Denne. (1989).
Handbook of Suggested Practices for the Design and Installation of Ground-Water Monitoring Wells.
EPA/EMSL-Las Vegas, USEPA Cooperative Agreement CR-812350-01, EPA/600/4-89/034, NTIS
#PB90-159807.
ASCE (1997). Agricultural Salinity assessment and management. American Society of Civil Engineers
Manuals and Reports on Engineering Practice No. 71.
California Environmental Protection Agency (1995). Monitoring Well Design and Construction for
Hydrogeologic Characterization.
Christiansen C. (2006). Pumping from shallow streams. Water Series QNRM05391, Natural Resources
and Water, Queensland Government, Australia.
CSSRI (1998). Guidelines for irrigation with saline and alkali waters.
Driscoll F.G. (1986). Ground Water and Wells, 2nd edition. Johnson Division, St. Paul, Minnesota,
1089 pp.
FAO (2003). The irrigation Challenge: Increasing irrigation contribution to food security through
higher water productivity from canal irrigation systems, IPTRID Issue Paper No 4, FAO, Rome.
Florida Department of Environmental Protection (2005). Design, Installation, and Placement of
Monitoring Wells".
Michael A.M. and Khepar S.D. (1989). Water well and pump engineering. Tata Mcgraw Hill Pub.
Company Ltd. New Delhi. P. 929.
Public Works Department (1989). Design Criteria & Standards for Water Supply Systems.
Schifield C.S. (1935). The salinity of irrigation water, Smithsonian Institute Report, Washington D.C.
Todd D.K. (2005). Groundwater Hydrology. Third Edition.
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (1998). Monitoring Well Design, Installation, and Documentation at
Hazardous Toxic, and Radioactive Waste Sites.
8-56
March 2009
APPENDIX 8A Water Quality Guidelines

8.A-1: Classification of Irrigation Water (ASCE, 1997)
6 7 8 1000
26
3
24
Sodium-Adsorption-Ratio (SAR)
Medium
4 5000
C2-S4
C3-S4
22
Sodium (Alkali) Hazard
C1-S4
28
High
30
Very
High
100
C4-S4
C1-S3
20
18
C2-S3
16
14
C3-S3
C1-S2
12
C2-S2
10
C4-S3
C3-S2
C4-S2
Low
6
C1-S1
C2-S1
C3-S1
C4-S1
0
750
250
100
Cl
as
s
2250
6
Conductivity-micromhos/cm. (EC 10 ) AT 25C

1
Low
Medium
High
4
Very High
Salinity Hazard
March 2009
8A-1
APPENDIX 8A Water Quality Guidelines. (Contd.)

8.A-2: Salt Tolerance Rating of Crops (CSSRI, 1998)
5
100
15
10
15
10
20
25
35
for the saturation
extract (dS/m)
EC w=
of the Irrigation
Water (dS/m)
60
ECw
30
EC e =
80
Relative Crop Yield, %
20
EC e
EC e = 1.5 EC w
40
Unsuitable
for crops
20
Sensitive
Moderately
sensitive
5
15
10
Tolerant
Moderately
tolerant
20
25
10
35 ECe
30
15
ECw
20
dS/m
8.A-3: Quality of Irrigation Water (Schofiled, 1935)
Water
Classification
EC x 10
ppm
Sodium (%)
Chloride
Sulphates
Excellent
< 25
< 175
< 20
<4
<4
Good
25 75
175 525
20 40
47
4-7
Permissible
75 200
525 1400
40 60
47
4-7
Doubtful
200 300
525 1400
40 60
7 12
7 -12
Unsuitable
> 300
> 2100
> 80
> 20
> 20
Total Dissolved Salts

-5
Concentration (mg/L)
8.A-4: Quality of Irrigation Water (Christiansen, 2006)
Rating
8A-2
ES
0.5
Cl
(mg/L)
3
Boron
(mg/L)
0.5
TDS
(ppm)
275
EC
(mmho/cm)
500
1000
60
1.0
1.0
600
2000
70
2.0
10
16
2.0
1200
3000
80
12
3.0
15
24
3.0
1950
4000
90
15
4.0
20
32
4.0
2700
> 4000
> 90
> 15
> 4.0
> 20
> 32
>4
> 2700
Na+%
SAR
Na2CO3
40
March 2009
APPENDIX 8B Pump Sump Design
The intake structure should be designed to allow the pumps to achieve their optimum hydraulic
performance for all operating conditions. This section is adapted from Goulds Pump and Hydraulic
Institute Manuals.
(i)
General Consideration
The function of the pump sump is to supply an evenly distributed flow to the pump suction. The
ideal approach is a straight channel coming directly to the pump or suction pipe. Turns and
obstructions are detrimental, since they may cause eddy currents and tend to initiate deep-cored
vortices.
The amount of submergence available is only one factor affecting vortex-free operation. It is possible
to have adequate submergence. Successful, vortex-free operation will depend greatly on the
approach upstream of the sump.
Complete analysis of intake structures can only be accurately accomplished by scale model tests.
Model testing is especially recommended for larger pumping units.
(ii)
Data Information
Figures 8B-1 and 8B-2 have been constructed for single and multiple intake arrangements to provide
guidelines for basic sump dimensions.
D = (0.0744 Q )0.5 Recommended
W = 2D
Y 4D
A 5D
C = 0.3D to 0.5D
B = 0.75D
S =D +
0.574 Q
D1.5
Where:
S = inch
Q = flow (us gpm)
D = inch
Since these values are composite averages for many pump types and cover the entire range of
specific speeds, they are not absolute values but typical values subject to variations. All of the
dimensions in Figures 8B-1 and 8B-2 are based on the rated capacity of the pump. If operation at an
increased capacity is to be undertaken for extended periods of time, the maximum capacity should
be used for obtaining sump dimensions.
If the position of the back wall is determined structurally, dimension B in Figures 8B-1 and 8B-2 may
become excessive and a false back wall should be installed.
Dimension S in Figures 8B-1a and 8B-1b is a minimum value based on the normal low water level at
the pump or suction pipe bell, taking into consideration friction losses through the inlet screen and
approach channel. Note that this dimension represents submergence at the intake, or the physical
height of the water level above the intake relating to the prevention of eddy formations and
vortexing.
The channel floor should be level for at least a distance Y (Figures 8B-1 and 8B-2) upstream before
any slope begins. The screen or gate widths should not be substantially less than W, and heights
should not be less than the maximum anticipated water level to avoid overflow. Depending on the
approach conditions before the sump, it may be necessary to construct straightening vanes in the
approach channel, increase dimension A and/or conduct an intake model test to work out some
other combination of these factors.
March 2009
8A-3
Pump
W/2
Single
pump
Flow
W/2
Trash rack
W
Multiple
sump
Screen
W
Optional partial dividers

(increase dimension 'W'
by the divider thickness)
Y
Flow
(a) Plan
A
B
Screen
Trash rack
Y
Min. water level
C
Note: 10 or less preferred with

1 ft/sec velocity max. at screen
location shown. 15 max. with
velocity reduced to 0.5 ft/sec
(b) Elevation
Figure 8B-1 Sump Dimensions of Wet Pit Type Pumps
Dimension W is the width of an individual pump cell or the center-to-center distance of two pumps if
no dividing wall is used. On multiple intake installations, the recommended dimensions in Figure 8B1a apply as noted above, and the following additional factors should be considered.
As shown in Figure 8B-2 (a), low velocity and straight in-line flow to all units simultaneously is a
primary recommendation. Velocities In the sump should be approximately one foot per second, but
velocities of two feet per second may prove satisfactory. This is particularly true when the design is
based on a model study. Not recommended would be an abrupt change in the size of the inlet pipe
to the sump or the inlet from one side introducing eddying.
In many cases, as shown in Figure 8B-2 (b), pumps operate satisfactorily without separating walls. if
walls must be used for structural purposes or some pumps operate Intermittently, then the walls
should extend from the rear wall approximately ten times the C.
If walls are used, increase dimension W by the thickness of the wall for correct centreline spacing
and use round or ogive ends of walls. Not recommended is the placement of a number of pumps or
suction pipes around the sides of a sump with or without dividing wails.
8A-4
March 2009
Not Recommended
Recommended
ALT
Ve = 2 fps & Up
If A = Less than 80
V = 1 lps
Vo
W = 1 1/2 to 2D
(a)
Recommended
Not Recommended
B
Add wall thickness
to Q dist. Round or
ogive wall ends.
Approx. 10 x C
(b)
Recommended
Not Recommended
Y
D
A
2
Min
= 45
Preferred = 10
Recommended
Y
(c)
Not Recommended
V1
Y
Baffles, grating or strainer should be introduced across
V
Not recommended unless:
inlet channel at beginning of maximum width section
W = 5D or more or
W/P 1.0 1.5 2.5 4.0 10.0
Ve = 0.2 fps or less and
Y 30 50 80 100 150
Y = Same as chart to left
Ve 1
4
2
6
8
S = is greater than 4D
(d)
Recommended
Min. 2f
Not Recommended
F
V = 2 fps
V up to 8fps
(e)
Figure 8B-2 Multiple Pump Installations
March 2009
8A-5
Abrupt changes in size, as shown in Figure 8B-2 (c), from inlet pipe or channel to the sump are not
desirable. Connection of a pipe to a sump is best accomplished using a gradually increasing taper
section. The angle should be as small as possible, preferably not more than 10 degrees. With this
arrangement, sump velocities less than 1.5 feet per second are desirable.
Specifically not recommended is a pipe directly connected to a sump with suction intakes dose to the
sump inlet, since this result in an abrupt change in the flow direction. Centering pumps or suction
pipes in the sump leaves large vortex areas behind the Intake which will cause operational trouble.
If the sump velocity, as shown in Figure 8B-2 (d) can be kept low (approximately 1.5 ft/s), an abrupt
change from inlet pipe to sump can be accommodated if the sump length equals or exceeds the
values shown. As ratio Z/P increases, the inlet velocity at P may be increased up to an allowed
maximum of eight feet per second at Z/P 10. Intakes "in line" are not recommended unless the ratio
of sump to intake size is quite large and intakes are separated by a substantial margin longitudinally.
A sump can generally be constructed at less cost by using a recommended design.
As shown in Figure 8B-2 (e), it is sometimes desirable to install pumps in tunnels or pipe lines. A
drop pipe or false well to house the unit with a vaned inlet elbow facing upstream is satisfactory in
flows up to eight feet per second. Without Inlet elbow, the suction bell should be positioned at least
two pipe (vertical) diameters above the top of the tunnel. The unit should not be suspended in the
tunnel flow, unless the tunnel velocity is less than two feet per second. There must be no air along
the top of the tunnel, and the minimum submergence must be provided.
In general, keep inlet velocity to the sump below two feet per second. Keep velocity in sump below
1.5 feet per second. Avoid changing direction of flow from inlet to pump or suction pipe, or change
direction gradually and smoothly, guiding flow.
(iii)
Size and Capacity Determination
The maximum water surface elevation of the sump will be fixed by the maximum permissible
ponding elevation. The minimum water surface elevation in the sump is determined by the hydraulic
and protection requirements of the protected area and economic considerations. This minimum sump
elevation affects the station design and pumping equipment characteristics.
(iv)
Minimum Sump Area
Minimum horizontal sump area will be that required to permit adequate spacing of pumps and intake
systems to provide adequate space for installation of discharge and suction lines and associated
equipment and flows to the pumps. Sump area based on these requirements normally will be
adequate unless it is found desirable to increase the horizontal area of the sump either to provide
more sump storage volume to obtain acceptable minimum pump operating cycles, or to alleviate
surges caused by pump shutdown in the sump and connecting sewers.
(v)
Minimum Submersion
The pump suction intake must be submerged sufficiently to avoid the formation of vortexes on the
water surface of the sump. These vortexes can take many shapes and forms. The formation of
vortexes between the pump suction intake and the sump water surface causes air to enter the pump
suction. This mixture of air and water in the pump reduces the pump capacity. The formation of such
vortexes must therefore be avo`ided. There is a relationship between the intake velocity at the
suction intake and the submergence (S) of the intake. The minimum submersion required to avoid
the formation of a vortex in the pump suction tank and therefore air entrainment in the pump.
Various layouts of the submersion dimension are shown in Figure 8B-3. Tests by the Hydraulic
Institute have shown that the relationship between the minimum submergence S, the diameter D
and the flow rate q are:
q
S = D + 0.574 1.5
D
8A-6
(8B-1)
March 2009
The velocity v is given by:

q
v = 0.4085 2
D
Where,
S
=
D
=
q
=
V
=
(8B-2)
submergence (in)
diameter (in)
flow rate (us gpm)
flow velocity (ft/s)
The velocity is limited to between 2 and 8 ft/s. The recommended velocity rate is 5.5 ft/s. The flow
rates are limited to between 25 US gpm and 300000 US gpm (.001 and 18 m3/s)
Parameters of pump sump dimensions can be determined using the recommended sump dimension
curves shown in Figure 8B-4. The specific speed for different single pumps can be determined using
the total head (Figure 8B-5).
B
S
H
L
W
Type 1
Type 2
Type 3
Type 4
Figure 8B-3 Submersion Dimension for Different Layouts
Conversion Factor:
1 inch = 2.54 cm
1 ft = 0.3048 m
1 US gpm = 3.79 L/min
March 2009
1 cm = 0.394 inch
1 m = 3.28 ft
1 L/min = 0.265 US gpm
8A-7
Recommended Sump Dimensions (m)

0.2
0.4
0.6 0.8 1
8 10
20
300,000
60,000
200,000
S
40,000
Y
100,000
10,000
6,000
m3/h per Pump
Gallons per min per pump
20,000
4,000
10,000
2,000
1,000
3,000
5 6
8 10
20
40
60 80 100
200
600
900
Recommended Sump Dimensions (in)
Figure 8B-4 Sump Dimensions versus Flow
8A-8
March 2009
20000
100
50
40
30
15
20
10
8 7
OT
AL
SU
CT
ION
TT
OT
AL
15
FT
T
5F
LIF
T
LIF
T
EA
D
SU
CT
ION
SU
CT
ION
H
UC
TIO
NH
TT
OT
AL
OT
AL
S
9000
5F
15
FT
T
10000
ZER
O
8000
OT
AL
S
20
FT
T
10
FT
T
10
5000
UC
TIO
NL
IFT
OT
AL
SU
CT
ION
OT
AL
S
6000
LIF
T
UC
TIO
NH
EAD
7000
FT
T
Single Suction Mixed Flow and Axial Flow Pumps
EA
D
15000
4000
3500
100
50
40
30
20
15
10
Total Head (H) in Feet (First Stage)

Figure 8B-5 Upper Limits of Specific Speeds for Single Suction, Mixed and Axial Flow Pumps Handling
Clear Water at Sea Level (KADA II Improvement Project, Final Report)
March 2009
8A-9
APPENDIX 8C Grain Size Distribution Analysis
Grain size distribution curve is to determine the grain size distribution for aquifer and gravel pack
materials by sieve analysis. Standard ASTM (American Society of Testing Materials) sieves are used
to determine grain size distribution for aquifer materials. Grain size distribution curve serves four
purposes in hydrogeological practices. They are:
To
To
To
To
determine the range of grain size present in aquifer materials

determine the effective grain size
determine slot size of well screen and gravel pack materials
determine hydraulic conductivity and permeability of the aquifer materials.
A sediment sample of known weight is placed in the top sieve of a set of sieves with decreasing
mesh opening and diameters. The set is the placed in a mechanical shaker for up to 10 min to
separate the sample into fractions which are retained at individual sieves. The weight of each
fraction is measured and expressed as percent of the initial weight of the sample. Table 11.8F1
shows particle or grain size of aquifer materials and grain size distribution curve is shown in Figure
11.8F-1.
Table 11.8C-1 Classification Based on Particle Size (Halevy et al. 1967)
100
Gravel
270
ASTM sieve #
0.053
140
200
0.075
0.106
50
60
70
100
Gravel (mm)
Very Fine Gravel
2.0-4.0
Fine Gravel
4.0-8.0
Medium Gravel
8.0-16.0
Coarse Gravel
16.0-32.0
Very Coarse Gravel
32.0-64.0
Diameter
in millimeters
Silt
Sand
90
10
80
20
30
d60
40
60
3
50
50
40
30
60
70
20
d10
10
Percent liner than d
70
Percent liner than d
0.300
0.250
0.212
0.150
30
40
0.425
0.600
16
20
0.850
8
10
13
2.36
2.00
1.70
1.18
4
4.75
Sand (mm)
Very Fine Sand
0.0620.125
Fine Sand
0.1250.25
Medium Sand
0.25-0.5
Coarse Sand
0.5-1.0
Very Coarse Sand
1.0-2.0
3.35
6.35
Clay-Silt (mm)
Clay
< 0.004
Silt
0.0040.062
80
90
100
0
10
0.1
1
Grain diameter in millimeters (d)
0.01
Figure 11.8C-1 Grain Size Distribution Curve
8A-10
March 2009
The grain size distribution curve is plotted on a semilogarithmic paper in which the cumulative
percent finer by weight is plotted on the vertical arithmetic scale and sieve openings diameter is
plotted on the horizontal logarithmic scale. The percentage finer scale on the ordinate shows the
percentage material finer than that of a given size of particle on a dry-weight basis. The effective
particle size is the 10 percent finer than value (d10). The distribution of particles is characterized by
the uniformity coefficient (CU). A uniform material has a low uniformity coefficient while a well
graded material has a high uniformity coefficient. The coefficient of uniformity is defined by the
following equation:
Cu =
d 60
d10
(8C-1)
Where,
Cu = uniformity coefficient
d60 = grain size that is 60% finer by weight
d10 = grain size that is 10% finer by weight (effective grain size)
The estimation of saturated hydraulic conductivity is essentially based on the following algorithm:
K = C d10
(8C-2)
Where,
K
= the saturated hydraulic conductivity
C
= coefficient depending on the degree of sorting (d60/d10). Values of C are arbitrarily taken
from the range 1200 for clean uniform sand to 400 for silty and clayey heterogeneous sand.
March 2009
8A-11
APPENDIX 8D General Recommendations for Well Materials and Strength

D1: Selection of Well Casing and Screen Materials (USEPA, 1991)
Do not Use
Use
- PTFE if well depth exceed 68.6 114 m
- PVC, ABS, SS
- PVC or ABS if well depth exceeds 366 610 m
- SS
- SS if pH < 7
- PVC, ABS, or PTFE
- SS if DO > 2 ppm
- PVC, ABS, or PTFE
- SS if H2S 1 ppm
- PVC, ABS, or PTFE
- SS if TDS > 1000 ppm
- PVC, ABS, or PTFE
- SS if CO2 > 50 ppm
- PVC, ABS, or PTFE
- SS if Cl- > 500 ppm
- PVC, ABS, or PTFE
- PVC if a neat PVC solvent/softening agent is present or if the - SS, PTFE
aqueous concentration of the PVC solvent/softening agent
exceeds 0.25 times its solubility in water.
- Solvent bonded joints for PVC casings.
- Welded stainless joints
- threaded PVC casings
- Any PVC well casing that is not NSF-ASTM
- threaded SS casings
- ASTM NSF approved
approved D1785 and F480
PVC well casings
D1785 and F480
- Any stainless steel casing that is not ASTM approved A312
- ASTM approved SS304
and SS316 casings
- Any ABS well casing that is not ASTM approved
A312.
- ASTM approved ABS
casings F480
D2: Comparative Strengths of Well Casing Materials (USEPA, 1991)
Material
-
Polyvinylchloride (PVC)
PVC casing joint
Stainless steel (SS)
SS casing joint
Polytetrafluoroethylene
(PTFE)
- PTFE casing joint
- Epoxy fiberglass
- Epoxy casing joint
- Arcylonitrite-butadienestyrene (ABS)
- ABS casing joint
8A-12
Casing tensile strength

(psi)
2 in
4 in
nominal
nominal
7,500
22,000
2,800
6,050
37,760
92,000
15,900
81,750
3,800
No data
Casing collapse strength (psi)

2 in
nominal
307
300
896
No data
No data
4 in nominal
158
150
315
No data
No data
540
22,600
14,000
8,830
1,890
56,500
30,000
22,000
No data
330
230
No data
No data
250
150
No data
3,360
5,600
No data
No data
March 2009
APPENDIX 8E Additional Pump Characteristic Curves
The performance of a centrifugal pump can be shown graphically on a characteristic curve. A typical
characteristic curve shows the total dynamic head, brake horsepower, efficiency, and net positive
Suction head all plotted over the capacity range of the pump.
Figures 8E-1, 8E-2, & 8E-3 are non-dimensional curves which indicate the general shape of the
characteristic curves for the various types of pumps. They show the head, brake horsepower, and
efficiency plotted as a percent of their values at the design or best efficiency point of the pump.
160
HEAD
140
140
120
120
B.H.P.
100
100
80
80
60
60
EFF.
40
40
20
20
0
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
PER CENT OF BEST EFFICIENCY
PER CENT OF HEAD AT DESIGN POINT
160
PER CENT OF B.H.P. AT DESIGN POINT
Figure 8E-1 below shows that the head curve for a radial flow pump is relatively flat and that the
head decreases gradually as the flow increases. Note that the brake horsepower increases gradually
over the flow range with the maximum normally at the point of maximum flow.
140
PER CENT OF DESIGN FLOW
Figure 8E-1 Radial Flow Pump
140
140
HEAD
120
120
100
100
80
80
B.H.P
60
60
40
40
EFF.
20
20
0
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
160
Mixed flow centrifugal pumps and axial flow or propeller pumps have considerably different
characteristics as shown in Figures 8E-2 and 8E-3 below. The head curve for a mixed flow pump is
steeper than for a radial flow pump. The shut-off head is usually 150% to 200% of the design head.
The brake horsepower remains fairly constant over the flow range. For a typical axial flow pump, the
head and brake horsepower both increase drastically near shutoff as shown in Figure 8E-3.
140
Figure 8E-2 Mixed Flow Pump
March 2009
8A-13
320
300
260
240
220
220
200
200
B.H.P.
180
180
160
160
140
140
120
120
100
100
80
80
60
60
EFF.
40
40
20
20
0
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
100
80
60
40
HEAD
240
280
20
0
140
Figure 8E-3 Axial Flow Pump

The distinction between the above three classes is not absolute, and there are many pumps with
characteristics falling somewhere between the three. For instance, the Francis vane impeller would
have a characteristic between the radial and mixed flow classes. Most turbine pumps are also in this
same range depending upon their specific speeds. Figure 8E-4 below shows a typical pump curve as
furnished by a manufacturer. It is a composite curve which tells at a glance what the pump will do at
a given speed with various impeller diameters from maximum to minimum. Constant horsepower,
efficiency, and NPSHR lines are superimposed over the various head curves. It is made up from
individual test curves at various diameters.
NPSH R
200
1
2
40
13
3
45
50
TOTAL HEADFEET
180
4
55
5
58
6
8
60
10
12
160
12
14
60
140
11
120
10
58
55
50
100
80
31
0
60
13
10
10
10
23
10
40
13
10
20
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
GALLONS PER MINUTE
Figure 8E-4 Composite Performance Curve

8A-14
March 2009
APPENDIX 8.F Worked Examples

Example 8F-1: Design Canal Head Works
Problem: The Tanjung Karang Irrigation Scheme has a peak water demand 25 m3/s. A canal head
works needs to be constructed to divert 30 m3/s irrigation supplies into the feeder canal of the
irrigation scheme. The information for the construction site for designing the canal head works
across the Bernam River is given below:
High Flood Discharge:

High flood level before constructing Barrage/Weir (H.F.L):
River bed level:
Pond level:
Permissible afflux:
Canal discharge:
Canal bed width
Canal water depth:
Canal bed level:
Canal F.S.L.
Angle of offtake
Silt factor in the river may be considered as
160.0 m3/s
28.2 m
24.3 m
27.0 m
1.0 m
30.0 m3/s
12.0 m
1.5 m
24.0 m
25.3 m
110.0o
1.5
Design Procedures for Canal Head Works

Barrage/Weir
Step 1: Total Waterway Required (L)
The maximum high flood in the river is 160 m3/s
Therefore,
P = 4.75
Pw =
60.08 m
Hence Pw calculated is increased 10 to 20% to get the total length (L) of the barrage.
So, L = 66.09 m
(Assume the factor = 10%)
The factor by which Pw is multiplied to obtain L is the looseness factor.

Step 2: The Waterway Required for Undersluice Portion
- The undersluice should be able to discharge 15 to 20% of the maximum flood discharge
- Maximum flood discharge of the canal so that flood may pass without operating barrage gates
- Twice the discharge of the canal
(a) Crest of the Undersluice
The crest of the undersluice is generally kept at the same level of river bed. Hence the crest level
of the undersluice is assumed at R.L.
24.0 m
Hence, it is designed on the basis of the maximum discharge. Therefore, the discharge through
undersluice should be Qu = 32 m3/s
Permissible afflux is 1.0 m. So, the afflux of 0.5 m has been assumed and 0.5 m margin is left for silting
and shoaling in pool u/s after the construction of the barrage.
Hence, H.F.L u/s after construction of the barrage will be:
(H.F.L + Afflux) = 28.7 m
March 2009
8A-15
(b) The average discharge intensity, q = 2.42 m3/s/m

q2
According to Lacey's Formula, Scour depth, R = 1.35
f
The velocity approach of flow in flood, v
Velocity head:
v2
= (1.14)2/(2 X 9.80)
2g
= 2.13 m
q
= 1.14 m/s
R
= 0.07 m
Hence, the total energy line will be T.E.L (H.F.L. + Afflux + Velocity Head) = 28.77 m
The head over the undersluice crest, Hu = Head at Total Energy Line - Crest Level of Undersluice
Hu = 4.77 m
Then, the discharge Qu through the undersluice portion for the empirical equations below,
(c) Discharge formula for broad-crested weir is given by:
Q u = 1.71 (L u KnHu )Hu
Where,
Qu = 32 m3/s, Hu = 6.47 m
Note: The value of 1.71 will be used for discharge formula for sharp-crested weir
Considering with 2 bays for undersluice waterway (Number of contractions n = 4):
Lu =
3.70 m
This is the minimum undersluice waterway length.
Considering with 3 bays for undersluice waterway (Number of contractions n = 6):

Lu =
4.66 m
This is the minimum undersluice waterway length.
Consider, 3 bays are provided 3 m each in width.

Assume, 2 piers of 2.0 m width
So, the overall length of the undersluice portion to be:
Minimum
8.66 m
Maximum
13.00 m
Step 3: Consider the width of the divide wall Ld = 3.0 m

Step 4: Overall Length of the Barrage
Overall length of the barrage = L - Max Lu - Ld = 50.09 m
Provide barrage portion as follows:
5 Bays of 8 m width
Lb
4 Piers of 2.0 m width
1 Fish Ladder of 2.0 m width
Total
=
=
=
=
40.0 m
8.0 m
2.0 m
50.0 m
If the length of the bay increased too much, the cost for gates becomes exorbitant and cost of piers
becomes less and vise-versa. Hence, the order of the length of bays generally will be provided based
on the practice and/or country's standard.
Step 5: Crest Level of the Barrage Portion
Q b = 1.71 (L b - 0.1n H b ) H b
Where, Qb, Lb and Hb are the discharge, length and head over the crest in the barrage portion.
8A-16
March 2009
Qb = Maximum discharge - Discharge through undersluice = 128 m3/s

n = number of contractions = 4 x 2 + 1 x 2 =10
From equation in step 5:
Trail and Error:
3
Qb
= (L b 0.1 n Hb )Hb 2
1.71
or,
74.85 = (L b
0.1 n Hb )Hb
= 74.85 = (L b
74.89801
3
Hb )Hb 2
By solving the above equation by trail and error, Hb works out to be: 1.56 m
Therefore, the crest level of the barrage will be: T.E.L. - Hb = 27.21 m
Difference between crest levels of Barrage and Undersluice: 26.01 - 24.0 = 3.2 m
The crest level is 1.8 m above the crest level of undersluice; hence no revision of calculations is
required.
Step 6: The Waterway and Crest Level of Head Regulator
The width of the canal is 10 m and the let the water way be equal to the 10 m.
Provide canal head regulator portion as follows:
4 Bays of 4.0 m width
Lc = 16.0 m
3 Piers of 1.33 m width
= 4.0 m
Total = 20.0 m
Number of end contractions, n = 8
Pond level is at 27.0 m
The canal head regulator crest is designed to pass 1.5 to 2.0 times of the canal discharge, so that
(i) Canal discharge could be increased in future
(ii) Silt entry in the canal becomes more due to building up of the downstream river bed in future
At the pond level, 1.5 times of the discharge of the canal discharge i.e. 45 m3/s
3
Q c = 1.71 (L c 0.1nHc )H c 2
or,
Trail and Error:
26.42052
3
26.32 = (L c 0.8 Hc )H c 2
Solving it by trial and error works out to be: Hc = 1.47 m

Hence, the crest level of head regulator (Pond Level - Hc) = 25.53 m
The crest level of canal head regulator is generally kept 1.25 to 1.5 m higher than the undersluice crest
level to have a better control on silt entry into the canal. In this case, the difference between
crest levels work out to be (Crest Level of Head Regulator - Crest Level of Undersluice) = 1.53 m
Hence, the crest level at 25.53 m can be provided.
Step 7: The Canal Head Regulator
The following data is required to design a canal head regulator:
March 2009
8A-17
160.0 m3/s
27.0 m
30.0 m3/s
12.0 m
25.3 m
25.53 m
24.0 m
28.2 m
28.77 m
16.00 m
4 nos
High Flood Discharge:

Pond level
Canal discharge
Canal Bed width
Canal F.S.L
Head Regulator Crest Level
Under Sluice Floor Level
High Flood Level (H.F.L) in River
Total Energy Level (T.E.L)
Effective waterway (Lc)
No of Bays
Note: Now the crest level at 25.53 should pass 1.5 -2.0 times of the design discharge of the canal
(assumed 1.5 times) which is 45 m3/s in canal at pond level. Therefore, to draw design discharge from
river, either all the gates will be partially opened or 2 or 3 bays will be opened full to discharge the
water and 1 or 2 bays partially opened by slightly rising the gates. It will usually discharge from all
gates.
During floods, either all gates will be partially opened or no discharge will be withdrawn. Therefore, the
location of the jump should be checked for the following conditions:
1
2
3
All gates partially opened during floods

All gates partially opened at pond level
Three gates fully opened at pond level
The floor experiences the maximum uplift pressure when the canal is not running and there is
maximum
flood in the river. The floor should be designed for this condition.
Step 8: Hydraulic Calculations for Various Flow Conditions
Case 1: High Flood and Gates Partially Opened
Average discharge intensity, q = Discharge at H.F.L / Effective waterway of the regulator
q=
Head causing flow =
1.88
m3/s/m
3.17
Let the gate opening be x m, the discharge can then be calculated with the submerged orifice formula.
Q = CA 2gh = C (L c X ) 2gh
or, X =
Q
0.62 L c 2 9.80 h
Thus, gate opening = 0.38 m

Velocity of flow through the opening, V= Q/A = 4.89 m/s
The loss through gates works out to be 0.5(V2/2g) = 0.61m
T.E.L (Total Energy Level) just U/s of gate = 28.77 m
T.E.L (Total Energy Level) just d/s of gate = 28.16 m
Downstream water level at F.S.L of the canal = 25.3 m
Head loss, HL= T.E.L of d/s gate - F.S.L of canal = 2.91 m
8A-18
March 2009
From Blench Curve (Figure ),

For HL = 2.91 m and q = 1.88 m3/s/m
Downstream specific energy, Ef2 = 1.90 m (y2 = Ef2)
Therefore, the hydraulic jump will form at (F.S.L. - Ef2): 23.35 m
Ef1 at R.L. 23.35 i.e. just before the jump: 4.81 m
Therefore, y1 (for Ef1 =4.81 and q =1.88 m3/s)
From Specific energy curve (Figure 8F1-2), y1 = 0.44 m
Hence, length of the stilling basin required = 7(y2-y1) = 10.22 m
F1 =
q
gy 13
2.05
Case 2: Gates Partially Opened at Pond Level

Here, head over the crest is considered half of case 1 approximately. Hence, h = 1.59 m
Intensity of discharge q = 1.875 m3/s
For considering unit discharge, Lc = 1 m
Thus, gate opening,
x=
q
0.62 x L c 2x 9.80 x h
= 0.54 m
Velocity of flow through the opening, V= Q/A = 3.46 m/s

The loss through gates works out to be 0.5(V2/2g) = 0.30 m
Pond Level
27.00 m
T.E.L just d/s of gate
26.70 m
Downstream water level at F.S.L of the canal
25.3 m
Head loss, HL = T.E.L of d/s gate - F.S.L of canal = 1.45 m

From Blench Curve (Figure 8F1-1),
For HL = 1.45 m and
q = 1.88 m3/s/m
Downstream specific energy, Ef2 = 1.55 m or (y2 = Ef2) = 1.55 m

Ef1 at R.L. 23.70 i.e. just before the jump = 3.0 m
Therefore, y1 for Ef1 = 3.0 m and q = 1.88 m3/s
From Specific energy curve (Figure 8F1-2),
March 2009
8A-19
y1 = 0.4 m
Hence, length of the stilling basin required = 7(y2-y1) =8.05 m = 8.0 m
F1 =
q
gy 13
= 2.37
Case 3: Three Gates Partially Opened at Pond Level

Discharge for 3 bays = 18 m3/s
Intensity of discharge, q = 1.5 m3/s/m
Pond Level = 27.0 m
Downstream water level at F.S.L of the canal = 25.3 m
Head loss, HL = T.E.L of d/s gate - F.S.L of canal = 1.75 m
From Blench Curve (Figure 8F-3.1),
For HL = 1.75 m and q = 1.50 m3/s/m
Downstream specific energy, Ef2 = 1.5 m or (y2 = Ef2) = 1.5 m
Ef1 at R.L. 23.70 i.e. just before the jump: 3.25 m
Therefore, y1 for Ef1 = 3.25 and q = 1.50 m3/s
From Specific energy curve (Figure 8F1-2), y1 = 0.4 m
Hence, length of the stilling basin required = 7(y2-y1) = 7.7 m = 8.0 m
F1 =
q
gy 13
= 1.89
For above three cases, level of jump formation in Case 1 is 23.35 which is the lowest. Therefore, the
floor should be provided at 23.0 m. Range of F1 varies from 1.89 to 2.37. Hence the large stilling basin
for low Froude number should be designed. The length of jump i.e. stilling basin is longest in Case 3.
Hence stilling basin of
Now the section of the head regulator can be finalized.
D/s floor length = cistern length = 8.0 m
Glacis is kept 3:1
Width of the crest is kept about 2 times the head over crest at pond level as coefficient has been taken
1.71 (Broad Crested Weir).
U/s of crest is kept vertical as silt excluder tunnels are to be provided.
U/s floor length is kept 20 m at R.L. 24.0 (same as undersluice floor). The depth of the u/s sheet
pile line is the same as provided in undersluice portion.
D/s sheet pile line is arbitrarily provided let say 4.0 m
8A-20
March 2009
Design specification of chute blocks

Height (above jump level i.e. 23.35 m for Case1 = 2y1) = 1.0 m
Width
1.2 m
Spacing
3.0 m
Baffle piers height
1.0 m
Width and spacing same as that of chute blocks.

End sill continuous and its height will be 0.2 of water depth = 0.3 m
Step 9: Depth of Sheet Piles
(i) u/s Sheet Pile
Provide u/s sheet pile line down to the elevation, the same as that of the undersluice.
R = 2.13
On the u/s side allow 1.1R = 1.1 x 2.13 = 2.34 m
R.L. of bottom scour level = 28.77 2.34 = 26.43 m
(ii) d/s Sheet Pile
To provide d/s sheet pile, following items are needed to be determined:
Discharge Intensity, q =
Design Discharge
Le
Where, Q is the specific discharge (m3/s/m)

1
q2 3
= 2.13
Depth of Scour, R = 1.35
f
Where, f is the Laceys silt factor (f = 1.5)
Anticipated Scour = 1.25 R

R.L. of the bottom of the scour hole = FSL of Canal Anticipated Scour = 1.25 x 2.13 = 2.66 m
Provide sheet pile line down to elevation of the bottom of the scour hole.
Step 10: Safe Exit Gradient and Total Floor Length
Minimum of total floor length required should be the sum of:
(i) horizontal floor in the downstream from surface flow considerations
(ii) length required to accommodate sloping glacis and crest; and
(iii) about 3 m extra, upstream of the crest or length required from other considerations.
The exit gradient should be checked for the condition that the canal is completely closed when high
flood is passing in the river. This provides the worse static condition. Khoslas exit gradient curve is
used to check this condition and it gives the total floor length.
March 2009
8A-21
The exit gradient at its downstream end is given by the following equation:
GE =
H
1
Where,
=
1 + 1 + 2
2
and =
b
d
Where,
b
= total floor length
d
= depth of d/s sheet pile
H
= total static head
From the curve in Figure 8F-3.3 for any value of or b/d, the corresponding value of
can be

read off. Knowing the values H and d, the value GE is easily calculated. It is obvious from equation
that if d = 0, GE is infinite. It is therefore, essential that a vertical cut-off should be provided at the
downstream end of the floor. The uplift pressure must be kept as low as possible consistent with the
safety at the exit, so as to keep the floor thickness to the minimum.
Assume, the safe exit gradient is 1/6 (Advisable to consider as JKR recommendation).
Maximum static head (H) = Pond Level Bed Level of Canal = 27.0 24.0 = 3.0 m
Depth of d/s sheet pile line = 4.0 m
From Khoslas Equation,
1
= GE
H
= (1/6) x 3.0/8.6) = 0.125
d
From Khoslas Exit Curve (Figure 8F1-3), For
= 0.125 and = 11.0
So, the total floor length, b = d = 12 x 4.0 = 44.0 m

Adopt floor length = 44.0 m
The floor length shall be provided as below:
Downstream glacis length with 3:1 slope 3(Crest Level of Head Regulator Bed Level of the Canal)
= 3(25.53 24.0) = 4.60 m = 5.0 m
Crest Width = 2.0 m
The d/s horizontal floor = 16 m
Balance shall be provided for u/s floor = 21 m
Total Floor Length = 44.0 m
8A-22
March 2009
Step 11: U/s Protection

Same as in case of undersluice that is in 10-15 m length 1.5 m3 C.C> Blocks over boulders, then 1 m
wide toe and u/s of toe 11.5 m long and 1.5 m thick launching apron (This is recommended as JKR
Structure Design Manual).
Step 12: d/s Protection
As the discharge in canal will not be more than the design discharge, there will be no significant
scouring of the bed d/s of the sheet pile. Therefore protection d/s of sheet pile is not strictly
required. But it is advisable to provide d/s protection. Therefore, 2 x 8.5 = 17 m length 1.8 m3 C.C
Blocks are laid over a inverted filter. Then 1 m wide toe is provided. D/s of toe 1.5 m thick and 1.5 x
8.5 = 12.75 m long launching apron is provided (For more detail, JKR Structure Design Guideline is
recommended).
Step 13: Silt Excluder
Silt excluder may not be required. It is advisable to follow JKR recommendation and design
guidelines.
Table 8F1-1 Dimensions for Various Elements of Stilling Basin for Large and Small Incoming Froude
Number (F1)
Items
Type of Jump
Height of Chute Blocks
Width
Spacing
LB - Length of Basin
Baffle Piers
Height of Baffle Piers

Width
Spacing
End Sill
Height
Width
Spacing
March 2009
2.5 < F1 < 4.5
F1 > 4.5
Oscillatory
2 y1 to damp the Oscillations
y1 (approximately)
2 to 2.5 y1
Length of Jump = 5(y2-y1)
Provide at LB/3 from the toe of the
glacis
Perfect
y1
y1
y1
Length of Jump = 5(y2-y1)
y1 to 1.5 y1
1.5 y1 or so
1.5 y1 or so
continuous
15 to 20% of y2
-
Not provided as they may

be damaged due to large
incoming velocities,
cavitations and vibration
may take place.
Dentated
15 to 20% of y2
15% of y2
15 to 20% of y2
8A-23
8A-24
March 2009
HL
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
5.5
6.0
0.3 CUMEC
1 CUMEC
2 CUM
EC
3 CUMEC
4 CUMEC
5 CUMEC
7 CUMEC
7 CU
MEC
8 CU
MEC
9
C
U
M
10 C EC
UME
C
11
C
U
MEC
12 C
U
13 C MEC
U
14 C MEC
U
M
E
C
15 C
UME
C
16 C
UM
17 C EC
1 UMEC
8
C
UME
1
C
9
C
U
20 C MEC
UME
2
1
C
U C
22 C MEC
U
23 C MEC
24 C UMEC
25 CUMEC
26 C UMEC
27 UMEC
C
U
28 C MEC
UME
C
30 C
UME
C
32 C
UME
C
34 C
UM
E
C
36 C
UME
C
5
6
7
8
9
Figure 8F1-1 Blench Curve
H2
10
40 C
11
45
12
50
UME
C
CU
ME
C
CU
ME
C
55
13
60
CU
ME
C
CU
ME
C
14
65
CU
ME
C
UM
EC
E-F1
DIAGRAM
CONNECTING
HL AND H 2
FOR SELECTED
VALUES OF Q
15
BLENCH CURVES
70
C
HL
E2
16
15
14
ENERGY OF FLOW CURVES
13
12
FC
RI
TI
CA
LD
EP
TH
11
ENERGY
OF Flow,
FLOW E f = D +
Energy
V2 (m)
2g
Cu
me
c
LO
CU
SO
10
40
8
36
33
30
28
26
24
22
18
DE
PT
16
14
LI
NE
20
12
11
10
9
8
7
5.5
4.5
4.0
3.5
0
3.0
2.5
2.3
2.0
1
.75
1.5
1.2
5
1.0
0.7
5
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
4
5
DEPTH (D) - (m)
10
Depth, D (m)
Figure 8F1-2 Specific Energy Curve
March 2009
8A-25
25
0.50
0.45
20
0.40
W.L.
H
EXIT GRADIENT
=
15
10
SCALE FOR 1/
SCALE FOR
CU
RV
E
0.35
0.30
= b/d
0.25
1+ 1+
2
H
1
E= d x
0.20
0.15
0.10
1/
CURVE 1
0.05
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
Figure 8F1-3 Khoslas Safe Exit Gradient Curve
2m
1:5
24.0m
U/S PROTECTION
4.0m
U/S SHEET PILE
16m
20.0m
21m
5m
D/S SHEET PILE
CONCRETE WEIR WITH SLOPING GLACIS
D/S PROTECTION
4.0m
20m
8F1-4 Design Diagram of Canal Head Regulator
8A-26
March 2009
Example 8F-2: Tubewell Design
A farmer needs to supply irrigation water by a tubewell at the rate of 50 L/s for his farm. A typical
well log for a site is given in Figure 8.F2-1 and considers that results for grain size distribution
analysis on a field sample for the same aquifer are provided in Table 8F2-1 and Figure 8F2-2. Design
the well.
Geologic interpretation
Sand and clay

3
Gamma ray log
Sand and gravel
10
11
Till
20
21
22
Depth (meters)
24
26
Sand and gravel

Till
Sand and gravel
Till
Sand and gravel
30
34
37
39
40
Till, very sandy, or silt

Till, dark
Sand and gravel
46
Till
50
51
52
54
60
56
57
59
Increasing
radioactivity
61
Sand and gravel

Till
Sand and gravel
Till
Sand and gravel
Bedrock, shale
Figure 8F2-1 A Typical Well Log

Table 8F2-1 Calculations for Plotting the Grain Size Distribution Curve
Diameter of
Sieve No Sieve/Grain Size
(mm)
3
9.5
4
4.75
8
2.36
16
1.18
30
0.6
40
0.425
100
0.15
200
0.075
Pan
< 0.075
Total Weight of Sample (g):
March 2009
Weight
Retained
(g)
49.95
26.70
25.29
50.58
72.57
25.50
33.60
7.53
8.28
300
Content
of Fraction
(%)
16.65
8.90
8.43
16.86
24.19
8.50
11.20
2.51
2.76
Cumulative (%) Cumulative (%)

Coarser than
Finer than
Sieve Diameter Sieve Diameter
16.65
83.35
25.55
74.45
33.98
66.02
50.84
49.16
75.03
24.97
83.53
16.47
94.73
5.27
97.24
2.76
100.00
0.00
8A-27
Well Design Steps:

The step-by-step design calculation is given below:
Step 1: Grain Size Distribution Analysis
100
Percent Finer than Grain Size
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.01
D10 = 0.25
0.1
D60 = 1.80
10
Grain Size (mm)

Figure 8.F2-2 Grain Size Distribution Curve
From Graph in Figure 8F2-2,
D60 = 1.80 and D10 = 0.25
Coefficient of Uniformity (Eq. 8.23), CU = d60/d10 = 1.80/0.25 = 7.2
Effective grain size, de= d10= 0.25 mm
Since, CU > 6, the sample can be described as well graded or low uniformity.
Step 2: Investigation of Lithologic Information
A typical well log is taken which is shown in Figure 8F2-1. From the lithologic two confined aquifers
are clearly identified at depth between 26 to 34 m and 39 to 46 m. In this situation screen can be
positioned either in single aquifer or both aquifers.
Step 3: Well Depth
Well depth is determined based on lithologic information. The well depth is the sum of aquifer depth
and length of bail plug. The bail plug is normally provided 2-3 m. The actual aquifer will be chosen
based on pumping test and watertable data. From Figure 8F2-1, the well depth is determined as:
Table 8.F2-2 Well Depth
Aquifer Location
Aquifer Depth (m)
Aquifer Depth With Bail Plug (m)
8A-28
Well Depth (m)

Aquifer (1) 26 - 34 m
Aquifer (2) 39 to 46 m
34
46
37
49
March 2009
Step 4: Depth of Housing Pipe

The pumping test data is required for determining the depth of housing pipe. The housing pipe must
be lowered few meters below the lowest drawdown completed in the dry period.
Depth of housing pipe= Water table depth below ground level + Drawdown + Seasonal fluctuation +
Allowance for submergence of pump.
= 10 + 5 + 1 + 6.0
= 22 m (Based on Assumed Values)
Based on housing pipe depth, the suitable aquifer is at the depth between 39 to 46 m.
Step 5: Diameter of Housing Pipe
From Table 8.1, Well diameter for the designed discharge rate is 30 cm
Step 6: Well Diameter
From Table 8.1, Well diameter can be chosen based on design well yield.
For naturally developed well, Well diameter = 40 mm
For artificially developed well, Well diameter = 60 mm
Step 7: Diameter of Well Casing Pipe below Pump Housing
The diameter of the well casing pipe is determined using Eqs 8.19 and 8.20 based on most suitable
permissible velocity 3 m/s through pipe and designed discharge rate. Using combination of both
equations:
d=
4Q
Ve
4 0.05
= 0.145 m = 14.5 cm
0.03
= 15 cm
Where, Q = 0.05 m3/s and Permissible velocity, Ve = 3 m/s
Step 8: Selection of Suitable Strata for Well Screen
The suitable strata for well screen are located between the depths of 39 46 m.
Step 9: Diameter of Well Screen
The diameter of the screen should be at least 150 mm. It is recommended that the diameter of the
well screen is normally kept same with the casing pipe below pump housing (after reducer).
Step 10: Gravel Pack Design
Gravel packing makes the zone immediately surrounding the well screen more permeable by
removing the formation materials and replacing them with artificially graded coarser materials. The
coarser pack will allow the coarser strata of the water-bearing formation to yield maximum water.
Therefore, artificial gravel pack has to be provided.
March 2009
8A-29
From Table 8.3,

For Uc > 5.0, the size for well graded gravel pack is selected 5.25 mm.
The thickness of the gravel pack provided should be 10 cm.
Step 11: Design of the Well Screen
From Section, 8.5.4.3,
For an artificially placed gravel packed well,
The size of the screen slot is governed by the size of the gravel. The size of slots in artificially gravelpacked well is generally recommended to be around D10 of the pack material (Driscoll, 1986; ASCE,
1996; NGWA, 1998).
Slot opening:
The slot size of the screen should be such that it retains at least 90 percent of the Gravel. The D10 of
the gravel pack material is 2.5 mm. So, the slot size is selected 3 mm.
Percentage of open area:
The minimum screen open area of 10% is desirable.
Using Eq. 8.22,
Ao = d x 1 x 10/100 = x 0.4 x 1 x 10/100 = 0.1257 m2
h=
0.05
Q
=
0
.
1257
0.03
A o Ve
= 13 m which is the minimum screen length.

The aquifer thickness is 15 m (8 m + 7 m). Therefore it is desirable to provide about 13.0 m length
of screen, which is equal about 90 percent of the aquifer depth. However, the minimum diameter of
casing pipe for a discharge of 3000 l/min is 20 cm (Table 8.2). Screen will be placed in both aquifers.
Step 12: Verification of ve and Q
For ds = 20 cm, Ve = 0.0769 = 7.69 m/s, so casing diameter needs to be increased.
Hence, a pipe of 40 cm diameter is selected, which is higher than the calculated value.
Ve is computed using the Eq. 8.24 which is 0.0306 m/s which is equal to the optimum screen
entrance velocity 3 cm/s.
Where,
Q = 0.05 m3/s
C = 0.5
ds = 40 cm = 0.4 m
Ls = 13 m
P = 0.5
Therefore, pump housing pipe should be provided 60 cm as size of the casing pipe has increased.
8A-30
March 2009
0.5m
Housing Pipe
60cm
Gravel pack
22.0m
Reducer 0.3 to 0.5m
15cm
40cm dia
26.0m
Screen
7.0m
34.0m
Gravel pack
10cm
39.0m
Screen
6.0m
3.0-4.0m
46.0m
Bail Plug = 3
Figure 8F2-3 Diagram of the Designed Tubewell
March 2009
8A-31
Example 8F-3: Design and Selection of Irrigation Pump
A newly developed sprinkler irrigation system is required to design the pump with a flow capacity of
378.5 L/min (100 gpm). The pump will be needed to draw water from a stream with the water
surface 3 m (10 ft) below the pump impeller. The sprinkler pressure required is 30 m (100 ft). The
mainline friction losses are 5 m (16.5 ft). The highest sprinkler is located 6 m (20 ft) above the pump
location. The velocity head is assumed to be 0.61 m (2ft). Calculate the total dynamic head (TDH)
required and determine the required pump for the irrigation system.
Solution:
Step 1: Information Required for TDH

Static head (HS)
Friction head (HF)
Pressure head (HP)
Velocity head HV
=
=
=
=
3 m (10 ft)
5 m (16.5 ft)
30 m (100 ft
0.61 m (2 ft)
Step 2: Calculate TDH

Using Eq. 8.11,
TDH = HS + HF + HP + HV
= 3 + 5 + 30 + 0.61
= 38.61 m (126.67 ft)
To select a proper pump for a particular application it is necessary to utilize the system curve and the pump
performance curve. The operating point is where the system curve and the actual pump curve intersect. There
are many pump curves are available with the manufactures. Sample pump curves for a centrifugal pump are
chosen as shown in Figure 8F-3-2.
Pump Curve at
Const. Speed
BEP
Operating Point
Head
Meters
System Curve
Flow (L/min)
Figure 8F-3-1 Relationship between Pump Curve and System Curve
8A-32
March 2009
3500 RPM
150
HEAD-FT
100
6.00 IN. DIA.
5.00 IN. DIA.
4.00 IN. DIA.

5HP
50
2HP
3HP
0
5.00
6.00
20
10
0
20
40
60
80
US GPM
100
120
140
NPSH-FT
4.00
160
Figure 8F-3-2 A Sample Pump Curves for a Centrifugal Type Pump

For this example, the pump curve for the centrifugal pump is selected shown in Figure Figure 8F-3-2.
For a required head 38.61 m (126.67 ft) while pumping 100 L/min (100 gpm). Start at 127 ft head
on the left of the pump curve. Now move straight across the curve to the right until reaching the line
that goes down to 100 GPM on the bottom of the curve. From the point (Top Black Circle) where the
two lines intersect move up the chart to see what horsepower pump will be needed. In this case a 5
HP will be needed as the next horsepower line above our intersection point is the 5 HP line. Likewise,
the impeller curve must also be higher in the chart than our line intersection, so a 6.0 inch diameter
impeller will work.
Let say, For 75 ft head and 80 gpm intersection point (Black Circle) is just above the 2 HP line, so a
2 HP pump will not work. We will need to use a 3 HP motor. The next higher impeller size is 5.0 inch
diameter. So we can use that impeller
There are two components that must be considered: Net Positive Suction Head Required (NPSHR)
and Net Positive Suction Head Available (NPSHA). If the NPSHA < NPSHR the Pump will produce
cavitations.
March 2009
8A-33
Step 3: Calculate Power Requirement for the Motor of the Selected Pump
Using Eq. 8.12,
WP =
Q TDH
102
Given, Q = 378.5 L/min = 6.30 L/s
6.30 38.61
102
= 2.38 KW
8A-34
March 2009

Chapter 9 - Irrigation Conveyance
Chapter 9 - IRRIGATION CONVEYANCE
Table of Contents
List of Tables .................................................................................................................... 9-v
List of Figures ................................................................................................................... 9-v
9.1
INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................... 9-1

9.1.1
Open Channels ........................................................................................ 9-1
9.1.2
Pipelines ................................................................................................. 9-1
9.2
SELECTION OF CONVEYANCE ................................................................................. 9-1
9.3
PLANNING AND DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS............................................................. 9-2

9.3.1
General Concept ....................................................................................... 9-2
9.3.2
Irrigation Modernization Concept................................................................ 9-2
9.3.3
Design Considerations............................................................................... 9-3
9.3.4
9.4
9.3.3.1
Conveyance Capacity ............................................................... 9-3
9.3.3.2
Function of Regulation, Distribution and Delivery ........................ 9-3
9.3.3.3
Operation, Maintenance and Management of the System ............ 9-3
9.3.3.4
Safety of the Canal System....................................................... 9-3
9.3.3.5
Relevant Law and Regulations .................................................. 9-3
9.3.3.6
Harmony with Environment ...................................................... 9-4
Information Requirement.......................................................................... 9-4
DESIGN OF CANAL LAYOUT .................................................................................... 9-4

9.4.1
9.4.2
9.4.3
Hierarchy and Facilities............................................................................. 9-4

9.4.1.1
Hierarchy ................................................................................ 9-4
9.4.1.2
Facilities.................................................................................. 9-4
Design Steps .......................................................................................... 9-6

Systems Design ....................................................................................... 9-6
9.4.3.1
Procedure ............................................................................... 9-6
9.4.3.2
Layout of the Drainage System ................................................. 9-6
9.4.3.3
Sub-Dividing Irrigation Area...................................................... 9-6
9.4.3.4
Selection of Canal Layout ......................................................... 9-7
9.4.3.5
Design Discharge..................................................................... 9-10
9.4.3.6
Design Water Level .................................................................. 9-10
9.4.3.7
Selection of Canal Types .......................................................... 9-11
9.4.3.8
Selection of Canal Structures .................................................... 9-12
9.4.4 Hydraulic Design of Canal............................................................................. 9-15
9.5
9.4.4.1
Hydraulic Consistency .............................................................. 9-15
9.4.4.2
Canal Discharge Capacity ......................................................... 9-15
9.4.4.3
Allowable Flow Velocity ............................................................ 9-16
9.4.4.4
Determination of Design Velocity............................................... 9-18
9.4.4.5
Water Levels ........................................................................... 9-18
9.4.4.6
Longitudinal Section................................................................. 9-19
9.4.4.7
Water Surface Profiles.............................................................. 9-19
9.4.4.8
Erosion and Sedimentation ....................................................... 9-21
DESIGN OF UNLINED CANAL .................................................................................. 9-21
March 2009
9-i
9.5.1
General Design Concept ........................................................................... 9-21
9.5.2
Characteristics and General Requirements.................................................. 9-21
9.5.3
9.5.4
9.6
9.5.2.1
Losses .................................................................................... 9-21
9.5.2.2
Layout .................................................................................... 9-22
9.5.2.3
Curvature................................................................................ 9-22
9.5.2.4
Cross Drainage ........................................................................ 9-23
9.5.2.5
Freeboard ............................................................................... 9-23
9.5.2.6
Bank....................................................................................... 9-24
9.5.2.7
Berms..................................................................................... 9-24
Hydraulic Design...................................................................................... 9-24

9.5.3.1
Design Formulas...................................................................... 9-24
9.5.3.2
Irrigation Water Source Without Sediment ................................. 9-25
9.5.3.3
Irrigation Water Source with Sediment ...................................... 9-31
9.5.3.4
Discharge Capacity .................................................................. 9-31
Cross-Section .......................................................................................... 9-31

9.5.4.1
Side Slopes ............................................................................. 9-31
9.5.4.2
Bottom Width.......................................................................... 9-31
9.5.4.3
Spoil Banks ............................................................................. 9-32
DESIGN OF LINED CANAL ...................................................................................... 9-32

9.6.1
General Descriptions ................................................................................ 9-32
9.6.2
Types of Lining ........................................................................................ 9-33
9.6.3
9.6.4
9.6.2.1
Earth Lining ............................................................................ 9-33
9.6.2.2
Buried Membrane Lining........................................................... 9-33
9.6.2.3
Hard Surface Lining ................................................................. 9-33
Concrete Canal Lining .............................................................................. 9-33

9.6.3.1
Masonry Lining ........................................................................ 9-34
9.6.3.2
In-situ Concrete ...................................................................... 9-34
9.6.3.3
Precast Concrete Segments ...................................................... 9-34
Design Consideration ............................................................................... 9-34

9.6.4.1
Structural Stress ...................................................................... 9-34
9.6.4.2
Hydrostatic Pressure ................................................................ 9-34
9.6.4.3
Point Load .............................................................................. 9-34
9.6.4.4
Durability ................................................................................ 9-34
9.6.4.5
Thermal and Shrinkage Stresses ............................................... 9-35
9.6.4.6
Soil Movement ........................................................................ 9-35
9.6.4.7
Scour...................................................................................... 9-36
9.6.4.8
Vegetation .............................................................................. 9-36
9.6.4.9
Accidental and Animal Damages ............................................... 9-36
9.6.5 Minimum Thickness of Concrete Lining .......................................................... 9-36

9.6.6 Joints ......................................................................................................... 9-36
9.6.7 Hydraulic Design ......................................................................................... 9-38
9.6.7.1
Design Formulas...................................................................... 9-38
9.6.7.2
Roughness Coefficient.............................................................. 9-38
9.6.7.3
Maximum Velocities ................................................................. 9-38
9.6.7.4
Minimum Velocity .................................................................... 9-39
9.6.8 Canal Cross-Section ..................................................................................... 9-39
9-ii
March 2009
9.6.8.1
Side Slope............................................................................... 9-39
9.6.8.2
Bank Width ............................................................................. 9-40
9.6.8.3
Freeboard ............................................................................... 9-40
9.6.9 Canal Curvature .......................................................................................... 9-40

9.7
CONVEYANCE FOR SURFACE FARM WATER DELIVERIES........................................... 9-41

9.7.1 General Descriptions .................................................................................... 9-41
9.7.1.1
Location and Layout................................................................. 9-41
9.7.1.2
Design Flow ............................................................................ 9-41
9.7.2 Surface Irrigation Structures......................................................................... 9-41

9.7.2.1
Diversion Structures................................................................. 9-42
9.7.2.2
Conveyance, Distribution and Management Structures ................ 9-42
9.7.2.3
Field Distribution Systems......................................................... 9-42
9.7.3 Unlined Delivery Canal ................................................................................. 9-42

9.7.3.1
Design and Capacity ................................................................ 9-42
9.7.3.2
Slope ...................................................................................... 9-43
9.7.3.3
Ditch Cross-section .................................................................. 9-43
9.7.3.4
Elevation and Freeboard........................................................... 9-43
9.7.3.5
Control Structures.................................................................... 9-44
9.7.4 Lined Ditches .............................................................................................. 9-44
9.8
9.7.4.1
Purpose of Canal Lining............................................................ 9-45
9.7.4.2
Lining Materials ....................................................................... 9-45
9.7.4.3
Concrete Lining ....................................................................... 9-45
9.7.4.4
Canal Capacity......................................................................... 9-45
9.7.4.5
Elevation and Slopes ................................................................ 9-45
9.7.4.6
Structures ............................................................................... 9-46
DESIGN OF LOW-PRESSURE PIPELINES................................................................... 9-46

9.8.1 General Description ..................................................................................... 9-46
9.8.1.1
Advantages and Disadvantages................................................. 9-46
9.8.1.2
Pipeline Hierarchy .................................................................... 9-46
9.8.1.3
Pipeline Layout ....................................................................... 9-46
9.8.1.4
Pipeline System ....................................................................... 9-47
9.8.1.5
Pipeline Installation Methods..................................................... 9-47
9.8.2 Pipeline Components ................................................................................... 9-47

9.8.2.1
Inlets Structures ...................................................................... 9-48
9.8.2.2
Standpipes .............................................................................. 9-48
9.8.2.3
Pressure Valves and Flow Control Structures .............................. 9-49
9.8.2.4
Outlet Structures ..................................................................... 9-50
9.8.3 Pipe Materials.............................................................................................. 9-52

9.8.3.1
Concrete ................................................................................. 9-52
9.8.3.2
Steel....................................................................................... 9-52
9.8.3.3
PVC ........................................................................................ 9-52
9.8.3.4
HDPE and MDPE ...................................................................... 9-52
9.8.4 Planning Requirement.................................................................................. 9-53

9.8.5 Design of the Pipeline .................................................................................. 9-53
March 2009
9.8.5.1
Design Requirement of Underground Pipeline............................. 9-53
9.8.5.2
Design Requirement for Installation........................................... 9-53
9-iii
9.8.5.3
Design Requirement for System Functioning .............................. 9-54
9.8.6 Design Steps............................................................................................... 9-54

9.8.6.1
Design of Farm Outlet Unit Stream Size ..................................... 9-55
9.8.6.2
Design Consideration for Pipe Sizing.......................................... 9-55
9.8.6.3
Design of Pipeline System Capacity ........................................... 9-55
9.8.6.4
Design Procedure for Pipe Sizing............................................... 9-57
9.8.6.5
Joints and Connections Specifications ........................................ 9-57
REFERENCES .................................................................................................................... 9-58

APPENDIX 9A: WORKED EXAMPLE...................................................................................... 9A-1
9A-1: Determination of Canal Capacity ................................................................ 9A-1
9A-2 : Design of Stable Canal ............................................................................. 9A-1
9-iv
March 2009
List of Tables
Table
Description
Page
9.1
Selection Criteria of Conveyance
9-2
9.2
Canal Hierarchy According to their Functions
9-5
9.3
Hydraulically Advantageous Sections
9-12
9.4
Minimum Velocity
9-17
9.5
Minimum Design Velocity for Structures Connecting Canals
9-18
9.6
Infiltration Rates in Unlined Canals
9-22
9.7
Minimum Radius of Curvature for Canal Bends Constructed in Silt and Fine Sand
9-23
9.8
Minimum Radius of Curvature for Non Erosive Soil Based on Multiplying of Top
9-23
Water Width
9.9
Freeboard for Unlined and Lined Canals
9-24
9.10
Minimum Bank Width
9-24
9.11
Fortier and Scobeys Limiting Velocities with Corresponding Tractive Force Values
9-26
9.12
The Maximum Permissible Mean Velocities Related to Grain Sizes
9-26
9.13
Correction Factor for Mean Velocity as a Function of Depth
9-27
9.14
Maximum Side Slope for Various Soils
9-32
9.15
Durability and Canal Linings
9-35
9.16
Minimum Thickness of Concrete Lining
9-36
9.17
Groove and PVC Strip Dimensions and Transverse Spacing
9-37
9.18
Roughness Coefficient Recommended for Hard Surface Linings
9-38
9.19
Maximum Velocities for Lined Canals
9-39
9.20
Side Slopes for Lined Canal
9-40
9.21
Minimum Embankment Width For Lined Canal
9-40
9.22
Freeboard for Earth Embankment and Lining for Lined Canals
9-40
9.23
Values Of Manning n for Unlined Ditches
9-43
9.24
Pipeline Hierarchy in Surface Irrigation System
9-46
9.25
Recommended Diameter for Sand Trap
9-48
9.26
Flow Rates (L/s) for Varying Operating Heads for Alfalfa and Orchard Valves
9-51
9.27
Manning n for Various Lining Materials
9-56
9.28
Friction Coefficient for Various Pipe Materials for Diameter 300 mm to 900 mm
9-57
List of Figures
Figure
Description
Page
9.1
The Flow Chart for the System Design
9-8
9.2
The Flow Chart for the Detailed Design
9-9
9.3
Cross Regulator Equipped with Central Radial Gates and Side Weirs
9-14
9.4
Solution to Mannings Equation for Canal
9-17
9.5
Water Surface Profiles
9-20
9.6
Approximate Method Diagram
9-20
9.7
Tractive Force on the Bottom of an Open Channel
9-27
9.8
Distribution of Tractive Force in a Trapezoidal Channel Section
9-27
March 2009
9-v
9.9
Maximum Unit Tractive Forces in Term of wys
9-28
9.10
Angle of Repose of Non-Cohesive Material
9-28
9.11
Tractive Force Ratio, K for Inclined Slope
9-29
9.12
Permissible Tractive Force for Canal in Non-Cohesive Material
9-29
9.13
Permissible Unit Tractive Forces for Canal in Cohesive Material
9-30
9.14
Typical Cross-section of Irrigation Canal.
9-32
9.15
Groove and Joint Plastic Sealant
9-37
9.16
Typical Cross-Section of Canal
9-39
9.17
Field Outlet in a Low-pressure Pipeline System
9-51
9-vi
March 2009
9
9.1
IRRIGATION CONVEYANCE
INTRODUCTION
Irrigation conveyance systems carry water from the source to cropped areas of the farms in the form
of networks of open channels or pipelines or a combination of both. The capacity of a conveyance
system must be sufficient to meet the required amount of water at any point in the field whenever is
needed. It should be designed in an environmentally responsible way to minimize disruption and
should be convenient to operate and maintain and be economically justified.
This Chapter provides guidelines for the design of irrigation conveyance systems. As for the pipelines
conveyance, only open low-pressure pipelines will be covered. Pressurized (Closed) conveyance
system will be covered in chapters 11 and 12, on pressurized irrigation systems. System and
technology related to the farm applications used to distribute water to the crops, i.e. surface
irrigation, sprinkler and microirrigation systems were discussed in Chapter 3.
9.1.1
Open Channels
Open channels are usually graded in the direction of flow and they may be either lined or unlined.
Open channels are lined with hard surfaces such as concrete and asphalt, exposed or covered
membranes or soil sealants to reduce maintenance costs, channel sizes, and seepage losses through
the channel bed and walls. Unlined ditches are used because of their low capital costs and ease of
construction and relocation.
9.1.2
Pipelines
Pipelines are classified as open (low head) or closed (pressurized). Both types can be laid on the
ground surface or buried. The low head pipelines deliver water to the farm gates or turnouts at a
pressure that irrigation can be carried out only by surface methods. For irrigation by pressurized onfarm irrigation, system boosting is required. Pressurized pipelines deliver water to farm outlets under
adequate pressure for the pressurized on-farm irrigation system. These systems are closed-type
networks and are equipped with all necessary accessories such as flow limiting devices, pressure
regulating devices, water meter, air release and vacuum relief valves to provide flow, pressure
control and protecting the pipes.
9.2
SELECTION OF CONVEYANCE
The conveyance, either open channels or pipelines must be decided together with the selection of its
layout, considering the natural and social environments, economy, operation and maintenance and
other conditions, so that the purpose and function of the entire conveyance system may be fully
achieved. The selection of the conveyance type greatly determines the function of the entire
conveyance system and significantly affects the construction costs of the irrigation system. It is
therefore, necessary to consider the costs and future water management and maintenance system in
the selection of the conveyance type, aiming at entire fulfillment of its function.
Several selection criterions of the conveyance types, open channel and pipelines are illustrated in
Table 9.1. The selection of the canal type must be made, taking into consideration advantages and
disadvantages described in the Table and other relevant factors.
Since the construction cost of an open channel is generally lower than that of a pipeline, the open
channel is widely employed when land is flat and flows are large. However, when conveyance canal
has to be significantly longer, then a pipeline is preferred. This may be due to topographic conditions
and possible lower construction cost.
The pipeline has been widely adopted even in large-scale irrigation schemes. Since the pipeline is
buried in the ground, more effective use of land resource is possible and disruption of surface canals
can be avoided. Although the pipeline is generally costlier than an open channel in construction,
pipelines are widely employed for small-scale irrigation facilities mainly due to easier operation and
March 2009
9-1
the maintenance requirement of the pipeline is minimal. The pipeline is preferred as it makes a
higher demand-schedule delivery system possible and consequently lead to improvements in crop
production, efficiency in water use and more amenable social conditions among farmers.
Table 9.1 Selection Criteria of Conveyance.
Variables
Open Channel
Pipelines
Land take cost
High
Small
Sedimentation/floatables removal
Easy - by mechanical
equipments
Require facilities such as
fencing
Suitable for flat land
Difficult
Safety
Topographic conditions
Not required
Suit variable terrains
Water losses
Significant due to
seepage and
evaporation.
Waste materials disposal
A potential problem
need protection for
removal
Slow
Rapid
Construction cost
Lower
Higher
Flexibility in delivery scheduling
Difficult to achieve
flexibility delivery
Permit great flexibility

delivery
Change of flow and responsiveness of the

system
9.3
9.3.1
General Concept
Nil - unless pipes are

leaking due to ill
construction and
maintenance practices
Not a problem
The conveyance design objective is primarily to provide functions necessary for irrigation of farm
land. This should be achieved through adequate understanding of irrigation requirements to support
best agricultural practices, farmers and their farm management system, the purpose of facilities and
site conditions to provide excellent water delivery to the farms. The overall design concept is towards
the excellent utilization of resources of water, land and labour and economically and environmentally
sustainable. The design conveyance system must be aimed to fulfill their functions for irrigation
efficiency and safety, with a reasonable construction costs and minimum operation and maintenance
costs and ease in operation. The design must also comply with all relevant laws and regulations.
9.3.2
Irrigation Modernization Concept
Planning and design of new scheme and rehabilitation of existing scheme should be based on the
concepts of irrigation modernization.
The overriding principle of modern irrigation is that irrigation is a service to farmers which should
be as convenient and efficient as possible.
A modern design is the result of a thought process that selects the configurations and physical
components in light of a well-defined and realistic operational plan that is based on the service
concept.
Modern irrigation schemes should be divided into several subsystems or levels with clearly
defined interface, where water is measured and controlled.
9-2
March 2009
Each level must be as hydraulically independent as possible and technically able to provide
reliable and timely water delivery to the next lower level. At each level there are the proper
types, number and configurations of gated turnouts, measuring devices, communications
systems and other means to control flow rates and water levels as desired.
Each level should be responsive to the needs of its clients. Good communication systems should
be installed to provide the necessary information for control and feedback on system status.
Each level of delivery must be reliable, equitable and flexible to the need of the water of the next
lower level. Reliable means the irrigation system is capable to supply water as promised in term
of frequency, flow rates and duration. Equitable water supply that means the irrigation system is
capable of giving equal service quality of water supply to the whole areas.
The hydraulic design of canal and structures must be able to provide a flexible water delivery to
the farmers and within the overall canal system. A flexible system gives farmers flexibility in
choosing when to irrigate, how much water to apply and the duration of irrigating is the basis of
downstream control and demand schedule scheme.
The hydraulic design must be robust, in the sense that it will function despite changing in
dimensions, siltation and communication breakdowns. Automatic devices should be provided
where appropriate to stabilize water levels in unsteady flow conditions.
9.3.3
Design Considerations
In canal design, the following factors should be taken into consideration;

9.3.3.1
Conveyance Capacity
Conveyance capacity is governed by the capacity of canal, pipeline and structures and is designed by
taking into account the irrigation method and cropping pattern. In case that pump station is provided
along open canal, it is sometimes required to provide regulating pond to enable non-continuous
pump operation. The functions of the irrigation canal system are governed by the structure with the
lowest capacity. Therefore, capacity and project life of individual structures should be designed to
serve the entire project life of canal system.
9.3.3.2
Function of Regulation, Distribution and Delivery
The design discharge of conveyance facilities is generally determined by the maximum seasonal
requirement. It is however, necessary to check that the facilities can maintain water level at turnouts
and divert water as required, even when the discharge in the canal is less than design discharge.
9.3.3.3
Operation, Maintenance and Management of the System
The system design must take into consideration the rationality of operation, maintenance and
management of the system after completion of the project. In order to carry out water management
and maintenance works economically and smoothly, it is necessary to provide appropriate structures.
These structures should be incorporated in the layout plan during the system design stage.
9.3.3.4
Safety of the Canal System
In irrigation canal system, the occurrence of breakage of facilities or sudden mechanical stoppage of
gates and pumps may happen. In order to prevent damage due to such breakage or stoppage, it is
required to provide adequate spillways and regulation ponds in the layout. All safety requirements
required before, during and after the construction must be taken into consideration.
9.3.3.5
Relevant Law and Regulations
Since canals are long term structures connecting to rivers, lakes, seas, dams and provided over vast
areas, all enforceable laws and regulations in the project area must be considered in design.
March 2009
9-3
9.3.3.6
Harmony with Environment
Harmony with environment and local conditions must be considered in the design of the project. The
System Design must be well matched with the related regional development projects and Integrated
River Basin Management of the basin.
9.3.4
Information Requirement
Information required for conveyance design are as follow:
Purpose of the Conveyance - their use such as for feeder canal, distribution canal or delivery
canal
Irrigation Discharge and Water Level - reason for requirements, period and place of
requirement and permissible fluctuations
Present Conditions of the Areas Served - extent of areas served by the canal, geography, soil
type, geology, climate, hydrology, land use, farm management and practices, irrigation and
drainage networks and background of the farmers
Water Sources and Drainage Outlets - type, scale, location, water level and conditions of
water sources (dams, headwork, pumping stations, rivers and lakes) and drainage outlets
(rivers, lakes or sea)
Present Conditions along the Conveyance - canal route such as geography, geology, land use
and ownership, structures and others rights
Operation, maintenance and management system, organization, financial source of operation

and maintenance.
9.4
DESIGN OF CANAL LAYOUT
9.4.1
Hierarchy and Facilities
9.4.1.1
Hierarchy
Depending on the water management system and size of the scheme, the canal becomes smaller in
size as the capacity reduces toward the tail-end of the scheme. Table 9.2 lists some typical
nomenclatures, labeled to scale of 0 to 4 according to which level they might be used on an irrigation
scheme. Level 0 are inter-basins or bulk issue canals which convey water to the scheme from
outside. Within the scheme areas the canals are designated level 1 down to level 4 in decreasing
order of the total command area. Not all levels exist in a scheme.
9.4.1.2
Facilities
The canal system consists of required structures and facilities at certain suitable location. The
facilities include, water regulating facilities, measuring facilities, protection structures, operation and
maintenance facilities, safety devices, crossing structures and appurtenant facilities. Open channel
conveyance structures are unlined canal, lined canal, conduit and aqueduct
For securing the function and safety of the canal, there are regulating facilities for water level and
discharge, spillways, drainage gates, etc. which are used to regulate water level, velocity and
discharge in the canal.
There are also regulating reservoirs, retarding basins and others as facilities for regulating the
discharge or timely variation of water level in irrigation system in order to use water effectively,
maintain the drainage function, give flexibility the canal functions and to rationalize the canal
facilities.
9-4
March 2009
The discharge control structures are the structures provided to deliver water and controlling the
discharge from the reservoir to the canals or from a next lower canal such as turnouts or off-takes or
intake structures.
The discharge measuring facilities are provided to measure and record the discharge of irrigation
water. They are combined with the regulating and discharge control structures or totally different
structures. Flumes, weirs and electronic discharge measuring equipment are commonly used for
measurement.
To protect the canal and its structures functionally and structurally, there are facilities such as crossdrains, drainage outlet, sedimentation tanks, slope protection works and spillways.
Table 9.2 Canal Hierarchy According to their Functions
Level
Functions
Names
Typical
Discharge
(m3/s)
Typical
slope
A Conduit or channel which takes off from a

headwork and feeds a balancing reservoir or a
main conveyor directly. This channel passes
through the non-supplied area.
Feeder Canal
Connects either the source of water directly or

the feeder conduit with the distribution system.
Main Conveyor 50 - 500

Canal
0.0001
Main canal connects the main conveyor or the

feeder or sometimes the feeder itself to the
secondary canals or tertiary canals. Direct
supply to the farms from this canal should be
avoided
Main Canal
10 - 100
0.0001
Connects the main conveyor, main canal or

sometimes the feeder itself to the tertiary
canals. Direct supply to the farms from this
canal should be avoided
Secondary
Canal
1 - 10
0.0002
Connects the main conveyor or secondary or

sometimes the feeder itself to farm outlets and
deliver water to the farms
Tertiary Canal
0.1 1.0
0.0005
Connect the tertiary canal to the farm outlets

and deliver water to the farms.
Quaternary
Canal
0.025-0.100
0.005
Direct supply from these canals to the farm is

generally not recommended
Safety devices are facilities for ensuring the safety of the workers in the canal system and other
people including guardrails, fences, handrails, life ropes and signs.
Operation and maintenance facilities are provided for water management and operation and
maintenance of canal, which include observation facilities, control facilities, communication facilities,
control offices and roads.
Appurtenant facilities are facilities necessary for maintaining the functions of existing facilities
together with newly constructed canals or rehabilitated canals such bridges and crossing.
March 2009
9-5
9.4.2
Design Steps
Canal shall be designed according to their required functions, proper water management, economy
and safety. Two main steps in the design of a canal system;
System design of over all canal system and
Detailed design of canal and individual structures along the canal.
System design is the determination of the canal route and types and location of structures taking
into consideration the objective of the project and local conditions. The flow chart for the system
design is as shown in Figure 9.1.
The detailed design of canal and structure involve the detail design of all canals and individual
structures and facilities in the canal system. The canal and structure design must be conceived to
provide the required function and safety to all facilities. The flow chart for the detailed design is as
9.4.3
9.4.3.1
Systems Design
Procedure
The open channel system design must be made on the well-established working plan and through
the following procedures, after a comprehensive judgement on the planning conditions of irrigation
and drainage, natural and socio-economic conditions and other problems related to the project area.
In order to realize a safe, practical and economic design, the system design must be efficiently made
in accordance with standard procedures. Previous design examples, design data, calculation chart
and standardized drawings are useful to improve the accuracy and efficiency of the design work.
Since these works are closely related to each other, coordination among these works must be carried
out to formulate a satisfactory overall system design. The following steps are required for system
design the canal system:
Determine the Layout of the Drainage System
Subdivide the irrigation area into service unit and service area
Calculate the area of each service unit and service area
Determine the canal hierrchy according to the canal function and size of the area served
Calculate and determine design discharge for each canal considering irrigation water requirements
and efficiency
Select Type of Canal and structures

9.4.3.2
Layout of the Drainage System
(Refer to Sub-section 13.6.2)

9.4.3.3
Sub-Dividing Irrigation Area
Irrigation scheme has to be divided into irrigation management components consisting of

compartments, irrigation service areas and service units. A compartment has an area between 1000
9-6
March 2009
ha to 2000 ha and a service area has a command area of 100 ha to 200 ha. The size of service unit
is between 10 ha to 20 ha. Blocking out is the process of planning farm and field layouts on new or
modernized scheme. After locating the irrigation area boundary and route of the tertiary canal, the
areas are subdivided into service units. For surface irrigation the point of water delivery has to be the
highest point in the service unit. The service unit is preferred to be in a rectangular shape.
9.4.3.4
Selection of Canal Layout
The canal layout is determined by considering the entire canal alignment, purpose of canal, safety
and economy of the structures, in addition to the natural and social conditions along the route. The
canal route must be determined so that the canal can maintain the required design discharge and
design water level, taking into consideration the type, size and location of the canal and structures.
Problems related to land acquisition and conventional water rights may occur in the determination of
the canal layout. Therefore, the canal layout must be carefully determined on a map through
alternatives studies before pegs are actually placed in the field.
a)
Conditions for the Determination of Layout
The canal layout must be selected so that the canal can irrigate by gravity within the range of the
available water head. If the project area includes some higher grounds, the canal route selected
may consider the use of pumped irrigation to such areas. The construction costs and future water
management and operation costs between these two options with and without pump are then
compared.
Locations of spillways and turnouts must be determined from map studies or from surveys of
relevant rivers in relation to the project area.
If the irrigation canal is very long and its purpose is to irrigate both paddy field and dry fields, the
necessity and possibility of establishing farm ponds must be considered. The advantages in farm
ponds are decrease in construction costs due to the reduction of the required canal section, effective
use of irrigation water and efficient water management
An irrigation project is generally closely related to the environmental and social conditions in the
area. This relationship must be considered in the design of rehabilitation and improvement works for
existing irrigation facilities. If a regional development plan or a project is involved, it must be
studied and the results must be considered in the determination of the canal layout.
The layout of an open channel must be selected to avoid long fills or deep-cut sections, taking into
consideration the available water head and allowable velocity. Soil conditions along the canal layout
must be verified to avoid weak and sandy areas to minimize seepage losses and foundation
treatment for canal and structures.
The route should avoid the interference to the existing houses and public utilities. The setting of
canal layout on embankments should be avoided as much as possible for the safety of the canal and
the public.
If the irrigation canal is shared by non-irrigation projects, suspension of irrigation water supply may
occur during maintenance of non-irrigation facilities. Then, the provision of a parallel canal and
double-section canal should be considered. The selection of canal route and structures must be
determined so as to satisfy the requirements for minimum radius of canal curvature, limits of
longitudinal slope and curve of canal and minimum covering depth of soil
b)
Canal Layout Finalization
Canal layout finalization is to finalize the canal route based on the results of the detailed
investigations and to drive pegs at the centre line of the route in the field. The most appropriate
canal route as shown on the strip topographic maps must be finalized, taking into consideration
types, sizes, water level and sections of canals and structures.
March 2009
9-7
Survey
Planning
Start
Data collection
topographic map
land use
meteorogy
hydrological data
river condition
site condition
Distribution planning
Water-intake planning
Catchment planning
Drainage planning
Operation and
management planning
Reconnaissance
Study of irrigation and
drainage network
Determination of design
discharge and design level
Selection of canal type
Canal route selection
Selection of canal structures

Hydraulic design
Structural design
Head allotment
Harmony with
environment
Economical purposes
Rationality of operation
and management
Safety of facilities
Required function
Overall Design
If review necessary
Feasibility
Surveying
Check
Figure 9.1 The Flow Chart for the System Design
9-8
March 2009
Water use conditions

Site conditions
Conditions of hydraulic and structural design

Construction conditioning
Hydraulic condition
Rough estimate of hydraulic conditions
(roughness coefficient canal bed slope)
Determination of cross-section area
Unsuitable
Allowable
flow velocity
Water surface tracing calculation

(various headlosses energy slope line)
Unsuitable
Required head
(water level)
Rough estimate of structural conditions
Calculation of various loads

Structural calculations
Determination of
allowable stresses
Unsuitable
Safety factor or
stresses
Control
facilities
Economical
purposes
Construction
condition
Safety of
structural
Functions of
canal
If review is
necessary
Feasibility
Design drawing construction
End
Figure 9.2 The Flow Chart for the Detailed Design
March 2009
9-9
Strip topographic plan at a scale of 1/500-1/1000 must be prepared to show the most appropriate
canal route and topography of areas of the route in a width of equal 1.5 to 2 times the estimated
reserved width. The salient features and building along the canal route reserve must be properly
demarcated in the in the survey plans. These maps should also show the information necessary for
land acquisition. Longitudinal plan with the point distance of 25 m and cross-sectional plan within the
reserve at 50 m interval should be produced.
In addition to survey plans, soil and geological investigation, the finalized canal route must be
checked in the field to ensure all aspects of design requirement are considered in the design of
canals and structures.
9.4.3.5
Design Discharge
The proper design discharge and water level of each facility must be determined by confirming their
basic requirements, such as planned canal discharge, off-take point, off-take discharge, planned
water level and layout planning of irrigation system. Irrigation water requirement at all stages of
crop growing must be computed taking into consideration the crop consumptive use, presaturation
requirements, other crops and non-crop requirement, percolation loss and other losses such canal
and application losses. In determining the maximum water requirement for the purpose of the sizing
of the canal, the effective rainfall contribution should not be taken into account.
The design discharge of an irrigation canal is either the maximum discharge or the most-frequent
discharge or minimum discharge. Although the capacity of a canal and structures is generally
controlled by the maximum discharge, it must be checked against the discharge of less than the
maximum discharge for determination of canal section and structures.
The maximum design discharge of an irrigation canal is the maximum seasonal discharge (peak
water requirement) or maximum discharge at each section of the canal. The discharge which is
required most frequently is called the most-frequent design discharge. The smallest discharge is
called the minimum design discharge.
The maximum design discharge at each section of the canal must be determined, taking into
consideration demand requirements, the available and capacity of the waste and spillways,
construction cost and related river improvement plan. If inflow of drainage water into the canal is
topographically unavoidable, spillways or facilities to remove such excess water from the irrigation
canal are necessary.
If planning conditions with regard to the benefited areas change at the stage of the design and
construction, it is necessary to monitor and check decisive factors of water requirements such as
decreasing water depth, cropping pattern, benefit, land use, location of turnouts, etc. and to make
the necessary amendments to the design.
9.4.3.6
Design Water Level
The design water level in an irrigation canal is the highest design water level, the most-frequent
water level or lowest design water level. The design water level is the design value to determine the
size, section and function of facilities. It must be checked whether such facilities can function safely
and satisfactorily.
The highest design water level is the seasonal highest water level or the highest water level at each
section of the canal. Water level which occurs most frequently is called the most-frequent design
water level and water level at minimum discharge is called the lowest design water level.
The most-frequent design water level and the lowest design water level need to be regulated for
turnouts, drops and measuring structures function smoothly.
The highest design water level at an arbitrary point of the irrigation canal can be estimated by
interpolating two water levels at the beginning and end. In case where the canal system is
complicated, such water level may not be easily estimated due to the topographic condition and
9-10
March 2009
provision of various kinds of facilities. In an overall design, such water level must be determined,
taking into consideration head losses due to canal and structures, and canal routes.
9.4.3.7
Selection of Canal Types
The water conveying structures in the open channel system, such as canal, tunnels, culverts and
siphons must be selected to ensure the proper purpose and function of the entire canal system. The
selection should take into consideration the topography along the route, social conditions, land use
safety and economy of the structures.
Since canal form the greater part of the canal system, they determine the function of the entire
canal system and affect the construction costs.
Canal may be classified into three types; unlined canal, lined canal and retaining wall type canal. The
type of the open channel must be selected by comparative study with regard to the objective,
stability, social conditions, construction costs, and operation and maintenance costs of the canals.
In general, an open channel is hydraulically advantageous. It may be economical when cutting and
filling are well-balanced in terms of earth work volumes. Excessive cutting and filling must be
avoided for stability as well as to minimize costs of the canal. Foundation conditions and stability
must be fully considered in the design of such canals.
A lined canal is a canal where the slope surface is covered by relatively thin material to prevent
water leakage and to render its surface smooth. At confluences and curves where erosion and scour
may be anticipated, lining or revetment may be required. For a double-section canal, lining or
revetment may be required for the low water channel and non-lining applied to the high water
channel. When there are no restrictions in respect of land acquisition and other topographic
requirements, the lined canal is more advantageous in terms of cost than the retaining wall type
canal. This advantage becomes greater as the scale of the canal system becomes larger.
A retaining wall type canal is one in which side walls support internal and external water pressures
and earth pressure. Retaining wall type canal is used to prevent water leakage and to reduce the
sectional area of the canal. The retaining wall type has been widely used lately due to topographic
and environmental restrictions.
The following are conditions for the adoption of the retaining wall type canal:
Where sectional area of the retaining wall type canal is smaller and its land acquisition is
lower.
Where there are no foundation treatment problems for a retaining wall type canal and its
construction cost is lower.
Where construction of the lined canal includes considerable amount of earth and rock works
due to topographic and geological conditions.
Where an open channel is provided for a short section between a tunnel and siphon, where
the construction cost of retaining wall type canal is lower or equal to the total construction
cost of the lined open channel and transitions.
There are six principles generally adopted in determining the canal section for open channel
irrigation system. The principles are;
Hydraulically advantageous section - This section has the minimum wetted perimeter which
is economically important for a lined canal but not for an earth canal. The hydraulically
advantageous section, as shown in Table 9.3 will minimize the wetted perimeter and
maximize the hydraulic radius for the same flow area.
March 2009
9-11
Table 9.3 Hydraulically Advantageous Sections

Cross-Section
Triangular
Area (A)
Wetted
Perimeter (P)
Hydraulic
Radius (R)
Depth (d)
y2
2.828 y
0.354 y
0.5 y
2.0 y2
4.0 y
0.5 y
1.732 y2
3.464 y
0.5 y
0.75 y
3.08 r2
5.376 r
0.573 r
1.898 r
Half of a square
Rectangular
Half of a square
Trapezoidal
Half of a hexagon
Circular
Section to minimize seepage - Canal losses may be separated into seepage and evaporation
losses. It is important to minimize seepage for earth canal but not for a lined bed.
Section to secure canal in safe condition - An embankment canal on a mountain side is

exposed to collapse due to animal holes. It is necessary to locate such a canal in an
excavation section and to provide lining.
Section for easy and economical excavation - With increasing canal water depth, the volume
of dumped soil, transport distance to dumping area and unit price of excavation increases,
economical execution of earthworks is the main factor for section determination.
Section to resist canal bed erosion - A medium flow velocity will prevent erosion, but it is
economically advantageous to adopt the maximum allowable velocity.
Section to avoid siltation - It is economically advantageous to adopt the maximum allowable

velocity that will automatically prevent siltation but the available slope and erosion of the
canal bed and slopes will be the limiting factors.
9.4.3.8
Selection of Canal Structures
The structures consist of crossings, water distribution and delivery structures, measuring structures,
regulating structures, protection structures, operation and maintenance structures, safety devices
and appurtenant structures. Selection of these structures and their suitable location are as follows:
a)
Tunnel
A tunnel should be provided where construction of an open channel is quite difficult due to
topographic conditions and where the construction cost of the tunnel is lower than that of an open
channel due to shorter length of the tunnel.
Since the construction costs of a tunnel is two to three times higher than that of an open
channel, the tunnel must be provided in a sound ground conditions and it must be as short
as possible.
The tunnel route must be determined so as to avoid as far as possible any faults, fractured
zones and altered zones.
The existence of toxic or explosive gas must be investigated.
Countermeasure against faults, fractured zones and altered zones must be taken if tunnel
has to be driven through faults, fractures and altered zones. Countermeasures are to
9-12
March 2009
prevent people from falling into the tunnel and also to prevent siltation and sedimentation
which are necessary in the design of inlets to tunnels.
b)
Closed Canal
A closed canal is constructed where deeply cut side slope is subjected to sliding or flooding. Since a
conduit is generally buried in the ground and the stability of the conduit is not influenced by the rise
of the groundwater table, it might be more economical than an open channel which requires a deep
cut.
The depth necessary for burying a conduit must be determined, taking into consideration the
required water level, earth cover and purpose of the structure. The design load must be
properly determined, taking into account the earth cover, purpose of the conduit and ground
conditions.
When a conduit crosses a railway, river or road, the intersectional angle must be right-angle
as far as possible.
The jacking method using precast concrete pipes might be lower in the total construction
cost than the open-cut method.
A conduit across a trunk road and railroad should be designed from a comparative study,
taking into account the most appropriate construction method.
If a canal crosses urban and suburban areas, the construction of the conduit might be lower
than that of an open channel since the conduit does not require facilities such as to prevent
accidents and for disposal of waste materials.
If a conduit is deeply buried, the construction of the conduit may affect environmental
conditions such as fluctuation of the groundwater table. The adequacy countermeasures
against such environmental changes must be studied through environmental investigation.
c)
Inverted Siphons and Aqueducts
Aqueducts and inverted siphon are used to convey water across rivers, railroads, roads and valleys
where the construction of an open channel may be quite difficult or where the construction cost of
the siphon/aqueduct is lower than that of an open channel due to shorter length of route. Inverted
siphons are pipelines or box culverts which carry canal water beneath a river bed or across a
depression or valley or across roads and railways. Aqueduct is an elevated channel conveying water
crossing a valley or depression.
The selection of either inverted siphon or aqueduct or fill embankment with culverts must be made,
considering the topography, geology, hydraulic conditions, stability and construction costs.
Since the construction cost of an inverted siphon and aqueduct is higher than that of an
open channel, the siphon/aqueduct must be as short as possible.
A siphon barrel may be laid on the ground or buried. If part of the siphon barrel is replaced
by an aqueduct or tunnel due to topographic or geological conditions, the construction cost
of such combined siphon may be lower than that of siphon.
When a siphon or aqueduct crosses such important facilities as road and railroad, the
intersectional angle should be as near as possible a right-angle.
The inlet and outlet of a siphon or aqueduct should not be constructed on an embankment
section for the sake of stability of the structure.
The hydraulic requirement for an inverted siphon is available head. Elevation different between inlet
and outlet must be enough to counter friction loss in pipe and head loss at inlet and outlet. Hence,
hydraulically, aqueduct is better then inverted siphon as its head loss is generally much less than an
March 2009
9-13
equivalent inverted siphon. The other disadvantages of inverted siphon are barrel leakage, barrel
blockage by sediment or debris and uncontrolled loss of water.
d)
Drops/Chutes
Where there is extra water head in the canal, drop/chute structures must be provided in the canal
for the stability of canal. The location and the type of drop/chute structures must be determined
through comparative design with regard to stability and cost of the entire canal system. Points to be
considered in the design are as follows:
If a canal gradient is steep, the flow velocity will be high and the canal might easily be
subject to scouring and erosion regardless of its lining surface materials.
The design of the drop/chute must be carried out through a comparative study with regard
to the location and type of the drop/chute. The steeper a canal gradient is, the smaller the
sectional area becomes.
When a flow velocity approaches the critical velocity, the surface of the flow becomes
unstable. Excessive high velocity must not be allowed to be produced in irrigation canals.
When a drop/chute is provided near a housing area, inconveniences to inhabitants such as

noise and splash from the drop/chute must be avoided as far as possible.
e)
Cross Regulator or Check Structures
Cross regulators are essential for effective water management. For upstream control supply, cross
regulators are gates or weirs in higher level canal that control water level upstream of the structure.
This regulators are located downstream of important outlets and branches to ensure an adequate
water level to operate the outlets. In the case of downstream control, the regulators are located
upstream site of the outlets, since they control the water level immediately downstream. Regulators
are also used to close off sections of canal during rotational scheduling, thus prevent wastages.
Cross-regulators can be fixed (long-crested weir), automatic (AMIL gate) or adjustable consisting of
one or more gates. The cross-regulator gates are often equipped with undershot or overshot gates
(slides or radial), sometimes combining the two flow principles in the same structure.
Undershot gates can range from simple slide gates to self regulating radial gates, which open and
close automatically in response to changes in water level upstream and downstream. A significant
improvement is obtained with undershot gated regulators when they are equipped with dual side
weirs as shown in Figure 9.3. In that case the objective for operation is to keep the water surface
slightly overtopping at the spill level of the side weirs.
Figure 9.3 Cross regulator equipped with central radial gates and side weirs
9-14
March 2009
The advantage of overshot regulators is that it can pass the water downstream without filling the
upstream reach fully, allowing shorter response time to the downstream reach of the canal system.
The advantage of overshot fixed weirs is that they require no operation and are therefore passively
automatic for upstream control. Long-crested weirs are able to maintain water level within a small
range even if the flow fluctuates. Thus, they are most effective in combination with undershot gates,
where the gates are adjusted for large variation only and weirs copes with minor flow variations.
Checks are small cross regulator in tertiary or quaternary canal that increase water depth
immediately upstream so that water can be abstracted by siphons or turnout.
f)
Turnout or Off-Take Structures
Turnout or off-take is a structure that removes a designated flow rate from a canal or pipelines.
Turnout is a delivery point in the canal system.
Turnout in open canal is commonly an undershot slide gate. In Irrigation schemes, CHO (Constant
Head Orifice Off-takes) are widely use to control flow rate to the branch canal and for measurement
of discharge.
The less common form of turnout is overshot gate. It is also functioning as measuring weir. This type
of gate is not preferred for turnout because of its sensitivity to small fluctuations in water level in
parent canal. Other types of turnouts are drop inlet type and constant discharge modules.
9.4.4 Hydraulic Design of Canal
The hydraulic design of canals must be made for the maximum design rate of flow. Reviews must
also be made of possible circumstances in which other design discharges are released to meet the
requirements of other facilities in the canal system. Further, hydraulic consistency in the canal
system must be maintained in the hydraulic design.
9.4.4.1
Hydraulic Consistency
Establishment of the hydraulic consistency in the canal design is one of the basic considerations in
the system design. Such consistency does not mean simple and uniform standardization but
comprehensive technical judgment from viewpoints of function, safety and economy in the canal
system.
9.4.4.2
Canal Discharge Capacity
Wherever practical, the channel should be designed for a high hydraulic efficiency. In earth channels
the stability of the soil places limitation on channel grade and side slopes. The topography and
desired water level may limit the design grade and the velocity of flow.
The most commonly used mathematical tool for the design of lined and non-erodible channels are
Manning Formula and Chezys Equation. Choice of the design equations depends on the data
availability for the sites.
Discharge in canal is computed Using Manning formula,
Q=
1
AR 2 / 3 S 1 / 2
n
(9.1)
Where,
Q = Discharge in canal (m3/s)
n = Manning roughness coefficient
A = Cross-sectional area of water (m2)
R = Hydraulic radius (m)
March 2009
9-15
S = Slope of canal bed

Chezys coefficient has relation with hydraulic radius of the channel and Mannings roughness.
C=
R1/6
n
(9.2)
This relationship indicates that the Chezy discharge coefficient is a function of the Manning
coefficient and the hydraulic radius.
Q = CA RS
(9.3)
where V is the mean velocity of flow, C is the Chezy discharge coefficient, R is the hydraulic radius
and S is the slope of the channel or the sine of the slope angle.
a)
Roughness and Compound Roughness Coefficient
Roughness coefficient recommended for design of hard surface linings are listed in Table 9.18.
For cross-sections with a combination of different lining materials, roughness of the individual
surface will vary. In this case, the compound roughness of the section should be used by computing
the coefficient of compound roughness as discussed in the section on hydraulic structures.
b)
Design Steps
The brief design procedure for canal is given below:

Step 1: Estimate Mannings n or Chezys coefficient of the lining or non-erodible material.
Step 2: Use Figure 9.4 to determine the flow depth, y.
Step 3: Check if y is within required limits for the canal type.
dimensions and return to step 2.
If not, adjust the canal
Step 4: Calculate the average flow velocity from V = Q /A and check that it is within the
maximum and minimum velocity criteria for the canal type. If not, adjust the canal
Step 5: Add required freeboard to y and calculate top width of canal for canals with sloping
sides.
Step 6: If required, calculate width of canal reserve.
9.4.4.3 Allowable Flow Velocity
The design flow of canals must be determined within the limits of two factors:
The minimum allowable flow velocity which produces neither deposit of sand and earth nor
growth of aquatic plants; and
The maximum allowable flow velocity which will not cause erosion of canal component
materials or creating hydraulically unsafe conditions of flow in the canal.
The minimum and maximum allowable velocities must be ascertained in the design of canals and
canal structures.
9-16
March 2009

11
10
Z
Base width, B (m)
Qn
S01/2 B 8/3
Z=3
Value of
Z = 2.5
Z=1
Z=2
Z = 1.5
Z = 0.5
Z=0
0.5
0.1
0.1
0.5
Value of
1.5
y
B
Figure 9.4 Solution to Mannings Equation for Canal (DID, 2000)

a)
Minimum Allowable Velocity
There are various factors which place restrictions on the minimum allowable velocity. The minimum
velocity should be obtained so as to prevent the production of sand deposits and hinder the presence
of aquatic plants. The minimum velocities recommended are as in Table 9.4.
The velocity for most frequent design discharge should not be lower than the above values when
applying to irrigation canals.
Velocities in siphons, culverts and tunnels must be larger than those in the connecting canal to
prevent deposition of sand deposits. The ratios shown in Table 9.5 are recommended.
Table 9.4 Minimum Velocity
Conditions
Design velocity to prevent deposition of suspended
sediment size no larger than silt
Design velocity to prevent the growth of aquatic plants
March 2009
Velocity (m/sec)
0.50 to 0.90
0.70
9-17
Table 9.5 Minimum Design Velocity for Structures Connecting Canals
b)
Type of structures
Minimum design velocity
Siphon
1.5 times Canal Velocity
Tunnel
Culvert
Maximum Allowable Velocity
The maximum allowable flow velocity is one that should not produce erosion of canal component
materials by the flow or hydraulically unsafe conditions of flow in the canal.
Providing appropriate measures for prevention of revetment erosion, protecting with thick or
reinforced concrete should be considered for canal having large discharge for short duration.
The appropriate allowable velocities must be determined after taking into account the canal
structure, topography, geology and other practical matters.
For lined canal, maximum velocity will depend on type of lining materials used. Maximum velocity for
various conditions will be discussed on the detail design of respective canals.
9.4.4.4
Determination of Design Velocity
Hydraulic conditions in a canal must be carefully examined in determining the design velocity of an
irrigation canal. Under the nearly critical flow conditions, the water surface in the canal tends to
become unstable, producing waves which do not vanish quickly and causes a lowering in the
efficiency of the canal function. The stability of the flow in the canal is generally controlled by
velocity though it can vary owing to many other factors such as discharge, change of cross sectional
area, bends and other factors.
A velocity less than two-third of the critical velocity are expected to stabilize the water
surface in the canal. The above velocity must be applied to conditions under sub-critical flow
in irrigation canal.
If velocity larger than above has to be adopted, necessary measure must be taken to
heighten the canal wall and to provide special designs for division works, drops and other
structures.
For structure under super-critical flow condition, such as chutes, special attention must be
given to internal friction in the canal and hydraulics effects due to the changes in the cross
sectional area of the canal.
Turbulence should be controlled by containing it within stilling basin which can stand erosion
or avoided by designing canal structures with smooth curved transition.
9.4.4.5
Water Levels
The required water levels in the main irrigation system are based on the required water level on the
irrigated fields. The procedure of determining water level in the canals is as follows:
9-18
First to calculate the required water levels at the tertiary turnouts. Thereto all losses in
quaternary and tertiary canals and structures are added to the required field water level in a
tertiary unit. Added to this figure are the head losses in the tertiary turnout and an
allowance for water level variation due to operation of the main system on partial supply.
March 2009
Where this procedure will lead to main water levels high above ground levels a reduction of
the tertiary water levels may be considered. Such a situation may occur with a very flat
topography where particularly the head losses in the structures in the tertiary unit may add
up. In such cases the tertiary system should be reviewed and where possible head losses
should be reduced.
The head loss allowance for partial supply operation depends on operation of the scheme,
possibility of water level control by check structure and water depth of the supply canal.
Water requirements will be only for a short period of the growing season at the design
discharge. Besides water availability in the supplying river will not continuously sufficient to
operate the system at design discharge.
Water levels in the main system therefore are raised to satisfy the required tertiary water
levels at partial supply operation. The extra head introduced is 0.12 to 0.18 times the water
depth for partial supply operation at 80 percent and 70 percent respectively. The selection
of the partial supply percentage will depend on the envisaged variation in canal discharges.
An important advantage of water level variation allowance is a simple operation of the main
system as check structure regulation is hardly necessary; the sedimentation hazard will be
reduced as flow velocities will remain higher. Where tertiary turnouts are located near check
structures the water level variation can be corrected by proper gate operation.
9.4.4.6
Longitudinal Section
The longitudinal slope is fixed by the contour lines; the canal slope will follow as much as possible
the ground level line. The conditions of the subsoil and the sediment in the irrigation water will pose
limitations. Erosion will dictate a maximum slope and sedimentation a minimum slope. Drop
structures are needed where the maximum canal slope is flatter than the ground slope. If the
ground slope is flatter than the minimum slope, canal slopes will equal ground slopes with
sedimentation as a result.
9.4.4.7
Water Surface Profiles
The design of canal generally assumes that steady and uniform flow exists in the canal, but special
conditions may create unsteady flow, that need to be considered during design. Changes in crosssection of the flow may result either from a change in geometry of the channel, such as change in
slope or cross-sectional shape, or an obstruction; or from an unbalance between the forces of
resistance to retard the flow and the forces of gravity tending to accelerate the flow.
When the cross-sections of flow in an open channel varies gradually along the channel so that the
resulting changes in velocity take place very slowly and thus the accelerative effects are negligible,
the flow is known as gradually varied flow. The water surface of a gradually varied flow is called the
flow profile or commonly known as the backwater curve.
There are several types of flow profiles. For simple design problems the depth of flow and the
velocity can be assumed constant. For this uniform flow condition the energy line, hydraulic grade
line and the channel bottom are all parallel. For gradually varied flow conditions, water surface
profile for uniform shape channels can be computed from the energy equation
2
v1
v
+ d1 + S o x = 2 + d 2 + Sx
2g
2g
(9.4)
Where v is the velocity of flow and all other symbols are defined in Figure 9.5. Such an equation can
be easily solved with computers.
March 2009
9-19
For practical purposes, step method and approximate method are widely used. Detail explanations of
the application of step method for the estimation of water profile are discussed in Chapter 6.
Energy grade line
v
2g
2
1
h=Sx
Water surface
v22
2g
d1
S0x
d2
Channel bottom
S0
x
Figure 9.5 Water surface profiles
From Figure 9.6, an energy equation is,

2
y1 +
v1
v
+ 1 + 2 = y 2 + 2
2g
2g
(9.5)
Assume y1 and y2 are very close to each other and so 2 is very simple, which is negligible.
Therefore, v 1 v 2 , 2 = 0
y 1 + 1 = y 2
1 = S.L
y 2 = y 1 + S.L
y m = y 1 + (L / 2 )
Similarly,
(9.6)
Equation (9.6) is used to compute the hydraulic profile.

Assumed hydraulic gradient, S
Actual hydraulic gradient
1
2
Q
y2
ym
y1
So = 0
L/2
L/2
Figure 9.6 Approximate Method Diagram

9-20
March 2009
9.4.4.8
Erosion and Sedimentation
Design of canal must be compatible with local constraints regarding the need to transport sedimentladen or clear water depending upon the source water; the canal may be of materials sensitive to
erosion such as silt and sand or it may be lined with concrete or other lining materials.
For the canal design three situations can be distinguished with regard to the presence of sediment in
the irrigation water and bank materials.
Irrigation water without sediment in earthen canal. This situation may occur when water is
taken directly from a reservoir. The canal design is governed by the erosion criterion and
thus by the maximum permissible velocity. The erodibility of the canal surfaces will be
decisive.
Irrigation water with sediment in earthen canal. Canal design now is governed by the erosion
and the sedimentation criterion.
Irrigation water with sediment in lined canal. Canal design is governed by the requirement to
transport the sediment through the system and thus the transport criterion governs the
design.
9.5
DESIGN OF UNLINED CANAL
9.5.1
General Design Concept
In this section canal refer to open channels for carrying water from river intake, reservoir or wells to
the farms. The design of lined and earth canals is basically the same as for open drains and ditches,
except that for irrigation flows if can be regulated and canal may be lined with various lining
materials giving greater flexibility in selecting a more efficient cross-section.
Unlined and earth lined canals for irrigation conveyance should be properly designed to provide;
Velocity flow such that neither serious scouring nor serious sedimentation will result
Sufficient to carry the design flow
Hydraulic grade sufficient at a proper depth for good water management
Sides slopes that are stables
Low seepage loss
Minimum initial and maintenance costs.
9.5.2
Characteristics and General Requirements
9.5.2.1
Losses
Canal losses include seepage losses, evaporation losses from the canal water surface, and
operational losses, expressed in terms of cubic meter per day per square meter of wetted areas or
millimeters per day.
Seepage rates may vary from 30 mm/day for lined canal to 20 times that value or more for unlined
canal in sand or gravels. Seepage losses in unlined canals are estimated by dividing the canal into
reaches of similar seepage rates, taking into account similarity of soil conditions and results of
seepage tests. The loss of flow in each reach is computed as follows:
March 2009
9-21
Qs = qs PL/84600
Where,
(9.7)
Qs = flow loss to seepage in canal reach (m3/s)

P = wetted parameter (m)
L = length of canal reach (km)
Qs = rate of infiltration (mm/day =1/m2/day).
Table 9.6 recommends the values of qs based on USBR data for unlined canals, giving approximate
seepage rates in various types of soils.
Table 9.6 Infiltration Rates in Unlined Canals
Types of Soil
Cemented gravel and hard pan with sandy loam
Clay and clayey loam
Sandy loam
Sand clay
Sandy soil with rock
Sandy and gravelly soil
qs(mm/day)
100
120
200
360
510
670
Evaporation losses are usually small compared to seepage losses.

The evaporation losses are computes as follows:
Qe = ETL/86400
Where,
(9.8)
Qe = evaporation loss (m3/s)

E = evaporation rate (mm/day)
T = width of water surface (m)
L = length of canal reach (km).
Operational wastes result from changes in gate settings and practical inability to balance the flow
and demand perfectly at all points along the canal system. A minimum of two percent should be
added to the canal design to allow for the losses due to operational losses.
9.5.2.2
Layout
The canal layout has been discussed at length in the previous section on planning and design
considerations.
9.5.2.3
Curvature
Where changes in direction are necessary, gradual curves should be provided to prevent excessive
bank erosion. The radius of curvature depends on type of soil, the velocity of flow and stability of
sideslopes. If gradual curves will not eliminate erosion in the channel, it may occasionally be
necessary to decrease the velocity by increasing the width or flattening the sideslopes or provide
bank protection.
The relationship between the degree of curvature and the radius of curvature shown is expressed by
the Equation 9.9
9-22
March 2009
R=
Where
50
sin D/2
(9.9)
R = the radius of curvature in m

D = the degree of curvature.
Table 9.4 indicates the minimum radius of curvature for canal constructed in silt and fine sand.
Table 9.7 Minimum Radius of Curvature for Canal Bends Constructed in Silt and Fine Sand.
Canal capacity
(m3/s)
Over 90
30 to 90
15 to 30
5 to 15
Less than 5
Minimum radius
(m)
1500
1000
600
300
Lower than 300
The minimum radius for earth canals constructed on less erosive soils (clay series) should not be less
than by the multiplying of top water width as shown in Table 9.8.
Table 9.8 Minimum Radius of Curvature for Non Erosive Soil based on Multiplying of Top Water
Width
Canal capacity
(m3/s)
Over 50
15 to 50
5 to 15
Less than 5
Minimum radius
(times top width of water)
8
7
6
5 or less
If the canal is concrete lined or of other hard materials resistant to erosion, a minimum radius of
curvature of 3 times the water width should be used to avoid bend losses.
9.5.2.4
Cross Drainage
Canal layout may cut across streams and natural drainages. The flood flows from these natural
drainages have to pass safely under the canal in culverts or over the canal in over chutes. If this is
no feasible, the canal is carried over the stream in an elevated flume or under the streams in an
inverted siphon. Canal cross drainage structures should be designed to handle a 50 year flood safely.
In case of large canal, where an overflow could result in extensive damage to the project area, the
structures should be designed to pass a 100 year flood without overtopping the canal banks.
9.5.2.5
Freeboard
Freeboard is applied to allow for an increase in the water level above the full supply level and the
deterioration of the canal embankment. Water level increase above the computed level may occur
due to sudden gate closure downstream and sediment accumulation in the canal. Water level
increases may also be caused by drainage inflow into the canal system. This variation will increase
with increasing discharge. Minimum freeboards applied in primary and secondary canals are related
to the design discharge of the canal. Table 9.9 gives the recommended freeboard for unlined and
lined canals.
March 2009
9-23
9.5.2.6
Bank
For considerations of operation, maintenance and inspection minimum bank width along the canals
will be required as given in Table 9.10.
Table 9.9 Freeboard for Unlined and Lined Canals
Canal Design Discharge
(m3/sec)
< 0.5
0.5 1.5
1.5 6.0
6.0 11.0
11.0 25.0
>25.0
Height of bank above water

surface(m)
0.40
0.5
0.6
0.75
0.75
1.00
Height of lining above water

surface(m)
0.20
0.20
0.25
0.30
0.40
0.50
For considerations of seepage the minimum width of the bank should be increased as follows:
The seepage line from the design water level to the toe of the embankment should be
at least 4:1 for relatively stable impervious material
at least 7:1 for less well graded soil and uniformly textured material such as fine sand.
For large canals the seepage line should at least be covered by 1 m of material.
Table 9.10 Minimum Bank Width
Level of Canal
Main canal
Secondary canal
Tertiary canal
Quaternary canal
9.5.2.7
Discharge, Q
(m3/s)
More than 15.0
5.0 to 15.0
1.5 to 5.0
0.5 to 1.50
0.15 to 0.50
Less than 0.15
Without Farm Road

(m)
3.50
1.50
1.5
1.5
1.50
1.50
With Farm Road

(m)
6.00
6.00
6.00
6.00
6.00
5.00
Berms
High embankment should be provided with intermediate side berm. The berm width (the distance
from the edge of the canal to the edge of the spoil) provides a degree of protection against
sloughing, seepage control and may be used for the excavators to operate. The minimum berm
width is 3m.
For ditches with sides slopes of 1:1, berm width should be twice the depth and for side slopes 2:1,
the berm width should be equal to the depth.
9.5.3
9.5.3.1
Hydraulic Design
Design Formulas
The design of canal generally assumes that steady and uniform flow (Chapter 7) exists in the canal.
In addition to that assumption it also depends on the design concept, sediment content in the
irrigation water and the soil characteristics of the field. The hydraulic design of unlined canal and
earthen lining canal can be carried out using various methods. The most common methods are:
9-24
March 2009
Manning Equation
Chezys Formula
Kennedys Theory and
Laceys Theory.
9.5.3.2
Irrigation Water Source Without Sediment
In this case, the canal design is governed by the erosion criterion and thus by the maximum
permissible velocity. The erodibility of the canal surfaces will be decisive. This situation may occur
when water is taken directly from a reservoir. Earth canal carrying relatively clear water and
designed for construction in soils consisting of silt and fine sand require careful selection of
geometry, velocity and slope to avoid scour of canal prism. Earth canal under those conditions
should be designed by tractive force method. Empirical formulae, such as the Kennedy formulae as
modified by USBR can also useful for preliminary design.
In earth channels optimum velocities of flow are based on (1) selection of limiting velocities or (2) on
computed values of the critical tractive force. Velocities should be low enough to prevent scour but
high enough to prevent sedimentation. Usually an average velocity of 0.5 to 1.0 m/s for shallow
channel is sufficient to prevent sedimentation. Tractive force is defined as hydraulic shearing force
per unit area on the periphery of the channel.
a)
Limiting Velocity Method
Fortier and Scobey (1926) Recommended the limiting velocities as shown in Table 9.11. These
velocities may be exceeded for some soils where the stream flow contains sediment because
deposition may produce a well graded channel bed resistant to erosion. Where a powerful abrasive
force occup in the water these velocities should be reduced by 0.15 m/s. For depth over 0.9 m,
Fortier and Scobey (1926) permitted velocities of 0.15 m/s higher than shown. When the channel is
winding or curved, the limiting velocity should be reduced by about 25 percent.
For non-cohesive bed material the Code of Rules established in USSR (Guidrotekn) that relates the
basic velocity to grain sizes can be used. The maximum permissible mean velocities related to grain
sizes are as shown in Table 9.12. The permissible velocities are adjusted according to the depth of
flow by applying the correction factor shown in Table 9.13.
b)
Tractive Force Method
As shown in Figure 9.7, tractive force is equal to and in opposite direction to the force the canal bed
exerts on flowing water.
In a uniform channel of constant slope and constant flow, the water flows in a state of steady,
uniform flow without acceleration. The force tending to prevent motion is equal to the force causing
motion. For small channel, tractive force can be determined as follows:
T = wys
Where,
(9.10)
T = tractive force (Pa)

w = unit weight of water (N/m3)
y = depth of flow (m)
s = bed gradient.
The critical tractive force values computed by Lane (1955) for the corresponding velocity of flow and
roughness coefficient are indicated in Table 9.8. In making the computation, a depth of 0.9 m,
bottom width of 3.1 m and side slope ratio of 1.5: 1 are assumed. Design may be based on these
values if more reliable data are not available.
March 2009
9-25
Table 9.11 Fortier and Scobeys Limiting Velocities with Corresponding Tractive Force Values
(Straight Channel after Aging) (Adapted from Lane, 1955)
Clear Water
Roughness
Coefficient, n
Material
Fine sand colloidal

Sandy loam,
non-collodal
Silt loam, non-collodal
Alluvial silts,
non colloidal
Ordinary firm loam
Stiff clay, very colloidal
Alluvial silt, colloidal
Shales and hardpan
Fine gravel
Graded loam to cobbles
when non-colloidal
Graded silts to cobbles
when non-collodal
Coarse Gravel,
non collodal
Cobbles and shingles
Velocity
(m/s)
Water Transporting
Colloidal Silts
Tractive
Force
(Pa)
Velocity
(m/s)
Tractive
Force
(Pa)
0.020
0.46
1.3
0.76
3.6
0.020
0.020
0.53
0.61
1.8
2.3
0.77
0.92
3.6
5.3
0.020
0.025
0.025
0.025
0.025
0.020
0.61
0.76
1.14
1.14
1.83
0.76
2.3
3.6
12.4
12.4
32.1
3.6
1.07
1.07
1.53
1.53
1.83
1.53
7.2
7.2
22.0
22.0
32.1
15.3
0.030
1.14
18.2
1.53
31.6
0.030
1.22
20.6
1.68
38.3
0.025
0.035
1.22
1.53
14.4
43.6
1.83
1.68
32.1
52.7
Table 9.12 The Maximum Permissible Mean Velocities Related to Grain Sizes
Bed Materials
Silt
- Very Fine
- Fine
Sand
- Fine
- Medium
- Coarse
Gravel
- Fine
- Medium
- Coarse
Cobbles
- Very Small
- Small
- Medium
- Large
- Very Large
9-26
d (mm)
V(m/S)
0.005
0.06
0.15
0.20
0.025
1.00
2.50
0.03
0.55
0.65
5.0
10.0
15.0
0.8
1.0
1.2
15
25
40
75
100
150
200
1.2
1.4
1.4
2.4
2.7
3.3
3.9
March 2009
Table 9.13 Correction Factor for Mean Velocity as a Function of Depth

Mean Depth (m)
0.3
0.6
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
Correction Factor
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.1
1.15
1.2
1.25
Unit length
Water surface
wy sin
Water pressure
wy cos
Tractive force
Channel bottom
wy
Horizontal
Figure 9.7 Tractive Force on the Bottom of an Open Channel
The unit tractive force is a multiple of a distribution factor and w y s. The unit tractive force in
channels, except for wide open channel, is not uniformly distributed along wetted parameter. The
distribution factor is a function of side slopes and the ratio of bottom width of the channel to the
water depth. The pattern of distribution varies with the shape of the section but is practically
unaffected by the size of channel section.
A typical distribution of tractive force in a trapezoidal channel is shown in figure 9.8.
T
1
1.5
1.5
b=4y
0.750 wys
0.750 wys
0.970 wys
Figure 9.8 Distribution of Tractive Force in a Trapezoidal Channel Section
Maximum tractive force on sides and bottom of various channel sections is shown in Figure 9.9. For
trapezoidal channel of shapes ordinarily used in canals, the maximum tractive force at the bottom is
close to the value of wys and on sides, the value is 0.75 to 0.78 wys depending on the sides slopes.
The tractive force ratio K is the ratio of unit tractive force on the sides of the canal (Ts) to unit
tractive force on the bottom of the canal (TL).
March 2009
9-27
K = Ts /TL = 1 -
sin 2
(9.11)
sin 2
Where , is angle of the canal side slope and angle of repose of the material.
1.0
0.9
Trapezoids, z=2
0.8
0.7
Units tractive force in terms of wys
Units tractive force in terms of wys
1.0
Trapezoids,
z=1.5
0.6
Rectangles
0.5
Trapezoids, z=1
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
5 6 7
b/y
On sides of channels
2
9 10
Trapezoids,
(z=2 and 1.5)
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
Rectangles
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
5 6 7 8
b/y
On bottom of channels
2
9 10
Figure: 9.9 Maximum Unit Tractive Forces in Terms of wys
Angle for repose, with horizontal (O)
42
40
Very angular
Moderately
Slightly
Slightly rounded
Moderately
Very
38
36
34
32
30
28
26
24
22
20
18
50
20
5
10
Participle size (mm)
100
Figure 9.10 Angle of Repose of Non-cohesive Material (USBR, 1953)

For design, Figure 9.10 is prepared by USBR showing the values of repose for non-cohesive materials
above 5 mm diameter for various degrees of roughness.
Tractive force ratio (K) is used for design. Values for K, also known as critical shear stress for various
side slope inclinations and angle of repose are shown in Figure 9.11.
9-28
March 2009
Permissible tractive force is the maximum unit tractive force that will not cause serious erosion of the
materials forming the bed on a level surface. For coarse non-cohesive material, with the sufficient
factor of safety, USBR recommends a value of permissible tractive force in lb. per square foot equal
to 0.4 times diameter in inches of the particles of which 25% (by weight) of the material is larger.
This is shown by the straight line in the design chart (Figure 9.12).
For fine non-cohesive materials, the size specified is the median size or smaller than 50% of the
weight. Three curves in Figure 9.12 are recommended depending on the sediment content in the
water. The permissible tractive force in cohesive soils is based upon the compactness or void ratio.
Figure 9.13 shows the permissible tractive force for canals in cohesive soil. The chart is entered with
the void ratio determined from samples of the in-place cohesive soils.
Figure 9.12 Permissible unit tractive force for canals in non-cohesive soils derived from
USDR data on permissible velocities (Chow, 1959). For cohesive materials, the data based on
conversion of permissible velocities to unit tractive force and given in Table 9.11 and Figure 9.13 are
recommended for design.
Angle of repose (0)
Side slopes in degrees (O)
40
45
11/4
35
40
30
35
11/2
1 3/4
2
21/4
30
25
25
20
20
15
10
Based on K = 1- Sin2 O
Sin 0
5
0 1
3 4 5 6 7 8
Value of K x 10
Value of K x 10 -1
21/2
3
4
5
Side slopes (z)
45
9 10
Figure 9.11 Tractive Force Ratio, K for Inclined Slope
Permissible unit tractive force (kg/m )
Recomended value for canals in coarse

noncohesive material, d>25
10.0
Recommended value for

canals with high content
of fine sediment in the
water
5.0
2.0
Recommended value for

canals with low content
of fine sediment in the
water
Recommeded value for
canals with clear water.
1.0
0.5
0.2
0.1
10
100
Average particle diameter (mm)
0.1
Figure 9.12 Permissible Tractive Force for Canal in Non-cohesive Material (USBR,1953)
March 2009
9-29
Unit tractive force (kg/m2)
5.0
2.0
1.0
Sandy clays (sand<50%)
Heavy clayey soils
Clays
Lean clayey soils
0.5
0.2
0.1
0.1
0.2
0.5
Void ratio
1.0
2.0
Figure 9.13 Permissible Unit Tractive Forces for Canal in Cohesive Material, (Chow, 1959)
The design steps for erodible canal using tractive force method are as follows:
Select approximate channel section by experience or from design tables.
Collect samples of the material forming the channel bed and determine the required
properties of the samples
Apply tractive force analysis to ascertain probable stability by reaches and to determine the
minimum section that appears stable
For canal in non-cohesive materials, the rolling down effect should be considered in addition
to the effect of distribution of tractive forces
For channel in cohesive materials, the rolling down effect is negligible and the effect of the
distribution of tractive force alone is a criterion sufficient for design
The final proportioning of the canal depends on the other non-hydraulic practical
considerations.
c) Empirical Formula
Several other methods can be employed for the design of erodible unlined canals. The use of
Empirical formulas (such as Kennedys formula and Laceys method) for erodible drains is discussed
in Chapter 13. These methods are also applied to irrigation conveyance erodible canals.
According to Kennedys silt theory, the eddies generated from the bed of a stable channel support
the silts to be in suspension. The critical velocity for non-silting and non-scouring condition can be
calculated by the following equation:
V = m0.84D 0.64
(9.12)
where, m is the critical velocity ratio which varies from 1.1 to 1.2 for coarse particles and 0.8 to 0.9
for fine particles.
9-30
March 2009
9.5.3.3
Irrigation Water Source with Sediment
Canals constructed in silts and sands are sensitive to bank erosion. If the canal water supply is by
direct diversion or pumping from river carrying sediment, a portion of sediment will be diverted to
canal. If sediment inflow exceeds the sediment carrying capacity of the canal, deposition will occur,
and the discharge capacity of canal will be seriously reduced in a few years. On the other hand, if
the sediment carrying capacity of the canal exceeds sediment inflow, the canal bank will be attacked,
meandering will start and costly bank protection will be needed to stabilize the canal. Canal design
now is governed by the erosion and the sedimentation criterion. The design objective is to select a
slope and geometric dimensions such that during an annual cycle the sediment inflow to the canal is
equal to sediment flowing out of the canal. The canals which are required in such conditions are to
referred as regime canals.
For the design of this type of canal, Laceys regime equation, Blench regime equation and Empirical
rule used in USSR (Guidrotekn, 1936) can be applied.
9.5.3.4
Discharge Capacity
Wherever practical, the channel should be designed for a high hydraulic efficiency. In earth channels
the stability of the soil places limitation on channel grade and side slopes. The topography and
desired water level may limit the design grade and the velocity of flow. The most commonly used
mathematical tool for the design of lined and non-erodible channels are Manning Formula and
Chezys Equation. Choice of the design equations depends on the data availability for the sites.
The roughness coefficient for open channels varies with the height, density and type of vegetation;
physical roughness of the bottom and sides of the channels; variation in size and shape of the cross
section; alignment and hydraulic radius. Primarily, because of differences in vegetation, the
roughness coefficient varies from season to season. In general, conditions that increase turbulence
increase the roughness coefficient.
9.5.4
Cross-Section
The design dimensions of an open channel cross-section are shown in Figure 9.14. Earth channels
and lined canals are normally designed with trapezoidal cross-sections.
9.5.4.1 Side Slopes
Channel side slopes are determined principally by soil texture and stability. The most critical
condition for sloughing occurs after rapid drop in the flow level that leaves the banks saturated,
creating a seepage drag force. For the same side slope, the deeper the ditches the more likely it is
slough. Side slopes should be designed to suit soil conditions and the limitations of construction
equipment. To limit excavation and expropriation cost, canal side slopes are designed as steep as
possible. Soil material, depth of the canal and occurrence of seepage will determine the maximum
steepness for a stable side slope. Suggested side slopes are shown in Table 9.14.
Whenever possible, these slopes should be verified by experience and local practical practices. Very
narrow ditches should use slightly flatter side slopes than wider ditches because of greater reduction
in capacity in the narrow ditches if sloughing occurs. Flatter slopes than mentioned in the Table
should be used for situation where seepage into the canal is expected.
9.5.4.2 Bottom Width
After the channel grade, depth and sideslopes are selected; the bottom width can be computed for a
given discharge. The bottom width for most hydraulic-efficient cross-section and minimum volume of
excavation is determined by the formula
b = 2d tan
March 2009
1/2
= 2d / z + z 2 + 1
(9.13)
9-31
Where,
b = bottom width (m)
d = design depth (m)
= side slopes angle (degrees).
Table 9.14 Maximum Side Slope for Various Soils

Side slopes Horizontal : Vertical
Soil Material
Shallow channel
Up to 1.2 m
Vertical
0.5 : 1
1: 1
1.5 : 1
2 : 1
3 : 1
Peat and muck

stiff clay, loam, loess
clay and silt loam
sandy loam, porous clay
loose sandy
soft peat
Deep Channel, 1.2 m

and Deeper
0.2 : 1
1 : 1
1.5 : 1
1.5 : 1
2 : 1
3 : 1
Berm
min. 3 m (10 ft)
T
Freeboard
1
b
(a)
W
Min.
1
Berm
Spoil
Min.
1
(b)
Figure 9.14 Typical Cross-section of Irrigation Canal
9.5.4.3 Spoil Banks
Spoil bank should be compacted and placed so as to raise the water level above the original ground
surface. The spoil side slopes should be the same as for the channel. If the soil is sufficiently stable
or if the canal is lined, the berm can be omitted. In deep cut, berms are provided for stability as well
as for roadways. The land side slopes of canal spoil banks may be made steeper than that for
drainage ditches, unless flat slopes are required for maintenance or control of seepage.
9.6
DESIGN OF LINED CANAL
9.6.1
General Descriptions
Canal lining is considered for the reasons of prevention of seepage losses, prevention of scour and
erosion, prevention of damage by livestock or people, to allow for increase curvature, reduction of
land acquisition and many others. Indications for possible high seepage rates may show from the soil
map, soil investigations by borings and test pits in the canal alignment. Canal lining may only be
needed on limited stretches.
9-32
March 2009
Permissible velocity for a soil material may be too low to allow for the minimum non-silting velocity
and canal lining may be considered. Terrain slopes can be such that resulting velocities are higher
than the permissible velocity of the soil material, thus lining is required. In this case, canal lining may
be economical as otherwise flatter slopes with drop structures would be required.
9.6.2
Types of Lining
Canal lining can be made out of a whole range of materials. Basically there are three types of lining;
earth linings, buried surface linings and hard surface linings. Two lining materials most
recommended are concrete and earth.
9.6.2.1
Earth Lining
Effective earth lining include thick compacted earth, gravel-protected thin earth and gravelprotected bentonite-soil lining. Thick compacted earth lining perform very well and should be
considered when suitable material is available within an economical haul distance.
Gravel with sand-clay binder or sand with clay binder are ideal materials but silts and clays and
clayey sand can also be used with appropriate velocities. The lining thickness on the sides should be
such that the material can be placed and compacted in horizontal layers. The earth lining on the bed
should be at least 0.60 m thick.
Thin compacted earth linings should consist of a cohesive soil placed about 0.30 m thick and
compacted. After compaction, the earth lining is covered with protective layer of gravel 0.2 m to 0.3
m thick.
Canal design for earth lining follows the same procedure as for earth canals as in Chapter 3.
9.6.2.2
Buried Membrane Lining
Buried membrane linings consist of a thin impervious membrane protected by an earth and gravel
cover. The impervious membrane can be sprayed asphalt, plastic, prefabricated asphalt, butyl coated
fabric or bentonite. Lining materials such as prefabricated asphalt, plastic and butyl coated fabric
linings have the advantage of flexibility and readily conform to irregularities in the sub-grade. They
have special application for temporary use but are susceptible to puncture and are good to be used
as a buried membrane protected by earth cover.
These types of lining is almost completely watertight as long as the cover material is adequate for
protection against weathering, erosion and mechanical damage. The cover material should be at
least 0.8 m thick and properly compacted to protect the membranes from the hooves of animals.
The side slopes of the canal should be made 2.5: 1 or flatter, since the membrane forms a weak
plane for sliding. A band of coarse gravel and cobbled of 75 to 100 mm size should be placed along
the water line for the protection against wind generated waves.
9.6.2.3
Hard Surface Lining
Hard surface linings include concrete, shotcrete, bricks, stone masonry, soil cement, asphalt concrete
and exposed plastics. The cost of hard surface linings amounts to a large percentage of the total cost
of the canal and hydraulically efficient canal is required. Lined canals of this type are usually
designed with a base width to the water depth ratio of 1:2 and sides slopes of 1.5:1.
9.6.3
Concrete Canal Lining
Majority of hard surface canal linings today consist of reinforced or unreinforced Portland cement
concrete. Where long distances are to be lined, machines are used for trimming and placing of the
linings. There are various types of concrete linings methods can be used, such as masonry lining, insitu concrete lining and precast concrete segment lining.
March 2009
9-33
9.6.3.1
Masonry Lining
Masonry linings referred to all blocks, slabs or bricks of stone, clay or concrete that are laid by hand
with mortar jointing.
Precast concrete slabs are popular because they are cheap and easy to make. However their
performance is no better than stone slabs. Unless the joints are designed to resist movement, shear
forces between adjacent slabs quickly lead to their disruption. Rectangular precast slabs are often
used, but when small amount of settlement forces one slab out of plane with its neighbors, the
joints crack and the weight of upslope slabs contribute to the mode of failure.
9.6.3.2
In-situ Concrete
In-situ concrete in one form or another is potentially the most durable lining, provided its quality can
be assured by means of strict supervision. Where the earth sub-grade is wet or poorly compacted,
in- situ concrete is likely to fail. All concrete needs proper mixing, curing and placing, therefore
needs competent engineering supervision. In-situ concrete comes in many forms such as plaster and
ferrocement.
9.6.3.3
Precast Concrete Segments
Precast unit made to the full cross-sectional profile on the canal have lots of advantages. Precast unit
can be accurately made to hydraulically efficient and apparently complex profiles, can resist lateral
forces from swelling soils and can resist shear forces induced by poorly compacted sub-grades. They
do not need backfill and can be made free-standing, thereby reducing land-take. They can be
installed by semi-skilled local contractors with minimal supervision even in wet conditions.
9.6.4
Design Consideration
Several considerations need to be taking into account in choosing the suitable lining for canals. The
design considerations are as described below.
9.6.4.1
Structural Stress
Structural stress on lining needs to be considered and thus avoided or resisted by designing
adequate strength into the lining. In large canals, hydrostatic forces can be substantial. Rigid in-situ
lining such as concrete or masonry is almost always designed to be continuously supported on its
earth backing and as such it behave as a beam in elastic foundation. Finite element analysis can be
used for a larger canal and can indicate the drawbacks of adopting a trapezoidal profile when a
curved section would generate far less stress.
9.6.4.2
Hydrostatic Pressure
In a large canal, unbalanced water pressure on either side of the lining can cause damage. Concrete
lining 100 mm thick can withstand a hydrostatic pressure of about 1 m head. There are several
potential modes of failure which need to be considered. Apart from the stress caused by simple
build-up of water on the side of the lining, the secondary effects of washing out of fine soil and
consequent piping failure have to be guarded against.
9.6.4.3
Point Load
Point loads due to the action of people, vehicles or animals are potentially the most damaging to
small canals. The hooves of cattle and buffaloes are notoriously destructive to masonry or poor
quality concrete.
9.6.4.4
Durability
The durability or longevity of lining is a subjective measure of its resistance to ageing, without the
effects of physical damage. Most materials gradually deteriorate in some way with time and with
exposure to weather or sunlight. Some of the plastic membranes are notorious for physical
9-34
March 2009
deterioration; polyethylene and PVC go brittle when exposed to ultraviolet in sunlight for a few
months. Concrete can gradually weaken under the chemical action of sulphate or salinity in the soil.
Table 9.15 gives an indication of durability criteria for various types of lining.
Table 9.15 Durability and Canal Linings
Reinforced
concrete
Slab
Trapezoidal
/ rectangular
Half-round
Parabolic
Durability
Labour intensive
Local materials
Soil swelling/shrinkage
Poor soil compaction
Uplift pressure
Physical damage
Crabs, rats
Root penetration
Precast Concrete
Reinforced
concrete
Resistance
to Damage
Mass concrete
In-Situ
Concrete
Compacted
Earth
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Suitable
Unsuitable
9.6.4.5
Thermal and Shrinkage Stresses
Thermal expansion and contraction is an irresistible force which can break concrete if no proper
allowance is made in the form of joints. Thermal damage is normally unspectacular, in thin concrete
appearing only in the form or hairline cracks, but it can be enough to provide root-hold for weed. In
stone masonry, differential thermal movement is partly responsible for the mortar joint infill parting
company with the stonework.
9.6.4.6
Soil Movement
Moving soils are potentially the most destructive of all forces acting on a rigid canal lining. There are
three main causes of movement:
settlement of fill due to poor compaction,
consolidation due to the gradual egress of water over a long time period, by far the
widespread in its effects,
swelling and shrinkage of soil with changing moisture content. Most soils with any
appreciable clay content will swell to some extent when wet and shrinkage on drying,
opening up deep cracks in the process. Any canal lining which is supported fully on such a
soil will be forced to move with it and break immediately unless it is either flexible or selfsupporting and strong enough to hold together. A high friction interface between soil and
the underside of lining invites self-destruction.
Dispersive soils are those that either dissolve in water or lose their structure underwater to such an
extent that they are moved in fine suspension, can wash out through joints and cracks in lining.
Weak silts, loess and fine mudstones may all be hard when dry, but can behave quite differently
March 2009
9-35
after soaking in water. Some soils can literally dissolve and disappear completely. In these situations,
voids can develop beneath the lining, leading to sudden collapse.
9.6.4.7
Scour
Abrasion caused by fast-moving sand and gravel carried as bed-load can erode concrete and
masonry. It is wise to limit the design velocity to a maximum of about 5 m/s under these conditions.
Erosion of earth canals can occur at velocities of less than 1 m/s and these needs to be designed
with an appropriate threshold velocity or considered as alluvial regime canals.
9.6.4.8
Vegetation
Aquatic weed growth can reduce canal capacity, but more destructive force on lining is posed by
perennial plants such as reeds and trees with penetrative root systems which can dislodge heavy
concrete slabs as well as small pieces of stone masonry.
9.6.4.9
Accidental and Animal Damages
Accidental damage often occurs during maintenance which involves clearing of weeds or silt.
Masonry lining is easily disrupted as roots get entrenched in the joints. Unlined canals can rapidly
lose their profile shape through unsupervised de-silting operations.
There are some burrowing lobsters and crabs which thrive in irrigated conditions and burrow through
the joints in stone masonry and weak concrete and can disrupt rigid canal linings in a short time.
Rats and similar rodents tend to burrow into banks above the water line, causing deposition of soil in
the canal and weaken the banks leading to their gradual disintegration.
9.6.5
Minimum Thickness of Concrete Lining
Recommended minimum thickness for various canal capacities are given in Table 9.16.
Table 9.16 Minimum Thickness of Concrete Lining
Canal capacity
(m3/s)
1 or less
1 to 5
5 to 15
15 to 40
40 to 100
Lining thickness
(mm)
50
65
75
100
125
9.6.6 Joints
Joints to be provided for following functions
Expansion joints to accommodate thermal expansion
Contraction joints to accommodate shrinkage as the concrete matures, decrease in moisture

or temperatures
Movement joints, to accommodate differential settlement at the junction with the structures
or local movements induced by swelling or settling soils.
Expansion joints require an insert of compressible material such as 10 mm thick expanded

polystyrene. This allows movement of the concrete without causing high stress.
9-36
March 2009
Contraction joints are deliberate, clean-edge discontinuity which induces the controlled formation of
cracking due to shrinkage. This is done by incorporating grooves having a depth equal to one third of
concrete thickness to confine the cracking to predetermined planes of weakness. The shape of the
groove is illustrated in Figure 9.15.
>16
5
40
100Dia
C
T
< 6 except at intersections
PVC strip
20 Longitudinal joint
16 Transverse joint
90+10
-
a) Plastic Sealant
Preformed
polysulphide
shape
b) Groove, Pre-form
B+3
C
3 to 6
B
Asphalt mastic or
polysulphide sealant
c) Groove, Post-form
Figure 9.15 Groove and Joint Plastic Sealant
Contraction joint requires treatment with joint sealant plastic sealing strips to prevent seepage or
possible piping of pines through contraction crack. If the sealing strip cannot be used, grooves
should be provided and shielded with a polysulphide sealant. The grooves and joint sealant plastic
sealing are illustrated in Figure 9.15. The grooves and PVS strip dimensions and transverse spacing
are shown in Table 9.17.
Table 9.17 Groove and PVC Strip Dimensions and Transverse Spacing
Slab Thickness
(mm)
50
65
75
100
125
PVC Strip Height

A (mm)
Not recommend
40
40
50
50
Groove Width
B (mm)
15
15
15
20
20
Groove Depth
C (mm)
20
20
30
40
40
Groove Spacing
(m)
6
6
6
6
6
In large canals, transverse joint at 6 m internal should be provided, with every third expansion joint
and the rest as contraction joints. The mechanical key can be us to prevent the movement of soil
through the joints which are not sealed. Longitudinal joint are only needed in large canals wider than
15 m. Longitudinal joints should be run at the junction of base and side or at the start of a fillet in a
curved section.
March 2009
9-37
Movement joints normally have a mechanical key or ledge, to limit the vertical shear displacement of
one component against the other. In canal lining this situation would arise where lining abuts against
a heavy structure. If a continuous impermeable membrane is used, it must be folded at the joint in
such a way as to allow any movement to be taken up in the folds.
9.6.7 Hydraulic Design
9.6.7.1
Design Formulas
The design of canal generally assumes that steady and uniform flow (Chapter7) exists in the canal.
In addition to that assumption and also depending on the design concept, sediment content in the
irrigation water and the soil characteristics of the field are taken into account. The hydraulic design
of unlined canal and earthen lining canal can be carried out using various methods. The most
common methods are:
Manning Equation
Chezys Formula.
9.6.7.2
Roughness Coefficient
Roughness coefficient for various canal lining materials is shown in Table 9.18.
Table 9.18 Roughness Coefficient Recommended for Hard Surface Linings (FAO, 1988)
Type of lining
Mannings n
Concrete lining
- (R up to 1.0 m)
0.014
- (R from 2.0 m to 3.0 m)
0.015
- (R from 4.0 m to 6.0 m)
0.016
- (R = hydraulic radius)
Shotcrete lining (on earth)
0.017
Asphaltic concrete, machine placed
0.014
Soil cement
0.016
Prefabricated asphalt or plastic linings, exposed
0.015
Brick lining
0.015
Cemented rubble masonry
0.025
The above value for concrete linings are for machine placed. If the lining is hand placed, 0.001
should be added to the values of roughness coefficient.
9.6.7.3
Maximum Velocities
The maximum velocities recommended for various types of canal lining are shown in Table 9.19. The
maximum average flow velocity should not exceed 4 m/s. For flow velocities in excess of 2 m/s,
canals should be provided with a 1.2 m high handrail or covered with solid or grated covers for the
entire length of the drain for public safety.
9-38
March 2009
Table 9.19 Maximum Velocities for Lined Canals

Type of Lining
maximum velocities (m/s)
Concrete lining
Bricks, dry laid
Stone masonry, mortared
3.5
Cement/sand plaster
Earth lining
9.6.7.4
4
allowable velocity for earth canal
with the same lining material
Minimum Velocity
Design of lined canals requires certain grades to maintain minimum velocity to prevent sedimentation
and vegetative growth in the channel. The minimum average flow velocity shall not be less than
0.6 m/s.
9.6.8 Canal Cross-Section
Hydraulic design follows the procedure for the design of unlined canals. Canals with stone masonry
and concrete lining have lower Mannings roughness coefficients. Consequently cross-sections for
these lined canals will be smaller than for earthen canals with the discharge capacity.
Lined canal sections is designed following the sediment transportation criterion and water depth for
lined canals equal the water depth of unlined canals. Bed width is smaller than for the unlined canal
because the lower n value of the lined canal.
The cost of linings amounts to large percentage of the total cost of a canal. Thus a hydraulically
efficient canal is required. Lined canal with hard surface linings should be design with a water depth
to bottom width of 1:2 and side slopes of as steep as possible.
Typical cross-sections are given in Figure 9.16
With Farm Road
Without Farm Road

Freeboard
Concrete Lining
Figure 9.16 Typical Cross-Section of Canal

9.6.8.1
Side Slope
To limit excavation and expropriation cost, canal side slopes are designed as steep as possible. Soil
material, depth of the canal and occurrence of seepage will determine the maximum steepness for a
stable side slope. Side slopes can be steeper for lined canals compared to unlined canals. For small
canals (where h<0.40 m) side slopes of lined canal can be vertical. For larger canals the side slope
values in Table 9.20 are recommended.
Particularly for the larger canals stability of the lined side slope has to be checked against sliding and
overturning. Water pressure from behind the lining is an important factor in this balance.
March 2009
9-39
Flatter slopes than mentioned in the Tables should be used for situation where seepage into the
canal is expected.
Table 9.20 Side Slopes for Lined Canal
Types of Soil
Sandy soil, cohesive sandy soil
Loose sandy soil
Sandy loam, porous clay
Soft peat
9.6.8.2
Canal depth
h less than
0.4 m
vertical
vertical
vertical
vertical
Canal depth
0.40 m< h < 0.75 m
Canal depth
0.75 m <h <1.5m
1:1
1:1
1:1
1:1.25
1:1
1:1.25
1:1.5
1:1.5
Bank Width
For considerations of operation, maintenance and inspection, minimum bank width along the canals
required are as given in Table 9.21.
Table 9.21 Minimum Embankment Width for Lined Canal
Hierarchy
Main canal
Secondary canal
Tertiary canal
Quaternary canal
9.6.8.3
Discharge, Q (m3/s)
Without farm road (m)
With Farm Road (m)
Q > 15.0
3.50
6.00
5.0 - 15.0
1.50
6.00
1.5 - 5.0
1.50
6.00
0.5 - 1.50
1.50
6.00
0.15 - 0.50
1.50
6.00
< 0.15
1.50
5.00
Freeboard
Minimum values for freeboard for lined canals are as in Table 9.22. The Table also shows the
freeboard of the earth embankments being equal to those of unlined canals.
Table 9.22: Freeboard for Earth Embankment and Lining for Lined Canals
Canal design discharge
(m3/sec)
< 0.5
0.5 1.5
1.5 6.0
6.0 11.0
11.0 25.0
>25.0
Height of bank above water

surface
(m)
0.40
0.50
0.60
0.75
0.75
1.00
Height of lining above water

surface
(m)
0.20
0.20
0.25
0.30
0.40
0.50
9.6.9 Canal Curvature
The minimum radius of the curvature for lined canals is taken at;
three times the width at the water surface (3W) for small canal (Q < 0.6 m3/ s)
seven times water surface width for large canals.
9-40
March 2009
If tighter bends are required then guide vanes may be necessary to distribute the flow more evenly
at the end of the bend. Additional head loss should be accounted for.
9.7
CONVEYANCE FOR SURFACE FARM WATER DELIVERIES
9.7.1 General Descriptions
Delivery systems for surface irrigated farms convey water from the farm water source a canal,
reservoir or well to the fields in open canals or pipelines. Such systems generally have a capacity
about 500 l/sec or less. Delivery system may include structures for measuring and regulating flow,
control head (pressure) and erosion and diverting water into basins, borders and furrows. Lined or
unlined conveyance ditches or pipelines should be designed to minimize water loss by seepage, allow
efficient irrigation, economically justified and convenient to operate and maintain and with less
maintenance and operation costs.
9.7.1.1
Location and Layout
The location and layout of laterals and the farm ditches for distributing irrigation water are normally
a part of a surface irrigation system. Canals should be located so that the water may flow by gravity
from the canal to the point use. Under some conditions the topography or soil formation may make
another location more economically feasible. Most problems on location arise because of varying
surface and subsurface conditions.
The water surface in the canal should be kept above the natural ground surface at the point of
delivery and should permit the measurement of flow where required. Gradual curves are more
important for canals than for drainage ditches since capacity flow must be carried for a longer
period. Layout surveys are similar to those for drainage ditches.
9.7.1.2
Design Flow
The design flow for irrigation canals should be adequate to supply the maximum rate of water use by
plants. This maximum rate depends on the area irrigated, the climatic condition and the type and
stage of growth of different crops within the area. Allowances should be made for additional flow
from storm rainfall, for conveyance losses and for unavoidable delivery and application losses. Canal
seepage losses will be highest during the early part of the growing season. For large projects with
diversified crops, maximum demand usually occurs during the middle of growing season or slightly
later.
Seepage losses on large irrigation area of unlined canals vary from 30 to 70 percent of the water
diverted. The design flow of delivery canals (tertiary and quaternary) per unit area should be 25 to
50 percent greater than for the main canal.
9.7.2 Surface Irrigation Structures
Surface irrigation systems are supported by a number of on- and off-farm structures which control
and manage the flow and its energy. In order to facilitate efficient surface irrigation, these structures
should be easily and cheaply constructed as well as easy to manage and maintain. Each should be
standardized for mass production and fabrication in the field by farmers and technicians. It is not the
intent of this guide to be comprehensive with regard to the selection and design of these structures,
but it is worthwhile to note some of these structures by way of presenting a larger view of surface
irrigation.
The structural elements of a surface system perform several important functions which include: (1)
turning the flow to a field on and off; (2) conveying and distributing the flow among fields; (3) water
measurement, sediment and debris removal, water level stabilization; and (4) distribution of water
onto the field.
March 2009
9-41
9.7.2.1
Diversion Structures
Most surface irrigation systems derive their water supplies from canal systems operated by public or
semi-public irrigation departments, districts or companies. Some irrigation water is supplied in piped
delivery systems and some directly pumped from groundwater. Diversion structures perform several
tasks including: (1) on-off water control which allows the supply agency to allocate its supply and
protects the fields below the diversion from untimely flooding; (2) regulation and stabilization of the
discharge to the requirements of field channels and watercourse distribution systems; (3)
measurement of flow at the turnout in order to establish and protect water entitlements; and (4)
protection of downstream structures by controlling sediments and debris as well as dissipating
excess kinetic energy in the flow.
9.7.2.2
Conveyance, Distribution and Management Structures
Conveying water to the field requires similar structures to those found in major canal networks. The
conveyance itself can be an earthen ditch or lateral, a buried pipe, or a lined ditch. Lined sections
can be elevated or constructed at surface level. Pipe materials are usually plastic, steel, concrete,
clay or asbestos cement.
The management of water in the field channels involves flow measurement, sediment and debris
removal, divisions, checks, drop-energy dissipators and water level regulators. Associated with these
are various flow measuring devices like weirs, flumes and orifices. The designs of these structures
have been standardized since they are small in size and capacity. Designs for flow measurement and
drop-energy dissipator structures need more attention and construction must be more precise since
their hydraulic responses are quite sensitive to their dimensions.
9.7.2.3
Field Distribution Systems
After the water reaches the field ready to be irrigated, it is distributed onto the field by a variety of
means, both simple and elaborately constructed. Most fields have a head ditch or pipeline running
along the upper side of the field from which the flow is distributed onto the field.
In a field irrigated from a head ditch, the spreading of water over the field depends somewhat on
the method of surface irrigation. For borders and basins, open or piped cutlets are generally used.
Furrow systems use outlets or siphon which can be directed to each furrow.
Field distribution and spreading can also be through portable pipelines running along the surfaces or
permanent pipelines running underground. Basins and borders usually receive water through buried
pipes serving one or more gated risers within each basin or border. A typical riser outlet is alfalfa
valve. The most common piped method of furrow irrigation uses plastic or aluminium gated pipe.
The gated pipe may be connected to the main water supply via a piped distribution network with a
riser assembly, directly to a canal turnout or through an open channel to a piped transition.
9.7.3 Unlined Delivery Canal
Unlined canal deliveries are widely used primarily because of low cost and ease of construction.
Unlined canal deliveries have to be designed to prevent structure and ditch washout due to erosion
and to reduce seepage losses. Unlined canal deliveries should be designed using maximum
permissible velocity criteria according to soil texture to minimize erosion.
9.7.3.1
Design and Capacity
Canal deliveries should be designed for an equal to crop water requirement during peak demand plus
irrigation and operational losses. Water losses vary with the irrigation distribution system, method of
irrigation, soils, crops grown, farm management practices, and others. For the reasons of economy,
it should not be oversized. Canal deliver should be large enough to provide adequate water for crop
requirements under existing and anticipated irrigation methods.
Ditch capacity considerations are given in Section 9.7.1.2. After the required capacity has been
determined, ditch size can be designed using the Manning formula, with a coefficient of roughness
as shown in Table 9.23.
9-42
March 2009
Table 9.23 Values of Manning n for Unlined Ditches (From Chow, 1959)
Type of Channel and Description
Minimum
Normal
Maximum
Clean, recently developed
0.016
0.018
0.020
Clean, after weathering
0.018
0.022
0.025
Gravel, uniform section
0.022
0.025
0.030
With short grass, few weeds
0.022
0.027
0.033
No vegetation
0.023
0.025
0.030
Grass, some weeds
0.025
0.030
0.033
Dense weeds or aquatic plants in deed channel
0.030
0.035
0.040
Earth bottom and rubble sides
0.028
0.030
0.035
Stony bottom and weedy banks
0.025
0.035
0.040
Cobbles bottom and clean sides
0.030
0.040
0.050
a) Earth, straight and uniform
b) Earth, winding and sluggish
9.7.3.2
Slope
Slope is the gradient of the ditch and for uniform flow, is also the energy loss per unit length (the
energy gradient). Therefore for the uniform flow in irrigation ditches, the slope of energy grade line,
water surface and channel bottom are equal. Slope influence flow velocity and must be low enough
so the velocity does not cause scouring. The minimum slope for unlined farm ditch should be 0.0004.
At this slope, water control is excellent, but there may be siltation if water carries sediment. Most
farm ditches are designed with a slope of 0.001. For slope greater than 0.002, use of siphon tubes is
difficult and checks are needed at frequent intervals. Where unlined ditches must follow steeper field
slopes, drops must be used to control the gradient.
Maximum permissible or non-erodible velocities vary with soil texture. For most farm ditches they
range from 0.5m/s for fine, non-colloidal sand to 0.75 m/s for firm loams and fine gravel and may
exceed for colloidal and gravelly soils.
9.7.3.3
Ditch Cross-section
The size of the stream and thus the size of the ditch depend upon water available, soil and
topography, method of irrigation, crop, irrigation system and farm water practices. The ditch size
should be designed so as to consider the clogging of sediment, grass, weed, or trash.
Small ditches in stable soil with bottom width of 30 cm to 50 cm are commonly designed with side
slopes of 1:1 or 1:1.25. Larger ditches are designed with side slopes of 1:1.5 to 1:2, depending upon
the soil.
9.7.3.4
Elevation and Freeboard
The elevation of ditch relative to ground surface depends upon whether the ditch is used for
conveyance or distribution, method of irrigation, topography and the soil. Ditches used for
conveyance only can carry water either over or below ground elevation. They should be at an
elevation low enough to allow free flow through a measuring structure at the diversion point. Ditches
used for distribution should be constructed so that the water surface can be checked up to an
elevation of at least 10 to 15 cm above the field surface.
March 2009
9-43
Freeboard varies with the type of ditch, its size and use. Permanent ditches should have a freeboard
of at least 30 cm to provide for checking the water and to allow for settlement. Minimum freeboard
for ditches carrying 30 to 50 l/s should be 10 to 15 cm and for ditches carrying 150 to 300 l/s, 15 to
25 cm. Where ditches are subjected to excessive clogging (from weed growth, sediment or trash),
livestock trampling, rodent damage or other factors that could cause overtopping, the freeboard
should be increased accordingly.
9.7.3.5
Control Structures
Inverted siphon, tunnels, flumes and flow-regulating structures are often necessary for proper water
control. In crossing natural depressions or canyons, flumes or inverted siphon may be constructed.
Inlet and outlet transition sections between the structure and the canal must be carefully designed.
The character of the control structures is one of the most important factors that determine the
efficiency and ease of operation of the irrigation system. Good control structures are needed to
reduce labour and simplify irrigation. Cost can often be minimized by combining two or more
functions in a single structure. Checks, drops, turnout, divisor and measuring structures can be used
in various combinations.
a)
Inlet or Receiving Structures
The canal turnout structures that deliver water to farm ditches are permanent structures, considered
as part of canal delivery or supply system. They normally consist of an adjustable flow control and a
measuring device. A stilling basin or energy dissipater is required where water is received into ditch
directly from a pump or pipe outlet.
b)
Drop Structures
Grade control structures are required to prevent erosive velocities from occurring on steep slopes.
The water is lowered over drops and lowered in a stair step manner. The energy of the falling water
must be dissipated to prevent erosion of the downstream channel or undercutting of the structure.
Drop structures basically consist of either vertical or inclined drop and a stilling pool or other energy
dissipating means.
c)
Check Structures
A check is any structure used to maintain or increase the water level in an open channel above the
normal flow depth. The drop structures with flash board slots can be used as checks.
d)
Outlets and Discharge Controls
Discharge control devices are used to control the release of water from a farm ditch into basins,
borders, furrows and another irrigation ditch. A field turnout may be a fixed opening in the side of a
ditch or one equipped with check boards, gates or other devices to adjust the opening area. If only a
portion of the total flow is to be delivered through a given turnout, a more constant discharge is
obtained by using an orifice-typed device rather than an overflow or weir-typed structure.
e)
Division Boxes
Division boxes are used to divide water from a farm lateral into two or more ditches for distribution
to different parts of the farm or to other farms. For accurate flow division it is best to measure the
flow in each channel. Some divisors are designed to a fixed proportional flow division, whereas
others have a movable splitter to change the flow proportions.
9.7.4 Lined Ditches
Lining ditches is an effective way to prevent ditch erosion, control rodent damage and reduce
seepage at reasonable costs. Lining also reduces maintenance, control weed growth and ensure
dependable water delivery. Lining must be properly designed and installed to avoid damage from
vegetative growth, water table fluctuations, loading from bunds used for farm road and other
causes.
9-44
March 2009
9.7.4.1
Purpose of Canal Lining
The purpose of delivery canals lining are to reduce seepage losses, ensure uninterrupted operation
resulting from breaks, provide a more efficient cross-section and reduce maintenance. In areas
where water is in short supply one of the biggest benefits from lining canals is the saving of water,
which then becomes available for other beneficial uses. One of the reasons for emphasizing lining is
that canal losses are usually somewhat easier to control than losses resulting from poor application
and water distribution on a field.
9.7.4.2
Lining Materials
Canal linings may be constructed from a large number of materials, such as concrete, rock masonry,
brick, colloid clay-soil mixtures, soil cement, asphalt, rubber and plastic. In tertiary and quaternary
canal, concrete and asphalt are the two most common materials. The selection of a lining material
will depend largely on cost and availability of materials, soil condition, cross-section and length of the
canal, and comparative annual costs. Average annual costs including maintenance and value of the
water saved, is the best basic point for making decision.
9.7.4.3
Concrete Lining
Concrete more nearly meets all the requirements for a lining than any other materials. Concrete
compressive strength is a good indicator of durability. On sites where the sulphate concentration in
soil solution is more than 0.1 percent, concrete linings of special sulphate-resistant cement should be
used.
Concrete linings vary in thickness from 25 to 150 mm and may or may not be reinforced. The
thickness of ditch linings must be established from engineering consideration on each job. Location,
ditch size, velocity, sub-grade conditions, operation, and climate should be evaluated in establishing
the thickness required.
To control cracking caused by shrinkage and temperature change, contraction joints, at least 6 mm
wide, should be cut transversely to a depth of about one-third the thickness of the lining. These
joints should be spaced uniformly, at most 9 m apart. Construction joints should be butt type,
formed square with the lining surface and at right angle to the ditch. Construction joints abutting
structures should be faced with a suitable expansion joints.
Its principal disadvantages are high initial cost and possible damage by soil chemicals and freezing
and thawing.
9.7.4.4
Canal Capacity
Ditch capacity considerations are given in Section 9.7.1.2. After the required capacity has been
determined, ditch size can be designed using the Manning formula.
9.7.4.5
Elevation and Slopes
Lined ditches should be designed so the water surface at field turnout points is high enough to
provide the required onto the field surface. If checks or other control structures are used to provide
the necessary head, backwater effect must be considered in computing freeboard requirements. The
required elevation of the water surface above the field surface will wary with the type of the turnout
structure used and the amount of water to be delivered. A minimum head of 12 cm should be
provided.
The required freeboard varies with the size of ditches, the velocity of water, the horizontal and
vertical alignment, the amount of storm or waste water that may be intercepted, and the change in
water surface elevation that may occur when control structures are operating. The minimum
freeboard for any lined ditches should be 7.5 cm.
March 2009
9-45
9.7.4.6
Structures
Most of the drop, check, and turnout structures described in Section 9.7.2.1 are also applicable to
lined farm ditches. Straight ditch sections lined with concrete, or asphalt can be used to transmit
water at supercritical velocity. The velocity must be reduced before bends, distribution reaches, or
turnouts into erosive channels. Energy dissipating structures for such channels must be individually
designed. In any lined channel where the construction cost is high, considerable effort should be
made to design structures and facilities that have a high hydraulic efficiency.
9.8
DESIGN OF LOW-PRESSURE PIPELINES
9.8.1 General Description
Water is conveyed from water source and distributed to basins, borders and furrows in low-head
pipelines. Surface irrigated farms may have permanent, semi-portable or portable low head pipelines.
9.8.1.1
Advantages and Disadvantages
Low pressure pipelines have the advantages of eliminating the evaporation and seepage losses can
be laid on non-uniform grades and allows water to be conveyed uphill against the land slope. They
also save the land for cultivation, safe to people, reduce maintenance requirements, and make water
control easier and more efficient. With semi-closed system, a low-pressure and hence cheap
specification only required for pipes and joints. Pressure fluctuations and hence outlet discharges can
also be kept within close limit. As the pipe need to be in larger diameter to deliver the same flow
rate, the operational advantages of a semi-closed pipeline when applied in the multiple outlet in
irrigation operate on a flexible delivery schedule can be realised.
However, pipelines are not suitable if irrigation supply contains large amount of sediment and the
flow conditions allow sediment to settle and reduce pipelines capacity.
9.8.1.2
Pipeline Hierarchy
The pipeline system takes water from reservoir or level-top canals. The distribution network
comprise main and branch pipeline feeding laterals and group feeders with the fields outlets. Each
unit fields has at least one valve outlet which can individually opened and closed. The unit field
should be arranged into farms group and supplied by one or more group feeder pipeline and
amongst which a maximum number of unit streams is programmed.
Upper level 0 and 1 of the system are served by reservoirs or open canals, including level-top canals.
The main are generally the pipe serving the largest number of farm groups. Branch lines serve more
than one lateral or group feeder. A lateral may serve more than one farm group. A group feeder pipe
serves only one group. The canal hierarchy of Table 9.2 can be extended to pipelines as Table 9.24.
Table 9.24 Pipeline Hierarchy in Surface Irrigation System
9.8.1.3
Level
Functions
Name
Intermediate conveyance between reservoir and lateral
main, branch
Feeds one or more farm groups
lateral
Feeds a farm group
group feeder
Pipeline Layout
The route for the main and branch pipelines should follow ridges, roads and major cadastral
boundaries where practicable. Where a command area has a distinct zone of land that is lower than
9-46
March 2009
the rest, it is better to serve it by a single pipeline only, in order to minimise the number of pressurereducing valves.
The line should be located to provide a minimum interference with traffic on farm roads or with field
cultural operation. A pipe network should be designed so that the shortest possible length of pipe is
used to deliver water to all fields to be irrigated. The line should be located where it can be easily
buried with uniform trench and the minimum necessary cover. Minimize high points to reduce the
provision of air relief valve and avoid trenching across the field.
The group feeder pipeline can take a direct path between points, should not close to lines of trees
and avoid current watercourse ditches. The connecting structure between a group feeder and lateral
may be a Harris valve stand on the lateral or a simple branch.
9.8.1.4
Pipeline System
Pressure in pipeline is influenced by the arrangement of the pipe system. It may be open, closed or
semi-closed system. In closed system, there are no openings to atmosphere between inlet and
outlet. The water flow in the system is controlled by opening or closing of the valves at the outlets
under downstream control. However, if there are many outlets in the system, the operating pressure
can fluctuate due to friction losses under varying discharges. This will lead to fluctuating outflows at
each outlet as the adjacent are turned on and off.
An open system has a frequent interval control points which are open to atmosphere. It is similar to
an open canal with weir-type drop structures at the end of each reach which offers upstream control
supply. Operation modes are subject to the same constraints as an upstream-controlled system. A
semi-closed pipeline system is normally closed to atmosphere but pressure is controlled at intervals
so that the predetermined head in any reach is never exceeded with the discharge. The control
structures are the like of Harris valves; provide passive automation and downstream control.
9.8.1.5
Pipeline Installation Methods
Three general types of irrigation pipes are used.
The completely portable system where water enters the line at the supply a well, reservoir
or ditch turnout and the water is applied to the field from the open end of the line or from
gated outlets distributed along the line. In a fully portable system, surface pipes are used for
both supply and distribution.
The buried and surface pipes are used in combination. The buried permanent line is used to
transmit water from the source to the field to be irrigated. Water is then taken to a gated
surface pipe through one or more risers.
The fully permanent pipelines where water is conveyed in buried supply pipes and
distributed to basins, borders and furrows in buried distribution pipes. Water is released onto
the portion of the field to be irrigated from risers on the buried line. This system is generally
used for border or basin irrigation; eliminate the need for surface pipe.
Buried pipes are made of PVC, PVC Modified, AB3P, ABS, HDPE, HDPE spiral pipes, steel, concrete,
wrapped aluminium, and many others.
PVC and aluminium pipes in 6.1, 9.1 or 12.2 m (20, 30, or 40 ft) length with quick couples or hose
are used for portable surface pipes.
9.8.2 Pipeline Components
Pipeline conveyance facilities and structures consist of inlets and outlets structures, silt and sand
traps, head control structures, standpipes, pressure relief valves, air release and inlet valves and
manholes. Detail explanations of these structures are presented below.
March 2009
9-47
9.8.2.1
Inlets Structures
For pipe line into which water flows by gravity from an open channel or water course, a gravity inlet
structure that may include a sand trap, debris screen, is needed to develop full pipe flow and keep
trash out. If required, a flow measurement device such as volumetric meter can be built in. The
screen follows the curved profile of the canal and is located above bed level, in order to reduce
turbulence and the consequent likelihood of admitting sediment into pipe.
Sand traps permit the settling out of sand and other suspended material in the water. These are
useful where the water is delivered into the system by a pump. They must have sufficient cross
section to ensure low velocities. Table 9.25 gives the recommended diameters of sand traps.
Table 9.25 Recommended Diameter for Sand Trap
9.8.2.2
Maximum Flow (l/s)
Diameter (mm)
35
40
50
70
90
110
140
750
800
900
900
1000
1200
1500
Standpipes
These structures are generally constructed from vertical sections of pipe. They may serve as pump
stand, overflow stand and float valve stand. In addition they may also function as vents and sand
traps. Sometimes, when gates are not required in the stands, they may cap with a smaller vent
above the hydraulic grade line.
Float valve stands are used on steeper slopes where rate of supply can be varied and automatic
control offers advantages. Stands should be of proper height. Stands higher than necessary may
complicate valve operation and may permit high heads of water to build up leading to excessive line
pressures. Stands should be placed at each inlet to a concrete irrigation pipe system and such
pointes required. They should be design to avoid entrainment of air, to allow 0.3 to 1.52 m of free
board and to withstand the pressure within the structure. The downward water velocities should not
exceed 0.6 m per second. In any case such velocity should not exceed the average pipe line velocity.
a) Pump Stands
Pump stand are used to convey the flow of the pump into the concrete pipe system and also to serve
the function of other stands as wells. The minimum dimension of pump stands should be determined
by maximum downwards velocity of 0.6 meter per sec. It is desirable to have the diameter large
enough to allow access for repairs. A pump stand should not be capped when the well has a
tendency to pump sand.
b) Overflow Stand
Overflow stands function both check and drop structures in addition to the usual function as a
stand. As checks, they regulate pressure to maintain constant upstream flow from hydrant or into
laterals. As drop structures, they cause a drop in the hydraulic gradient, thus limiting pipe line
pressure. This structure is not required on a flat area or on areas with very slight slopes. Overflow
stands are generally two concrete pipe stands joined together with connections between them at
pipe line elevations, where the gate valve is installed and at the elevation of overlap. The upstream
stand is essentially a gate stand. The downstream is of the same diameter as the pipe line.
9-48
March 2009
c) Gate Stands
Gate stands prevent high pressure, act as air vents and surge chambers, and control the flow by
means of one or more gate valves. They may also serve as stands for pumps to discharge into,
and/or as sand traps. It is used to regulate the flow into laterals, or where, on a single line, it is
desirable to create upstream pressure so that water will flow from hydrants at that point. They
should be of such dimensions that gates are accessible for repair.
d) Float Valve Stands
Float valve stands are used in series on steep slopes to form a semi-closed pressure in the reach of
pipe immediately from it, and such valves release into the stand only as much water as hydrant
further downstream are able to take. Thus by opening and closing, the valve maintains a nearly
constant water level in the stand, which is connected directly to the line or lines downstream through
which the water flows. The downstream pressure is determined by water surface elevation and
hence by the settling of the float.
When float valves are designed to prevent almost all fluctuations in the water surface elevation,
there is tendency for the valve to hunt a partial opening and closing occurs that produces a
rhythmic variation in flow. This tendency is amplified when float valves are in series. Hunting is
prevented by providing water surface elevation fluctuation in the stand, between the valve-open and
valve-closed position, of 150 mm to 300 mm, and by other adjustment to the float.
Float stands should be installed at intervals of about 3 m of drop in the line. They eliminate the need
for many high overflow stands. These stands should be a minimum of 750 mm in diameter and
should have about 600 mm of free board. The size of float valve required depends upon the head
loss available and the friction loss in the valve when wide open under flow.
e) Vent Stand
These are used to relieve pressure, release air and prevent vacuum. Vent should be located at the
following points:
At the downstream end of each lateral.

At the design point downstream from any pump stand where the design velocity exceed 0.30
m/s.
At point where there are changes in grade in downward direction of flow of more than ten
degrees.
At summit in the pipeline, and
Immediately upstream from line gates where closure of the gate would make this the
downstream end of a lateral or line.
The design point in (ii) above is determined by equation L = 5.9 VD, where L is the distance
downstream in meters from the air entraining stand, V is the maximum design velocity in meters per
second, and D is the inside diameter of the pipe in meters. The maximum height of the vent above
the centre line of the pipeline must not exceed the safe working head of the pipeline.
9.8.2.3
a)
Pressure Valves and Flow Control Structures
Drain Valves
These may be provided at low points in lines and other points as necessary.
b)
Harris Float Valve
Harris valves are in-line, float-operated self-regulating devices analogous to downstream control
gates in open channels. They close when pressure in the downstream reach attains a predetermined
March 2009
9-49
level. They have a scissor linkage which imparts a mechanical advantage of about 6:1 on valve seal,
and this makes them more effective, and able to operate under higher heads (up to 6 m).
The floats are usually formed from a block of expanded polystyrene, but can also be fabricated as
hollow polyethylene boxes. The float chamber is built to a level just above the design maximum head
larger diameter than the float. In multiple valve arrangement, the floats require a traveller and guide
to prevent adjacent float touching. The turbulence created when the valves are open can be intense.
Harris valves are originally designed and patented in the USA and can be easily and cheaply
fabricated. For low-pressure applications, it is the most effective alternative in term of pressure
control and cost. A further advantage of Harris valves is their avoidance of surge pressure. Their rate
of closure is slow enough to prevent water hammer.
c)
Pressure-reducing Valves
There is several standard design of in-line pressure-reducing valve that serve a similar function to
Harris valves. They consist of a check valve which is closed by a secondary valve activated by the
pressure in the downstream side. However, these are all expensive and designed for higher pressure
than the 5-6 m of a Harris. As computerized systems are becoming cheaper and more reliable, where
head is available, a much tighter degree of control can be applied to conventional pipeline system.
Harris valves are being replaced by solenoid valves controlled through SCADA networks.
9.8.2.4
Outlet Structures
Some type of outlet structure or hydrant is necessary in pipelines to deliver water to the land or into
some distributing device. Hydrants are risers build from vertical section of the pipe line and
permanently attached to it. Some kind of valve or gate is installed in the riser to regulate discharge
through the hydrant. Farm outlet should be in short (3-5 m long) stub pipelines in order to reach
property lines from the group feeder lines, and to facilitate setting of the outlet riser at a standard
depth below ground level of about 0.6 m.
These valves are described below:
a)
Alfalfa Valve
An alfalfa valve is a screw valve grouted to the top of a pipe riser. A handle and cap plate are
attached to threaded rod that moves up or down as the handle is turned. When the valve is closed,
the cap plate fits the singular edge of the valve case to make it watertight.
When the plate is lifted by turning the handle, water is released from all sides of the valve. These
valve are used to distribute water directly border strips and basins. The top should be set 75 to 100
mm below the ground surface to minimize interference with farming operations and to reduce
erosion from the irrigation stream. Alfalfa valves can be fitted with portable hydrants to connect to
the surface.
b)
Orchard Valves
These are similar to alfalfa valves but have a smaller flow capacity and are so designed that they can
be placed at the top of the riser.
Orchard or alfalfa valves are the cheapest low-pressure valve, which is set into the top of the riser
pipe and screws down to close. A typical arrangement is shown in Figure 9.10. Flow rates and
operating heads are shown in Table 9.26.
9-50
March 2009
Lateral pipe
Outlet chamber
Outlet spur 300 mm dia
a) Plan
Orchand valve
Riser 150 mm dia

5m
b) Section
Figure 9.17 Field Outlet in a Low-pressure Pipeline System
Table 9.26 Flow Rates (L/s) for Varying Operating Heads for Alfalfa and Orchard Valves
Valve size
c)
Operating Head (m)
(mm)
0.1
0.25
0.5
1.0
100
10
13
17
24
150
20
31
37
55
200
34
54
64
99
250
57
88
110
147
300
85
120
156
226
350
108
170
215
283
400
133
221
266
368
450
170
269
311
509
500
226
340
453
594
600
325
509
594
934
750
538
736
1047
1274
900
679
1132
1330
1868
Open Pot Outlets
In open pot outlets, the riser extends far enough above the ground surface for two or more slidegates tubes to be installed. An orchard valve is placed below the slide gate. This kind of outlet
distributes water through the gates to furrows and is used principally in orchard irrigation systems. If
line pressure is low enough that pot will not overflow, orchard valve is not needed in the riser.
March 2009
9-51
d)
Capped Riser or Pot Outlets
In these outlets, the top is closed and the slide gates are installed on the outside of the riser,
orchard valve is not used. The main advantage for capped pot outlet is that leaves cannot fall into
the pot and clog the slide gates and that an orchard valve is not needed. These can be more than
0.60 m above the ground.
9.8.3 Pipe Materials
Buried pipes can be classed into two categories, rigid and non-rigid. The non-rigid pipes are thinwalled and their performance depends on the surrounding backfill material, which must be carefully
placed and effectively forms a component of the pipe by imparting rigidity. Rigid pipes are normally
cement-based, such as precast concrete and asbestos cement.
Glass-reinforced plastic can be an economic option in larger diameters over 300 mm, especially if a
local manufacturing source exist. It is normally jointed with rubber gasketed collar. It requires care in
handling and can be susceptible to impact damages during transporting and laying. It can be
custom-manufactured to specific wall thickness and pressure rating.
9.8.3.1
Concrete
Precast concrete pipes are universally available, but not always of adequate quality, even for lowpressure applications. The adoption of Harris valves requires a pipe working pressure of 6 m of
water. Their end joints are often roughly cast and difficult to seal when installed.
A better type of pipe is the unreinforced irrigation pipe, which is formed on a vertical axis using an
outer mould and internal mandrill. As for the precast parabolic channel segments the important
factor is concrete strength, not reinforcement.
9.8.3.2
Steel
Thin-walled steel can be economic in larger diameters over 400 mm, as spiral- or seam-welded pipe.
It can be cheaply jointed by site welding, or by mechanical joints such as bolted flanges. More
sophisticated bolted flexible coupling such as Victaulic or Viking-Johnsons are rarely used for lowpressure applications due to their cost. As a non-rigid material, back filling with granular soils needed
to be done evenly, although still withstand considerable deformation without failing.
9.8.3.3
PVC
PCV is notoriously prone to damage from surge pressures, flotation in wet ground, and deterioration
in sunlight. It is made as thin-walled low-pressure (15 m head) irrigation pipe in diameters up to 600
mm. as with other plastics, its price tends to track the price of oil, and is currently expensive in
relation to concrete.
9.8.3.4
HDPE and MDPE
High Density Polyethylene (HDPE) and Medium Density Polyethylene (MDPE) can be a cheap option
in small diameters less than 250 mm. When properly fusion-jointed it is highly reliable and can be
used either for new pipe network or as internal sleeving for leaking concrete pipe. It is light and
simple to install and able to accept considerable deformation without failure.
A range of sizes and ring thickness of HDPE spiral pipes are available in Malaysia. This pipe has the
advantages of lightweight, has range of sizes from 300 mm up to 1800mm, and comparatively
cheaper.
9-52
March 2009
9.8.4 Planning Requirement
In planning a pipeline system, it should be taken into consideration that the scale of operation of a
pipeline has considerable effect on the unit cost. By doubling the diameter of the pipe, other factors
such as head remaining constant, the capacity increase six fold. On the other hands, the cost
approximately doubles so that the cost per unit delivered decreases to 1/3 of the original. It is the
scale effect that justifies multi-product lines.
Whether it is economical to install a large diameter main at outset depends on the following factors
as well as scale.
Rate of growth in demand (it may be uneconomical to operate at low capacity factors during
initial years). Capacity factor is the ratio of actual average discharge to design capacity.
Operating factor (the ratio of average throughout at any time to maximum throughout
during the same period), which is depend on the rate of draw-off and can be improved by
installing storage at the consumers end.
Reduced power costs due to low friction losses while the pipeline is not operating at full
capacity.
Certainty of future demands.
Varying cost with time (both capital and operating).
Rates of interest and capital availability.
Physical difficulties in the construction of a second pipeline required.
9.8.5 Design of the Pipeline

9.8.5.1
Design Requirement of Underground Pipeline
An underground irrigation must be properly designed to handle the required flow throughout the
system efficiently. If pipelines are too small in diameter, pumping costs are increased and the
capacity of the system may be seriously limited. On the other hand, pipeline larger than necessary
add the cost of system and may cause uneven flow. Control stands must be high enough to allow
sufficient operating head of the pipelines. Stands higher than necessary may permit high heads of
water to build up, leading to excessive line pressure.
In executing the pipeline distribution schemes in the mirror irrigation command areas where the
open channel system is already in operation, the Main Pipeline replaces the main canal. This avoids
the issue of additional land acquisition. In new schemes there is flexibility in choosing the alignment
of the main pipeline.
The Main Pipeline is provided with branch outlets along its length so as to feed the distribution
system of each service unit. For controlling the flow of water, sluice valve or Tee Valves are
provided. Excepting at critical points such as the starting point of main pipe line and branches, the
sluice valve has been replaced by fabricated MS Tee valves are simple to manufacture and cost
about one third of cost of the sluice valve.
9.8.5.2
Design Requirement for Installation
The pipeline should be allowed to come to within a few degrees of the temperature that it will have
after complete covering prior to any backfilling beyond shading. The pipeline should be installed at
sufficient depth below the ground surface to provide protection from hazards imposed by
temperatures or soil cracking. The minimum depth of cover should be as follows:
450 mm for pipes 25 to 60 mm diameter

600 mm for pipes 75 to 100 mm diameter
760 mm for pipes 125 mm diameter or more
Thrust block thrust block should be provided as per requirement.

March 2009
9-53
9.8.5.3
Design Requirement for System Functioning
Water is let out in the pipeline from source (reservoir) either by gravity or by pumping and it is seen
that sufficient working head is available at every transit working point.
Arrangement for measuring the discharge while letting out the water in the pipeline must be
available. Water flows through main pipeline on the basis of hydraulic gradient available at various
points. At low level the available hydraulic gradient is more resulting in higher discharges. To control
and monitor discharges accurately, sufficient valves may be provided.
At junction or branching of pipe line, diversion of desired discharge is the basic requirement. It can
be achieved by providing adequate control by limiting sizes of pipes or by control devices.
For continuity of uniform flow and for better operation, introduction of the air relief valves, expansion
joints, pressure release valve, thrust blocks, check valves and sluice valves are useful.
Through branches water is supplied to various laterals. The hydrants are installed on lateral to
facilitate irrigation of the command. It is desirable to provide separate hydrant for individual holding
or farmer. In order to achieve equity in distribution, proper clubbing and scheduling of group of
hydrant is necessary. For controlling hydrant at every hydrant point, the float valve may be provided
but providing such valve at every hydrant point is very costly. Providing drains at tail end of lateral is
necessary. In case of emergency repairs, arrangements should be provided to empty the part of the
system.
At every hydrant point, portable gauge to measure the hydraulic gradient is one of the important
requirements. Measurements of discharge through every hydrant will help in effective
implementation of irrigation scheduling.
9.8.6 Design Steps
Design of the main and lateral system needs to be done in conjunction with the farm group feeder
network. The main steps in design are:
Topographic mapping
Layout of lateral and main pipeline network.
Preliminary blocking out.
Conferring with farmers.
Review of land maps.
Cadastral mapping of land ownership boundaries.
Operating programme.
Final blocking out.
Layout of group feeder pipelines and farm grouping.
Design of farm outlets unit stream sizing.
Design of pipeline system capacities.
Detailed design of pipeline system to meet constrains of pressure, discharge, flow velocity,
and topography.
9-54
March 2009
9.8.6.1
Design of Farm Outlet Unit Stream Size
The unit stream, as described in previous section is the discharge required to irrigate the unit farm in
a certain time. It should be based on prevailing conditions of soil, cropping patterns and potential,
evapotranspiration, and planned supply duration. Required capacity is the cumulative number of
streams multiplied by the stream size at each point in the system.
The process of blocking out for a canal system was described earlier. The process is similar for a
pipeline, but less constrained by topography. The upper boundaries of all fields should be angled
across the contour to give a manageable slope for surface irrigation. The outlet point from the
pipeline into the fields should be at higher point of the field, although some land levelling might be
useful in order to attain a practical pipe layout.
An irrigation group is typically 10-20 unit fields, amongst which operating limitations will, in the case
of arranged scheduling, be imposed by restricting the number of unit fields taking water on any
particular time. A farm group will normally be on a single lateral, but may also include direct outlet
on the main or branch pipelines.
9.8.6.2
Design Consideration for Pipe Sizing
Irrigation pipeline must be sized to obtain the best operating economy when both initial and
operating costs are considered. Too large pipe requires excessive initial investment; too small a line
may require excess energy use when water has to be pumped to overcome pipe friction losses. The
size must be adequate to deliver enough water to meet crop needs.
Energy losses through fitting and valves also have to be considered in the design of irrigation
pipeline. These losses are estimated by applying a coefficient to the velocity head at the fitting. The
sum of all these losses then added to the estimate of pipe wall friction to give total loss.
Where the available head at the intake is limited, for example, pipelines capacity must be great
enough so that adequate water can be delivered to meet crop requirements. It is generally will cost
less to use large pipe with the available head than to use smaller pipe and booster pumps for such
systems.
When an entire irrigation system is to be designed, pump, power unit, and piping, irrigation pipe
sizes should be chosen so as to minimize total annual costs. Both fixed and operating items must be
considered, including the initial cost of the piping, the number of years service expected from the
pipe, the initial cost and expected years of operation of different sized pump units, the energy cost
of pumping, and the rate of return desired on the fund invested.
9.8.6.3
Design of Pipeline System Capacity
There are several formulae in common use for calculating flow capacity, velocity and head loss in
pipe. This includes Darcy-Weisbachs Formula, the Hazen Williams Formula, the Scobeys Formula,
Colebrook-Whites, and Mannings. Typical friction coefficients are given in Table 9.24.
Mannings Formula, for circular conduits,

V = 3.968 x 10-3 x (1/n) d2/3 x S1/2
(9.14)
Q = 8.661 x 10-7 x (1/n) d2/3 x S1/2
(9.15)
Where,
Q = Discharge in cubic meter per hour
S = Slope of hydraulic gradient
March 2009
9-55
d = diameter of pipe in mm
R = hydraulic radius in meters
V = velocity in m/s
n = Mannings coefficient of roughness.
Hazen-William, for circular conduits,

V = 4.567 x 10-3 x Cd0.63 S0.54
(9.16)
Q = 1,292 x 10-5 x Cd2.63 S0.54
(9.17)
Where,
Q = Discharge in m3/hr
d = diameter of pipe
V = velocity in m/s
R = hydraulic radius in m
S = slope of gradient
C = Hazen-Williams coefficient
Darcy-Weisbach suggested the first dimensionless equation for pipe flow problem as
S = H/L = f v2/2gD
(9.18)
Where,
S = slope of hydraulic gradient
H = Head loss due to friction over length, L
f = Dimensionless friction factor
g = acceleration due to gravity.
Table 9.27 Mannings n for Various Lining Materials
9-56
Material
Mannings n
Slip formed concrete
0.015
Brick
0.017
Shotcrete
0.016
Concrete panels
0.016
Sheet metals, flex membrane
0.014
Compacted earth
Same as unlined ditches
March 2009
9.8.6.4
Design Procedure for Pipe Sizing
The procedure for determining pipe sizes is as follows;
Establish node points along the main and branch lines. At the nodes there will be expected
changes of pipe sizes, normally branches or laterals will join the main. It is not necessary to have
a node at every direct outlet or at the junction of every group feeder.
Establish the hydraulic grade line at zero flow. The start level at the pipe inlet from the reservoir
or level-top canal will be the lowest operational water level. The pressures inside the pipe are
restricted to a maximum of 5to 6 metres controlled by mean of Harris pressure reducing valves.
Hence a Harris valve station will be located at every 5 m vertical drop in elevation.
The procedure is to set a minimum head on usually the most distant outlet but the worst
condition can occur at other location affected by topography. During operation the hydraulic
grade line needs to be at lease 0.6 m above ground level at every outlet. A lower head will tend
to cause less stable flow at the outlet as pipeline pressure varies. If gated pipe is to be used, 1.2
m should be available.
For each reach between nodes of the pipeline, establish the hydraulic grade line
flow, starting at the downstream end of the pipe system. The hydraulic grade line
below the static level by friction losses in the pipe, head losses through the
stationed and at the pipe inlet. The entire pipe in a single group is likely to be
diameter, since its full design discharge does not reduce along its length.
at maximum
is depressed
Harris valve
of the same
Table 9.28 Friction Coefficient for Various Pipe Materials for Diameter 300 mm to 900 mm
9.8.6.5
Pipe material
Hazen-Williams,
C
Manning,
n
Old concrete
Concrete
Steel (new)
PVC, spigot & socket
PE fusion jointed
120
140
145
150
160
0.018
0.015
0.012
0.012
0.011
Darcy-Weisbach,
f
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
to
to
to
to
to
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.02
Joints and Connections Specifications
All joints, fittings and connection should be specified to comply with the requirements as follows:
All joints and connections should be constructed to withstand the design maximum working
pressure without leakage and leaving inside of the line, free of any obstruction that may tend to
reduce its capacity below design capacity.
All fittings such as couplings, reducers, bend tees and crossings should be made of material that
is recommended for use with the pipe and should be installed in accordance with the
recommendations of the manufacturer.
Where fittings made of steel or other metals subject to corrosion are used in the line, they
should be adequately protected by wrapping with plastic tape or coating with high quality
corrosion preventing materials.
Where plastic tape is used, all surfaces to be wrapped should be thoroughly cleaned and then
coated with a primer compatible with the tape.
March 2009
9-57
REFERENCES
Asada, T. (1994). Irrigation Planning and Design Criteria in Japan Canal. DID Irrigation Branch, K.
Lumpur.
Asada, T. (1994). Irrigation Planning and Design Criteria in Japan Land Consolidation. DID
Irrigation Branch, K. Lumpur.
ASCE, (1980). Design and Operation of Farm Irrigation Systems. Michigan, USA.
Chow, V.T. (1959). Open Channel Hydraulics. McGraw-Hill, New York.
FAO (1971). Irrigation and Drainage Paper 1 Irrigation Practice and Water Management.
FAO (1974). Irrigation and Drainage Paper 24 Crop Water Requirement.
FAO (1979). Irrigation and Drainage Paper 33 Yield Response to Water.
FAO (1988). Irrigation and Drainage Paper 44.. Design and Optimization of Irrigation Distribution
Network. 1988.
FAO (1989). Irrigation and Drainage Paper 45. Guidelines for Designing and evaluating of surface
irrigation systems.
FAO (2007). Irrigation and Drainage Paper 63. Modernizing Irrigation Management MASSCOTE
Approach.
Fortier,S., and .Scobey F.C (1926). Permissible Canal Velocities Trans. ASCE 89, 940-984.
French, K. A. (1985). Open Channel Hydraulics. McGraw-Hill, New York.
INCID, (1998). Pipe Distribution System for Irrigation, New Delhi.
Lane, E. W. (1955). Design of Stable Channels Trans. ASCE 120, 1234-1260.
Laycock, A. (2007). Irrigation System Design, Planning and Construction.CAB International,UK.
Merriam, J.L., Styles, S. W.(1988) Flexible Irrigation Concept Design and Application, ASCE Journal
Irrigation and Drainage Engineering.
Plusquellec,H., Burt, C., Wolter, H.W, (1994) Modern Water Control in Irrigation, World Bank
Technical Paper 246.
Principles of Farm Irrigation System Design.
Schwab, G.O. et. al.(1993). Soil and Water Conservation Engineering. Wiley, New York.
Soekrasno, S. (1986). Lecture note on Hydraulic Structure (Canal). First International Course in
Irrigation Engineering, Bekasi, Jakarta.
9-58
March 2009
APPENDIX 9A: WORKED EXAMPLE
9A-1: Determination of Canal Capacity

Problem:
Irrigated area commanded by conveyor
20 000 ha
Peak period demand at farm level
1.2 L/s/ha
Allowance for conveyance losses and operational waste:

Distribution canals
Conveyor
-
15%
12%
Solution:
Peak period
farm level demand
20 000 ha x 1.2 l/s/ha = 24 m3/s
Distribution canal losses
0.15 x 24 m3 /s = 3.6 m3/s
Conveyor losses
0.12 (24 + 3.6) = 3.3 m3/s
Required capacity of conveyor
= 30.9 m3/s
Peak period demand at head works
= 1.5 l/s/ha.
9A-2 : Design of Stable Canal

Problem:
Design a stable channel with a side slope ratio of 1:1 to carry a flow of 4.42 m3/s on a slope of 0.25
percent. The soil is stiff clay, very colloidal, n = 0.025 and the water is transporting colloidal silts.
Solution:
Step 1: Using Tractive Force Method
From Table 9.11,
The critical tractive force at the bottom of the channel when the particles are in a state of impending
motion is 22.0 Pa.
Since the soil is cohesive, tractive force on the side slopes does not limit the design. If the soil were
noncohesive , the tractive force on the side slope would control in the analysis.
Substituting in Eq. 9.10,
With K=1, the maximum depth is computed as:
T = K y w s = 22.0/9800 x 0.0025 = 0.9 m
Assuming bed width, b = 2.44 m, compute area, A = 3.01m2 and wetted perimeter, p = 4.99 m.
Substituting in the Manning equation, average velocity, V = 1.43 m/s and discharge, Q = 4.30 m3/s,
which is close enough to the required capacity of 4.42 m3/s.
March 2009
9A-1
Step 2: Using Maximum Permissible Velocity Method

An alternate solution can be obtained by using the maximum permissible velocity.
From Table 9.11,
The maximum permissible velocity for the canal material is 1.53 m/s.
V max = 1.53 m/s
Q
= 4.42 m3/s
Area, A = Q/V = 4.42/1.53 = 2.89 m2

Using Manning Equation for Velocity, V = R2/3S1/2/n = 2.89.
Substituting S and n values, R = 0.76
Wetted perimeter, p = A/R = 2.89/0.76 = 4.36 m
For trapezoidal section,
A = y (b + z y) and p = b + y (1 + z2),
Substituting for A, p and side slope, z values in the equations,
A = 2.89 = y (b + 1 * y)
p = 4.36 = b + y (1 + 1) = b + 2 y
Solving the equations, giving depth, y = 0.70 m and bed width, b = 3.37 m.
In this case, the 1.53 m/s velocity would result in a smaller depth of flow and a greater bottom width
than using tractive force method as shown above. For practical purposes either criterion is
satisfactory. Selection of design criteria should be based on the best available data and other
considerations as discussed in the manual.
9A-2
March 2009

Chapter 10 - Surface Irrigation
Chapter 10 - SURFACE IRRIGATION
Table of Contents
List of Tables
................................................................................................................ 10-iii
List of Figures
................................................................................................................ 10-iii
10.1
GENERAL .............................................................................................................. 10-1
10.2
DESIGN CONSIDERATION ...................................................................................... 10-1

10.2.1 Surface Irrigation Principles ........................................................................ 10-1
10.2.2 Requirements of Optimal Performance ......................................................... 10-2
10.2.2.1 Precise and Careful Field Preparation ............................................ 10-2
10.2.2.2 Irrigation Scheduling ................................................................... 10-3
10.2.2.3 Regulation of Inflow Discharges.................................................... 10-3
10.2.2.4 Excess Water Recovery and Reuse................................................ 10-3
10.2.3
10.3
Selection of Surface Irrigation System......................................................... 10-4
DESIGN PROCESS .................................................................................................. 10-4

10.3.1 Design Computation ................................................................................... 10-4
10.3.2 Computation of Intake Opportunity Time ..................................................... 10-5
10.3.2.1 Determining the Intake Opportunity Time...................................... 10-5
10.3.2.2 Determining Basic Intake Rate...................................................... 10-5
10.3.3 Computation of Advance Time..................................................................... 10-7
10.3.3.1 Numerical Approach .................................................................... 10-8
10.3.3.2 Graphical Approach ..................................................................... 10-9
10.3.4
10.4
Flow Geometry ......................................................................................... 10-16
FURROW IRRIGATION DESIGN ............................................................................... 10-18

10.4.1 Design Procedure for Furrow Systems - without Cutback ............................... 10-19
10.4.2 Design Procedure for Furrow System - with Cutback ..................................... 10-20
10.4.3 Design Procedure for Systems with Tail Water Reuse .................................... 10-23
10.5
BORDER IRRIGATION DESIGN ................................................................................ 10-24

10.5.1 Design Procedure for Open-End Border Systems ........................................... 10-24
10.5.2 Design Procedure for Blocked-End Border Systems ....................................... 10-26
10.6
BASIN IRRIGATION DESIGN ................................................................................... 10-28

10.6.1 Design Under Intermittent Flooding Condition .............................................. 10-28
10.6.2 Design Under Flooding Condition................................................................. 10-29
10.6.2.1 Presaturation Requirement - First Flooding .................................... 10-30
10.6.2.2
Second Flooding......................................................................... 10-31
10.6.2.3 Maintaining Flood ........................................................................ 10-31

10.6.2.4 Drainage Requirements................................................................ 10-32
10.6.2.5 Levee Dimensions ....................................................................... 10-32
March 2009
10-i
10.6.2.6 Irrigation Inlet or Turnout ............................................................ 10-32

10.6.2.7 In-Field Channel.......................................................................... 10-32
10.6.2.8
REFERENCES
Drainage Outlet Structure and Pipes ............................................ 10-32
................................................................................................................ 10-33
APPENDIX 10.A
Worked Example - Determining the Advance Time ..................................... 10A-1
APPENDIX 10.B
Worked Example Furrow Irrigation Design.............................................. 10A-3
APPENDIX 10.C
Worked Example Border Irrigation Design .............................................. 10A-13
APPENDIX 10.D
Worked Example - Basin Irrigation Design ................................................ 10A-19
10-ii
March 2009
List of Tables
Table
Description
Page
10.1
Kostiakov-Lewis Intake Parameters (Gharbi, 1984)
10-6
10.2
Example Furrow Cross-Section Analysis
10-17
List of Figures
Figure
Description
Page
10.1
Time-space Trajectory of Water During a Surface Irrigation
10-3
10.2
Kostiakov-Lewis Intake Relationship Based on The USDAs Intake Series
10-6
10.3
Typical Furrow Shapes and Their Hydraulic Sectional Parameters
10-7
10.4a
Dimensionless Advance Trajectories for Borders and Furrows having an
10-10
Infiltration Exponent a = 0.2

10.4b
10-11

10.4c
10-11

10.4d
10-12

10.4e
10-12

10.4f
10-13

10.5a
Dimensionless Advance Trajectories for Basins having an Infiltration Exponent a =
10-13
0.2
10.5b
10-14
0.3
10.5c
10-14
0.4
10.5d
10-15
0.5
10.5e
10-15
0.6
10.5f
10-16
0.7
10.6
Typical Furrow Cross-sections
10-17
10.7
Schematic Drawing of the Furrow Cutback System Proposed by Garton (1966)
10-20
10.8
Illustration of a Typical Reuse Configuration
10-24
10.9
Recommended Standing Water Depth for Rice Growth
10-31
March 2009
10-iii
10-iv
March 2009
10
10.1
SURFACE IRRIGATION
GENERAL
The term 'surface irrigation' refers to a broad class of irrigation methods in which water is distributed
over the field by overland flow. A flow is introduced at one edge of the field and covers the field
gradually. The rate of coverage (advance) is dependent almost entirely on the differences between
the discharge onto the field and the accumulating infiltration into the soil. Secondary factors include
field slope, surface roughness, and the geometry or shape of the flow cross-section.
Basin, border and furrow are three primary methods of surface irrigation. Other surface irrigation
methods including water spreading and contour ditch. The explanations of the surface irrigation
methods were discussed in the Chapter 3. This chapter provides planning and design guidelines for
basin, border and furrow irrigation practices.
The design procedures are adopted mainly from FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper 45, Guidelines
for Design and Evaluating Surface Irrigation Systems, Produced in 1998.
With the advent of modern equipment for moving earth and pumping water, surface irrigation
systems were extended to upland areas and lands quite separate from the flood plain of local rivers
and streams. These lands, tend to have more variable soils and topographies, are usually better
drained, and may be naturally less fertile. Thus, these lands usually require greater attention to
design and operation.
10.2
DESIGN CONSIDERATION
10.2.1 Surface Irrigation Principles

The surface irrigation system should replenish the root zone reservoir efficiently and uniformly so
that crop stress is avoided, and resources like energy, water, nutrient, and labour are conserved. The
irrigation system might also be used to cool the atmosphere around sensitive fruit and vegetable
crops. An irrigation system must always be capable of leaching salts accumulating in the root zone. It
may also be used to soften the soil for better cultivation or even to fertilize the field and spread
insecticides.
The design procedures outlined in this manual are based on a target application, required infiltrated
volume of water Zreq, which equals the soil moisture extracted by the crop. It is in the final analysis,
a trial and error procedure by which a selection of lengths, slopes, field inflow rates and cutoff times
can be made that will maximize application efficiency. Deep percolation will be minimized by
minimizing differences in intake opportunity time, and then terminating the inflow on time. Excess
water, surface runoff is controlled or reused.
The design intake opportunity time is defined by:
a
z req = krreq + fo rreq
(10.1)
Where,
z req = infiltrated volume per unit length and per unit width (m3/m)
rreq = design intake opportunity time (min)
a = constant exponent
k = constant coefficient (m3/min/m)
fo = basic intake rate (m3/min/m)
March 2009
10-1
For most surface irrigated conditions, rreq should be as close as possible to the difference between
the recession time at each point and the associated advance time.
If a new or modified surface system is planned on lands already irrigated, the decision has to be
based, at least partially, on the results of an evaluation at the existing site. In this case, the design is
more easily accomplished because of the higher level of experience and data available. Data required
fall into six (6) general categories (Walker and Skogerboe, 1987):
the nature of irrigation water supply in terms of the annual allotment, method of delivery and
charge, discharge and duration, frequency of use and the quality of the water;
the topography of the land with particular emphasis on major slopes, undulations, locations of
water delivery and surface drainage outlets
the physical and chemical characteristics of the soil, especially the infiltration characteristics,
moisture-holding capacities, salinity and internal drainage
the cropping pattern, its water requirements, and special considerations given to ensure that the
irrigation system is workable within the harvesting and cultivation schedule, germination period
and the critical growth periods
the marketing conditions in the area as well as the availability and skill of labour, maintenance
and replacement services, funding for construction and operation, and energy, fertilizers, seeds,
pesticides, etc.; and
the cultural practices employed in the farming region especially where they may prohibit a
specific element of the design or operation of the system.
Surface irrigation has evolved into an extensive array of configurations which can be broadly
classified as:
Basin irrigation
Border irrigation
Furrow irrigation and
Uncontrolled flooding
There are two features that distinguish a surface irrigation system:
Flow has a free surface responding to the gravitational gradient; and

On-field means of conveyance and distribution is the field surface itself.
The time and space references shown in Figure 10.1 are relatively standard. Time is cumulative since
the beginning of the irrigation, distance is referenced to the point water enters the field. The
advance and recession curves are therefore trajectories of the leading and receding edges of the
surface flows and the period defined between the two curves at any distance is the time water is on
the surface and therefore also the time water is infiltrating into the soil.
10.2.2 Requirements of Optimal Performance
As to achieve high levels of uniformity and efficiency in surface irrigation several practices shall be
utilized. The practices are as follows:
10.2.2.1
precise and careful field preparation;

irrigation scheduling;
regulation of inflow discharges; and
tail water runoff restrictions, reduction, or reuse.
Precise and Careful Field Preparation
Land smoothing improves the uniformity and efficiency of irrigation by eliminating high and low
ground areas within the field that cause uneven infiltration water, reduces labour requirements, and
facilitates the layout of supply channel, roads and drainage system by permitting rectangular-rather
10-2
March 2009
than odd-shaped fields. In the basin flooding method, land leveling should be carried out to the
accuracy of 5 cm.
Recession time
Time
Recession
Recession phase
Recession curve
Elapsed time
Depletion phase
Time of cutoff
Wetting phase
Advance curve
Advance phase
Field length
0
Figure 10.1: Time-space Trajectory of Water during a Surface Irrigation
10.2.2.2
Irrigation Scheduling
Proper scheduling is essential for the efficient use of water, energy, and other production inputs,
such as fertilizer. It allows irrigation to be coordinated with other farming activities including
cultivation and chemical application.
10.2.2.3
Regulation of Inflow Discharges
Surface irrigation systems have two principal sources of inefficiency, deep percolation and surface
runoff or tail water. To minimize deep percolation the advance phase should be completed as quickly
as possible so that the intake opportunity time over the field will be uniform and then cut the inflow
off when enough water has been added to refill the root zone. This shall be accomplished with a
high, but non-erosive, discharge onto the field.
This practice increases the tail water problem of water loss due to the increase of the duration and
the magnitude of the runoff. There are three options available to solve this problem, at least
partially:
Dyke the downstream end to prevent runoff as in basin irrigation;
Reduce the inflow discharge to a rate more closely approximating the cumulative infiltration
along the field following the advance phase, a practice termed 'cutback';
Select a discharge which minimizes the sum of deep percolation and tail water losses, i.e.,
optimize the field inflow regime.
10.2.2.4
Excess Water Recovery and Reuse
The tail water deep percolation trade-off shall also be solved by collecting and recycling the runoff to
improve surface irrigation performance. It is more economical to regulate the inflow rather than to
collect and pump the runoff back to the head of the field or to another field. Tail water reuse
March 2009
10-3
systems are more cost-effective when the water can be added to the flow serving lower fields and
thereby saving the cost of pumping.
10.2.3
Selection of Surface Irrigation System
The surface irrigation design process is a procedure matching the most desirable frequency and
depth of irrigation and the capacity and availability of the water supply. The operation of the system
should offer enough flexibility to supply water to the crop in variable amounts and schedules that
allow the irrigator some scope to manage soil moisture for maximum yields as well as water, labour
and energy conservation.
The type of surface irrigation system selected for the farm should be carefully planned.
Furrow systems are preferred in conditions of relatively high bi-directional slope, row crops, and
small farm flows and applications.
Border and basin systems are preferred in the flatter lands, large field discharges and larger
depths of application during most irrigation.
A great deal of management can be applied where flexibility in frequency and depth are possible.
10.3
DESIGN PROCESS
The detailed design process involves determining the slope of the field, the furrow, border or basin
discharge and duration, the location and sizing of headland structures and miscellaneous facilities;
and the provision of surface drainage facilities either to collect tail water for reuse or for disposal.
The detailed design process starts with and ends with land levelling computations. The process
involves the followings:
Evaluation of the field topography to determine the general land slopes in the direction of
expected water flow
Using this information along with target application depths derived from an analysis of crop
water requirements, the detailed design process moves to the selection of flow rates and their
duration that maximize application efficiency, tempered however by a continual review of the
practical matters involved in farming the field later
The next step in detailed design is to reconcile the flows and times with the total flow and its
duration allocated to the field from the water supply
Once the field dimensions and flow parameters have been formulated, the surface irrigation
system must be described structurally
To apply the water, pipes or ditches with associated control elements must be sized for the field.
If tail water is permitted, means for removing these flows must be provided
The design methodology used in the Chapter relies on the kinematic-wave analysis for furrow and
border advance and a fully hydrodynamic model for basin advance. Further explanation for those
interested can be found in Walker and Skogerboe (1987). Simple algebraic equations are used for
depletion and recession.
10.3.1
Design Computation
The data collected during an evaluation include inflows and outflows, flow geometry, length and
slope of the field, soil moisture depletion and advance and recession rates. The infiltration
characteristics of the field surface can then be deduced and the application efficiency and uniformity
determined. Design involved the use of input infiltration functions (including their changes during the
season), flow geometry, field slope and length, and determine the rates of advance and recession as
well as the field performance levels for various combinations of inflow and cut-off times.
10-4
March 2009
Two of the design computations are the same for all surface irrigation systems; estimate of required
intake opportunity time and the time required for the water to complete the advance phase.
10.3.2 Computation of Intake Opportunity Time
The basic mathematical model of infiltration utilized as the following:
Z = kr a + f o r
(10.2)
where, Z = accumulated intake in volume per unit length, (m3/m)

(per furrow or per unit width are implied),
r = intake opportunity time (min)
a = constant exponent,
k = constant coefficient (m3/min/m) and
fo= basic intake rate (m3/min/m).
In order to express intake as a depth of application, Z must be divided by the unit width.
For furrows, the unit width is the furrow spacing, w, while for borders and basins it is 1.0. Values of
k, a, fo and w along with the volume per unit length required to refill the root zone, Zreq, are design
input data.
The design procedure requires that the intake opportunity time associated with Zreq be known. The
intake opportunity time, represented by rreq, requires a nonlinear solution to Eq. 10.2.
10.3.2.1
Determining the Intake Opportunity Time
To determine the intake opportunity time:
Plotting of Eq. 10.2 with the parameters being used in the design.
Determine time using the Newton-Raphson procedure which is three simple steps as follows:
-
Step 1: Make an initial estimate of rreq and label it T1;
Step 2: Compute a revised estimate of rreq, T2:
T2 = T1 +
10.3.2.2
Z req kT1a fo T1
ak
1
T1 a + fo
(10.3)
Step 3: Compare the values of the initial and revised estimates of rreq (T1 and T2) by
taking their absolute difference. If they are equal to each other or within an acceptable
tolerance of about 0.5 minutes, the value of rreq is determined as the result. If they are
not sufficiently equal in value, replace T1 by T2 and repeat steps 2 and 3.
Determining Basic Intake Rate
Several approaches can be used for determining a value for basic intake rate, fo in the infiltration
equation.
One method utilizes the data from blocked furrow or cylinder infiltrometer tests made the
day before irrigation. After an infiltrometer test has been run for several hours (the time
being dependent on soil type), the essentially constant rate of infiltration can be taken to be
the basic intake rate, fo.
March 2009
10-5
If a runoff hydrograph is not measured, such as for a basin evaluation, it is suggested that
Table 10.1 and Figure 10.2 be used to define fo based on intake family by soil type.
The 'two-point' method of evaluating fo from the inflow-outflow hydrograph

Table 10.1 Kostiakov-Lewis Intake Parameters (Gharbi, 1984)
Curve No.
k (m/min)
fo (m/min)
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.25
0.30
0.35
0.40
0.45
0.50
0.60
0.70
0.80
0.90
1.00
1.50
2.00
0.00426
0.00383
0.00360
0.00346
0.00337
0.00330
0.00326
0.00323
0.00321
0.00320
0.00320
0.00321
0.00324
0.00328
0.00332
0.00361
0.00393
0.258
0.317
0.357
0.388
0.415
0.437
0.457
0.474
0.490
0.504
0.529
0.550
0.568
0.584
0.598
0.642
0.672
0.000022
0.000035
0.000046
0.000057
0.000068
0.000078
0.000088
0.000098
0.000107
0.000117
0.000136
0.000155
0.000174
0.000193
0.000212
0.000280
0.000339
Average 6 hr
intake rate
2
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
12
13
15
17
20
22
25
35
45
Soil Type
Clay
Clay loam
Silty loam
Sandy loam
Sandy
40
(Note: The segregation of the intake families by soil type is qualitative. It serves irrigation
engineer during preliminary design or evaluation work. The relationships given in Figure 10.2 and
Table 10.1 are not intended as substitutes for field measurements when they can be made)
Intakes Family Curves

30
20
1.5
1.00
0.90
0.80
0.60
0.50
10
CUMULATIVE INTAKE Z (m 3 /100m)
0
2.0
z = kta + f t
0.35
0.15
100
300
200
400
500
TIME t (min)
Figure 10.2 Kostiakov-Lewis Intake Relationship Based on the USDAs Intake Series
10-6
March 2009
10.3.3
Computation of Advance Time
The time required for water to cover the field, the advance time, necessitates evaluation or
approximation of the advance trajectory. The first step is to describe the flow cross-sectional area.
For furrows and borders flow cross-sectional area is as Eq. 10.4.
1
Q o n p2
Ao =
60p S 0.5
1 o
(10.4)
Where,
Ao
= cross sectional area
Qo
n
= inlet discharge per width or per furrow

= Mannings roughness coefficient
So
= gradient
p1 and p2 = empirical shape coefficients
The parameters p1 and p2 are empirical shape coefficients. For border systems p1 equals 1.0 and p2
is 1.67. For most furrow irrigated conditions, p2 will have a value ranging from 1.3 to 1.5.
The furrow hydraulics is not too sensitive to variations in p2 and a value of 1.35 will usually be
adequate. The value of p1 varies according to the size and shape of the furrow, usually in the range
of 0.3 to 0.7. Figure 10.3 shows three typical furrow shapes and their corresponding p1 and p2
values.
10cm
TRIANGULAR
p 1 = 0.464
p 2 = 1.333
p 1 = 0.487
p 1 = 0.503
p 2 = 1.333
p 2 = 1.333
TRAPEZOIDAL
p 1 = 0.498
p 1 = 0.513
p 1 = 0.432
p 2 = 1.325
p 2 = 1.329
p 2 = 1.290
p 1 = 0.582
p 1 = 0.591
p 1 = 0.586
p 2 = 1.352
p 2 = 1.361
p 2 = 1.366
PARABOLIC
Figure 10.3 Typical Furrow Shapes and Their Hydraulic Sectional Parameters
March 2009
10-7
In a level slope condition, such as a basin, it is assumed that the friction slope is equal to the inlet
depth, yo in m, divided by the distance covered by water, x in m. This leads to the following
expression for Ao:
3
0.231
(Q n) 2 x 13
o
Ao =
(10.5)
3600
(Note: Ao increases continually during the advance phase and must therefore be calculated at each
time step of each advance distance as well as each flow and resistance. For sloping field conditions,
Ao is assumed to be constant unless the flow, slope or resistance changes).
The input data required for advance phase calculations are p1, p2 field length L, So, n and Qo. This
information can be used to solve for the time of advance, tL, using either of two procedures:
Volume balance numerical approach; or

Graphical approach
10.3.3.1
Numerical Approach
For the volume balance numerical approach, Eq. 10.6 is used to describe the advance trajectory at
two points: the end of the field and the half-way point.
Qot = S y A o X + Szkt a X +
fo tX
1+r
(10.6)
where Ao is cross-section area of flow at the inlet, m2, Qo is inlet discharge in m3/min/furrow or unit
width, t is elapsed time since the irrigation started in min. Sz is the subsurface shape factor. Sz is
defined as:
Sz =
a + r(1 a) + 1
(1 + r)(1 + a)
(10.7)
The inlet cross-sectional flow area, Ao, can be computed using the uniform flow equation given in Eq.
10.5 rearranged as follows:
Q on
Ao =
60p S 0.5
1 o
1/p2
(10.8)
Values of the Manning roughness coefficient, n, range from about 0.02 for previously irrigated and
smooth soil, to about 0.04 for freshly tilled soil, to about 0.15 for conditions where dense growth
obstructs the water movement.
The two common points are the mid-distance of the field and the end of the field.
For the mid-distance:
Q o t 0.5L =
S y A oL
2
a
S z kt .5L
L
f o t 0.5L L
S(1 + r)
(10.9)
and for the end of the field:
10-8
March 2009
Q o t L = S y A o L + S z kt La L +
fo t L L
(1 + r)
(10.10)
where t.5L is advance time to one-half the field length in min, tL is advance time to the end of the
field in min, and L is field length in m.
Eq. 10.10 contains two unknowns, tL and r, which are related by Eq. 10.11
(10.11)
X = pt rx
In order to solve them, a two-point advance trajectory is defined in the following procedure:
Step 1: The power advance exponent r typically has a value of 0.1-0.9. The first step is to make
an initial estimate of its value and label this value r1, usually setting r1 = 0.4 to 0.6 are good
initial estimates. Then, a revised estimate of r is computed and compared below.
Step 2: Calculate the subsurface shape factor, sz, from Eq. 10.7
Step 3: Calculate the time of advance, tL, using the following Newton-Raphson procedure.
Step 4: Compute the time of advance to the field mid-point, t0.5L, using the same procedure as
outlined in step 3. The half-length, 0.5L is substituted for L and t0.5L for tL in Eq. 10.5. For level
fields, the half-length and the flow area must be substituted. Eq. 10.8 is used with L and 0.5L to
find the appropriate values of Ao.
Step 5: Compute a revised estimate of r as follows:
r2 =
log(2)
(10.12)
log(t L /t 0.5L )
Step 6: Compare the initial estimate, r1, with the revised estimate, r2. The differences between
the two should be less than 0.0001. If they are equal, the procedure for finding tL is concluded.
If not, let r1 = r2 and repeat steps 2-6.
Newton-Raphson procedure is used for calculating tL , as follows:
Step a: Assume an initial estimate of tL as T1

T1 = 5 Ao L / Qo
(10.13)
Step b: Compute a revised estimate of tL (T2) as

foLT1
1 + r1
foLT1
1 + r1
Q o T1 0.77A oL s zkT1aL
T2 = T1
Q o s z akL/T11 a
(10.14)
Step c: Compare the initial (T1) and revised (T2) estimates of tL. If they are within about 0.5
minutes or less, the analysis proceeds to step 4. If they are not equal, let T1 = T2 and repeat
steps b through c. It should be noted that if the inflow is insufficient to complete the advance
phase in about 24 hours, the value of Qo is too small or the value of L is too large and the design
process should be restarted with revised values. This can be used to evaluate the feasibility of a
flow value and to find the inflow.
10.3.3.2
Graphical Approach
The graphical approach involving Figures 10.4a 10.4f for furrows and borders and Figures 10.5a
10.4f for basins has been derived from computations using the kinematic-wave and hydrodynamic
March 2009
10-9
simulation models summarized by Walker and Skogerboe (1987).

follows:
The graphical procedure is as
Define the infiltration parameters k, a, and fo the field length L; the field slope So; the inlet
discharge Qo; surface roughness coefficient n; and the hydraulic section parameters p1 and p2
Compute the inlet flow area, Ao using Eq. 10.8 for furrows and borders and Eqn. 10.5 for basins:
Compute the dimensionless parameter K*:

k
K* =
1 a
A
fo o
fo
Compute the dimensionless parameter L*:
L* =
Lfo
Qo
(10.15)
(10.16)
Enter the appropriate figures for values of the infiltration exponent, a, which bracket the design
value, interpolate for the value of K*, and read the two values of t *A :
Compute the time of advance:

tL =
t *A A o
to
(10.17)
Average the two values to get tL for the value of a used in the design.
Figure 10.1a-10.4f illustrates the derived furrows and borders from computations using the
Kinematic-Wave and Hydrodynamic Simulation Models summarized by Walker and Skogerboe (1987).
Figure 10.5a-10.5f illustrates the derived basin from computations using the Kinematic-Wave and
Hydrodynamic Simulation Models summarized by Walker and Skogerboe (1987).
Figure 10.4a Dimensionless Advance Trajectories for Borders and Furrows having an Infiltration
Exponent a = 0.2
10-10
March 2009
Figure 10.4b Dimensionless Advance Trajectories for Borders and Furrows having an Infiltration
Exponent a = 0.3
March 2009
10-11
Figure 10.4c Dimensionless Advance Trajectories for Borders and Furrows having an Infiltration
Exponent a = 0.4
Figure 10.4d Dimensionless Advance Trajectories for Borders and Furrows having an Infiltration
Exponent a = 0.5
Figure 10.4e Dimensionless Advance Trajectories for Borders and Furrows having an
10-12
March 2009
Figure 10.4f Dimensionless Advance Trajectories for Borders and Furrows having an Infiltration
Exponent a = 0.7
Figure 10.5a Dimensionless Advance Trajectories for Basins having an Infiltration Exponent a = 0.2
March 2009
10-13
Figure 10.5b Dimensionless Advance Trajectories for Basins having an Infiltration Exponent a = 0.3
Figure 10.5c Dimensionless Advance Trajectories for Basins having an Infiltration Exponent a = 0.4
10-14
March 2009
Figure 10.5d Dimensionless Advance Trajectories for Basins having an Infiltration Exponent a = 0.5
Figure 10.5e Dimensionless Advance Trajectories for Basins having an Infiltration Exponent a = 0.6
March 2009
10-15
Figure 10.5f Dimensionless Advance Trajectories for Basins having an Infiltration Exponent a = 0.7
10.3.4
Flow Geometry
It is necessary to segregate the volume of water on the soil surface from the volume which has
infiltrated into the soil during the advance phase in order to evaluate the field infiltration parameters.
To do this it is necessary to describe mathematically the shape of the flow cross-section and the flow
area. Use Manning formula:
Q = AR 0.67 S o
0.5
/n
(10.18)
where Q is the discharge in m3/sec, A is the cross-sectional area of the flow in m2, R is the hydraulic
radius in m, So is the slope of the hydraulic grade lines which is assumed to equal the field slope, if
one exists, and n is a resistance coefficient.
The simplest case of Eq. 10.18 is the sloping border in which a width of one metre is taken as
representative of the flow and the relation reduces to:
Q = y 1.67 S o
0.5
/n
(10.19)
in which y is the depth of flow in m, and Q is the flow per unit width.
For basins the problem becomes slightly more complex because the field slope is zero. Under these
conditions, it is often assumed that the slope of the hydraulic gradeline can be approximated by the
depth at the field inlet, yo, divided by the distance over which the water surface has advanced.
Equation 10.18 with this modification becomes:
Q =y 0
2.167
/x 0.5 /n
(10.20)
where x is the advance distance at time tx, in m. Thus, the area of flow in a basin is time dependent
during the advance phase and is continually changing. In sloping furrows and borders it is assumed
constant with time.
10-16
March 2009
The geometry of flow under furrow irrigation is difficult to describe. The furrow shape is continually
changing because of erosion and deposition of soil as the water moves it along, but its typical shape
ranges from triangular to nearly trapezoidal. In most cases, simple power functions can be used to
relate the cross-sectional area and wetted perimeter with depth.
Figure 10.6 shows a furrow cross-section developed from the profilometer. The simplest way to
analyse these data is to first plot the cross-section as shown, then divide the depth into 10-15 equal
increments and graphically or numerically integrate area and wetted perimeter. Table 10.2
summarizes the result of analysis.
Assuming a power relation between depth and both area and perimeter, a two point fit of the data in
Table 10.2 will determine the parameters:
A = a1 y
(10.21)
At y = 5 cm, A = 54.1 cm2 = 5.41 x 10-3 m2, and at y = 10 cm A = 179.70 cm2 = 1.797 x 10-2 m2.
Therefore,
a2 =
log(0.01797/0.00541)
= 1.732
log(10/5)
Elev from bottom, cm
a1 = 0.01797 / 101.732 = 3.331 x 10-4
-18
-16 -14
-12
-10
-8
-6
-4
-2
10
8
6
4
2
0
10
12
14
16
18
Top Width, cm
Figure 10.6 Typical Furrow Cross-sections

Table 10.2: Example Furrow Cross-section Analysis
March 2009
Furrow Depth, y
(cm)
Area, A
(cm2)
Wetted Perimeter,WP
(cm)
2.90
6.137
10.65
10.531
22.00
14.393
36.55
18.086
54.10
21.632
74.45
25.018
97.45
28.319
122.95
31.454
149.35
34.581
10
179.70
37.798
10-17
WP = b1 y
b2
(10.22)
at y = 5 cm WP = 21.632 cm = 0.2163 m, and at y = 10 cm WP = 37.798 cm = 0.378 m

therefore,
b2 =
log(0.378/0.2163)
log(10/5)
= 0.805
b1 = 0.378 / 100.805 = 0.05922

Equations 10.21 and 10.22 can be combined for the following expression for the hydraulic section in
Eq. 10.18:
AR 0.67 = p 1 A
P2
(10.23)
where,
1.667 P
a1
= 0.550
(10.24)
p2 = 1.667 - 0.667 * b2 / a2 = 1.3568
(10.25)
P1 =
and,
0.667
b1
Then Eq. 10.18 is written:

Q = p1 A p2 S 0.5
o /n
(10.26)
The units of depth, area and perimeter can be measured in cm for Eq. 10.21 and Eq.10.22 and
converted to metres Eq. 10.26. Note that in Eq. 10.25, p2 reduces to 1.667 and p1 is equal to 1.0
when applied to border flow conditions
10.4
FURROW IRRIGATION DESIGN
Furrow irrigation envisages wetting of only a part of the surface thereby reducing evaporation losses,
lessening the puddle of heavy soils, and making it possible to cultivate the soil sooner after irrigation.
Water flowing in the furrows soaks into the soil and spreads laterally to irrigate the areas between
the furrows. Nearly all row crops are irrigated by the furrow method, rather than by flooding. Furrow
method of irrigation is not very suitable for very light soils having high infiltration capacity, as due to
deep percolation, water is wasted at the upstream end of the furrow.
Furrow irrigation avoids flooding the entire field surface by channelling the flow along the primary
direction of the field using furrows or corrugations. Water infiltrates through the wetted perimeter
and spreads vertically and horizontally to refill the soil moisture reservoir. Furrows are often
employed in basins and borders to reduce the effects of topographical variation and crusting. The
distinctive feature of furrow irrigation is that the flow into each furrow is independently set and
controlled as opposed to borders or basins where the flow is set and controlled on a border-byborder or basin-by-basin basis.
The advantages-include the followings:
10-18
Furrows provide better on-farm water management flexibility under many surface irrigation
conditions.
March 2009
The discharge per unit width of the field is substantially reducetgk result kuiz d and
topographical variations can be more severe.
A smaller wetted area reduces evaporation losses.
Furrows provide the irrigator more opportunity to manage irrigations toward higher efficiencies
as field conditions change for each irrigation cycle throughout a season.
While the disadvantages as:
An increased level of tail-water losses
The difficulty of moving farm equipment across the furrows
The added expense and time to make extra tillage practice (furrow construction)
An increased erosive potential of the flow
A higher commitment of labor to operate efficiently
In furrow irrigation, the surface roughness and intake rates vary widely from irrigation to irrigation
even from the same field. Normally, the flow rate and cut-off times for the first irrigation after land
preparations are maximum when compared to the third and fourth irrigation when these conditions
have been reduced by previous irrigation.
There are three types of primary furrow designs:
Furrow systems without cutback
Furrow system with cutback
Furrow system with tail water recirculation system
These systems should be flexible to irrigate fields adequately in which the surface roughness and
intake rates vary widely from irrigation to irrigation. The design suggested evaluating flow rates and
cut-off times for the first irrigation when roughness and intake maximum and for the third or fourth
irrigation when these conditions have been reduced by previous irrigations.
10.4.1 Design Procedure for Furrow Systems - without Cutback
Design procedures are as follows:
Input Data:
Description
First irrigation infiltration
Parameter
a, k, and fo
Later irrigation infiltration
as, ks and fos
Field length, width, slope, roughness
L, Wf, Sm and n
Required application depth
Zreq
Furrow spacing and shape
w, p1, and p2
Soil erosive velocity
Vmax
Water supply rate and duration
QT and TT
Number of furrows
Nf = Wf/W
The maximum flow velocity in furrows is suggested as about 8-10 m/min in erosive silt soils to
about 13 - 15 m/min in the more stable clay and sandy soils. A maximum value of furrow inlet
flow, Qmax m3/min, that will fall within the maximum, Vmax, is:
March 2009
10-19
1/(P 1)
Q max
P2
= Vmax
0.5
60p
S
1 o
(10.27)
The value of Qo should be adjusted so that the number of sets is an integer number, i.e. NfQo
should be an integer, but should not exceed Qmax.
Compute the advance time, tL.
Compute the required intake opportunity time, rreq.
Compute time of cutoff, tco, in min by neglecting depletion and recession:

tco = rreq + tL
(10.28)
Compute application efficiency, Ea:

Ea =
Z reqL
(10.29)
Q o t co
The application efficiency should be maximized subject to the limitation on erosive velocity, the
availability and total discharge of the water supply, and other farming practices. The inflow should be
reduced and the procedure repeated until a maximum Ea is determined.
10.4.2
Design Procedure for Furrow System - with Cutback
The design procedure for the system illustrated in Figure 10.6 follows a sequence not entirely unlike
that of the non-cutback systems but with several points of additional concern. In addition to
information describing the furrow geometry, infiltration characteristics, field slope and length, and
the required application, it is also necessary to know the relationship between head ditch water level
and the furrow inflow:
Q o = c 1 Ah C2
(10.30)
where c1 and c2 are empirical coefficients, h is the head over the outlets, in m, and A is the outlet
area in cm2.
Water Surface
Bay 1
Check Dam
Bay 2
Check Dam
Bay 3
(a)
Drop
Water Surface
Check Dam
(b)
Water Surface
(c)
Figure 10.7 Schematic Drawing of the Furrow Cutback System (Garton, 1966)
10-20
March 2009
Elevation drawing showing the system of cutback furrow irrigation. In Figure 10.7 (a), bay 1 is
delivering the initial furrow flow. In Figure 10.7 (b), the check dam has been removed from bay 1,
bay 2 is delivering the initial flow, and bay 1 is delivering the cutback furrow flow. In Figure 10.7 (c),
the check dam has been removed from bay 2, bay 3 is delivering the initial furrow flow, and bay 2 is
delivering the cutback furrow flow, and bay l is shut off. The first calculation can be the required
intake opportunity time using the first of the common design computations. The design should
provide an advance phase flow sufficient to allow tL = rreq. Since this requirement is most likely to be
a constraint under high intake conditions, the design advance flow for the first irrigation following
cultivation or planting should be the upper limit. This flow, of course, must be less than the
maximum non-erosive flow. Thus, the second computation would be to compute the maximum flow
from Eq. 10.27.
An intermediate design computation can be made at this point. The advance time can be calculated
using the maximum furrow inflow, Qmax. If tL is less than rreq, a feasible cutback design is possible
and the following procedures can be implemented. If the advance associated with the maximum flow
is too long, then either the required application should be increased (at the risk of crop stress) or the
field length shortened. It is usually better to reduce the field length and repeat these calculations.
When the design is shown to be within this constraint on flow, the next computation is to find the
furrow advance discharge which just accomplishes an advance in treq minutes. If the advance time
for a range of inflows has been determined as suggested earlier, identifying this flow is accomplished
by interpolation within the data. If this information has not been developed, it is necessary to do so
at this point. The easiest method is to change Qo iteratively until the associated advance time equals
the required intake opportunity time.
The cutback flow following the advance phase must be sufficient to keep the furrow stream running
along the entire length. Thus, some tailwater will be inevitable but should be minimized. Knowing
that infiltration rates will decrease during the wetting period to values approaching the basic intake
rate suggests a guideline for sizing the cutback flow:
Qcb = b fo tL
(10.31)
where b is a factor requiring some judgement to apply. It should be in the range of 1.1 to 1.5.
The application efficiency of the cutback system can be thus described as:
Ea =
Z reqL
Q o t L + Q cbrreq
Z reqL
rreq (Q o + Q cb)
(10.32)
Once the advance and recession phase flows have been determined, the next step is to organize the
field system into subsets. The first irrigating set must accommodate the entire field supply. The
number of furrows in this set is therefore:
N1 = QT/Qo
(10.33)
For the second set,

N2 = (QT - N1Qcb)/Qo
(10.34)
And similarly,
Ni = (QT - Ni-1Qcb)/Qo
(10.35)
The field must be divided into an integer number of subsets which may require some adjustment of
QT, Qo, or Qcb. Irrigation of the last two sets cannot be accomplished under a cutback regime without
reducing the field inflow, QT, or allowing water to spill from the head ditch during the cutback phase
on the last set. To relieve the designer of a cumbersome trial and error procedure-trying to find the
number of sets and the furrows per set that will work with various water supply rates, a suggested
procedure is to fix the number of sets and compute the necessary field supply discharge.
March 2009
10-21
This is a four steps procedure as follows:

Step 1: Compute the cutback ratio(CBR) for each of the field's infiltration conditions:
CBR = Qcb/Qo
(10.36)
Select the largest value, and discard the other.

Step 2: Let k be the number of sets and compute the following product stream:
for k = 2
A2 = - CBR
(10.37)
for k > 2
k
A k = CBR(j + A j1 )
j=3
(10.38)
Then the number of furrows in the first set is:

N1 = Nf/(k + A)
(10.39)
Step 3: Calculate the number of furrows in each remaining set as:

for k = 2,
N2 = Nf - N1
or,
for k > 2
N2 = (1 - CBR)N1
(10.40)
and,
set first value of B = - CBR
k
B = CBR(1 + B)
(10.41)
Nj = N1 (1 + B)
(10.42)
j=3
Steps 2 and 3 ensure that the field subdivides into an integer number of sets, but the field supply
must vary according to the number of sets:
QT = N1Qo
(10.43)
Step 4 Thus for a single specified Qo, the designer can subdivide the field into several sets and
choose the configuration that best suits the farm operation as a whole.
Before moving to the final design computation, the design of the head ditch, mention is made of
using the cutback system under variable field conditions. Irrigations immediately after planting or
cultivation will be generally higher than those encountered after the first irrigation. It will not be
possible to alter the number of furrows irrigating per bay of the head ditch, so the inflow to the
entire system must be adjusted. The design procedure outlined above is repeated for the appropriate
value of Zreq and infiltration. Then, the system discharge is determined by Eq. 10.43. For the system
10-22
March 2009
illustrated in Figure 10.6, the design of the head ditch involves the calculation of the relative bay
elevations. From Eq. 10.31, the head over the outlets during the advance phase, ha, is:
h a = (Q o /C 1 )
1/C 2
(10.44)
and during the wetting period phase, hw, is:

h w = (Q cb /C 1 )1/C2
(10.45)
Thus, the elevation difference between bays is ha - hw. Each bay should be designed as a level
channel section of length equal to the number of furrows per set times the furrow spacing. To
accommodate the drop between bays, it is helpful if the field has a moderate cross-slope.
10.4.3
Design Procedure for Systems with Tail Water Reuse
The application efficiency of furrow irrigation systems can be greatly improved when tail water can
be captured and reused. The major complexity of reuse systems is the strategy for recirculation the
tail water.
To illustrate the design strategy for reuse systems, a design procedure for a common configuration
outlined by Walker and Skogerboe (1987) can be applied. The reuse system shown schematically in
Figure 10.8 is intended to capture tail water from one set and combine it with the supply to a second
set. A similar operating scenario prevails for each subsequent pair until the last set is irrigated when
some of the tail water must be stored until the next irrigation, dumped into a waste way, used
elsewhere or used to finish the irrigation after the primary inflows have been shut-off.
The total volume of tail water recycled shall be held to a constant volume equal to the runoff from
the first set. The difference in tail water volumes between the first and subsequent sets may be
wasted. The recycled flow can thus be held constant to simplify the pump-back system and its
operation.
The reuse system design procedure is as follows:
Input data are the same as for the cutback system.
Compute the required intake opportunity time, rreq, as outlined previously.
Compute or interpolate the inlet discharge required to complete the advance phase in
approximately 30 percent of rreq, correcting if necessary for non-erosive stream velocities. (See
the suggestion at the end of Section 10.5.1)
Compute the tail water volume using Eq. 10.48, Eq. 10.49 and Eq. 10. 50.
Compute pump-back discharge, Qpb:

Qpb = Vtw / tco
Compute number of furrows in second or subsequent sets:
Ni =
(10.46)
Qr + Qpb
Qo
(10.47)
The field should be in evenly divided sets which may require repetition of the procedure with a
modified furrow discharge.
March 2009
10-23
The computation the tailwater volume is carried out as follows:

1. The time of cutoff is:
tco = rreq + tL
(10.48)
2. The infiltrated depths at field inlet and outlets are:

Zin = ktcoa + fotco
(10.49)
3. A conservative estimate of the field runoff per furrow is:
0.77A o L (Z in Z out )
Vtw = N f Q o t co
2
2
(10.50)
Where, Nf = QT/Qo. (from Eq. 10.34)

m ain
Main
w
ater
water
supply
Head ditch
supply
head ditch
ororpipe
pipe
recycled
Recycled
w ater
water
supply
supply
first
First
set
set
second
Second
set set
n-1
n-1
set
set
last
Last
set
set
Pump
pum p
tailw ater
Tailwater
reservoir
reservoir
tailw
ater
Tailwater
channel
channel
Figure 10.8 Illustration of a Typical Reuse Configuration

10.5
BORDER IRRIGATION DESIGN
The design of borders involves the same procedure as that for furrow systems with two exceptions.
The first difference is that while the depletion and recession phases are generally neglected in furrow
design, both phases must be included for borders. The second difference is that the downstream end
of a border may be bunded to prevent runoff.
One simplification of border analyses is that the geometry of the flow is simpler because it can be
treated as wide, plane flow. The values of p1 and p2 are always 1.0 and 1.67, respectively.
10.5.1 Design Procedure for Open-End Border Systems
The first four design steps for open-ended borders are the same as those outlined under subsection
10.5.1 for traditional furrow systems:
10-24
March 2009
a. Assemble input data

b. Compute maximum flows per unit width
c. Compute advance time; and
d. Compute the required intake opportunity time
Hart et al. (1980) also suggest computing a minimum flow, Qmin, based on a value that
ensures adequate field spreading.
This relationship is:
Qmin = 0.000357 L So0.5 / n
Where,
(10.53)
Qmin = minimum suggested unit discharge (m3/min/m)

L = field length (m)
S = gradient
n = mannings roughness coefficient
There will be substantially more water on the surface of borders than for furrows. Consequently, it is
good practice to check periodically the depth of flow at the field inlet to ensure that depths do not
exceed the bund heights. For this:
Q on
y o =
0.5
60S o
0.6
(10.54)
where yo is the inlet flow depth in m.

The border designs given here assume the advance phase is completed before the inflow is
terminated. Where the downstream end is bunded, cut off the inflow before the end of the advance
phase, the volume of water on the surface continue to advance along the border until it reaches the
lower end where it will run off or pond in front of the bund. The downstream pond often creates a
substantial threat to the crop in the submerged areas and the border system should be well
designed and operated and a surface drain for excess water provided.
The border efficiency and uniformity are approximately the same as borders in which excess surface
water simply drains off the field after the advance phase is complete.
The following procedure is suggested for border systems where the excess surface water is drained
from the field either by a completely open-ended border or by a regulated outlet from a blocked-end
border.
After completing the first four design steps, as with furrows, open-ended border design resumes as
follows:
e. Compute the recession time, tr, for the condition where the downstream end of the border
receives the smallest application:
tr = rreq + tL
f.
(10.55)
Calculation of the depletion time, td
Assign an initial time to the depletion time, say T1 = tr;
Compute the average infiltration rate along the border, by averaging the rates as both
ends at time T1:
I=
March 2009
ak a 1
T1 + (T1 t L ) a 1 + fo
2
(10.56)
10-25
Compute the 'relative' water surface slope:
Sy =
1 (Q o IL)n
L
0.6
(10.57)
0.5
60S o
Compute a revised estimate of the depletion time, T2:
T2 = t r
0.095n
I
0.47565
0.52435
Sy
So
0.20735 0.6829
0.237825
(10.58)
Compare T2 with T1 to determine if they are within about one minute, then the depletion
time td is determined. If the analysis has not converged then let T1 = T2 and repeat steps 2
through 5. The computation of depletion time given above is based on the algebraic analysis
by Strelkoff (1977).
g. Compare the depletion time with the required intake opportunity time. Because recession is
an important process in border irrigation, it is possible for the applied depth at the end of the
field to be greater than at the inlet. If td > rreq, the irrigation at the field inlet is adequate and
the application efficiency, Ea can be calculated with Eq. 10.29 using the following estimate of
time of cutoff:
tco = td - yo L / (2 Qo)
(10.59)
If td < rreq, the irrigation is not complete and the cutoff time must be increased so the intake
at the inlet is equal to the required depth. The computation proceeds as follows:
tco = rreq - yo L / (2 Qo)
(10.60)
and then Ea is computed with Eq. 10.29

Since the application efficiency will vary with Qo several designs should be developed using
different values of inflow to identify the design discharge that maximizes Ea.
h. Finally, the border width, Wo in m is computed and the number of borders, Nb, is found as:
Wo = QT/Qo
(10.61)
Nb = Wt/Wo
(10.62)
and,
where Wt is the width of the field. Adjust Wo until Nb is an even number. If this width is
unsatisfactory for other reasons, modify the unit width inflow or plan to adjust the system
discharge, QT.
10.5.2 Design Procedure for Blocked-End Border Systems
The computations for blocked-end borders are best performed with zero-inertia or full hydrodynamic
simulation models. A number of studies have been made to develop relationships among the most
important variables involving border irrigation using a dimensionless approach and the higher level
simulation models. The designer may refer to Strelkoff and Katapodes (1977), Shatanawi and
Strelkoff (1984), and Yitayew and Fangmeier (1984) for some of these reports.
10-26
March 2009
The suggested design steps are as follows:

a. Determine the input data as for furrow and border systems.
b. Compute the maximum inflows per unit width using Eq. 10.18 with p1 = 1.0 and p2 = 1.67.
The minimum inflows per unit width can also be computed using Eq. 10.52.
c.
Compute the require intake opportunity time, rreq.
d. Compute the advance time for a range of inflow rates between Qmax and Qmin, develop a
graph of inflow, Qo verses the advance time, tL, and extrapolate the flow that produces an
advance time equal to rreq. Define the time of cut off, tco, equal to rreq. Extrapolate also the r
and p values in Eq. 10.10 found as part of the advance calculations.
e. Calculate the depletion time, td, in min,
td = tco + yo L / (2 Qo) = rreq + yo L / (2 Qo)
f.
(10.63)
Assume that at td, the water on the surface of the field will have drained from the upper
reaches of the border to a wedge-shaped pond at the downstream end of the border and in
front of the bund.
g. At the end of the drainage period, a pond should extend a distance I metre upstream of the
dyked end of the border. The value of I is computed from a simple volume balance at the
time of recession:
Q t 0.5 * [Z o + Z L ]
I = o co
So
0.5
(10.64)
where,
Zo = k tda + fo td
(10.65)
ZL = k (td - tL)a + fo (td - tL)
(10.66)
and
If the value of I is zero or negative, a downstream pond will not form since the infiltration
rate is high enough to absorb what would have been the surface storage at the end of the
recession phase. In this case the design can be derived from the open-ended border design
procedure. If the value of I is greater than the field length, L, then the pond extends over
the entire border and the design can be handled according to the basin design procedure
outlined in a following section.
The depth of water at the end of the border, yL
yL = I So
(10.67)
h. The application efficiency, Ea, can be computed using Eq 10.29. However, the depth of
infiltration at the end of the field and at the distance L-I metres from the inlet should be
checked as Eq. 10.29 assumes that all areas of the field receive at least Zreq. The depths of
infiltrated water at the three critical points on the field, the head, the downstream end, and
the location I can be determined as follows for the time when the pond is just formed at the
lower end of the border:
Z1 = k (td - tL-1)a + fo (td - tL-1)
(10.68)
tL-1 = [(L-I) / p]1/a
(10.69)
where,
March 2009
10-27
One of the fundamental assumptions of the design process is that the root zone requirement, Zreq,
will be met over the entire length of the field. If in computing Ea, one finds ZL-1 or ZL less than Zreq,
then either the time of cutoff should be extended or the value of Zreq used should be reduced.
Likewise, if the depths applied at I and L significantly exceed Zreq, then the inflow should be
terminated before the flow reaches the end of the border. If the inflow is cut off before the advance
phase is completed, the analysis above have to be replaced with designers judgement or using of
more advanced models.
10.6
BASIN IRRIGATION DESIGN
10.6.1 Design Under Intermittent Flooding Condition
In basin irrigation design tail water is prevented from exiting the field and the slopes are usually very
small or zero. Recession and depletion are accomplished at nearly the same time and nearly uniform
over the entire basin. However, because slopes are small or zero, the driving force on the flow is
solely the hydraulic slope of the water surface, and the uniformity of the field surface topography is
critically important.
Three further assumptions for basin irrigation:
a. The friction slope during the advance phase of the flow can be approximated by:
Sf = yo / x
(10.70)
in which yo is the depth of flow at the basin inlet in m, x is the distance from inlet to the
advancing front in m, and Sf is the friction slope. Utilizing the result of Eq. 10.72 in the
Manning equation yields:
Qo =
60y o
nx
2.167
(10.71)
0.5
or,
Q 2n2 x
yo = o
3600
0.23
(10.72)
b. Immediately upon cessation of inflow, the water surface assumes a horizontal orientation
and infiltrates vertically.
c.
The depth to be applied at the downstream end of the basin is equal to Zreq. Under these
three basic assumptions, the time of cutoff for basin irrigation systems is (assume yo is
evaluated with x equal to L):
t co =
Z reqL 0.77y o L
Qo
+ tL
(10.73)
The time of cutoff must be greater than or equal to the advance time. The design procedure does
not need to search among various flow rates for a value that meets a design criterion like finding the
deep percolation-field tailwater trade-off point. Basin dimensions more a matter of practicality to the
farmer than one of hydraulic necessity.
As a guide to basin design, the following steps shall be applied:
10-28
March 2009
a.
Input data common to both furrows and borders must first be collected. Field slope is not
necessary because basins are usually 'dead level'.
b. The required intake opportunity time, rreq, can be found as demonstrated in the previous
examples.
c.
The maximum unit flow should be calculated along with the associated depth near the basin
inlet. The maximum depth can be approximated by Eqn 10.74
y max
(Q n) 2 L
= max
3600
0.23
(10.74)
and then increased 10-20 percent to allow some room for post-advance basin filling. If the
computed value of ymax is greater than the height of the basic perimeter dykes, then Qmax needs
to be reduced accordingly. The maximum unit flow, Qmax, is difficult to assess. As a general
guideline, it is suggested that Qmax be based on the flow velocity in the basin when the advance
phase is one-ninth completed. The basin equivalent to Eq. 10.27 is
Q max
13/7 nL0.5
= Vmax
180
6/7
(10.75)
d. Usually the design of basins involve flows much smaller than indicated in Eq. 10.75.
e. Select several field layouts that would appear to yield a well organized field system and for
each determine the length and width of the basins. Then compute the unit flow, Qo for each
configuration as:
Qo = QT / Wb
(10.76)
where Wb is the basin width in m. As noted above, the maximum efficiency will generally occur
when Qo is near Qmax so the configurations selected at this phase of the design should yield
inflows accordingly.
f. Compute the advance times, tL, for each field layout as discussed in subsection 10.4.2.2(b), the
cutoff time, tco, from Eqn. 10.73, (if tco < tL, set tco = tL), and the application efficiency using
Eq. 10.29.
Ea =
Z reqL
Q o t co
The layout that achieves the highest efficiency while maintaining a convenient configuration for the
irrigator and farmer should be selected.
10.6.2 Design Under Flooding Condition
The level border type surface system consists of a level area enclosed by earthen border ridges or
levees. For a uniform distribution of water, the rate at which the water supplied to the field should be
at least twice the as fast as the soil can absorb it. This rate gets water over the entire field as quickly
as possible. Another feature that will increase the speed of water flow cross the field is to construct a
slight grade. The slight grade may also help preventing water from puddling in low spots. In
Malaysia, where wet direct seeding is widely practiced, this function has been taking over by the
construction of field channel.
When irrigating a predetermined amount of water is turned on the strip and allowed to stand until it
is absorbed remain flooding. For weed control and agronomic requirement on such crops as rice,
more water is applied than needed for irrigation. The water may then be allowed to stand for several
months to support the rice growth requirement.
March 2009
10-29
This type of surface irrigation system is extensively used for paddy rice. It is also used for pasture
grasses, hay crops, alfalfa, small grains and row crops that can that can withstand temporary
flooding This system can also be used for vegetables in raised bed condition.
The system is applicable to low-intake rate soils which are difficult to irrigate by other surface
methods. It makes maximum use of seasonal rainfall. Water can be uniformly distributed, resulting in
high water application efficiencies. The system can be designed to handle high rainfall, with minimum
of soil erosion. Installation costs are low compared with other method, especially if little land leveling
is needed. Large areas can be handled efficiently by a single irrigator
Crops must be able to withstand up to 12 hrs flooding. The system is applicable to soil of relatively
low intake rate. Land forming is often needed. Large irrigation streams are necessary. Levees, ditches
and structures require frequent maintenance.
10.6.2.1
Presaturation Requirement - First Flooding
The net depth of presaturation involves two factors; soil soaking and flood field surface for land
preparation. Depth of soil soaking varies from 85 mm to 150 mm and the depth for flooding is 75mm
to 100 mm.
The methods that can be used to calculate the presaturation requirement are Water Balanced
Method, Dr. Bonetti Method, De Goor and Zijlstra Method and Thavaraj Method. For rice irrigation in
Malaysia, 10 to 15 days presaturation period is recommended.
a)
Water Balance Method
Irrigation water can be estimated by using Water Balanced Method, illustrated by following formula:
W = (Pw + H + P + ET Re) x 100/n
(10.77)
Where,
W
Pw
H
P
ET
Re
n
b)
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
Irrigation water requirement, in mm/day

Pre-saturation water in mm/day
Standing water in mm/day
Percolation loss in mm/day
Evapotranspiration (or Evaporation during pre-saturation period) in mm/day
Effective Rainfall in mm/day
Overall efficiency, in percentage
Thavaraj Method
There are other methods which calculate crop water requirement. One of the methods widely used to
determine the presaturation requirement in Malaysia is Thavaraj Method. This method is elaborated
in DID Information Paper No 2 (1981). In Thavaraj Method, presaturation requirement is estimated
using these formulas:
= (L Eu)/(1 - e-m ) + Eu
m = T(L Eu)/F
Where Eu
Ep
Es
P
10-30
(10.78)
(10.79)
= Evaporation loss from the unsaturated soil surface mm/day

= Average Pan Evaporation (DID Black Pan) mm/day
= Evaporation loss from the saturated soil surface, taken as equal to
0.7 Ep in mm/day
= Percolation loss in mm/day
March 2009
L
H
S
F
q
=
=
=
=
=
T
e
=
=
10.6.2.2
Total lost from saturated surface = Es + P in mm/day

Depth of water layer at end of presaturation in mm/day
Depth of water required for saturation
Total depth of water in field = H + S in mm/day
Total irrigation requirement per unit area in mm/day, constant over the
entire presaturation period
Period of presaturation period, in days
Base of natural logarithm, 2.718
Second Flooding
Second flooding is depth of water required to flood the paddy field after transplanting or sowing of
seeds. Water has to be supplied progressively in accordance with the depth of the paddy to support
the root establishment, suppressing the growth of grass and for herbicides and fertilizers application.
The water level must also be returned to the required level according to the growth stage of the rice
crop after draining for various purposes and field requirements. Use Water Balanced Method with
Evapotranspiration rate value for initial stage of growth.
10.6.2.3
Maintaining Flood
After flooding, water level in the fields must be maintained according to the recommend water depth
at all stages of rice crop. The water required in this stage is equal to that lost through deep
percolation plus that required for consumptive use. Recommended water level for all growth stages
of rice crop is as Figure 10.9. Use Water Balanced Method with Evapotranspiration rate value for the
respective stage of growth of the crop.
The irrigation supply is normally stops 14 to 21 days before harvesting, depending on the type of the
soil, to faster the ripening of the rice and preparing good earth bearing support for the harvesting
machines.
100 mm
20-50 mm
100 mm
Saturation
200
150 mm
mm
0
PRE-SATURATED
Pre-Saturated
10
24
VEGETATIVE
VegetativeSTAGE
Stage
45
59 66 73
REPRODUCTIVE
Reproductive
STAGE
Stage
85
110 (Days)
RIPENING
STAGE
Ripening
Stage
Figure 10.9 Recommended Standing Water Depths for Rice Growth (FAO, 1975)
March 2009
10-31
10.6.2.4
Drainage Requirements
The standard number of the days to be required for field surface drainage in the respective paddy
cropping stages is as follows:
Eliminating of stored water after heavy rainfall

Weeding, liquid fertilizer application
Intermittent drainage
End of irrigation
1-2 days
1 day
2-3 days
3-5 days
Harvesting
1-2 days
10.6.2.5
Levee Dimensions
Levee must be constructed with a minimum height of 600 mm, top width of 450mm and the side
slopes should be steeper than 1.5 horizontal to 1.0 vertical.
10.6.2.6
Irrigation Inlet or Turnout
Subject to the size of the land ownership, the turn out should be provided for each plot of the farm.
The minimum size of the plot is 1 hectare. Each plot should be accessed to tertiary or quaternary
irrigation canal and drain for good water management.
10.6.2.7
In-Field Channel
In-field channel constructed parallel to each levee should be not less than 450 mm depth and have
side slopes no steeper than 1.5 horizontal to 1.0 vertical. The material excavated in drain
construction is used in forming of the levee. The function of this channel is to faster the water
distribution in the basin and the draining of water in the basin whenever required. The maximum
length of the channel is 400 m.
10.6.2.8
Drainage Outlet Structure and Pipes
The outlet structure and pipes should be provided on the side along the drains of field plots at the
interval of 50 meter. If only one outlet is provided, it should be installed on the downstream of the
side of the field lots. The number and the size of the outlet structure and pipes are determined by
their capacity to drain out water as required in Section 10.8.4.
10-32
March 2009
REFERENCES
DID Malaysia,(1981). DID Information Paper no 2.

FAO. (1975). Small hydraulic structures, Vol. 1 and 2, by D.B. Kraatz and V.I.K. Mahajan. Irrigation
and Drainage Papers 26/1 and 26/2, Rome. 407p and 293p, respectively.
Garton, J.E. (1966). Designing an Automatic Cut-Back Furrow Irrigation System. Oklahoma
Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin B-651, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma.
Gharbi, A. (1984). Effect of flow fluctuation on free-draining and sloping furrow and border irrigation
system. MS Thesis, Agricultural and Irrigation Engineering. Utah State University, Logan, Utah.
Unpuplished document 123p.
Hart, W.E., Collins, H.J., Woodward, G., and Humpherys, A.J. (1980). Design and Operation of
Gravity On Surface Systems, Chapter 13, In: Design and Operation of Farm Irrigation Systems. ASAE
Monograph Number 3, St. Joseph, Michigan. 829p.
Strelkoff, T. (1977). Algebraic Computation of Flow in Border Irrigation. J. Irrig. and Drainage Div.,
ASCE, IR3(103):357-377.
Strelkoff, T. and Katapodes, N.D. (1977). Border Irrigation Hydraulics with Zero-Inertia. J. Irrig. and
Drainage Div., ASCE, 103(IR3):325-342.
Strelkoff, T. and Shatanawi, M.R. (1984). Normalized Graphs of Border Irrigation Performance. J.
Irrig. and Drainage Div., ASCE, 110(4):359-374.
Yitayew, M. and Fangmeier, D.D. (1984). Dimensionless Runoff Curves for Irrigation Borders. J. Irrig.
and Drainage Div., ASCE, 110(2):179-191.
Walker, W.R. (1989). Guidelines For Designing and Evaluating Surface Irrigation Systems. FAO
Irrigation and Drainage Paper 46. (http://www.fao.org/docrep/T0231E/t0231e00.HTM).
Walker, W.R. and Skogerboe, G.V. (1987). Surface irrigation: Theory and Practice. Utah State
University. Prentice-hall INC., Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey 07632.
Jensen, M.E. (1983). Design and Operation of Farm Irrigation Systems. Chapter 13. Design and
Operation of Gravity or Surface Systems (Hart, W.E., H.G. Collins, G. Woodward and A.S.
Humphreys). ASAE monograph no. 13, ASAE 2950 Niles Road. St. Joseph, Michigan 49085.
National Engineering Handbook (1984). Furrow Irrigation, Chapter 5. SCS, USDA, Washington, D.C.
20013.
March 2009
10-33
10-34
March 2009
APPENDIX 10.A
Worked Example - Determining the Advance Time
Problem:
The advance time estimate, by numerical approach is required for a field with the following data:
Infiltration parameters a = 0.568
k = 0.00324 m3/min/m
fo = 0.000174 m3/min/m
Inflow
Qo = 0.15 m3/min
Slope
So = 0.001
Length
L = 200 m
Roughness
n = 0.04
Hydraulic section
p1 = 0.55
p2 = 1.35
Solution 1 - By Numerical Approach:

1. Set r1 = 0.6
2. From Eq. 10.7
Sz =
3a.
0.568 + 0.6(1 0.568) + 1

(1.568) * (1.6)
= 0.7283
From Eq. 10.4
0.15 * 0.04
Ao =
5
60 * 0.001 * 0.55
1/1.35
= 0.0219m
(Note: If the field slope is zero, Eq. 10.5 would be used here for Ao and would use L in place of x).
From Eq. 10.13
T1 =
3b.
5 * 0.0219 * 200
0.15
= 146 minutes
Using Eq. 10.14

0.15 * 146 0.77 * 0.0219 * 200 0.7283 * 0.00324 * 146
T2 = 146
0.15
= 146 - (+75.67)
0.7283 * 0.568 * 0.00324 * 200

146
10.568
0.568
* 200
0.000174 * 200 * 146

1.6
0.000174 * 200
1.6
= 70.33 minutes
3c. Error = (T2 - T1) = 146 - 70.33 = 75.67 minutes. Let T1 = 70.33, repeat steps 3b and 3c.
March 2009
10A-1
3d. The second iteration yields T2 = 70.33 - (+4.2) = 66.13 minutes. Error is 4.2 minutes. Now use
T1 as 66.13 minutes, and repeat steps 3b and 3c. The error is less than one minute and the value of
tL is found to be 66.07 minutes.
4. The time of advance to the field's half-way point is found by following the same steps as outlined
above by substituting 0.5 * L = 100 metres for the length and t0.5L for the advance time to this
distance. The result after two more iterations is 21.9 minutes.
Note: If the field's slope is zero, the computation of t0.5L must begin at Step 3a using L/2 for x.
5.
Applying Eq. 10.12

r2 =
log(2)
log(66.07/21.9)
= 0.6285
6. The error in the parameter r (0.6 - 0.6285) is greater than the acceptable tolerance. Steps 2
through 6 are repeated. The final advance time is 65 minutes.
Solution 2 - By Graphical Approach:
1. Compute the inlet flow area, Ao using Eq. 10.14
0.15 * 0.04
Ao =
0.5
60 * 0.001 * 0.55
1/1.35
= 0.0219m
Note: If the field slope is zero, Eq. 10.5 would be used here for Ao and would use L in place of x.
2. Compute the dimensionless parameter K* using Eq. 10.15
K* =
0.00324
0.0219
0.000177 *
0.000174
0.10.568
= 2.31
3. Compute the dimensionless parameter L* using Eq. 10.16
L* =
200 * 0.000174
0.15
= 0.232
4. From Figure 10.5, interpolating about 75 percent [log(2.3/1) / log(3/1) = 0.76] of the distance
between curves K* = 1 and K* = 3 yields t *A = 0.54. From Figure 10.5, the same process yields a
t *A = 0.50 for an average of 0.52. The advance time is then estimated as: using Eq. 10.17
tL =
0.52 * 0.0219
0.000174
= 65.4 minutes
Note the value using the volume balance numerical method yielded 65 minutes. Usually with careful
interpolation the values of tL found from the two methods will vary less than 5 - 10 percent.
10A-2
March 2009
APPENDIX 10.B
WORKED EXAMPLE FURROW IRRIGATION DESIGN
Problem:
New farm units have been organized around a 2 hectare block 200 m by 100 m. Flows of 30 litres
per second are allocated to each block for 48 hours every 10 days. Initial field surveys showed that
the fields needing first attention were comprised of a loam soil, sloped 0.8 percent over the 100 m
direction and 0.1 percent over the 200 m direction. The furrows were placed on 0.5 m intervals
across the 100 m direction (and running in the 200 m direction). The furrows were assumed to have
a hydraulic section where p1 = 0.57 and p2 = 1.367.
During the evaluations noted, the infiltration functions characteristic of the field were divided into
two relationships to describe the first irrigation following cultivations and then the subsequent
irrigations. These relationships are:
Z = 0.00346 t
Z = 0.0038 t
0.388
0.327
+ 0.000057 t (first irrigations) and
+ 0.000037 t (later irrigations)
The evaluation used a Manning coefficient of n = 0.04 for all analyses.

The crops expected were studied along with the local climate and it appeared that the best target
depth of application, or Zreq, would be 8 cm. With 0.5 m furrow spacings, Zreq would be 0.04
m3/m/furrow.
Water is in short supply so the project planners would like an estimate of the potential application
efficiency with and without cutback and reuse.
Solution 1 - Without Cutback:
Initial Design Calculations
With the design algorithm in mind but considered only as a guide, let the design process begin with
the limitations on the design parameters. The first of these can be the maximum allowable flow in
the furrow, Qmax. The soils are relatively stable so assume the maximum flow velocity could be as
high as 13 m/min. Equation 10.27 in a previous section provides the means of evaluating the
corresponding maximum flow rate:
Q max
p2
n
= Vmax
0.5
60p1S o
1/ (p2 1 )
0.04
1.367
= 13
*
0.5
0.57 * 0.001 * 60
1/(1.367 1)
= 1.768m3/min. (The total field inflow could be put in each furrow in this case)
The field is 100 m wide so that using a 0.5 m furrow spacing results in 100/0.5= 200 furrows. The
water supply of 30 l/s or 1.8 m3/min would service 1.8/0.104 = 17.31 furrows per set or the field
would be divided into 200/17.31 = 11.56 sets (obviously impractical since the sets must be
comprised of an integer number of furrows and the field needs to be subdivided into an integer
number of sets). A practical upper limit on the number of sets is perhaps 10 consisting of 20 furrows
each and having a maximum flow of 0.09 m3/min. Beyond this 'upper limit' some of the following
options also evenly divide the field:
March 2009
10A-3
Number of Sets
Furrows Per Set
Furrow Flow m3/min
10
20
0.090
25
0.072
45
0.045
50
0.036
100
0.018
200
0.009
The second limitation on the design procedure is whether or not the flow will complete the advance
phase in a reasonable time, say 24 hours. Particularly important in this regard is what minimum flow
will complete the advance phase within this limit. If the maximum flow is too small to complete the
advance, the furrow length must be reduced.
The second common design computation described in Section 10.4.2 provides the means of
determining the time of advance tL as a function of furrow inflow, Qo. The maximum inflow can be
used to calculate the minimum advance time, but since the minimum flow conditions are not known,
the maximum advance time must be established by examining each flow. The computation of tL for
each Qo can be accomplished with either method outlined and if undertaken yields the results given
in the following table which are also plotted in Figure 10A.1.
Sets
Furrow
Flow
m3/min
10
Advance Time
First Irrigation
minutes
Later Irrigations
minutes
0.090
58.2
0.072
72.6
0.045
130.8
101.4
0.036
184.2
132.6
0.018
847.8
379.2
0.009
2390.4
Design/Layout
There are now five configurations feasible for the initial field condition and six for the later
conditions. The design question at this stage is which one leads to the optimal design. The answer is
determined by computing the application efficiency for each alternative. First, the required intake
opportunity time for each condition is determined using the procedure outlined in Section 10.4.2. For
the first field rreq = 214 minutes. Similarly for the later applications, rreq = 371 minutes.
Performance
The application efficiency for each of the possible field configurations can now be computed. The
results, shown in the table below, indicate that one good design is to divide the field into 4 individual
subunits or sets of 50 furrows and utilize an inflow of 0.018 m3/min per furrow during the first
irrigations. The resulting application efficiency would be nearly 56 percent. Figure 10A.2 imposes this
layout on the field. Then during later irrigations two sets would be irrigated simultaneously so that
each furrow would receive 0.018 m3/min. The application efficiency of later irrigations would be
about 59 percent.
10A-4
March 2009
5000
ADVANCE Time
TIME (minutes)
Advance
(minutes)
1000
500
100
50
FIRST IRRIGATIONS
LATER IRRIGATIONS
10
001
005
01
01
10
Furrow Discharge (m3/min)
Figure 10A.1: Example relationships between inflow rate and advance time
March 2009
Ea, in Percent
Qo
Zreq
m3/min
m3/min
First Irrigations
Later Irrigations
10
0.090
0.04
32.6
**
0.072
0.04
38.6
**
0.045
0.04
51.5
37.7
0.036
0.04
55.7
44.2
0.018
0.04
41.9
59.3
0.009
0.04
**
32.2
Sets
10A-5
The frequency and duration of each irrigation needs to be checked and then the headland facilities
selected and designed. During the first irrigation, the field will require just more than 35 hours to
complete the irrigation (the sum of rreq + tL times the number of sets). The later watering will require
25 hours. If evapotranspiration rates were as high as 0.8 cm/day, the irrigation interval of 10 days
waters the field well within these limits (Zreq divided by the crop use rate approximates the irrigation
interval). Since the water supply is presumably controlled by an irrigation department, the design can
be substantially hindered if the delivered flows are not as planned.
It may be useful to examine briefly the performance of this design. If the actual irrigations evolve as
these design computations indicate, the farmer's irrigation pattern will waste about 44 percent of his
water during first irrigations and about 40 percent during later irrigations. By today's standards,
these losses are large and it may be cost-effective to add cutback or reuse to the system to reduce
these losses.
Water supply
Water Supply
Head ditch
Head Ditch
Set
11
33
4
4
Figure 10A.2: Final traditional furrow design layout
Solution 2 - With Cutback

Initial Design Calculations
The initial design computations for the cutback system are fundamentally the same as outlined
above. The rreq for the first irrigation is 214 minutes and for the subsequent irrigations it is 371
minutes. If the two set system is envisioned (one set in the advance phase and one in the wetting),
the advance time and cutoff times for the first irrigation are respectively, tL = rreq = 214 minutes and
tco = tL + rreq = 428 minutes. For the subsequent irrigations, tL = 371 minutes and tco = 742 minutes.
The next computation is the maximum flow, Qmax. Since the field and furrow geometries have not
changed, the value of Qmax = 1.768 m3/min. Then it is necessary to compute the relationship
between the inflow and the advance time. Rather than specifying a range of discharges and
computing the associated advance times as above, the cutback design looks for a unique flow which
yields the tL already determined as 214 or 371 minutes. This may appear simpler to some and more
difficult to others. It is in fact the same effort with a slightly different aspect. The details of the
computations are already given in the calculations of the previous example. Reading from Figure 56
10A-6
March 2009
for the two conditions, one finds that the necessary furrow flow, Qo, during the first irrigation would
be about 0.0330 m3/min and 0.0184 m3/min for later irrigations.
It is worthwhile emphasizing that the time of advance, tL, associated with a furrow inflow, Qo, must
be less than the required intake opportunity time, rreq, in order for the cutback scheme to operate
properly. When the maximum flow, Qmax, results in an advance time greater than the value required
for the system to work, the field length would have to be reduced or Zreq must be increased.
Design layout
Once the advance phase inflows are established, the field design or layout commences with an
estimate of the cutback flow. The one important constraint on the cutback flow is that it should not
be less than the intake along the furrow and cause dewatering at the downstream end. Equation
10.31 was given to assist the designer in avoiding this problem, but it is only a guideline. Thus, for
the first irrigation the cutback flow must be at least:
Qcb = 1.1 * 0.000057 * 200 = 0.0125 m3/min
In other words, the flow can only be cutback from 0.0125 m3/min to 0.033 m3/min, or to 38% of the
advance phase flow. In subsequent irrigations,
Qcb = 1.1 * 0.000037 * 200 = 0.0081 m3/min
which is a cutback of 43 percent of the advance flow.
There are several unique features of cutback systems that need to be considered at the design
stage. Of particular concern is the fact that the number of furrows per set must vary over the field if
the water supply rate, QT, is to be held constant during the irrigation. The number of furrows per set
can only be the same if the field supply is varied for each change in sets across the field. This is
usually difficult if the water supply is being supplied by an irrigation project. However, for furrow
systems to utilize cutback, the field supply must be regulated from irrigation to irrigation. To illustrate
this, let us develop a field layout for the irrigations. Utilizing Eq. 10.38 to Eq. 10.43, the following
table can be developed for a variable field supply rate. The Qcb/Qo ratio is taken as 0.43 reflecting
the constraint imposed by the later irrigations. This ratio must be the same for all irrigations.
Number of Furrow Per Set

No of Sets in Field
1
Set Number
4
5
6
67
38
50
45
54
30
41
36
39
46
26
35
31
32
30
40
22
30
27
28
27
26
35
19
26
23
25
24
24
24
31
17
23
21
22
21
22
21
22
QT
1st Irr
m3/min
QT
Later Irr
m3/min
2.21
1.27
1.78
0.99
1.51
0.84
1.32
0.73
1.15
0.64
1.02
0.57
One can see that if the water supply capacity is limited to 1.8 m3/min, the field must be divided into
at least five sets to accommodate the first irrigation condition. The upper limit on the number of sets
can be evaluated by examining the duration and frequency of the irrigations. The time of cutoff for
each set during the first irrigation was determined previously as 7.1 hours (428 minutes). For the
later irrigations, tco = 12.4 hours (742 minutes). For a 5 set system, the total duration of the later
March 2009
10A-7
irrigations is, 6 * 6.2 = 37.2 hrs or 1.6 days, assuming the irrigator will operate 24 hours per day.
(Note that because two sets are irrigating simultaneously under cutback with the exception of the
first and last sets, the duration of the irrigation on the field is the number of sets plus 1 times the
advance or required intake opportunity time.) Thus, if the 48 hour availability constraint imposed in
the problem outline is maintained, a cutback system for this field is only feasible in the 5 or 6 set
configuration without changing the depth of water to be added during each irrigation. For the
purpose of this example, let us suppose the water supply agency will deliver water to a 5 set system
needed for the cutback regime.
For this example, the field outlets are to be spires with adjustable square slide gates having the
following head-discharge characteristics:
Note that Qo = c A h
m3/min.
Spile Size
(mm)
Full-Open Area
(cm2)
Discharge Coefficient
19
3.61
0.00114
25
6.25
0.00136
38
14.44
0.00145
50
25.00
0.00169
0.5
where h is the head above the spire invert in cm, and Qo is in units of
The change in elevation across the 100 m headland of the field is 0.008 * 100 = 80 cm which is
sufficient for the system shown in Figure 10.7. To make the system work, the bays need to be
constructed on a level slope. The transition between bays is accomplished with a drop equal to the
difference in the head between the advance phase flows and the cutback flows. They are then
operated irrigation to irrigation by controlling the gate openings. For example, if the 25 mm spires
are selected, the advance phase head at the full opening is:
h = (0.0330 / 6.25 /0.00136)2 = 15.07 cm
and for the cutback phase:
h = (0.0330 * 0.43 / 6.25 / 0.00136)2 = 2.79 cm
Thus, the elevation drop between the bays should be 15.07 - 2.79 = 12.28 cm. This will necessitate
elevating the head ditch approximately 30 cm above the low end of the field and providing a drop to
the furrows.
When irrigating the field later, the head on the gates will necessarily remain the same, but the
openings must be reduced. For the advance phase,
A = 0.0184 / 15.070.5 / 0.00136 = 3.49 cm2 = 55.8% opening
and similarly for the later irrigations:
A = 0.0184 * 0.43 / 2.790.5 / 0.00136 = 3.48 cm2 = 55.7% opening
The operation is relatively simple so long as the total field inflow rate can be regulated to
compensate for the lower infiltration during later irrigations. Figure 10A.3 illustrates the alignment of
the head ditch for this cutback example design.
10A-8
March 2009
Bay 1
54 Outlets
30
41
36
39
Plan View
Head Ditch
Cross-section
Figure 10A.3: Cutback example field and head ditch layout

Performance
The performance of this design is calculated as follows. For the first irrigation (Eq. 10.32):
Ea =
0.04 * 200
214 * (0.0330 * 0.0142 )
* 100 = 79%
and for the later irrigations:

Ea =
0.04 * 200
371 * (0.0184 * 0.0079 )
* 100 = 82%
Cutback, therefore, substantially improves the efficiency on this field over traditional methods.
Solution 3 - With Reuse System
Another furrow irrigation option is to capture runoff in a small reservoir at the end of the field and
either pump it back to the upper end to be used along with the primary supply or diverted to another
field. The system envisioned for this reuse example will use the same head ditch configuration as the
traditional or cutback system options already developed. The irrigator will introduce the canal water
to the first set and collect the surface runoff from it. Then with initiation of the second set and
subsequent sets, the water in the tail water reservoir will be pumped to the head of the field and
mixed with the canal supply. The field layout will be similar to the schematic system depicted in
Figure 10.C1.
Initial Calculations
Initial calculations begin again with the required intake opportunity. These results were determined
in the previous example:
rreq = 214 min during first irrigations
rreq = 371 min during later irrigations
March 2009
10A-9
The maximum allowable furrow flows are also the same, 1.768 m3/min. A rule-of-thumb states that
the advance time for reuse systems should be about 30 percent of the required intake opportunity
time. From Figure 10.C2, the first irrigation flow should be 0.082 m3/min which will yield an advance
time of 0.3 * 0.214 min = 64 min. Similarly, for subsequent irrigations, an advance time of 112 min
based on a flow of 0.042 m3/min is selected. When the maximum non-erosive flow fails to meet the
30 percent rule, it is usually taken as the furrow flow and the rule is ignored.
The application efficiency and field layout under the reuse regime are computed as before. It is first
necessary to compute the deep percolation ratio and the tailwater runoff ratio for the possible range
of flows. The usual procedure is to compute the deep percolation ratio and then find the tailwater
ratio as 100 - Ea - DPR in percentages. As an example, the first irrigation analysis can be
demonstrated. From the volume balance advance calculations or, if one prefers, the graphical
approach, the time of advance to the furrow mid-point can be found as 25.9 min. From this
information the values of p and r in Eq. 10.32 are 8.45 and 0.7595, respectively. Then using the
power advance trajectory (Eq. 10.11) and the infiltration function, the distribution of applied depths
can be described as in the following table.
Distance From Field Inlet

(m)
Computed Opportunity Time

(min)
Computed Application
(m3/m)
278.5
0.0466
20
275.4
0.0463
40
270.8
0.0458
60
265.3
0.0453
100
252.6
0.0440
120
245.6
0.0433
140
238.2
0.0425
160
230.4
0.0417
180
222.4
0.0408
200
214.0
0.0400
top = tco - tx, tx = (x/p)
application = depth * furrow spacing/m of width
1/r
Using the trapezoidal integration of the applied water, the amount infiltrated over the field length is
200
* 0.0466 + 2 * (0.0463 + 0.0458 + 0.0453 + 0.0440 + 0.0433 + 0.00425 + 0.0417 + 0.0408 ) + 0.040
2*9
= 8.733 m3/furrow
V=
The required application is:

0.08 m x 0.50 m * 200 m = 8 m3/furrow
The total inflow to each furrow is:
0.082 m3/min * 278.5 min = 22.84 m3/furrow
The deep percolation and runoff ratios are thus:
DPR =
10A-10
8.733 8.0
* 100 = 3.2%
22.84
March 2009
TWR = 0 % (on the assumption that all is recycled)

And, the application efficiency for the first set is:
Ea = 100 - 3.2 - 0 = 96.8%
The runoff fraction is:
TWR =
22.84 8.733
= 61.2%
22.84
The volume of tailwater per furrow is:

0.612 * 22.84 = 14 m3/furrow
It is obvious, or should be, that recycling 61 percent of the water applied to a field is going to be
relatively costly. Consequently, a wider range of furrow flows needs to be examined along with their
performance characteristics. For the later irrigations of this example, the figures are as follows: DPR
= 3.3 percent and Ea = 96.7 percent.
Design Layout
The reuse system will collect the tail water from the first set in the runoff reservoir and pump it back
in the supply to the remaining sets. The pump-back system will operate continuously and will have
some excess capacity in the reservoir even though the total runoff from subsequent sets will be
greater.
The field layout can be found by trial and error or calculated. If the layout is calculated, one
approach is to fix a furrow flow and determine the external supply that is needed. Using the design
relations in Section 10.4 one can derive the following equation for the layout.
QT =
Nf Q o
1 + (Ns 1)(1 + TWR)
in which QT is the flow rate of the external water supply needed for the system in m3/min, Nf is the
total number of furrows on the field, Qo is the design furrow inflow in m3/min, Ns is the number of
sets in the field, and TWR is the runoff ratio associated with an inflow of Qo m3/min. During the first
irrigation, a Qo of 0.082 m3/min satisfied the probable requirements.
Choosing six sets as the basic field subdivision, the number of furrows in the first set is:
N1 = QT/Qo = 1.8/0.082 = 22
For the first irrigation, the volume of the runoff reservoir must be:
Vro = 14 m3/furrow * 22 furrows = 308 m3
Recalling that for a first irrigation condition, the time of cutoff is 278.5 minutes, the capacity of the
pump-back system is therefore:
Qcb = 308 /278.5 = 1.11 m3/min
The number of furrows per set for the subsequent sets is:
N 2 = N 3 = N 4 = ... = N 7 =
March 2009
Q T (1+ TWR )
Qo
1.8 * 1.612
0.082
= 36
10A-11
There are 200 furrows in the field. Five sets would contain 36 furrows; one set, the first, contains 22.
This is 202 furrows so it is necessary to reduce one of the sets by two furrows.
Now the system must be configured for the later irrigating conditions. If the individual furrow inflows
are set at 0.042 m3/min, two sets can be irrigated simultaneously to have effectively a 3 set system,
and, the number of furrows in the first is:
N1 = 1.8 / 0.042 = 43
The volume of the runoff reservoir needs to be 493 m3 and the capacity of the pump-back system
must be 1.02 m3/min. It will therefore not be necessary to regulate the pump-back system during
the first irrigation to a value different than that for later irrigation. The runoff reservoir capacity,
however, is governed by the later irrigation. The number of furrows in subsequent sets is 79. This
layout adds up to 201 furrows so the number in the last set can be decreased to 78.
10A-12
March 2009
APPENDIX 10.C
Worked Example Border Irrigation Design
Problem:
In Worked Example B, Solution 3, an example of furrow design was given in which the soil was quite
heavy (low infiltration rates). To generate a basis for what might be an interesting comparison of
borders and furrow systems,
Solution 1 - Open-end:
suppose the original question for that field is extended to whether or not borders might be as good.
Let us assume that the infiltration characteristics are the same except adjusted for an increased
wetted perimeter.
The approximate wetted perimeter for the furrows is found by returning to the flow area, perimeter,
and depth relationships. At a flow of 0.09m3/min, the flow area found in the furrow example was
(Eq. 10.4):
0.09 * 0.04
Ao =
0.5
60 * 0.001 * 0.57
1/1.35
= 0.0154m
From Eq. 10.21 from which the furrow shape was extracted:
y = (154 cm2 / 3.331)1/1.732 = 9.15 cm
From Eq. 10.22:
WP = 5.922 * 9.50.805 = 35.18 cm.
Since the furrows were spaced at 0.5 m intervals, one could approximate the infiltration of a border
by adjusting the k and fo values by a factor of 1.4 based on the ratio of border to furrow wetted
perimeter (50/35.18). If the furrows were operated in the 100 m direction where the slope is 0.8
percent, the multiplication factor would be about 2.0. For this exercise, the 1.4 factor will be utilized.
Thus,
First Irrigation Conditions:
Z = 0.00484 t
0.388
+ 0.00008 t
Later Irrigation Conditions:

Z = 0.0053 t
0.327
+ 0.000052 t
The units of Z are again m3/m of length/unit width. One would not expect the border infiltration
equation to more than double furrow infiltration with furrows spaced less than 1 m apart. Again
Mannings n can be 0.04 for initial irrigations and 0.1 for later irrigations due to crop cover. Zreq is 8
cm.
Basic Calculations
Assuming also that the soil is relatively stable, Eq. 10.27 is used to calculate the maximum inflow per
unit width for the first irrigation along the 200 m length where erosion is most likely:
March 2009
10A-13
Q max
0.04
1/67
= 13
*
0.5
1.0 * 0.001 * 60
1/0.67
3
= 1.889m /min/m
And similarly for irrigations along the 100 m (SO = 0.008) direction:
Q max
0.04
1/67
= 13
*
0.5
1.0 * 0.008 * 60
1/0.67
3
= 0.397m /min/m
The minimum flow suggested by Eq. 10.53 using later field roughness where spreading may be a
problem is for the 200 m lengths:
Qmin = 0.000357 * 200 * 0.0010.5 / 0.10 = 0.0226 m3/min/m
or in the 100 m direction:
Qmin = 0.000357 * 100 * 0.0080.5 / 0.10 = 0.032 m3/min/m
The required intake opportunity times found according to the procedure suggested by Eq. 10.3 are:
First Irrigations rreq = 388.5 min
Later Irrigations rreq = 678.9 min
The next basic calculation, as with furrows, must be to formulate the relationship between advance
time and inflow discharge. Starting with a flow near the maximum and working downward using the
processes already outlined, advance curves for both infiltration conditions and flow directions can be
found. The results for this example are shown in Figure 10A.4.
The last of the basic calculations concerns the depletion and recession times for various values of
flow. One illustration should demonstrate this procedure adequately. For an inflow of 0.06m3/min/m,
the advance time along the 200 m length under later conditions is about 145 min. From Eq. 10.4:
0.06 * 0.10
Ao =
0.5
60 * 0.001 *1.0
1/1.67
= 0.0355m
The time of recession at the lower end of the field, tr, is determined as:
tr = rreq + tL = 679 + 145 = 824 min
The time of depletion must be iteratively determined from Eq. 10.60. 10.61 and 10.62:
a.
b.
td = tr = 824 min
I=
c.
d.
10A-14
0.327 * 0.0053
Sy =
* 824
0.673
+ (824 145)
1 (0.072 0.000072 * 360) * 0.1
200
T2 = 824
0.5
60 * 0.001
0.095 * 0.10
0.47565
0.00072
* 1.0
52435
) + 0.000052 = 0.000072m /min/m

3
0.6
* 0.000154
0.673
= 0.000154
0.20735
* 0.001
* 200
0.237825
0.6829
= 824 147 = 677min
March 2009
a.
b.
c.
d.
Since T1 is not close to T2, steps b - d must be repeated with T1 set equal to 677 min:
I=
0.327 * 0.0053
2
Sy =
0.673
* 677
0.673
+ (677 180)
(0.072 0.000077 * 360) * 0.1
0.5
200
60 * 0.001 * 1.0
T2 = 824
0.095 * 0.10
0.47565
0.00074
0.6
* 0.000154
0.52435
) + 0.000052= 0.000074m /min/m

= 0.000154
0.20735
* 0.001
* 200
0.6829
= 824 146 = 678min
0.237825
e. Again another estimate of td seems to be required by the difference found between the iterations.
If steps b - d are repeated, the new value of T2 is 680 min and the procedure has converged.
The time of cutoff, tco, is found from Eqn. 10.56:
tco = td - Ao L / (2 Qo) = 680 - 0.0355 * 200 / 0.12 = 631 min.
Finally the application efficiencies of the alternative flows and flow directions are found using Eq.
10.28. An example for the 0.072 m3/min/m flow along the 200 m direction during the later irrigations
is:
Ea =
Z reqL
t co Q o
* 100 =
0.08 * 200
631 * 0.072
* 100 = 35.2%
This series of computations is repeated for the full range of discharges, field lengths and infiltration
conditions. The following table gives a detailed summary of selected options for the first and
subsequent irrigation conditions running in both the 200 m and 100 m directions.
10,000
200 m BORDERS
FIRST IRRIGATION
LATER IRRIGATION
Advance Time (minutes)
1000
100 m BORDERS
100
10
0.001
FIRST IRRIGATION
LATER IRRIGATION
0.005
0.01
0.05
0.10
0.50
Inflow (m3/minute/m)
Figure 10A.4: Discharge-Advance Relationship for the Border Example Problem

March 2009
10A-15
First Irrigations L = 200 m
Border
Width
(m)
50
Unit
Flow
(m3/min)
0.036
Advance
Time
(hrs)
6.36
Cutoff
Time
(hrs)
11.34
Recession
Time
(hrs)
12.83
Field OnTime
(hrs)
22.67
33
0.0545
3.11
8.10
9.59
24.29
60.4
25
0.072
2.14
7.12
8.61
28.49
52.0
20
0.09
1.64
6.63
8.12
33.16
44.7
Se
ts
Application
Efficiency Percent
65.3
Later Irrigations L = 200 m
Border
Width
(m)
100
Unit
Flow
(m3/min)
0.0180
Advance
Time
(hrs)
15.55
Cutoff
Time
(hrs)
23.66
Recession
Time
(hrs)
26.86
Field OnTime
(hrs)
23.66
50
0.0360
5.030
13.12
16.34
26.24
56.5
33
0.0545
3.150
11.25
14.47
33.76
43.4
Se
ts
Application
Efficiency Percent
62.6
First Irrigations L = 100 m
Border
Width
m
100
Unit
Flow
m3/min
0.0180
Advance
Time
hrs
5.27
Cutoff
Time
hrs
11.21
Recession
Time
hrs
11.74
Field OnTime
hrs
22.42
67
0.0269
2.35
8.30
8.83
24.89
59.8
50
0.0360
1.44
7.39
7.92
29.55
50.1
40
0.0450
1.03
6.98
7.51
34.91
42.4
Se
ts
Application
Efficiency Percent
66.1
Later Irrigations L = 100 m
Border
Width
m
200
Unit
Flow
m3/min
0.009
Advance
Time
hrs
12.89
Cutoff
Time
hrs
23.07
Recession
Time
hrs
24.20
Field OnTime
hrs
23.07
100
0.018
3.45
13.61
14.76
27.23
Se
ts
Application
Efficiency Percent
64.2
54.4
Field Layout and Configuration

The field water supply, QT, established in the furrow example was 1.8m3/min which would have
duration of 48 hours. Usually, border irrigation would require a higher discharge than furrow
systems, but as a first attempt at the problem, consider the field supply fixed.
The options for field layout are to align the borders in either the 200 m or the 100 m directions. The
alternative configurations outlined by the data in the preceding tables indicate that there is probably
not a strong advantage in irrigating in both direction and the decision can be based on other
practical factors. For instance, dividing the field into two, 50 m wide borders running along the 200
m length may be preferable if farming operations are mechanized. During later irrigations, both
borders would be irrigated simultaneously with the water supply. The potential application efficiency
10A-16
March 2009
of this border design would be 63-65 percent which is better than furrow systems without cutback or
reuse but not as good as the cutback or reuse options.
Solution 2 - Block-end
Worked Example illustrated the open-end border design procedure. The option of dyking these
borders should be considered as an option for improving application efficiency. From results already
available, the required intake opportunity times, rreq, needed to apply a depth of 8 cm (Zreq) were
about 389 minutes and 679 minutes for initial and subsequent field conditions, respectively.
Assuming the borders will run in the 200 m direction on the 0.1 percent slope as above, Figure 10.D1
indicates the inflows that will complete the advance in the respective rreq times are 0.036m3/min/m
for initial irrigations and 0.0215m3/min/m for the later.
The values of r and p need to be generated or extrapolated for these flow rates unless they are
already generated as part of the development of Figure 10.D1 or, in this example case, from the
previous example problem.
For the 0.036 m3/min/m inflow, the values of r and p were determined from the previous example as
r =0.5635 and p = 6.949. For the 0.0215 m3/min/m inflow, r and p were calculated using the
methods outlined in section 10.4.1 rather than extrapolated with the result that r =0.6032 and p =
3.916.
All other inputs to this problem like infiltration coefficients and roughness are assumed to be the
same as in worked example-border irrigation (open-end).
To this point, the blocked-end border design procedure outlined in section 10.5.2 is completed
through step iv. The remainders of the steps are as follows:
v.
Calculate the depletion time, td, in min, as follows:

tco = rreq = 389 min
Qon
60S
yo =
0.6
0.036 * 0.04
0.5
1.0 * 60 * 0.001
0.6
= 0.0134m
td = tco + yo L / (2 Qo) = 389 + 0.0134 * 200 / (2 *0.036) = 426 min

vi.
Assume that at 426 min the water on the surface of the field has drained into the wedgeshaped pond at the downstream end of the border.
vii.
At 426 min, a pond should extend a distance of l meter upstream of the dyked end of the
border. The value of l is:
Zo = k tda + fo td = 0.00484 * 4260.388 + 0.00008 * 426 = 0.0848 m3/m/m
ZL = k (td - tL)a + fo (td - tL) = 0.00484 * (426 - 389)0.388 + 0.00008 * (426 - 389) = 0.0226
m3/m/m
Q o t co 0.5 * [Z o Z L ] L
l =
S o /2
0.5
0.036 * 389 0.5 * (0.0848 + 0.0226) * 200

=
0.001/2
0.5
= 80.8m
Since the value of l is between zero and L a downstream pond will form and infiltrate in place
to fill the root zone. The depth of water at the end of the border, yL, will be:
yL = l So = 80.8 * 0.001 = 0.0808 m
March 2009
10A-17
viii.
The application efficiency, Ea, can be computed using Eq. 10.29. However before making this
computation, it is instructive to compute the depths of infiltration along the border. The
application at the inlet was found above to be 0.0848 m or about 8.5 cm. At the end of the
border, the application is ZL from above plus yL, or .1034 m. The depth of infiltration at the
distance L-1 metres from the inlet is:
tL-1 = [(L - 1) / p]1/r = (119.2 / 6.949)1/0.5635 = 155 min
Z1 = k (td - tL-1)a + fo (td tL-1) (10.56)
= 0.00484 * (426 - 155)0.388 + 0.00008 * (426 - 155) = 0.064 m
As one immediately determines, the middle of the field is under-irrigated. If fact, if Ea is calculated
from Eq. 10.29.
E a = 100 *
Z reqL
Q o t co
= 100 *
0.08 * 200
0.0036 * 389
= 114.2%
One sees that the results are distorted. The assumption that the entire field receives the required
depth, Zreq, is implicit in Eq. 10.29. It cannot be used unless this condition is met. And since the
objective of the design is to completely refill the root zone, either the time of cutoff needs to be
extended or the design value of Zreq should be reduced to approximate the depth infiltrated in the
least watered areas to ensure this constraint. The simplest option is to adjust Zreq to say 0.06 m and
utilize the values of inflow and cutoff time developed above. If this is decided upon, the application
efficiency according to Eq. 10.29 is 85.7% which is a substantial improvement over the open-end
design. The other option is to extend the cutoff time so the ponded wedge extends further up the
basin. This involves several repetitions of the design procedure given above in a trial and error
search for the cutoff time that works. Given the precarious nature of the volume balance procedure
for the blocked-end border case in the first place, this later option is not recommended. If a better
design is sought, the more advanced simulation models will have to be used.
Now other field configurations must be tested and compared. The eventual selection will be the one
with the best performance over both infiltration conditions.
10A-18
March 2009
APPENDIX 10.D
D-1
Worked Example - Basin Irrigation Design
Under Intermittent Floodings
An irrigation project is in the planning stages in which a basic field block of 2 hectares has been
chosen for field design. A preliminary survey has revealed that the fields are configured in 100 m
widths and 200 m lengths. The typical slopes are .8% in the 100 m dimension and 0.1% in the
other. Soils appear to be relatively non-erosive and have been tested to yield the following infiltration
functions:
First Irrigations Z = 0.00484 r
Later Irrigations Z = 0.0053 r
0.388
0.327
+ 0.00008 r
+ 0.000052 r
Z has units of m3/m of length/m of width, and r has units of minutes. Anticipated application depths
per irrigation based on an evaluation of cropping patterns and crop water requirements are 8 cm.
The water supply to the field is set by the project at 1.8 m3/min, available for 36 hours every 10
days. Quality of water supply is good and hopefully these deliveries will be made as expected so far
as rate, duration, and frequency are concerned.
Solution
For the purposes of design, the Manning roughness coefficient for first irrigations will be taken as
0.04 and for the later irrigations as 0.10. This is to reflect a bare soil condition for first irrigations and
a cropped surface for later irrigations.
Basic Calculations
The intake opportunity times for the two field conditions are the same as found earlier for borders,
namely:
rreq = 389 min for initial irrigations, and,
rreq = 679 min for later irrigations
Maximum flows permissible assuming a 30 cm perimeter dyke around the basins and flows running
in the 100 m direction are found from Eq. 10.75:
13/7 0.04 * 100 0.5

Q max = 14
180
6/7
3
= 0.623m /min
Utilizing Figures 10.5, the advance time as a function of unit flow can be determined as indicated
below. The Qo versus tL data are plotted in Figure 10A.5.
Field Layout
Basins installed on sloping fields should have their longest dimension running normal to the largest
field slope in order to minimize land leveling costs. Thus, for this example where the basins have
been selected with a 100 m length, they would have their direction of flow parallel to the 200 m
direction. The width is a choice left to the designer. Some of the options, their dimensions and
performance are summarized below. Figure 10A.6 show a 10 basin configuration.
One of the advantages of basins that immediately become apparent is that field division is much
more flexible. Application efficiencies can be very high and nearly all options are workable in terms of
the water supply.
March 2009
10A-19

1000
9
8
7
6
5
4
Advance Time (minutes)
100
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
FIRST IRRIGATION
LATER IRRIGATION
10
7 8 9
0.01
0.10
6 7
8 9
1.0
Figure 10A.5 Discharge-Advance Relationship for the Basin Example
(Q n) 2 L
Ao = o
3600
0.40
0.20
0.10
0.05
0.03
0.0649
0.0471
0.0342
0.0248
0.0196
0.40
0.20
0.10
0.05
0.03
0.099
0.072
0.052
0.038
0.030
3/13
No. of
Basins
Basin
Width
(m)
Unit
Flow
(m3/min)
4
6
8
10
12
20
50
33
25
20
17
10
0.036
0.054
0.072
0.090
0.108
0.180
4
6
8
10
12
20
50
33
25
20
17
10
0.036
0.054
0.072
0.090
0.108
0.180
10A-20
K* =
k
1 a
A
fo o
fo
First Irrigations
1.00
1.22
1.48
1.81
2.09
Later Irrigations
0.62
0.78
0.98
1.20
1.41
L* =
Lfo
Qo
t *A
tL =
t *A A o
to
0.020
0.040
0.080
0.160
0.267
0.022
0.050
0.120
0.300
0.750
17.8
29.4
57.3
93.0
183.8
0.013
0.026
0.052
0.104
0.173
0.030
0.061
0.155
0.430
41.5
61.0
113.3
248.1
Advance
Cutoff
Time
Time
(min)
(min)
First Irrigations
140
316
90
201
68
147
55
116
45
94
31
56
Later Irrigations
175
327
105
197
80
143
68
114
60
95
43
58
Field Irrig.
Time
(hrs)
Application
Efficiency
(%)
21.1
20.1
19.6
19.3
18.8
18.7
70.3
73.7
75.6
76.6
78.8
79.4
21.8
19.7
19.1
19.0
19.0
19.3
68.0
75.2
77.7
78.0
78.0
76.6
March 2009

Field Supply
FIELD SUPPLY
Ditch
DITCH
10
Figure 10A.6 Example Basin Configuration

D-2
Under Continuous Floodings
D-2-1
Thavaraj Method
Determine the irrigation water requirement for an irrigation area with these parameters values
given, using Thavaraj Method.
Eu = Evaporation loss from the unsaturated soil surface, Eu 4.0 mm/day
Ep = Average Pan Evaporation, Ep 6.0 mm/day
Es
= Evaporation loss from the saturated soil surface, Es = 0.7 Ep

= 0.7 x 6 = 4.2 mm/day
= Percolation loss, P 3.0 mm/day
= Total lost from saturated surface, L = ES + P = 4.2 + 3.0 = 7.2 mm/day
H = Depth of water layer at end of presaturation, H 75 mm

S = Depth of water required for saturation, S 150 mm
March 2009
10A-21
F = Total depth of water in field = H + S = 75 + 150 = 225 mm

T = Period of presaturation period, T 14 days
Solution
Using Thavaraj Method, presaturation requirement,
= (L- Eu)/ (1 e-m ) + Eu
= T(L Eu)/F
= 14(7.2 4.0)/225 = 0.241
= (7.2 4.0)/(1 e-0.241) + 4.0

= 21.73 mm/day (or 2.51 lit/sec)
Irrigation efficiency, n = 60 percent,

q = 2.51/0.60 = 4.1 l/s (at intake of main canal)
(This method does not take into account the effective rainfall in the computation of pre-saturation
water requirement, thus can directly used for sizing of pumps, canal and structures in canal
conveyance design)
D-2-2
Water Balance Method
Determine the irrigation water requirement for an irrigation area with these parameters values
given, using Water Balance Method.
Pre-saturation water, 150 mm
Standing water, 75 mm
Percolation loss, 3.0 mm/day
Evaporation rate, 4.0 mm/days
Monthly Effective Rainfall, 13 mm
Overall efficiency, 60%
Presaturation Period, T = 14 days
Presaturation Requirement
Presaturation water requirement, W = (Pw + H + P + ET Re) x 100/n
All units are in mm/day except n is in percentage (%)
10A-22
Pw
= Pre-saturation water, Pw 150/14 = 10.70 mm/day
= Standing water, H 75/14 = 5.36 mm/day
March 2009
ET
= Evapotranspiration (or Evaporation for pre-saturation period), ET 4.0 mm/day
Re
= Effective Rainfall, Re 0.42 mm/day
= Overall efficiency, n 60
Presaturation water requirement,

W
= (10.71 + 5.36 + 3.0 - 0.42) x 100/60

= 22.65 x 100/60
= 37.75 mm/day or
= 4.37 lit/sec.
(For the design purpose (sizing of pumps, canal and structures), effective rainfall should not be
taken into account. Then q= (10.71 + 5.36 + 3.0 + 4.0) x 100/60 = 23.07 x 100/60 = 38.45
mm/day or 4.45 lit/sec.)
Second Flooding Irrigation Requirement
Second Flooding Irrigation requirement, W = ( H + P + ET Re) x 100/n
Then,
= Standing water, H 100/14 = 7.14 mm/day
ET = Evapotranspiration, ET 5.0 mm/day (Initial Stage)

Re = Effective Rainfall, Re 0.42 mm/day
n
= Overall efficiency, n 60%
Second Flooding Irrigation requirement at main canal intake,

W = (7.14 + 3.0 + 5 - 0.42) x 100/60
= 14.72 x 100/60
= 24.53 mm/day or
= 2.84 lit/sec.
Supplementary Irrigation for Maintaining Flooding
Supplementary Irrigation requirement, W = (P + ET Re) x 100/60
Then,
ET = Evapotranspiration, ET 7.0 mm/day (Vegetative Stage)

Re = Effective Rainfall, Re 0.42 mm/day
n
March 2009
= Overall efficiency, n 60%
10A-23
Supplementary water requirement for maintaining flooding at main canal intake,

W1 = (3.0 + 7.0 - 0.42) x 100/60 (Vegetative stage)
= 9.58 x 100/60
= 15.96 mm/day or 1.84 l/s
W2 = (3.0 +
5.0 0.42) x 100/60 (Initial and grain formation stage)
= 7.58 x 100/60
= 12.63 mm/sec. or 1.46 l/s
10A-24
March 2009

Chapter 11 - Microirrigation
Chapter 11 - MICROIRRIGATION
Table of Contents

List of Tables.. 11-vi
List of Figures. 11-vii
11.1 INTRODUCTION.... 11-1
11.2 SYSTEM TYPES. . 11-1
11.2.1 Drip or Trickle Irrigation. 11-1
11.2.2 Bubbler Irrigation.. 11-2
11.2.3 Subsurface Drip Irrigation (SDI) 11-2
11.2.4 Microsprinkler Irrigation.... 11-3
11.3 SYSTEM COMPONENTS ....... 11-3
11.3.1 Emitters..... 11-4
11.3.2 Water Delivery or Distribution Networks.. 11-4
11.3.2.1 Mainlines.. 11-5
11.3.2.2 Submains. 11-5
11.3.2.3 Manifolds and Headers. 11-5
11.3.2.4 Laterals. 11-5
11.3.3 Control Head and Monitoring Devices... 11-5
11.3.3.1 Injectors. 11-5
11.3.3.2 Valves and Gauges ... 11-6
11.3.3.3 Controllers.. 11-6
11.3.4 Filters .. 11-7
11.3.5 Pumps.............. 11-7
11.3.6 Water Sources. 11-7
11.4 SYSTEM LAYOUT.11-7
11.4.1 Intake and Delivery Arrangement 11-8
11.4.2 Lateral Layout..11-10
11.4.3 Water Supply, Laterals and Emitters Arrangement. 11-11
11.4.3.1
Flat Field 11-11
11.4.3.2 Slopping Field.. 11-11

11.4.3.3 Terraced Field.. 11-11
11.4.4 Irrigation Blocks and Water Distribution 11-11
11.5 PLANNING AND DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS 11-11
11.5.1 Topography... 11-12
11.5.2 Soil, Water and Plant Factors... 11-12
11.5.2.1 Optimum Moisture Levels................................................................ 11-12
March 2009
11-i
11.5.2.2 Plant Response . 11-13

11.5.3 Soil Wetting Pattern.... 11-13
11.5.3.1 Terms Used in Wetting Pattern Distribution.. 11-14
11.5.3.2 Wetted Area and Wetted Volume. 11-14
11.5.3.3 Percent Area Wetted (Pw). 11-15
11.5.4 Crop Water Requirements
11-16
11.5.5 Quality of Irrigation Water and Pretreatment. 11-16

11.5.6 Emitter Location and Installation. 11-16
11.5.6.1 Point Source Emitter System. 11-18
11.5.6.2 Spray Emitter System .. 11-19
11.5.6.3 Drip Installation for Container Grown Crops 11-20
11.5.7 Water Flow Velocity. 11-21
11.5.8 Water Hammer 11-21
11.5.9 Emitter Design Capacity (qs) 11-21
11.5.10 System Hydraulics 11-22
11.5.10.1 Water Pressure. 11-22
11.5.10.2 Total Dynamic Head . 11-22
11.4.10.3 System Head Losses. 11-23
11.4.10.4 Christian Friction Factor for Multiple Outlets (F) 11-25
11.6 EMITTER PERFORMANCE... 11-26
11.6.1 Emitter Types ....................... 11-26
11.6.2 Emitter Uniformity ..... 11-28
11.6.2.1 Emitter Discharge Exponent.. 11-28
11.6.2.2 Temperature Effects on Emitter Flowrate . 11-30
11.6.2.3 Pressure Effects on Emitter Discharge 11-31
11.6.3 Emission Uniformity (EU).. 11-31
11.6.3.1 Distribution Uniformity (DU).. 11-32
11.6.3.2 Application Efficiency (EA) .... 11-33
11.6.4 Allowable Pressure 11-34
11.6.4.1 Coefficient of Variation (CVm) 11-34
11.6.4.2 Flow Variation of Emitters on the Lateral (qvar) 11-35
11.6.4.3 Clogging Sensitivity.... 11-36
11.7 WATER QUALITY ENHANCEMENT. 11-36
11.7.1 Filtration Method .. 11-36
11.7.1.1 Filtration Techniques and Filter Types.. 11-36
11.7.1.2 Guidelines for Selecting a Filter System . 11-39
11.7.1.3 The Best Filter 11-41
11.7.1.4 Filter Characteristics . 11-42
11.7.1.5 Filters Sizing .. 11-43
11-ii
March 2009
11.7.1.6 Automatic Flushing and Cleaning. 11-45

11.7.1.7 Filter Location 11-45
11.7.2 Complementary Water Treatments ... 11-45
11.7.3 Chemigation ...... 11-46
11.7.3.1 Design Criteria of Irrigation Systems for Considering Chemigation.. 11-46
11.7.3.2 Selection of Injection Methods. 11-47
11.7.3.3 Location of the Injection Point.. 11-47
11.7.3.4 Size of the Chemical Tank (V). 11-47
11.7.4 Fertigation ... 11-48
11.7.4.1 Injection Methods 11-49
11.7.4.2 Fertilizer Selection .. 11-51
11.7.4.3 Fertilizer Injection Rates . 11-52
11.8 DESIGN CRITERIA. 11-52
11.9 DESIGN PROCEDURES 11-53
11.9.1 Initial Design Steps ... 11-53
11.9.2 Detailed Design Steps . 11-54
11.9.3 System Design Information .. 11-54
11.9.3.1 Design Data Form. ... 11-57
11.9.3.2 Design Parameters or Factors . 11-57
11.9.3.3 Design System Components 11-60
11.9.4 Emitter Selection Criteria ... 11-60
11.9.5 Emitters Design Steps. ........... 11-60
11.9.6 Lateral Line Design ........... 11-64
11.9.6.1 System Hydraulics.... 11-64
11.9.6.2 Lateral Design Steps.. 11-66
11.9.7 Manifolds Design............ 11-69
11.9.7.1 System Hydraulics 11-69
11.9.7.2 Manifold Design Steps . 11-71
11.9.7.3 Manifold Spacing (Sm). 11-73
11.9.7.4 Multiple Manifold or Submains Pipe Size Friction Loss Calculation.. 11-73
11.9.8 Flushing Manifold.. 11-73
11.9.8.1 Inlet Pressure... 11-74
11.9.8.2 Flushing Flowrate.. 11-74
11.9.8.3 Design Guidelines.. 11-75
11.9.9 Mainline Pipe Design Procedure... 11-75
11.9.10 Control Head or Station...... 11-76
11.9.11 Total Dynamic Head (TDH) and Pump Selection. 11-77
11.10 DESIGN APPLICATION OF MICROIRRIGATION SYSTEMS. 11-77
11.10.1 Subsurface Drip Irrigation System (SDI).. 11-77
March 2009
11-iii
11.10.1.1
System Components.. 11-78
11.10.1.2
Planning and Design Considerations 11-79
11.10.1.3
Design Parameters ... 11-80
11.10.1.4
SDI Design and Installation .. 11-83
11.10.1.5
Flushing Requirements and Flushline Design ..11-84
11.10.1.6
Considerations for System Flushing . 11-88
11.10.2 Greenhouse Drip Systems. 11-88

11.10.2.1 Greenhouse Crop Water Requirements. 11-89
11.10.2.2 Greenhouse Emitter Selection and Installation. 11-89
11.10.2.3 Greenhouse Drip System Design.. 11-93
11.11 OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE . 11-95
11.11.1 Operation... 11-95
11.11.2 System Monitoring and Maintenance.... 11-95
11.11.3 Algae Control... 11-96
11.11.3.1 Copper Sulphate... 11-96
11.11.3.2 Light Exposure... 11-96
11.11.3.3 Chlorination.. 11-96
11.11.3.4 Bacteria and Bacterial Slimes.. 11-96
11.11.4 Chlorination Dose... 11-97
11.11.4.1 Continuous Chlorine Treatment 11-97
11.11.4.2 Intermittent Chlorine Treatment .... 11-97
11.11.4.3 Super Chlorination .. 11-98
11.11.4.4 Selecting Source of Chlorine .. 11-98
11.11.5 Acid Addition.. 11-98
REFERENCES ...... 11-99
APPENDIX 11.A: Values of Velocity Head (V2/2g) for Various Flowrates (Q In L/S) and
Diameters of the Flow Area (D, mm) .. 11A-1
APPENDIX 11.B: Friction Factors Kf for Various System Fittings and Valves.. 11A-2
APPENDIX 11.C: Emitter Components. 11A-3
APPENDIX 11.D: Emitters Used in Microirrigation Practices .. 11A-4
APPENDIX 11.E: Sprinklers and Jet.. 11A-5
APPENDIX 11.F: Microsprinklers.... 11A-6
APPENDIX 11.G: Average Flow Velocity (V) and Head Loss Gradient Factors (J) for SDR 41
PVC Thermoplastic Pipe for Various Flowrates (Q) and Smaller Pipe
Sizes.. 11A-7
APPENDIX 11.H: Average Flow Velocity (V) and Head Loss Gradient Factors (J) for SDR 41
PVC Thermoplastic Pipe for Various Flowrates (Q) and Larger Pipe
Sizes... 11A-8
APPENDIX 11.I: Average Flow Velocity (V) and Head Loss Gradient Factors (J) for SDR 26
PVC Thermoplastic Pipe for Various Flowrates (Q) and Smaller Pipe
Sizes......................................................................... 11A-9
11-iv
March 2009
APPENDIX 11.J:
Average Flow Velocity (V) and Head Loss Gradient Factors (J) for SDR 41
PVC Thermoplastic Pipe For Various Flowrates (Q) and Larger Pipe
Sizes.11A-10
APPENDIX 11.K: Average Flow Velocity (V) and Head Loss Gradient Factors (J) for
Polyethylene Pipe for Various Flowrates (Q) and Smaller Pipe
Sizes... 11A-11
APPENDIX 11.L: Uniplot for Lateral Line and Submain Design 11A-12
APPENDIX 11.M: Pipe Friction Loss (m) for Submain Line Design. 11A-17
APPENDIX 11.N: Worked Examples.11A-18
11N-1 Design Example for Drip Irrigation System in Greenhouse. 11A-18
11N-2 Design Example for Micro Jet.. 11A-21
March 2009
11-v
List of Tables
Table
Description
Page
11.1
Recommended Discharge Rates for Various Microirrigation Systems
11-1
11.2
Facility Arrangement of Various Layouts
11-9
11.3
Water Quality Criteria for Emitter Clogging
11-17
11.4
Friction Coefficients
11-24
11.5
Multiple Outlet Factors (F)
11-26
11.6
Flow Exponent Values for Various Flow Regimes and Emitter Types
11-28
11.7
Temperature Effect on Emitter Performance
11-31
11.8
Flowrate Change Due to Pressure Variation of Emitters with Various Flow 11-31
Exponents
11.9
Emitter Performance Data
11-32
11.10
Significance of Distribution Uniformity
11-33
11.11
Efficiency of Application Versus Pressure Variation
11-33
11.12
Allowable Pressure Variation between Emitters
11-35
11.13
Recommended Classification of Manufacturers Coefficient of Variation
11-35
11.14
Passageway Dimension and Emitter Clogging Sensitivity
11-36
11.15
Sand Media Size and Screen Mesh Designation
11-37
11.16
Comparison of Filter Types
11-39
11.17
Unit Comparison for Emitter Orifice Size
11-40
11.18
Classification of Soils by Particle Size, with Corresponding Screen Mesh Numbers 11-41
11.19
Microsprinklers Filtration Requirements
11-41
11.20
Filtration Requirements for Selected Physical Clogging Agents
11-41
11.21
Minimum Filtration Requirements for Different Emission Devices
11-42
11.22
Stainless Steel Mesh Data
11-44
11.23
Steel Media Tanks Specifications
11-44
11.24
Minimum Backflush Flowrates for Sand Media
11-45
11.25
Fertilizer Compatibility Chart
11-48
11.26
Venturi Injection Selection
11-49
11.27
Relationships among Uniformity Coefficient (UC), Coefficient of Variation (CV) 11-52

and Design Emission Uniformity (EU)
11.28
Design Criteria for Uniformity of Microirrigation System Design
11-52
11.29
Microirrigation Design Data Form
11-58
11.30
Microirrigation Design Factors Form
11-59
11.31
Valve Friction Losses
11-74
11.32
Suggested Lateral Flushing Rates
11-75
11.33
Flushing Header Pipes Sizes
11-75
11-vi
March 2009
11.34
Drip Tape Spacing and Burial Depth Guidelines
11-82
11.35
Dripline Spacing Guidelines
11-82
11.36
Application Rate (Mm/Hr) for Various Combinations of Emitter Flowrates and 11-83
Emitter and Dripline Spacings
11.37
Recommended Flushing Velocities for Different Diameter Laterals
11-85
11.39
Suggested Lateral Flushing Rates for SDI
11-85
11.39
Recommended Chemical Treatments for Selected Conditions
11-97
11.40
Comparison of Chlorine Sources
11-98
List of Figures
Figure
Description
Page
11.1
Typical Emitters Used in Drip or Trickle System
11-2
11.2
Typical Bubbler Emitters
11-2
11.3
Line Source Emitters Used for Subsurface Drip Irrigation
11-2
11.4
Application of Water by Microsprinklers
11-3
11.5
Major Components of a Microirrigation System
11-3
11.6
Applications of Different Emitters
11-4
11.7
Microirrigation Water Distribution Components
11-4
11.8
Control and Monitoring Devices
11-6
11.9
Microirrigation Control Unit
11-6
11.10
Parallel Multiple Arrangements of Sand Media Filters
11-7
11.11
Typical Microirrigation System Design Components
11-8
11.12
Diagramatic Facility Arrangements of Various Layouts
11-9
11.13
Possible Layouts of Laterals
11-10
11.14
Alternative Placements of Emitters and Plants
11-11
11.15
Block Structure of a Field Irrigation Facility
11-12
11.16
Factors Affecting Plant Water Requirements
11-13
11.17
Wetting Pattern Distribution for Widely Spaced Crops
11-14
11.18
Wetted Soil Volumes for Subsurface and Surface Emitters
11-15
11.19
Linear Tape Laterals for Single and Double Row Cropping
11-17
11.20
Lateral Installations of Tree Crops with a Trellis Wire
11-18
11.21
Point Source System Layout for Tree Fruits
11-18
11.22
Emitter Layout for High Density Double Row Tree Fruits Planting
11-19
11.23
Spray Emitter System Installed on the Ground
11-19
11.24
Spray Emitter for a Suspended Lateral
11-20
March 2009
11-vii
11.25
Drip Installations in a Pot System
11-20
11.26
Spray Emitter System Installation in Containers
11-21
11.27
Emitter Connections to Laterals and Connection Loss for Various Sizes of Barbs 11-25
and Inside Diameters of Laterals
11.28
Different Types of Emitters
11-27
11.29
Graphical Method for Determining the Discharge Exponent (x)
11-29
11.30
Different Filter Types
11-38
11.31
Venturi Injector and Dosatron Ratio Injection System
11-50
11.32
Installation of Venturi Injector
11-50
11.33
Installation of Ratio Feeder Injector
11-50
11.34
Water Driven Injection System
11-51
11.35
Electric or Gas Driven Injection System
11-51
11.36
Flowchart Illustrating the Initial Design Process
11-55
11.37
General Design Steps for Microirrigation Systems
11-57
11.38
Elevation Effects on Lateral Distribution Uniformity
11-65
11.39
Flowchart Illustrating Lateral Design Process
11-68
11.40
Submain from One End With Header and Laterals Connection
11-70
11.41
Submain from one End with Header and Laterals Connection
11-70
11.42
A Buried Manifold with Laterals Connection
11-71
11.43
In Line Filters Installation
11-77
11.44
Schematic of a SDI System
11-78
11.45
Alternate Row/Bed SDI Dripline Spacing for Corn Rows
11-81
11.46
Subsurface Emitter Orientation
11-84
11.47
Typical Arrangement of Manifold
11-86
11.48
Typical Flush Valve Assemblies with Flushline
11-87
11.49
Appropriate Flush Valve Size for Vf = 0.3 m/s and Pv = 3 kPa
11-88
11.50
Chart for 0.045 Tubing
11-90
11.51
Chart for 0.060 Tubing
11-91
11.52
Greenhouse Drip Systems
11-92
11.53
Emitter Systems in Greenhouse Crop Production
11-92
11.54
Greenhouse Drip Irrigation System for Potted Plants
11-93
11.55
Emitter Installations in Soilless Culture
11-94
11.56
Greenhouse Emitter Installations
11-94
11.57
Greenhouse Drip System for Vegetable Crops
11-95
11-viii
March 2009
11
11.1
MICROIRRIGATION SYSTEMS
INTRODUCTION
Microirrigation is the frequent application of small quantities of water at low flow rates and pressures
on, above, or beneath the soil by surface drip, subsurface drip (SDI), microjets or microsprinklers.
Microirrigation is capable of delivering water precisely at the plant where nearly all of the water can
be used for plant growth. The uniformity of application is not affected by wind because the water is
applied at or below the ground surface. A well designed and maintained drip irrigation system is
capable of an application efficiency of 90 percent.
Modern microirrigation has become the most important innovation in agriculture. Initially
microirrigation systems had many unanticipated design and management problems. Extensive
research throughout the world has solved most of the problems encountered earlier and the rate of
acceptance of the technology has increased. Nowadays, microirrigation is becoming more popular
especially in areas where water supplies are limited or recycled water is used for irrigation. Careful
considerations of all the relevant factors like land topography, soil, water, crop and agro-climatic
conditions, are needed to determine the most suitable microirrigation system and components to be
used in a specific installation. Microirrigation is used by farms, commercial greenhouses, and
residential gardeners.
This chapter provides guidance on the planning, design and maintenance for the better
microirrigation practices in Malaysia. It covers logical design procedures for the major types of
microirrigation systems. The material is organized properly to cover microirrigation design in the
order as a designer would approach a system design. Step-by-step complete worked examples are
also provided for the user to understand the system design procedure simple way.
11.2
SYSTEM TYPES
Microirrigation systems are typically categorized by installation method, emitter discharge rate,
wetted soil surface area and mode of operation. The three basic types of microirrigation systems are:
Drip or trickle
Subsurface, and
Sprayers
Variations in pressure within the system due to changes in elevation and pressure loss within the
pipes affect the discharge of individual emitters. Emitters with flow rates under 200 L/hr are used in
microirrigation. Table 11.1 shows discharge rates for various microirrigation systems.
Table 11.1 Recommended Discharge Rates for Various Microirrigation Systems (Lamm et al. 2007)
Types of
Microirrigation Systems
Drip or Trickle Irrigation
Single-outlet point source
emitters
Line-source emitters
Subsurface Drip Irrigation (SDI)
Bubbler Irrigation
Microsprinklers
11.2.1
Pressure
Discharge Rates
(kPa)
(L/hr)
100 103
< 12
100 103
100 103
14 550
50 250
< 12 per m of strip

7.5
12 > Discharge > 250
< 175
Drip or Trickle Irrigation
It is the most prevalent type of system worldwide. The emitters and lateral lines are laid on the soil
surface to place water only in the vicinity of the plant rooting area. Water is generally applied at a
March 2009
11-1
low flowrate but in amount sufficient to replenish the crop water requirement on a very frequent
basis, usually daily (Figure 11.1).
(a) Point Source
(b) Line Source
Figure 11.1 Typical Emitters Used in Drip or Trickle System

11.2.2
Bubbler Irrigation
Water is applied to the land surface as small stream and delivered to the point of application in tubes
that are attached to buried laterals (Figure 11.2). Tubes are as large as 10 mm diameter or more.
The rate of discharge for each bubbler tube is greater than the surface or subsurface microirrigation.
The use of bubbler irrigation is extensively used in landscape irrigation systems rather than
agriculture.
Figure 11.2 Typical Bubbler Emitters (Hunter, 2008)

11.2.3
Subsurface Drip Irrigation (SDI)
Water is applied slowly below the surface through emitters with discharge rates in the same range as
those for a surface drip system (Figure 11.3). This method of application is not to be confused with
subirrigation, in which the root zone is irrigated through or by water table control. Emitter outlet is
pointed upwards.
Figure 11.3 Line Source Emitters Used for Subsurface Drip Irrigation (Lamm et al. 2007)
11-2
March 2009
11.2.4
Microsprinkler Irrigation
Water is applied to the soil surface as a small spray, jet, fog, or mist (Figure 11.4). Microsprinklers
are used to irrigate trees and other widely spaced crops. Both microsprinklers and bubbler systems
normally need less filtration and other maintenance requirements than surface and subsurface drip
irrigation systems.
Figure 11.4 Application of Water by Microsprinklers

11.3
SYSTEM COMPONENTS
A microirrigation system consists of emitters (emission devices), distribution system, control and
automation, filtration and pumping unit (Figure 11.5). The essential components are:
Emitters (emitters/drippers/microsprinklers/Microjets)
Water delivery or distribution networks
Main lines, submains, manifolds and headers
Laterals
Control head and monitoring devices
Injectors
Valves and gauges
Pressure regulators
Filters
Pump
Emitters
Emitters
Laterals
Submain
Manifold or header
Chemical
tank
Water resources
Pump
Intake
Injector
Main line
pump Pressure
gauge
Field system continues
Water meter
Antisiphon
Backflow
Pressure
valve
prevention device
regulator
Filtration system
System controls
and monitoring
Figure 11.5 Major Components of a Microirrigation System (Burt et al. 1998)

March 2009
11-3
11.3.1
Emitters
Emitters are used to dissipate pressure and discharge water. They are placed along laterals which
are designed for uniform water distribution. Emitters are operated under pressure to discharge water
in the form of water jets by sprinklers, spray or mist by sprayers, continuous drops by drippers and
small stream or fountain by bubblers (Figure 11.6). Components of emitters and illustration for some
widely used emitters are given in Appendices 11.C to 11.F.
(a) Dripline
(b) Bubbler
(c) Microsprinkler
Figure 11.6 Applications of Different Emitters (NETAFIM, 2008)

11.3.2
Water Delivery or Distribution Networks
The water delivery system is a network of pipes and tubes used to convey water from source to the
laterals (Figure 11.7). It can range in size from 10 mm to 150 mm in diameter. Water from the pump
may be carried to the edge of the field by a single large main. Smaller submains may then carry the
water to laterals and ultimately to the emitters.
From water Fertilizer

injector
supply
Gate
valve
Backflow
preventor
Gate
valve
To
drain
Pressure
gauge
Filter
tanks
Gate
valve Air vent
Pressure
gauge
Flowmeter
Mainline
Pressure
regulator
Lateral
lines
Gate
valve
Automatic
valve
Submain
Figure 11.7 Microirrigation Water Distribution Components (Lamm et al. 2007)
11-4
March 2009
11.3.2.1
Mainlines
Mainlines supply water from the pump or other water source to sub mains. The mainline is usually
constructed by PVC pipe which is usually buried beneath the soil surface for protection against
harmful sunlight. The pipe should be properly rated for the particular application and able to
withstand the design pressure in the system. The nominal working pressure has to be higher than
that of the drip lateral. The common working pressure of delivery and distribution lines is 60 80 m.
11.3.2.2
Submains
Sub mains distribute water to irrigation laterals and are usually positioned at right angles to laterals.
The submain pipes are smaller diameter pipelines which are usually flexible PVC pipe. They can be
left on the soil surface or can be constructed out of rigid PVC pipe which is buried beneath the soil
surface for protection against sunlight damage and prevention of algae growth in the line.
11.3.2.3
Manifolds and Headers
Manifolds (feeder pipelines) are pipelines of a smaller diameter than the submains. They are also
used to simplify operation. In certain circumstances, when rows are very long or in uneven
topography, sub-division of the plot by sub-mains is insufficient, secondary partition is provided by
manifolds. It is also constructed with flexible PVC pipe which can be left on the soil surface or buried
beneath the soil surface. Mainline or submains to manifold connections are the points, where
pressure is needed to regulate and automated control valve may be installed. However, sometimes
slope is too steep that more pressure regulating points are required at the inlet to each lateral. In
this situation, headers are provided to connect few laterals (usually four laterals).
11.3.2.4
Laterals
Laterals are the smallest diameter pipelines of the system. They are fitted to the submains or
manifolds perpendicularly at fixed positions laid along the plants rows and equipped with emitters at
fixed frequent spacing. The lateral line is generally constructed of flexible polyvinyl chloride (PVC) or
polyethylene hose (PE). It is often placed above the ground but it can be buried.
11.3.3
Control Head and Monitoring Devices
A typical control head and monitoring devices are shown in Figure 11.8. Microirrigation systems can
be controlled manually or automatically. Automatic control can be electro-mechanical or electronic. A
main line valve and flow meter are also included in the control head. The controller is often located
next to other components of the control station. It can control the main valve, chemical injection,
back flushing of filters, solenoid valves, and other controls located at remote locations in the
irrigation system. Depending on the system, all or some of these components can be automated.
11.3.3.1
Injectors
Injectors are used to put fertilizers, insecticides, algaecides, acids, and other liquid materials into the
irrigation water. Piston-type or Venturi injectors are most commonly used which create a pressure
drop across an orifice to siphon the chemical solutions from a tank. Commonly used chemical
injectors are:
Positive displacement injectors externally powered diaphragm, gear, piston, and roller
pumps powered by gas, diesel, or electric; medium to high in cost
Pressure differential injectors pressurized mixing tanks and venturi injectors; often simple in
design
Water-powered injectors driven by the pressure of the irrigation system; piston and
diaphragm types are available
March 2009
11-5
Pump
Solenod
valve
Electrically
interlocked
control panels
Supply
tank
Screen
Irrigation
controller
Check valve
Pressure
switch
To filtration unit
Electric
motor & pump
Shutoff
valve
Reduced
pressure
backflow device
Figure 11.8 Control and Monitoring Devices (Lamm et al. 2007)

11.3.3.2
Valves and Gauges
Manual or Automatic Valves: Valves are used for opening and shutdown of water flow and for
splitting the irrigated area into sectors. Water flowmeter is used to measure the water delivery.
Pressure Regulators: It prevents building up of excessive pressure beyond the working pressure of
the system.
Check Valves or Backflow Preventers: These are required when fertilizers or other chemicals are
injected into irrigation system, if it is connected to potable water supply network.
Air Release or Relief Valves: They are installed at the higher points of the system to eliminate air
flow in the pipes. High air content in the pipes may interfere with water flow, increase friction with
pipe walls, distort water measurement and may cause water hammer and pipe burst.
Vacuum Breakers: These devices prevent the collapse of pipes laid on steep slopes and drip laterals
in sub-surface drip irrigation (SDI) systems.
11.3.3.3
Controllers
Automatic controllers provide a signal to actuate the main pump, the automatic manifold valves or
both (Figure 11.9). The actuating signal may either be time or volume based or may be controlled by
a soil moisture sensor placed in the plant root zone. Recent advances in soil water sensors
techniques are becoming widely popular because they have good response time, do not require
maintenance, and can provide continuous readings through automation.
Figure 11.9 Microirrigation Control Unit (Lamm et al. 2007)

11-6
March 2009
11.3.4
Filters
Filtration is essential for successful operation of microirrigation systems. The best possible irrigation
system design using the best microirrigation technology will have little chance of success without
careful filtration and treatment of any contaminants that are present in the water. Filters remove
sand and larger suspended particles before they enter the distribution network. The filters cannot
remove dissolved minerals, bacteria and some algae. The three types generally used filters are
screen, disk and sand filters. The primary filtration is used when open water bodies or biological
effluents are the source and quality of water. These filters are followed with screen filters for final
cleanup. Filters placed in a parallel arrangement to accommodate the design flow in microirrigation
system as shown in Figure 11.10.
Figure 11.10 Parallel Multiple Arrangements of Sand Media Filters

11.3.5
Pumps
Microirrigation systems are typically designed to make the best use of the amount of water delivered.
The selection of type and size of pump depends on the amount of water required, the desired
pressure and the location of the pump relative to the distribution network. Electric power units or
internal combustion engine driven pumps are equally adaptable. However, the electric power unit is
preferred because it is easier to automate.
11.3.6
Water Sources
Microirrigation uses pressurized irrigation technology where water is delivered from the source by
gravity and pumped or conveyed by the inbuilt pressure of the supply network. There are two
alternative sources of water supply:
Direct withdrawal from an on-surface source (such as river, reservoir, pond) or from
underground sources (such as a well).
Connection to a commercial, public or co-operative supply network.
11.4
SYSTEM LAYOUT
A sketch of a typical microirrigation system field layout with irrigation zones is shown in Figure
11.11a. The water supply and control head (Figure 11.11b) are located in the centre of the field. The
pump can be located outside of field if the water source is from lake/reservoir/river. The control
head will generally contain the pump station and associated controls, system valves, pressure
gauges and water treatment equipment. Water flows from the zone station into a manifold (Figure
11.11c) and then into one or more lateral lines through a header pipe and connection. Depending on
the field slopes and pipe system designs, some header assemblies will require individual pressure
regulation. A wide range of assemblies and connection system are available.
March 2009
11-7
Field slope
(Decreasing)
Zone 1
Manifold
Header
Manifold
Water supply
& control head
Field Slope
Main line
Manifold
Manifold
Pressure regulator/
header connection
Zone station
Zone 2
Zone station
Zone 3
Laterals
(a) Field Layout with Irrigation Zones
Laterals with emitters
Main line
(b) Layout of Irrigation Microirrigation Zone
1. Pump or Pressurized Water Supply
Main Line
2. Initial Filter for Large Particles & Sand (if needed)

3. Flow Control Valve
4. Pressure Gauge
5. Chemical Injection Station-Backflow Prevention
To Zones
6. Main Filter Station

7. Flowmeter
(c) Arrangement of the Water Supply, Control Head, Water Treatment and Chemigation Equipment
Figure 11.11 Typical Microirrigation System Design Components (Adapted from Lamm et al. 2007)
11.4. 1
Intake and Delivery Arrangement
The suitability of arrangement and composition of irrigation and on-farm facilities affects the
convenience of irrigation practice in farming and the establishment of irrigated agriculture. The
components of each of the layout type are shown in Table 11.2. Among six types of facility
arrangement, types [1] through [4] are used in comparatively large-scale irrigation systems and
types [5] and [6] are used in small-scale irrigation systems. Figure 11.12 illustrates the possible
layouts of irrigation facilities.
11-8
March 2009
It is desirable to have a facility arrangement with a secondary side system to the farm pond in the
form of a pipeline with a gravity flow in order to ensure the utilization of water on the farm. This is
particularly important with Type 4 since the water can be supplied in a natural flow system from the
water source to the farm pond. Advantage of this arrangement is that the running cost is low. If
both the location and altitude of the water source are limiting factors, Type 2 will be adopted as the
best alternative.
Table 11.2 Tabular Facility Arrangement of Various Layouts
Type
Component Layout Variations
Water source Lifting pump Farm pond Booster pump Pressure tank On-farm
delivery
Water source Lifting pump Farm pond Gravity flow On-farm delivery
Water source Natural flow Farm pond Booster pump Pressure tank On-farm
delivery
Water source Natural flow Farm pond Gravity flow On-farm delivery
Water source Booster pump Pressure tank On-farm delivery
Water source Gravity flow On-farm delivery
Farm pond
Booster pump
Farm pond
On-farm
Pressure tank
Lifting
pump
P
Lifting
pump
P
On-farm
Water source
Water source
Type 1
Type 2
Water source
On-farm
Farm pond
Water source
On-farm
Booster pump
P
Farm pond
T
Pressure tank
Type 3
Type 4
Water source
Booster pump
P
On-farm
On-farm
Pressure tank
Water source
Type 5
Type 6
Figure 11.12 Diagramatic Facility Arrangement of Various Layouts (Masahharu, 2005)
March 2009
11-9
11.4.2
Lateral Layout
Figure 11.13 provides as guideline for different design layouts of microirrigation systems. The fork,
herringbone and comb-shaped are the basic types of on-farm microirrigation pipe network layouts.
The fork type is recommended from the viewpoint of workability on the cultivated field. If it is not
possible to secure reasonable uniformity of emitter discharge, it may be possible to satisfy uniformity
by adopting herringbone type arrangement. On a slopping land, asymmetric herringbone type
arrangements both on the upward and the downward slopes are effective.
(a) Fork Type
(b) Comb Layout
(c) Splitted Comb
(d) Central Herringbone
(e) Asymmetric Herringbone
(f) Splitted Herringbone
(g) Dual Herringbone
(h) Comb with Headers
1%
Figure 11.13 Possible Layouts of Laterals (Adapted from Moshe, 2006)
11-10
March 2009
11.4.3
Water Supply, Laterals and Emitters Arrangement
The layout of water supply pipes, laterals and emitters is determined considering not only crop
spacing but also on the topography of the field. Placement of emitters should be such that wet zones
will produce a strip zone distribution in case for crops planted in rows, such as vegetables. Wet zone
constitutes independent circle distribution in case of widely spaced plants such as fruit trees,
watermelons or other suitable crops. In both cases, as far as possible, all crops are planted within
the wet zone. The orientation of emitters around plants in a field is 1: Ne (number of emitters), in
which laterals are aligned along every furrow as illustrated in Figure 11.14.
Wet zone
One emitter for

one plant
One emitter for two plant

Emitter
Plant
Pipe
One emitter for

four plant
Figure 11.14 Alternative Placements of Emitters and Plants (Masahharu, 2005)

11.4.3.1
Flat Field
A field block of 3000 m2 (100 m long and 30 m wide) is usually considered as a standard for land
consolidation works (Masahharu, 2005). In terms of hydraulic design, water pipes and laterals may
be aligned either longitudinally or laterally in a flat field. Therefore, water pipelines are arranged
along farm roads with laterals laid at right angles to them.
11.4.3.2
Slopping Field
In a field with descending gradient, laterals are usually aligned in the direction of the fields slope
with water pipes laid at right angles to them. However, in case of steeper slopes laterals are aligned
along the contour with water pipes laid at right angles.
11.4.3.3
Terraced Field
In a terraced field, laterals are aligned along the field levels and water pipes are arranged in the
direction of connecting the fields with different elevation levels. In this case, water pipes should be
arranged, in principle, in the descending direction. The pressure adjustments should be made with
decompression valves at the upstream end of each lateral.
11.4.4
Irrigation Blocks and Water Distribution
The irrigation block is composed of one or more rotation blocks. The structure of various blocks and
facilities is illustrated in Figure 11.15. The size of these blocks has to be decided considering with
cropping plans, farming programs, topographical conditions, field consolidation conditions, economy
of facilities etc. Irrigation facilities are not only farming facilities but also hydraulic facilities that
distribute water. Water distribution facilities consist of a pipeline system and appropriate hydraulic
facilities that connect each irrigation block from the water resources source to the field emitter
facilities.
11.5
Planning is the preliminary stage includes collecting data, decisions about the irrigation regime,
choosing layout and components of the system. The system should be planned and designed by
March 2009
11-11
taking consideration the special characteristics of the irrigation system, soil wetting pattern, climate,
crops, cropping patterns, farming systems etc. A system must be designed to match the peak water
demand by the crop. A microirrigation system should never be designed for 24 hours of operation
per day. The total operation time of the system should not be more than 20 hours/day. As system
flowrates decrease over time, the system operating time can then be increased to compensate for
the reduction in system flowrate over time to supply the desired plants water needs. This will not be
possible if the system is designed to operate 24 hours per day.
Irrigation block
Farm Pond
Water distribution facilities
Rotation block
Field dripping facilities
On-farm control unit
Drip irrigation block
Figure 11.15 Block Structure of a Field Irrigation Facility (Masahharu, 2005)

11.5.1
Topography
The systems are adaptable to irregular shaped fields or uneven topography and soil texture. These
specific factors must be considered in designing the microirrigation system. Topography has no
effect on the head loss due to the flat nature of the field. However, in case of slopping land, the
hydraulic design should be taken into account its effect. Mains and sub-mains should deliver water
from the higher points to the lower ones. Manifolds should be laid on slopping land adjacent to the
higher side, asymmetrically splitting the laterals. Laterals should be laid from the higher elevation to
the lower. Compensated emitters can decrease the difficulties of design in complex topographic
situation.
11.5.2
Soil, Water and Plant Factors
Microirrigation systems are designed and managed to deliver frequent application of a small amount
of water that wet only a portion of the soil. This requires the wetted area, wetting pattern and
vertical and horizontal water movement in the soil. The values of water requirements, consumptive
use and frequency of irrigation are adjusted accordingly.
11.5.2.1
Optimum Moisture Levels
Optimum moisture level can be easily maintained with a well-designed microirrigation system. Even
without automation, daily irrigations can be applied periodically. Under frequent irrigation, the plant
roots undergo little stress and remain in a constant favourable environment. It is important to wet a
relatively large part of the potential root system to ensure moisture reserve in case of temporary
system failure.
11-12
March 2009
11.5.2.2
Plant Response
Plant response is the same to microirrigation as to other irrigation methods. If there is enough
precipitation to wet the soil deep, plant roots will extend beyond the irrigated area under
microirrigation. This root activity is important; it may account for a significant amount of the water
and nutrient uptake. So far, root anchorage is not a problem under microirrigation where percent
wetted area Pw 33, except high wind areas (Figure 11.16).
Peak evapotranspiration rate
S2
S1
Crop coefficient
factor
Plant area
Effective soil water

storage factor
(a) Tree Crops Point Source Emitters
(b) Vegetables Line Source Emitters
Figure 11.16 Factors Affecting Plant Water Requirements (Van der Gulik, 1999)
(i)
Climate
The system must be designed based on the peak water use rate by the crops. The peak
evapotranspiration for the crops normally occur during the hottest period of the growing season.
(ii)
Crop Growth Period
The water requirements for all crops usually increase with the plant growth and leaf coverage. The
system capacity must be designed based on the irrigation requirements of a mature crop.
(iii)
Crop Type
Water requirements for different plants will vary due to plant size, spacing between plants, leaf area
and pattern of leaf surface.
(iv)
Effective Soil Water Storage (ESWS)
The effective soil water storage is the volume of water stored in the soil which is readily available
for use by the plant. When ESWS capability is low, the system capacity must be designed based on
the peak evapotranspiration rates that occur daily.
(v)
Root Zone Depth
The effective root zone depth varies due to boundary layers in the soil, depth of soil and root stock
selection. Therefore, evaluation of the plant conditions and soil type is necessary when determining
the plant root zone depth.
11.5. 3
Soil Wetting Pattern
Microirrigation systems usually wet only a portion of the horizontal cross-sectional area of the soil as
shown in Figure 11.17. The percent of wetted area compared with the entire crop grown area
depends on the volume and rate of discharge at each emission point, spacing between emission
points and type of soil being irrigated.
March 2009
11-13
11.5.3.1
Terms Used in Wetting Pattern Distribution
An emission point is a location in the vicinity of the crop where water is applied by one or more
emission devices. Closely spaced emission points result in a line source of water. Clustering
configurations of emission devices are used to enlarge the irrigated area in soils with poor lateral
transmission properties (e.g., coarse textured soils) and where crops (e.g., orchards, berries) with
widely spaced and widely spread areal root distributions. Typical configurations of emission devices
are shown in Figure 11.17.
Sp
Shaded Area (P)
Sr
Tree
Wetted Area (Pw)
Se
Lateral With
Emitters
(a) Single lateral for each tree row
S
Area Per
Tree
Wetted
Area
(c) Zigzag lateral for each row
(b) Double laterals for each row
Emitter
Emission
Point
(d) Pigtail with four emitters per tree
(e) Multitext 6-outlet emitters
Figure 11.17 Wetting Pattern Distributions for Widely Spaced Crops (Adapted from James, 1988)
Definitions of terms used in the Figure are as follows:
P
Pw
Se
Sl
Sp
Sr
Sw
= percent area shaded - the average horizontal area shaded at midday by the crop canopy as
a percentage of the total crop area.
= percent area wetted - the average horizontal area wetted in the top part of the crop root
zone as a percentage of the total crop area.
= emitter spacing - the spacing between emitters or emission points along a lateral (m)
= lateral spacing (m)
= plant spacing in the row (m)
= row spacing (m)
= width of the wetted strip (m)
11.5.3.2
Wetted Area and Wetted Volume
The area wetted by each emitter along a horizontal plane at the depth about 300 mm below the soil
surface is called wetted area (Figure 11.18). The wetted soil volume is depended on the hydraulic
conductivity of the soil, the emitter discharge and on the total amount of water in the soil. The
11-14
March 2009
wetted soil volume has no regular geometric shape. The best way of estimating wetting volume is a
local field experimentation of the chosen emitter in undisturbed soil in the specified field. System
designers may rely on their experience or rule of thumb regarding wetted diameters that assign a
relatively wide range for each soil class.
Coarse Sand
Fine Sand
Loam
Heavy Clay
Crop
20-30 cm
30-60 cm
60-90 cm
90-120 cm
Emitter/
Lateral Line
(a) Subsurface
Crop
Emitter/
Lateral Line
(b) Surface
Figure 11.18 Wetted Soil Volumes for Subsurface and Surface Emitters
Percent Area Wetted (Pw)
11.5.3.3
The percent area wetted is the average horizontal area wetted in the depth of 150 to 300 mm of the
root zone or beneath the emitters divided by the total cropped area. The area irrigated by the
emission device is computed using the following equation.
Ai =
Where,
Ai
Sr
Se
P
Np
Sr S e P
100 Np
(11.1)
irrigated area (m2)

Spacing between plant adjacent rows (m)
Spacing between emission points (m) which is Se Wetted Diameter (Dw)
percent of crop area being irrigated (P = 30 to 100%, for widely spaced tree crops P =
30 60% and 100% for closely spaced row crops.)
= number of emitters at each emission point
=
=
=
=
The wetted area can be computed by following equations as follows:

Optimal emitter spacing (Sopt) is the emitter spacing which estimates 80% of the wetted diameter
from field tests. For straight single lateral systems with S e S opt the percentage of wetted area can
be computed as:
Pw =
March 2009
Np S e S w
Sp Sr
100
(11.2)
11-15
Where
Pw
=
Np
=
Se
=
Sw
=
Sp
=
Sr
=
percent wetted area (%)

number of emitters per plant.
spacing between emitters on a lateral (m)
width of the strip to be wetted by emitters on a lateral (m).
plant row spacing (m)
If S e S opt then Se must be replaced by Sopt.
For double laterals or zigzag, pigtail, or multiexit layouts the percentage of wetted area (Pw) can be
computed as:
S opt + S w
Np S opt
2
Pw =
Sp Sr
100
(11.3)
If the layout is not designed for maximum wetting and Se < Sopt then Sopt should be replaced by the
actual spacing between emitters on laterals used.
For spray emitters, the percentage of wetted area can be computed as:
S opt + S w
Np A s +
2
Pw =
Sp Sr
100
(11.4)
Where, As = wetted soil surface area by sprayer (m2)

11.5.4
Crop Water Requirements
The designed consumptive use per day should be properly determined taking into account of soil,
plant and meteorological factors. Local climatic factors include the quantity and seasonal distribution
of rainfall, temperature, humidity and wind speed. Other site specific factors include soil water
holding capacity, soil depth, crop density, age and cover crop. Irrigation requirements are highly
variable and site dependent. The detail of the crop water requirement estimation is described in
Chapter 5.
11.5.5
Quality of Irrigation Water and Pretreatment
Emitter clogging is a major problem in microirrigation systems. It is directly related to the quality of
the irrigation water, which includes physical, chemical and biological factors. Consequently, these
factors dictate the type of water treatment or cultural practices necessary for clogging prevention. A
relative clogging potential of microirrigation system by water contaminants is given in Table 11.3.
11.5.6
Emitter Location and Installation
The type of crop and plant spacing are important factors to determine the emitter location. It is
required that enough orifices are spaced and provided appropriately for plants with extensive root
zones. Emitters are normally installed on the laterals in point source and line source arrangements.
Figure 11.19 illustrates the installation of line source emitters on row crops above ground and under
plastic mulches. It is best to keep the linear tape system as close to the crop row as possible. If
double row cropping is used the lateral can be placed between the rows as shown in Figure 11.19c.
Figure 11.20 shows installation of lateral lines with a trellis wire.
11-16
March 2009
Table 11.3 Water Quality Criteria for Emitter Clogging (Benham and Ross 2002; Hassan 1997)
Type of problem
Minor
Moderate
Severe
50
50-100
>100
7.0
500
0.1
0.2
0.2
7.0-7.5
500-2000
0.1-1.5
0.2-1.5
0.2-2.0
> 8.0
> 2000
> 1.5
> 1.5
> 2.0
10000
10000-50000
>50000
EC (mmho/cm)
NO3-N (mg/L)
< 0.75
<5
0.75 3.0
5 -30
> 3.0
> 30
(iii) Ion Toxicity

Boron (mg/L)
Chloride (meq/L)
< 0.5
<4
0.5 2.0
4 10
2.0 10.0
> 10
(i) Clogging
Physical
Suspended solids (mg/L)
Chemical
pH
Dissolved solids (mg/L)
Manganese (mg/L)
Total iron (mg/L)
Hydrogen sulfide (mg/L)
Biological
Bacterial population (number/mL)
(ii) Crop Sensitivity
Line source emitter
Mulch control the evaporation

of water applied to the soil
Linear tape
Drip irrigation
installed under mulch
Crop
Moisture distribution
(a) Linear Tape without Mulch for Single Row
(b) Mulch with Single Row
Double
Row crop
Orifice
Linear tape
Lateral line
(c) Linear Tape Laterals with Double Row Cropping

Figure 11.19 Linear Tape Laterals for Single and Double Row Cropping (Van der Gulik, 1999)
March 2009
11-17
Crop
Support Wire
Post
0.3 m Sag
in Line
Lateral Line
Emitters Spacing
(Max 1.5 m)
Header Line
Figure 11.20 Lateral Installations of Tree Crops with a Trellis Wire (Van der Gulik, 1999)
11.5.6.1
Point Source Emitter System
Emitters should be placed in line with the tree row but at the outer edge of the plant canopy for
young trees. The emitter should be spaced a minimum of 0.45 0.60 m away from the trunk for
mature trees. Figure 11.21 shows common emitter installation and desired moisture distribution for
point source systems on tree fruits.
Aerial View
Wetted Pattern
Plant Canopy
Lateral Line
Tree Trunk
Lateral Line
Plant Canopy
Tree
Trunk
Header
Mainline
Emitter
Lateral Line
Zone Valve
Figure 11.21 Point Source System Layout for Tree Fruits (Van der Gulik, 1999)
For high density double cropping, point source emitters should be placed adjacent to the trees for
very young crops. As the trees mature the lateral line can be shifted so that the emitters are spaced
half way between trees. Shifting the lateral is important to ensure that the plant develops an
effective rooting area. Figure 11.22 shows a point source emitter system for a high density double
row tree fruits.
11-18
March 2009
Double Row Spacing

(1-2 m or greater)
Lateral Lines
Submain
Double Row
Planting
Tree Spacing
(1m-2.5m)
Emitter
Spacing
Emitter Location
3-6 m
Figure 11.22 Emitter Layout for High Density Double Row Tree Fruits Planting (Van der Gulik, 1999)
11.5.6.2
Spray Emitter System
Tree fruits, orchards and berry crops can effectively use spray emitter systems. Spray emitters can
irrigate large portion of the root zone. To obtain maximum diameter of throw it is better if the spray
head is fixed. Figure 11.23 illustrates the proper spray head installation on laterals that are installed
either below ground or on the soil surface.
Microjet
Head
Transfer
Tubing
Adapter
0.3m
to
0.15m
Stake
Staple
Header
Lateral Line
Zone Valve
Mainline
Figure 11.23 Spray Emitter System Installed on the Ground (Van der Gulik, 1999)
March 2009
11-19
Spray emitter systems can also be suspended from the trellis wire providing a weight is used to keep
the emitters stable. Figure 11.24 provides detail on the proper method of suspending a spray emitter
system.
Post
Crop
Support Wire
Lateral
Line
Extension
Tube
Emitter
Adapter
Weight
Suspended Spary
Emitter System
Figure 11.24 Spray Emitter for a Suspended Lateral (Van der Gulik, 1999)
11.5.6.3
Drip Installation for Container Grown Crops
Nursery crops are often grown in the soil but can also use pots or bags. Both point source and spray
source emitters can be used for these types of installation. Figure 11.25 shows point source emitter
systems set up for nursery containers. Spray emitter systems also can be used in large pots to
ensure good moisture distribution throughout the entire media. Spray pattern should be directed so
that the water application within the pot shown in Figure 11.26.
Polyethylene Lateral
Transfer Tubing
Emitter
Transfer Tubing
Polyethylene
Lateral
Emitter
Emitter
Polyethylene
Lateral
Figure 11.25 Drip Installations in a Pot System (Van der Gulik, 1999)
11-20
March 2009
Transfer Tubing
Polyethylene Lateral
Figure 11.26 Spray Emitter System Installation in Containers (Van der Gulik, 1999)
11.5.7 Water Flow Velocity
Water flow velocity determines the head losses in a system. The head losses are amplified as flow
velocity increases. High velocity may trigger water hammer that may result in the pipe bursting. In
the preliminary design, the velocity in manifolds is kept within the range of 2 2.5 m/s and in
mainlines below 1.5 m/s.
11.5.8 Water Hammer
Water hammer is a hydraulic phenomenon, which is caused by a sudden change in fluid velocity that
causes a large change is pressure. The sudden change in velocity caused by the rapid closing of a
valve can produce very high pressures in the piping system. These pressures can be several times
higher than the normal operating pressure and may result in burst pipes and severe damage to the
irrigation system. Water hammer can also be caused by the uncontrolled release of air from the
piping system. The best prevention of water hammer is the installation of valves that cannot be
rapidly closed and the selection of air vents with the appropriate orifice which do not release air
rapidly. Surge pressures may be calculated by the following (Eq. 11.5):
P = {0.028 (Q x L)} /D2 x T
where,
P
=
Q
=
D
=
L
=
T
=
(11.5)
surge pressure (psi)

flow rate (gpm)
internal diameter of the pipe (inch)
length of pipeline (feet)
time to close valve (seconds)
11.5.9
Emitter Design Capacity (qs)
Emitter design capacity is defined as the maximum discharge required for planned irrigation. The
capacity of an emitter can be computed using Eq. 11.6.
qs =
Where,
qs
Da
Ai
H
K
Ei
=
=
=
=
=
=
K Da Ai
Ei H
(11.6)
emitter discharge capacity (L/min)

depth of water applied (mm/day) [Described in Chapter 5]
area irrigated by the emitters (m2) [Equation 11.1]
actual system operation time (hrs/day) to apply Da
unit constant (K = 100 for Qs in L/min and Da in mm and A in m2)
irrigation application efficiency (%) [Usually 90%]
March 2009
11-21
The depth of water applied per irrigation Da is computed using the following equation.
Da =
H DDIR
0.24 Pf
(11.7)
The H term is normally chosen on the basis of operator preference subjected to the condition
imposed by the following equation.
H
0.24 Pf D a
DDIR
(11.8)
Where
= percent of total field irrigated when the system is operating
Pf
= desired depth of irrigation (mm), which is normally equals readily available water (RAW).
Da
DDIR = design daily irrigation requirements for D mm (mm/day)
Pf =
11.5.10
Number of Emitters Operating per Irrigation

100
Total Number of Emission Devices
(11.9)
Systems Hydraulics
11.5.10.1 Water Pressure
Water pressure is a key factor in pressurized irrigation system performance. The total water head
measured at a specific point of the irrigation system has three components: (i) Elevation head, (ii)
Total dynamic head and (iii) Velocity head. Pressure can be expressed in different unit systems. The
preferred unit system is the dynamic head expressed in meters (m) height of water column.
11.5.10.2 Total Dynamic Head (TDH)
The total dynamic head is the sum of the pumping lift, operating pressure, and friction head losses
within the irrigation system. The total dynamic head is defined for each of the irrigation subunits. In
a well-designed irrigation system, flowrate and total dynamic head should be approximately the
same for each subunit so that the pumping system can operate as efficiently as possible. The total
dynamic head depends on:
TDH = HS + HF + HP + Hv
Where,
TDH =
=
HS
=
HF
HP
=
=
Hv
(i)
(11.10)
total dynamic head (m)

static head (m)
friction head (m)
pressure head (m)
velocity head (m)
Pumping Lift
The pumping lift is the vertical distance from the water source to the entrance to the subunits. This
is the height that water must be lifted to deliver from its source to the irrigation distribution system.
(ii)
Pressure Required at Emitters Inlet
The operating pressure is the pressure required at the emitters to guarantee effective performance
and uniform water distribution. The range of the appropriate pressure of the emitter is defined and
published by the manufacturer in the operating manual. The type of emitter and its operating
pressure have to be taken into consideration in irrigation system design. The design of the
distributing pipelines must ensure the appropriate operating pressure of the emitters.
11-22
March 2009
(iii)
Friction Head Loss
Friction head is the energy required due to water flow from the water source through the pipelines
and accessories such as valves and filters.
11.5.10.3 System Head Losses (Hf)
There are two types of head losses occurred due to friction. Friction losses must be minimized in
order to minimize the energy requirements for irrigation pumping. The total friction head loss (Hf) is
equal to the sum of the friction loss associated with each component of the hydraulic network
between any two positions of the analysis as:
Hf = HM + Hm
(i)
(11.11)
Major losses (HM) occur in water flow along straight pipes. Pressure losses in major fittings
such as large valves, filters, and flow meters, can be obtained from the manufacturers.
Minor losses (Hm) account in fittings, such as tees, elbows and transitions. Some friction
losses are unavoidable, even in well-designed, well-constructed, and properly-maintained
irrigation systems.
Major Head Losses (HM)
The Hazen-Williams equation is the most commonly used formula to compute head losses due to
friction in irrigation laterals. The general relationship for continuous pipe is:
1.852
Q
J=
h = (1.212 x 10 )
f
L
C
100
Where,
J
L
hf
D
Q
C
=
=
=
=
=
=
12
x D
4.87
(11.12)
the head loss gradient in the pipe (m/100m)

pipe length (m)
the pipe line friction head loss (m)
inner pipe diameter (mm)
flowrate (L/s)
Hazen-Williams friction coefficient. The friction coefficient varies from 100 for old steel
pipe to 135 for newer steel pipe to 150 for smooth plastic pipe.
The Eq. 11.12 can be rearranged to solve directly for the friction head loss as:
h = L 1.212 x 10
f
1.852
10
) Q
C
x D
4.87
(11.13)
The Darcy-Weisbach equation gives better results in calculating head losses in small diameter flow
pathways such as microirrigation laterals and emitters. It is expressed as follows:
L v2
h f = 1000 Ff
D 2g
(11.14)
Where,
= Darcy-Weisbach friction factor.
Ff
v
= flow velocity in pipe (m/s)
g
= gravitational acceleration (m/s2)
Darcy-Weisbach friction factor (Fy) can be estimated from the Reynolds number (Ry) using the
Blasius Equation for small diameter, smooth pipes with Ry values between 2000 and 100,000.
March 2009
11-23
Fy = 0.316 R y -0.25
(11.15)
The dimensionless Reynolds number (Ry) for 21oC water can be computed as:
R y =1.30 106
Q
D
(11.16)
For smooth inner wall surface in drip laterals, the friction factor and the gravitational acceleration
can be incorporated in a coefficient. The equation is simplified and correlated with the flowrate and
inner diameter only.
J = 8.31 10 7 Q 1.76 D 4.76
(11.17)
Both values of Hazen-Williams coefficient C and Darcy-Weisbach friction factor for some pipe
materials are given in Table 11.4.
Table 11.4 Friction Coefficients (Moshe, 2006)
Pipe Material
PVC and PE
Asbestos-cement
New steel
Five year old steel
Steel with internal concrete coating
Concrete
(ii)
F (Darcy-Weisbach)
0.0015 0.007
C (Hazen Williams)
140 - 150
0.30
0.045 0.09
0.15 4.0
0.30 1.0
0.30 5.0
130 140
110 - 120
80 90
110 120
90 - 100
Minor Head Losses (Hm)
Minor head losses are expressed as an equivalent length factor that adds a virtual length of straight
pipe of the accessory diameter to the length of the pipe under calculation. Typical cases of local
pressure losses include:
Fitting, Valve and Component Losses: The friction head loss through pipe fittings, valves and other
components must be computed and included in the analysis of the hydraulic network. These include
head losses due to all system components (screens, elbows, tees, valves, filters etc). Many
manufacturers of valves, filters and other components will provide tables and charts that quantify the
friction head loss for range of acceptable flowrates through that specific component. For many
components (valves and fittings) the friction head loss is related to the velocity head by:
v2
Hm = k f
2g
(11.18)
The velocity head (v2/2g) may be computed or estimated using Appendix 11.A and Appendix 11.B
summarizes values of friction factor (kf) for several common fittings and valves.
Emitter Connection Loss (hfl): On-line drippers are connected to laterals by barbed or screwed
protuberance. These protrusions disturb water flow in the lateral and induce head losses. The range
of hfl values is generally 0 2.0 however it may be higher some instances. The emitter connection
loss for microirrigation laterals is computed according to (Karmelli and Keller, 1975):
hfl = (F )
LE
J
100
(11.19)
Where,
= the friction head loss (m) in the microirrigation lateral
hfl
11-24
March 2009
LE
= the equivalent length of the lateral due to additional friction loss from the inserted or
attached emitter connections
= multiple pipe outlet factor
= head loss gradient factor
F
J
The equivalent length of the lateral is based on the following relationship:

LE = n e (L e + L f )
(11.20)
Where,
= the number of emitters on the lateral
ne
Le
= the length of pipe (m) between emitters
Lf
= the equivalent length of pipe (m) that is equal to the friction loss by the water flowing past
each emitter connection.
Emitter related equivalent length (Lf) values may range from 1.0 to 3.0 m for in-line, insert-type
emitter connections, from 0.05 to 0.40 m for in-line, protruding barb connections and from 0.30 to
1.0 m for on-line smooth connections that do not restrict or alter flow.
The emitter related equivalent length can be estimated using the following Equation:
L f = 3.5 D b D l1.86
(11.21)
Where,
= the equivalent length of pipe (m) associated with the friction loss from the protruding barb
Lf
connection
= the outside diameter (mm) of the barb
Db
= the inside diameter (mm) of the lateral. Barb diameter range from 3.8 to 7.6 mm of many
Dl
common microirrigation emitters.
There are three main types of lateral connections are in-line, on-line, and on-line-riser (Figure
11.27). The emitter connection friction loss depends on the size and type of barb and on the inside
diameter of the lateral. Figure gives estimated CL values for in-line emitters and for on-line barbs of
three different sizes as a function of the ID of the lateral.
Barb
Barb Connections
Size
Dia. , Db (mm)
3.8
Small
5.1
Medium
Emitter
BARB
Connection
Tube to
Distribute Water
Emitter
Lateral
Large
Riser
(a) In-Line Emitter
Emitter
Lateral
BARB into-Lateral Wall

(b) On-Line Emitter
Db
Solvent Welded "T"

Burried Lateral
Lateral Pipe
(c) On-Line Riser with Emitter
(a) Emitters Connections to Laterals
7.6
D1
Lateral Inside Diameter
(b) Emitter-connection Loss (Lc) Values
Figure 11.27 Emitter Connections to Laterals and Connection Loss for Various Sizes of Barbs and
Inside Diameters of Laterals (Keller and Bliesner, 1990)
11.5.10.4 Christian Friction Factor for Multiple Outlets (F)
Christian Friction Factor is used to compute head losses in pipes with multiple outlets such as drip
laterals (Table 11.5). This factor can be calculated as follows:
March 2009
11-25
F=
1
1 (m 1) 0.5
+
+
m + 1 2N
(6N) 2
(11.22)
The head loss due to friction in microirrigation laterals is then determined using the following
equation.
hp = F hf
(11.23)
Where,
F
= friction factor for multiple pipe outlets
= the head loss due to friction in the microirrigation lateral
hp
= the head loss due to friction for the same flowrate in a non-distributing pipe of the same
hf
diameter and length
N
= number of outlets
m
= Hazen-Williams and Darcy-Weisbatch coefficient
Table 11.5 Multiple Outlet Factors (F) (Adapted from James, 1988)
Number of Outlets (N)
Hazen-Willliams (m = 1.85)
Darcy-Weisbach (m = 2.00)
1
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
50
100
> 100
1.00
0.457
0.402
0.384
0.376
0.371
0.368
0.365
0.364
0.361
0.356
0.351
1.00
0.440
0.385
0.367
0.359
0.354
0.350
0.347
0.345
0.343
0.338
0.333
11.6
EMITTER PERFORMANCE
A key component of a microirrigation system is the emitter. Emitter is used to regulate the discharge
rate at the emission points and to ensure that uniformity is maintained along the crop row. The
emitter regulates the flowrate by reducing the lateral line pressure to zero at the emission point. The
method used for pressure variation reduction varies with emitter type. Most emitters use either a
long flow path, a series of small orifices or a single small orifice to achieve the pressure dissipation
required to obtain the desired low flowrate. Selecting the appropriate emitter shall take into
consideration the flowrate as well as the degree of filtration that will be required. Illustration of
emitter components and available emitters in the market is given in Appendices 11.C to 11.G.
11.6.1
(i)
Emitter Types
Turbulent Flow Emitters
Most manufacturers sell turbulent flow emitters (Figure 11.28a). A turbulent flow emitter has many
advantages:
11-26
a low variance coefficient

flow paths are shorter with larger openings, therefore being less resistant to plugging
higher water flow velocities
less sensitive to pressure fluctuations
flow arte is unaffected by water temperature differences
March 2009
Emitter with turbulent flow characteristics have a flow exponent range of 0.5 0.7. A fully turbulent
flow emitter has a flow exponent of 0.50. Many emitters have only partial turbulent flow
characteristics. Although fully turbulent emitters are less susceptible to pressure fluctuations than
laminar flow emitters, they should not be used as pressure compensating emitters. Careful design is
required to ensure that emitters will operate correctly on slopping terrain.
(ii)
Laminar Flow Emitters
Laminar flow emitters regulate discharge by using friction to dissipate energy (11.28b). Longer or
smaller flow passage increases the frictional resistance to the flow of water, thereby reducing the
emitter discharge rate. Microtube and spiral flow path emitters are good examples of laminar flow
emitters. These emitters are simple, reliable and inexpensive providing they are installed properly.
Due to the slow water velocity and narrow passage, laminar flow emitters are more susceptible to
plugging than turbulent flow emitters. Good water quality must be maintained by adequate filtration,
chemical treatment if necessary and line flushing. Laminar flow emitters are very sensitive to
pressure fluctuations and water viscosity.
(iii)
Vortex Emitters
Vortex emitters use the principle that a reduced pressure exists at the centre of a vortex (11.28c).
The emitter outlet is located at the centre of the vortex chamber. A true vortex emitter is less
pressure sensitive than a turbulent flow emitter. Since a vortex emitter utilizes only a single orifice,
good quality filtration is required to ensure that clogging is not a problem.
(iv)
Pressure Compensating Emitters
Pressure compensating emitters (11.28d) can be either turbulent or laminar flow but todays emitters
are usually turbulent flow. Pressure compensating emitters are able to operate over a pressure range
of 103 - 176 kPa while maintaining the flowrate relatively constant. These emitters are more
expensive than non-compensating emitters but are a necessary in fields that have undulating terrain.
Water Flow Path
(a) Turbulent Flow Emitters
Flexible
Diagram
Diagram
Tubing
(b) Laminar Flow Emitters
Water Exist Through

Centre of Emitter
(c) Vortex Emitters
(d) Pressure Compensating Emitters
Figure 11.28 Different Types of Emitters (Van der Gulik, 1999)
March 2009
11-27
11.6.2
Emitter Uniformity
Microirrigation systems should be designed to achieve an application uniformity of 90%. This means
that the emitter discharge rates throughout an entire zone must be limited to a variation in flow of
no more than 10%. The variables that affect the emitter discharge rate are operating pressure,
temperature and emitter manufacturing characteristics (Cv). Formulas, tables and charts are
available to determine emitter uniformity. The first step is to determine the emitter discharge
exponent. Once the emitter discharge exponent is known or calculated the effects of pressure and
temperature on emitter performance can be known.
11.6.2.1
Emitter Discharge Exponent
Pressure variations have different effects on the flowrate of various emitter types. This fundamental
relationship is calculated using the following equation:
q = Kd Px
Where,
q
=
Kd
=
P
=
x
=
(11.24)
emitter flowrate (L/hr),

emitter discharge coefficient (depends on units)
pressure head (m)
emitter pressure-discharge exponent
The constant Kd is related to the physical dimensions of the flow passage. Some manufacturers will
supply both the constant (Kd) and discharge exponent (x) but for microjets or linear tape systems
these values are difficult to obtain.
The uniformity of application is affected by the discharge exponent. The lower the x value, the more
pressure compensating is the emitter. A fully pressure compensating emitter will have an x value of
0. An emitter that is very pressure sensitive or fully laminar flow will have an x value of 1.0. Table
11.6 shows the discharge exponent (x) for various emitter types.
Table 11.6 Flow Exponent Values for Various Flow Regimes and Emitter Types (Lamm et al. 2007)
Flow Regime
Variable Flow Path
Fully Turbulent Flow

Mostly Turbulent Flow
Mostly Laminar Flow
Fully Laminar Flow
Flow Exponent (x)
Emitter Type
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
Pressure Compensating Emitter
Orifice Flow, Tortuous Path

Long or Spiral Path
Microtube
Capillary Flow
To determine Kd and x, the discharge from an emitter at two different operating pressures must be
known. From q1 at h1 and q2 at h2, the exponent x can be determined analytically by:
x=
log(q1 q2 )
log(p1 p2 )
log(q1 q2 )
log(h1 h 2 )
(11.25)
The x for the discharges at two operating pressure heads may also be obtained graphically by
measuring the slope of the line connecting the two discharge values and respective pressure-head
values plotted on log-log graph paper (Figure 11.29).
11-28
March 2009
The emitter flowrate can also be calculated using empirical relations as (Lamm et al. 2007)
For laminar flow,
q = 1.272 d
2.7
h

L
0.80
(11.26)
For turbulent flow,

q = 1.776 d
h

L
0.56
(11.27)
the flowrate (L/hr)

diameter (mm)
pressure head (m)
microtube length (m).
Log of Emitter Discharge, q
Where,
q
=
d
=
h
=
L
=
2.73
Slope = x
Intercept = Kd
Figure 11.29 Graphical Method for Determining the Discharge Exponent (x) (Lamm et al. 2007)
Example 11-1:
A manufactures product information indicates that a spray emitter has the following discharge
characteristics:
At 103.42 kPa = 53.0 L/hr
At 206.84 kPa = 74.95 L/hr
The discharge exponent is calculated using Eq. 11.25 as:
q
53.0
log 1 = log
= log(0.7071) = -0.1527
q
74.95
2
and
p
103.42 = log(0.5) = - 0.301
log 1 = log
p
206.84
2
x =
0.1527
= 0.507
0.301
March 2009
11-29
The constant (Kd) can also be calculated using Eq. 11.24 as:
Kd =
14.0
(15)0.507
= 3.55
Example 11-2:
The following pressure and flowrate data were obtained for an emitter.
p (kPa)
35
70
105
140
175
210
q (L/hr)
1.06
1.44
1.67
1.93
2.20
2.35
Determine the emitter discharge coefficient and exponent using a regression analysis and also using
Eqs. 11.24 and Figure 11.25 as follows.
1.44
log
1.93 = 0.423
x=
70
log
140
and
Kd =
1.4
= 0.239
(70 )0.423
Emitter Discharge (L/hr)
2.50
q =0.2155x
0.2155 0.4459
P 0.4459
y=
R2 = 0.9968
2.00
1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
0
50
100
150
200
250
Operating Pressure (kPa)

Graphical Representations of the Emitter Discharge Data
11.6.2.2
Temperature Effects on Emitter Flowrate
To maintain good application uniformity throughout the microirrigation system, the temperature
effect must be known. Laminar flow emitters (x is close to 1.0) are very susceptible to variations in
water temperature. The application uniformity of a microirrigation system will be affected by
temperature for emitters with a flow exponent exceeding 0.70 on a hot day. Table 11.7 shows the
temperature effects emitters for various flow exponents.
11-30
March 2009
Table 11.7 Temperature Effects on Emitter Performance

Temperature
o
C
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
11.6.2.3
Flow Exponent
x = 0.8
0.87
0.92
0.95
1.00
1.05
1.10
1.14
1.19
1.24
1.29
x = 0.6
0.94
0.95
0.98
1.00
1.02
1.04
1.06
1.08
1.10
1.12
x = 1.0
0.63
0.87
0.87
1.00
1.13
1.28
1.43
1.56
1.70
1.85
Pressure Effects on Emitter Discharge
The flow exponent (x) determines the sensitivity of the emitter flowrate to pressure differences. A
larger exponent value indicates larger sensitivity. Table 11.8 shows the percentage flowrate change
due to pressure changes for emitters with various exponents.
Table 11.8 Flowrate Change Due to Pressure Variation of Emitters with Various Flow Exponents
% Pressure
Change
10
20
30
40
50
x = 0.4
3.9
7.6
11.1
14.4
17.6
x = 0.5
4.9
9.5
14.0
18.3
22.5
Flow Exponent
x = 0.6
5.9
11.6
17.1
22.3
27.5
x = 0.7
6.9
13.6
20.2
26.6
32.8
x = 0.8
7.9
15.7
23.3
30.9
38.3
A pressure compensating emitter (x = 0) will be able to deliver the same flowrate for a range of
operating pressures. The flowrate from a fully laminar flow emitter (x = 1.0) will be directly
proportional to the operating pressure, as shown in Eq. 11.24. Pressure effects on system
performance should be taken into consideration when selecting emitters and designing the system of
a specific emission uniformity.
Table 11.9 shows the flow exponent (x), emitter performance information and the merits and
problems for various types of emitters. Table 11.9 can be used as a guide for selecting an emitter.
11.6.3
Emission Uniformity (EU)
Emission uniformity is used in design of irrigation systems. If emitter plugging is not occurring, EU
and DU are very close. Emission uniformity is defined for point and line source emitters as follows:
q
1.27
EU = 100 1.0
C vm min
qave
Ne
Where,
EU
=
=
Ne
CVm =
qmin =
qave =
(11.28)
the design emission uniformity (%)

number of point source emitters per emission point
the manufacturers coefficient of variation for point or line source emitters
the minimum emitter discharge rate in the system (L/hr)
the average or design emitter discharge rate (L/hr)
March 2009
11-31
Table 11.9 Emitter Performance Data (Burt and Styles, 1994)

Description
Advantages
Disadvantages
Flow Exponent
(x)
Microtube
Long, small diameter spaghetti tube.

Laminar Flow
2,5,6
0.7-0.9
Long smooth
Coiled or spiral passageway in molded

emitter body.
2,4
0.7
a,b,c
3,4
0.4
2,3,5,6
0.5-0.55
Greater than
1.0
b,c,d,e
1,4,6,7,8
0-0.5
d,e
1,7
0.7
a,b,c,d,e
0.5
Path Type
Vortex
Water enters tangentially into a

chamber, casing a spinning action and
exits through an orifice on the opposite
side.
Tortuous
Porous Type
Labyrinth or zig-zag path. Turbulent

flow at some points in the passageway.
Tubing sweats or emits water along
its entire length.
Pressure
Compensating
Multiple
Flexible Orifice
Orifice
Some type of flexible membrane, O-ring

or other design is used to reduce the
path size at higher pressures.
Water passes through several orifices in
flexible membranes. Dirt caught in one
orifice will crate back pressure,
expanding the orifice and moving dirt
through.
A single simple hole. Typical of spray
emitters.
c,d,e
Key Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Disadvantages:
11.6.3.1
Inexpensive
Flowrate insensitive to temperature changes
Low manufacturing Cvm (i.e. little variation between emitters)
Typically a larger hole
Less susceptible to plugging than other emitters with the same hole size
1. Expensive
2. Flowrate insensitive to temperature
changes
3. Typically a larger hole
4. Relatively sensitive to plugging
5. Very sensitive to plugging
6. Large manufacturing Cvm with some
makes
6. Large manufacturing Cvm with some

makes and models
7. Discharge characteristics of some makes
and models may change after a few years
8. Some emitters are pressure compensating
in
name only.
9. Check product carefully.
Distribution Uniformity (DU)
The more uniformly water is applied, the more efficient the irrigation. A common measure of
irrigation application uniformity is the Distribution Uniformity (DU) (Table 11.10). It is the ratio of the
average low-quarter amount caught/infiltrated to the average amount caught/infiltrated. DU is
defined as follows:
DU =
X LQ
X
x 100
(11.29)
where,
= amount of low-quarter average depth or volume caught or infiltrated
XLQ
X
= average depth or volume caught or infiltrated of all observations
11-32
March 2009
Table 11.10 Significance of Distribution Uniformity (Moshe, 2006)
11.6.3.2
DU (%)
Remarks
> 87
75 87
62- 75
< 62
Excellent distribution uniformity

Good uniformity
Acceptable
Low/Unacceptable
Application Efficiency (EA)
Efficiency of application can be described as:

EA =
Q min
Q ave
(11.30)
The efficiency of application can be related to pressure variation by using the Equations:
Q min = K d (Pmin )
Q ave = K d (Pave )
(11.31)
P
Q
EA = min = min
Qave
Pave
(11.32)
(11.33)
Where, Qmin and Qave are the minimum and average discharges (L/min) and Pmin and Pave are the
minimum and average pressures (kPa).
The efficiency of application is therefore a function of pressure variation (Pmin/Pave) and the emitter
flow exponent (x). Table 11.11 gives the relationship between efficiency of application and pressure
variation for emitter flow exponent values of 1.0 and 0.5. As expected the efficiency of application
for a laminar flow emitter (x = 1.0) is much lower than turbulent flow emitters (x = 0.5) for severe
pressure variations.
Table 11.11 Efficiency of Application Versus Pressure Variation
Pressure Variation
Efficiency of Application
(Pm/Pa)
x = 0.5
x = 1.0
95%
90%
85%
80%
75%
70%
60%
50%
97%
95%
92%
89%
87%
84%
77%
71%
95%
90%
85%
80%
75%
70%
60%
50%
To obtain a minimum application efficiency of 95% for a fully turbulent flow emitter (x = 0.5) the
pressure variation (Pmin/Pave) from the minimum to the average emitter pressure is 90% (Table
11.11). The variation from the lowest operating to the highest operating pressure is therefore 20%
of the emitter operating pressure.
For a laminar emitter (x = 1.0) the maximum operating pressure range would be 10% of the emitter
operating pressure, as the ratio from the average operating pressure to the minimum for an
application efficiency of 95% is 0.95.
March 2009
11-33
11.6.4
Allowable Pressure
The operating pressure difference between emitters within a zone will be a function of:
Friction loss in the lateral

Friction loss in the submain
Elevation changes within the zone
The allowable pressure difference between emitters within a zone is determined by the following
factors:
The desired EU of the system. A high EU will severely restrict the allowable pressure
variation.
The number of emitters per plant. More emitters per plant will reduce the impact of the
manufacturing variations. The discrepancy between the volume of water received per plant
vs the amount applied by a single emitter will be less percentage wise for plants receiving
water from a large number of emitters.
The coefficient of manufacturing variation (CVm).
To design an efficient microirrigation system, the designer must be able to determine the maximum
allowable pressure variation. The emission uniformity Eq. 11.28 can be rewritten for pressure
variation using Eq. 11.33 as follows:
Pmin
EU
=
P
ave 1.0 1.27 C vm
Ne
(11.34)
Table 11.12 can be used as an alternative way to determine the allowable pressure variation
between emitters with a zone. The information is expressed as a percentage of the average emitter
pressure. To use the Table 11.12, the term EUcv must be determined using the Eq. 11.35. The
emitter flow exponent must also be known.
EU cv = 1.0
1.27
Ne
C vm
(11.35)
The recommended emission uniformity for the new microirrigation system is 90%. The minimum
emission uniformities to be used for point source system are 85% and 80% for line source systems.
11.6.4.1
Coefficient of Variation (CVm)
No two emitters are manufactured exactly the same because of manufacturing tolerances. This
variation is described by the manufacturers coefficient of variations which is used to evaluate the
flowrate uniformity of new emitters. The CVm indicates the variability in the flowrate of a random
sample of a given emitter model. The standard ranking of variability is in Table 11.13.
C vm =
Where,
CVm
Sdm
Xm
11-34
S dm
Xm
(11.36)
= manufacturing coefficient of variation

= standard deviation (m3/s)
= mean flowrate (m3/s)
March 2009
Table 11.12 Allowable Pressure Variation between Emitters (Burt and Styles, 1994)
Percentage of Average Emitter Pressure
EUcv
x = 0.4
0.99
0.98
0.97
0.96
0.95
24
19
13
6
0
0.99
0.98
0.97
0.96
0.95
0.94
0.93
0.92
0.91
0.90
53
48
43
37
32
26
20
13
7
0
0.99
0.98
0.97
0.96
0.95
0.94
0.93
0.92
0.91
0.90
79
75
70
66
61
56
50
45
39
33
x= 0.5
x= 0.6
x= 0.7
Emission Uniformity EU = 0.95
20
17
14
15
13
11
10
9
7
5
4
4
0
0
0
43
37
32
39
33
29
35
29
25
30
25
22
26
22
19
21
17
15
16
13
11
11
9
8
5
5
4
0
0
0
66
56
49
62
53
46
58
49
43
54
46
40
50
42
37
46
39
33
41
35
30
37
31
27
32
27
23
27
23
20
x= 0.8
13
10
6
3
0
28
25
22
19
16
13
10
7
3
0
43
41
38
35
32
30
27
24
20
17
Table 11.13 Recommended Classification of Manufacturers Coefficient of Variation (Moshe, 2006)

Emitter Type
Point source
Line source
11.6.4.2
CVm range
<
0.05
0.07
0.11
>
<
0.10
>
0.05
to 0.07
to 0.11
to 0.15
0.15
0.10
to 0.20
0.20
Classification
Good
Average
Marginal
Poor
Unacceptable
Good
Average
Marginal
Flow Variation of Emitters on the Lateral (qvar)
The flow variation compares maximum (qmax) and minimum (qmin) emitter flowrates along a single
lateral. It is defined as follows:
q var =
q max q min
q max
(11.37)
The variation in emitter flow due to variation in pressure within the piping network can be
determined as follows:
March 2009
11-35
q
q
min
q var = x max
q
max
where,
qvar
qmax
qmin
Pmax
Pmin
Pav
x
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
11.6.4.3
(11.38)
average variation of flowrate (m3/s)

maximum flowrate (m3/s)
minimum flowrate (m3/s)
maximum pressure (kPa)
minimum pressure (kPa)
average pressure (kPa)
emitter or nozzle discharge exponent (x = 0.5 for an orifice).
Clogging Sensitivity
An emitter's flow channel must be about 0.2 to 2.5 mm. These small passageways make all emitters
susceptible to clogging. Filtering to remove particles 10 or more times smaller than the emitter
passageway is a typical recommendation. Two characteristics used as a guide to clogging sensitivity
are flow-passage size and water velocity in the passageway of the emitter. Emitter sensitivity to
clogging may be classified by minimum passageway dimension (Table 11.15).
Table 11:14 Passageway Dimension and Emitter Clogging Sensitivity (Keller and Bliesner, 1990)
Passageway Dimension (mm)
< 0.70
0.70 to 1.5
> 1.5
Clogging Classification
Very sensitive
Sensitive
Relatively sensitive
11.7 WATER QUALITY ENHANCEMENT
Microirrigation uses emitter to regulate flow. Emitters are susceptible to clogging which is directly
related to the quality of the irrigation water. The emitter utilizes small flow paths and orifices to
achieve a low flowrate. These small path and orifices are easily susceptible to plugging by materials
and chemicals in the irrigation water supply. High level filtration and complementary chemical and
physical water treatments are essential to prevent clogging.
11.7.1
Filtration Method
Adequate filtration is the key component to a successful microirrigation system. This section provides
information on filtration requirements for microirrigation systems.
11.7.1.1
Filtration Techniques and Filter Types
There are several basic methods for filtering irrigation water used in microirrigation systems as
follows:
(i)
Settling Basins
They are very effective as pre-treatment for sand and silt removal and for mineral (iron) precipitant
removal. The disadvantages of settling basins include the introduction of organic matter,
construction costs, land out of production and maintenance requirements. However, the settling
basin is the most economic alternative in certain cases.
(ii)
Pre-screening Devices
They are often used when surface water has a large loading of solid material. Rotating cylindrical
screens for pump intakes and the horizontally installed well screen covered with a gravel pack are
used as pre-treatment of water from surface storage.
11-36
March 2009
(iii)
Centrifugal Sand Separators
These employ the centrifugal action of spinning water to remove sand (Figure 30.a). They are very
effective if properly sized and pumping system flowrates do not fluctuate. They are effective in
removing up to nearly 98% of particle sizes larger than an equivalent 200 mesh. Organic material
will not be removed by these devices. A properly selected sand separator should be a pressure drop
of 34.47 75.84 kPa. Manufacturers charts on flowrate versus pressure drop are used to size
centrifugal separators.
(iv)
Mesh Screen Filters
Mesh screen devices with various configurations are used for solids removal (Figure 30b). These filers
are best used in situations of relatively clean water. A vertical cone shaped screen filter has a selfcleaning action which is more efficient than the simple cylindrical screen. Several types of screen mesh
filters with a centrifugal action, which removes debris from the filtering surface, are used in
microirrigation systems. The gravity overflow horizontal screen provides high capacity filtration in a
screen type filter. These filters are used for primary and secondary filtration. Availavble mesh sizes
range between 20 and 450 mesh. Maximum recommended flowrates generally range between 6000 8000 L/min/m2 of filter depending the manufacturer. Recommended design pressure loss is 20.68
34.47 kPa.
(v)
Disc Filters
Disk filters are constructed with stacks of circular disks as the filtering mechanism (Figure 30c).
Water passes between the disks, the grooves in the disks allow water to pass, but they retain the
solids. This filter design results in much greater filter surface area than a comparable sized screen
filter. These filters, with automatic back flush features, are commonly used. Disc filters have a higher
dirt retention capacity than screen filters. Equivalent mesh sizes range between 40 and 600 mesh.
(vi)
Sand-media Filters
Sand-media filters (Figure 30e) are very effective at removal of large volumes of both organic and
inorganic contaminates. Automatic controllers can be included, which determine back flushing cycles
based on time elapsed or pressure differentials. It is often used with drip irrigation systems due to
their greater filtration requirement.
Sand sizes are designated by the sand number with a number 8 sand having the largest sand size
and a number 30 sand having the smallest sand size. Table 11.15 shows the sand numbers and size
and the equivalent mesh sizes. The filtering ability also depends on the type of media.
The recommended design filter flowrate depends on the amount of suspended materiats in the
water. For dirty water (100 ppm or more of suspended material), a recommended filter flowrate is
about 613 L/min/m2 of filter area. Recommended design flowrates for an average water are 807
1022 L/min/m2 of filter area. The recommended design flowrate for clean water is 1022 1227
L/min/m2. The design pressure drop in th efilter is 20.68 34.47 kPa. Filters should be backflushed
when pressure drop reaches about 68.94 kPa. The comparison among different types of filters are
provided in Table 11.16.
Table 11.15 Sand Media Size and Screen Mesh Designation (Benham and Rose, 2002)
March 2009
Sand No.
Effective Sand Size
Equivalent Mesh Size
0.059
70
11
0.031
140
16
0.026
170
20
0.018
230
30
0.011
400
11-37
To System
Inlet
Sand Collector
Chamber
(b) Mesh Screen Filters
(a) Centrifugal Sand Separators
Filtration
Backflushing
(c) Disc Filters
(d) Automatic Self-cleaning Filters

Backflush
disposal
Backflush valve
Inlet
Contaminants
Filter
media
Underdrain
assembly
To system
Backflush from
Filtration Mode
Off-line tanks
Backflush Mode
(e) Sand-Media Filters

Flow Control
Valve
Flow Control
Valve
Backflush
Outlet
Backflush
Outlet
Inlet
Inlet
Sand
Sand
Gravel
Gravel
Valve
Irrigation
Outlet
Valve
Valve
Valve
Flushout
Outlet
Flushout
Outlet
(e-1) Filtration Mode-Media Sand Filter
Irrigation
Outlet
(e-2) Backflush Mode-Media Sand Filter
Figure 11.30 Different Filter Types (NETAFIM, 2008)

11-38
March 2009
Table 11.16 Comparison of Filter Types (Benham and Rose, 2002)

Filter Type
Application
Advantages
Disadvantages
Sand
Separator
Used when well

pumps sand or water
source is fast moving
stream.
No moving parts.
Removes 70 to 95% of
particles larger than
medium sand.
Will not remove particles smaller

than fine sand.
Screen
Used when primary

plugging hazard is
physical (suspended
Relatively inexpensive.
Well suited to systems
using ground water.
Less expensive designs require

manual cleaning.
Used to filter both

physical and
biological material.
3-dimensional filtering.
Not well suited to low flow

systems (< 95 to 190 L/min).
Most applications require multiple
media tanks.
Used to filter both

physical and
biological material.
Batteries of parallel filters

will accommodate high
flow systems.
solids).
Media
Disc
11.7.1.2
Larger capacity than

screen.
High pressure needed during

automated back flushing. Booster
pump may be required. Not
suited to applications where sand
is significant plugging hazard.
Guidelines for Selecting a Filter System
Emitter plugging should not go unchecked as the uneven water distribution can lead to poor system
performance and may eventually cause plant stress or damage. Selecting the right filter can save
time and money as well as smooth operating condition of a system. Before selecting filter the
following should be determined. The possible steps are:
(i)
Testing the water can provide the information needed to properly assess filtration and
maintenance requirements. The size, nature and concentration of the contaminant in the
water supply will determine the required type of filter.
Determine the emitter orifice size. The size of the openings in the emitter will determine the
degree of filtration required.
Determine the peak flowrate of the irrigation system. The filter must be sized to work at the
peak flowrate that is desired.
Cost of various options. The cost of automation and maintenance must be added to the
capital cost to determine the best option.
Based on Emitter Orifice Size
Suspended solids are capable of plugging an emitter orifice by forming a bridge network of up to
seven or eight particles. To prevent the buildup of this bridge network for drip, microjet and spray
emitters; a filtration unit must remove all particles that are larger than one-seventh of the emitter
orifice diameter. Emitters that have a long flow path must have even better filtration, up to 10 times
the emitter orifice diameter. Where fine organic material is present, particles larger than one-tenth of
the emitter orifice diameter may need to be removed (Table 11.17). The mesh equivalent is used to
determine the degree of filtration required for various emitters. Screen and disc filters are rated by
mesh size and sand filters uses a sand designation number that refers to a screen mesh equivalent.
Equations 11.39 and 11.40 are used to determine the Mean Filter Capability (MFCd) required for
various emitter orifice diameters (do).
For drip emitters:
do
MFC d =
10
March 2009
(11.39)
11-39
For spray emitters:

MFC d =
do
7
(11.40)
Table 11.17 Unit Comparison for Emitter Orifice Size (Benham and Rose, 2002)
Inches
mm
Micron
Mesh Equivalent
0.0280
0.7110
711
20
0.0165
0.4200
420
40
0.0071
0.1800
180
80
0.0060
0.1520
152
100
0.0049
0.1250
125
120
0.0041
0.1050
105
150
0.0035
0.0890
89
180
0.0030
0.0740
74
200
0.0021
0.0530
53
270
0.0017
0.0440
44
325
Example 11-3:
Determine the degree of filtration required for a long flow path emitter that has an orifice diameter
of 1100 micron.
Solution:
Using Equation 11.39,
1100
MFC d =
= 110 micron
10
The degree of filtration required for an orifice diameter of 1100 microns is 110 micron.
Interpolating from Table 11.17 the screen mesh equivalent is 140 mesh.
(ii)
Based on Particle Size in Irrigation Water
Particles are normally found in irrigation water range from the very small clay size particles to coarse
sand (Table 11.18). Complete removal of suspended particles is not necessary or practical.
Microirrigation systems should have 200 mesh equivalent filtration or should be chosen as the
manufacturer recommendation (Schwankl et al., 1995). Microsprinkler filtration requirements are
based on the orifice size as shown in Table 11.19. A 200-mesh screen that has an opening size of
0.05 mm will remove particles the size of fine sand and larger and is usually adequate for
microirrigation systems. Note that a 200 mesh filter will not remove particles of fine sand, silt and
clay. These particles will pass through the filter and be deposited in the laterals. Flushing will be
required to prevent clogging from sedimentation in laterals.
(iii)
Based on Water Quality
Table 11.20 provides a general guideline for filter type selection based on quality of irrigation waters
containing suspended inorganic and organic solids. It should be noted that it is only a guide and
other factors may need to consider a different filter selection. Table 11.21 displays minimum
filtration requirements for selected emitters.
11-40
March 2009
Table 11.18 Classification of Soils by Particle Size, with Corresponding Screen Mesh Numbers
(Keller and Bliesner, 1990)
Classification
mm
micron
inch
Screen Mesh
Number
Very coarse sand
1.00 2.00
1000 2000
0.0393 0.0786
18 10
Coarse sand
0.50 1.00
500 1000
0.0197 0.0393
35 18
Medium sand
0.25 0.50
250 500
0.0098 0.0197
60 35
Fine sand
0.10 0.25
100 250
0.0039 0.0098
160 60
Very fine sand
0.05 0.10
50 100
0.0020 0.0039
270 160
Silt
0.002 0.05
25
0.00008 0.0020
400 270
Clay
< 0.002
<2
< 0.00008
Particle Size
Soil
Table 11.19 Microsprinklers Filtration Requirements (Benham and Rose, 2002)

Orifice (inch)
Particle Size (inch)
Mesh
Micron
0.03
0.0043
150
110
0.035
0.0051
120
130
0.04
0.0057
100
150
0.045
0.0064
90
160
0.05
0.0071
80
180
0.055
0.0079
70
200
0.06
0.0086
60
220
Note: For example, 100 mesh screens will filter all larger than 150 microns in irrigation water.
Table 11.20 Filtration Requirements for Selected Physical Clogging Agents (James, 1988)
Type of Material and Concentration
Organic
< 5 mg/L
5 - 10 mg/L
> 10 mg/L
11.7.1.3
Inorganic
Selection of Filter Type
< 5 mg/L
Manual screen filter
5 - 10 mg/L
Manual disk filter
> 10 mg/L
Automatic screen or disk
< 5 mg/L
Automatic screen or disk
5 - 10 mg/L
Manual sand media
> 10 mg/L
Manual sand media

Automatic sand media
The Best Filter
Various types of filters are described in Section 11.7.1.1. The best filter depends on the type of
suspended material in the irrigation water. Generally, sand-media filters are used to remove algae
and other organic materials. These filters are effective in removing these materials without the need
for frequent back flushing. Screen and disc filters can remove organic materials but they can clog
rapidly, thus requiring frequent back flushing.
March 2009
11-41
Table 11.21 Minimum Filtration Requirements for Different Emission Devices (James, 1988)
Orifice Size
Emission
Device
Inches
0.03
0.04
0.05
0.06
0.07
Microns
760
1120
1270
1525
1780
Bi-wall
0.019
480
Microtube
0.020
0.025
0.035
0.045
500
635
890
1140
Micro jet
Screen
Mesh
Sand Media Selection
150
80
80
80
80
#
#
#
#
#
200
# 20 silica sand
#
#
#
#
16 silica sand
8 crushed granitea
8 crushed granitea
8 crushed granitea
8 crushed granitea
20 silica sand
16 silica sand
11 crushed granite
8 crushed granite
Vortex
100
200
11 crushed granite
50% # 30 silica sand
Viaflow
200
50% # 20 silica sand
200
150
# 20 silica sand
# 16 silica sand
200
# 20 silica sand
Submatic
0.02
0.03
Dripeze
510
760
200
# 20 silica sand
All long flow
path emitters
a
Emission devices with orifice larger than 1000 microns may not require a sand filtration system
(except in extreme circumstances), but should always have at least a #80 or #100 mesh installed.
11.7.1.4
(i)
Filter Characteristics
Reliability
Disc filters are reliable. Collapse of the filtration element is a rare compared to screen filters. In
screen filters, the screens are prone to be ripped due to corrosion and to collapse from pressure
fluctuations. The screen-supporting frame must withstand pressure surges.
(ii)
Capacity and Head Loss
Water pressure loses as it flows through filter. Head loss depends on the filter design, filtering
degree, flowrate and dirt accumulation. For a particular filter, the finer the filtration degree, the
lower the nominal discharge. This is due to higher head losses and faster dirt accumulation, which is
the lowest in screen filters, higher in disc filters and the highest in media filters.
(iii)
Key Filter Properties
Diameter
Filtration Area
:
:
Perforation Area
:
Effective Filter Ratio :
Filter Ratio
:
11-42
It designates the water inlet and outlet diameters.

It is the total surface area of the filtration element. The required filtration area
for moderately dirty water is 1030 cm2 for each 1 m3/h for sprinkler
irrigation, 2560 cm2 for microjets and 60150 cm2 for drip irrigation.
It denotes the total open area of perforations.
The ratio between the perforation area and the filtration area.
The ratio between the perforation area and the inlet cross-section area. The
higher the above mentioned parameters, the higher the filter capacity. The
nominal capacity of other types of filters is defined according to the
permissible head losses. The recommended head loss range is 2.5 5.0 m.
Filter cleaning is required when head loss amounts to 5 m.
March 2009
11.7.1.5
(i)
Filters Sizing
Sizing a Screen Mesh Filter
A recommended flow velocity through a screen mesh filter is 0.15 m/s. Manufacturers standards for
rating maximum flows may vary. When selecting a screen filter, check the specifications to
determine the flow velocity. All mesh filters are designed and rated to provide a maximum flowrate
with average water source conditions. If poor water conditions exit, additional screen surface area
will be required for the filter to operate properly. Table 11.22 provides the screen openings for
various mesh screens. The specifications for the still tank are given in Table 11.23.
The capacity of a mesh filter at a 0.15 m/s flow velocity through the mesh can be calculated using
equation 11.41.
Filter Capacity (gpm) = Screen Open Area (ft2) 225
(11.41)
The surface area required for a screen filter can be determined using equation 11.42.
SA =
Where,
SA
=
Q
=
V
=
%Op =
K
=
Q
K V %O p
(11.42)
screen surface area, m2 (ft2)

system flow velocity in L/min (gpm)
flow velocity through the screen, m/s (ft/s)
open area of the screen mesh (% shown as decimal)
conversion factor [55824.56 for metric unit and 448 for imperial unit]
Example 11-4:
The linear tape lateral system has a maximum flowrate 106 L/min (28 gpm) per zone. The emitter
used has an orifice opening of 0.762 mm (0.03 inches). The water supply from the well has no
organic content with inorganic suspended solids of less than 5 mg/L. A screen filter will therefore be
used. Determine the mesh and screen surface area required using the recommended flow velocity of
0.15 m/s (0.5ft/sec).
Solution:
Using equation 11.39,
MFC d =
0.762
= 0.0762 mm
10
From Table 11.17,

The screen mesh equivalent is for a mean filter capability of 0.0762 is 200 mesh.
From Table 11.22,
The percent open area of a 200 mesh screen is 33.6%
Using equation 11.42,
SA =
SA =
March 2009
105.9915
55824.56 0.15 0.336
28
448 0.5 0.336
= 0.0346 m2 (0.3724 ft2)
= 0.3720 ft2
11-43
Table 11.22 Stainless Steel Mesh Data

Meshes per
inch
Wire
Diameter
Wire Diameter
Opening Width
Opening Width
Percent Open
Area (Op)
(mm)
(inches)
(mm)
(inches)
(%)
80
0.1397
0.0055
0.1778
0.0070
31.40
100
0.1143
0.0045
0.1397
0.0055
30.30
120
0.0940
0.0037
0.1168
0.0046
30.70
140
0.0737
0.0029
0.1067
0.0042
34.90
150
0.0660
0.0026
0.1041
0.0041
37.40
180
0.0584
0.0023
0.0838
0.0033
34.70
200
0.0533
0.0021
0.0737
0.0029
33.60
220
0.0432
0.0017
0.0711
0.0028
38.70
240
0.0406
0.0016
0.0660
0.0026
38.30
250
0.0406
0.0016
0.0610
0.0024
36.00
325
0.0356
0.0014
0.0432
0.0017
30.70
Conversion: 1 gpm = 3.7854 L/min; 1 ft2 = 0.0929 m2

Table 11.23 Steel Media Tanks Specifications
Tank
Configuration
Filtration
Area (ft2)
Filtration Area
(m2)
Recommended
Maximum
Working Pressure
(psi)
Recommended
Maximum
Working Pressure
(kPa)
2-18"
3.5
0.3252
125
861.84
3-18"
5.25
0.4877
125
861.84
2-24"
6.25
0.5806
125
861.84
3-24"
9.5
0.8826
125
861.84
2-30"
9.8
0.9104
110
758.42
3-30"
14.8
1.3749
110
758.42
2-36"
14.2
1.3192
100
689.47
3-36"
21.2
1.9695
100
689.47
2-48"
25
2.3225
80
551.58
3-48"
37.5
3.4838
80
551.58
Conversion: 1 psi = 6.8947 kPa

(ii)
Sizing a Sand Media Filter
Filter sand is classified by mean effective size and a uniformity coefficient.

Mean Effective Media Size: Refers to the size of the smallest 10% of the particle sizes that will form
the media bed. An effective size of 0.80 mm means that 10% is finer than 0.80 mm.
Uniformity Coefficient: It is an index that describes the variability of particle sizes in a sample. It is a
ratio of an opening size that will pass 60% of a representative sample of sand divided by the
opening that will pass 10% of the same sample. A value of 1 indicates that all the particles are the
same size. A uniformity coefficient of 1.5 is required for microirrigation filter sand grades.
11-44
March 2009
Proper sizing of a sand media filter must consider the filtration rate as well as the backflush flowrate.
The following guidelines should be used:
The recommended filtration rate for average quality water is 814.6 L/min/m2 of sand bed area.
If the supply water excessively dirty (> 50 mg/L suspended soils) the flowrate should be
reduced to 407.30 610.95 L/min/m2 of sand bed area to increase the filtration capacity. At
these low flowrates, the filters should be backflushed at least once a day to prevent dirt from
moving bottom to the bottom of the sand bed.
Recommended backflush flowrates are given in Table 11.24. These flowrates are required to
ensure sufficient flow is available to properly lift the sand beds to allow for a good backflush.
For filter stations that are designed at lower flowrates of 407.30 610.95 L/min/m2 of bed area,
three separate filters may be required to ensure sufficient flow is available for a good backflush.
A flow control valve installed on the backflush line can be used to regulate the backflush
flowrate and control the amount of media expelled during backflush.
Filter stations with 3 - 4 units or more may be required if the sand filter is set to back flush
automatically while the irrigation system is operating. The filters that are not being backflushed
must be able to filter the irrigation system demand and the backflush flowrate of one sand filter.
Enough units must be on line to keep the filtration rate at less than 1221.90 L/min/m2.
Table 11.24 Minimum Backflush Flowrates for Sand Media (1 gpm ft2 = 40.73 L/min/m2)
Sand Designation
Number
#
#
#
#
#
Minimum Backflush
Flowrate
(gpm/ft2)
Minimum Backflush
Flowrate
(L/min/ft2)
Minimum Backflush
Flowrate
(L/min/m2)
16
15
18
15
13
60.57
56.78
68.14
56.78
49.21
651.69
610.96
733.16
610.96
529.50
8 Crushed Granite
11 Crushed Granite
16 Silica Sand
20 Silica Sand
30 Silica Sand
11.7.1.6
Automatic Flushing and Cleaning
Filters with diverse automatic cleaning mechanisms are available in the market. Most of them
measure the pressure differential and self-clean when a preset head differential has built-up. The
intervals between flushing events may also be controlled by a timer. Continuously self-flushing
screen filters maintain a flow of filtered water without build-up of head losses. For coarse screens,
over 200-micron brushes are sufficiently efficient while for finer screens under 200-microns, cleaning
by rotating suckers is more effective.
11.7.1.7
Filter Location
Sand settling tanks are installed in front of the pump while sand separators are installed just behind
the pump. An automatic screen, disc, media filter or a filtration array should be installed at the
pumping site and a backup control screen or disc filters should be installed at the head of each
irrigation block. With moderately contaminated well water, one stage filtration at each block may be
sufficient.
11.7.2
Complementary Water Treatments
In addition to filtration, complementary chemical treatments should be performed on the irrigation

water to prevent clogging of microirrigation systems. Oxidation and chlorination are the prevalent
complementary treatments. Oxidation decomposes organic matters, prevents formation of slime by
sulphur and iron bacteria and eliminates infestation by pathogens. Acidification eliminates chemical
precipitation and dissolves inherent precipitates in the irrigation system. The chemical treatment is
carried out at the upstream of the filtration system. This facilitates reducing of the impurity load and
trapping of the decomposed material in the filters. The narrower the water passages in the emitters,
the greater the need for chemical treatments.
March 2009
11-45
11.7.3
Chemigation
Chemigation is the application of chemical and biological entities through the irrigation system.
Chemicals applied to crops by this method include fertilizers, herbicides, insecticides, fungicides,
nematicides, growth regulators, and biocontrol agents. So far, the most common form of
chemigation is fertigation which refers to fertilizer application in the irrigation water. Fertigation
provides the only good way to apply fertilizers physically to the crop root zone for permanent crops.
The major benefit is that chemigation allows the user greater control over various inputs to crop
growth and development.
The term chemigation also applies to the application of herbicides, insecticides, fungicides,
nematicides and growth regulators through sprinkler and microirrigation systems. Many irrigation
systems design factors must be considered for chemigation if good application uniformity is to be
obtained.
Microirrigation systems can be very effective at transporting soluble chemical to the crop. It is
important, however, to select adequate equipment and to properly maintain it. The uniformity of the
chemical application is dependent on the uniformity of the water application. Therefore, it is very
important that high water application uniformity is occurring. If the application uniformity (DU or EU)
is less than 80 percent, the microirrigation system should not be used for chemigation. An evaluation
of the irrigation system uniformity should be performed prior to chemigation.
11.7.3.1
Design Criteria of Irrigation Systems for Considering Chemigation
The following system design parameters must be considered in the design of chemigation systems.
(i)
Microirrigation Systems
Microirrigation systems generally have a coefficient of uniformity exceeding 80% providing the
system has been designed correctly. Microirrigation systems operate at efficiencies in the 85- 90%
range compared to sprinkler systems that are only 65 75% efficient. These systems are therefore
much superior in the application of fertilizers and chemicals than sprinkler systems. However,
microirrigation systems are limited in their ability to apply herbicides and insecticides. The following
factors need to be considered in the design of microirrigation systems used for chemigation:
(ii)
Emitters should be spaced to effectively irrigate as much of the plants root volume as
possible.
An appropriate emitter should be selected for the terrain, crop type and water quality being
used. Emitter flow characteristics and product durability for the conditions should be
considered. An emitter with manufactures variance coefficient of less than 0.05 should be
selected. Emitter flowrate at the beginning and end of the zone should be tested to ensure
that discharge rates are within acceptable limits.
Emitter operating pressure range should be kept within +/- 10% of the emitter operating
pressure. If the microirrigation system is operating on a slope, pressure compensating
emitters should be used.
The injection system must be located before the filtration system so that any precipitates
that may form will have an opportunity to be filtered out before entering the irrigation
system.
Sprinkler Systems
To ensure maximum uniformity, sprinkler irrigation systems used to apply chemicals must be
designed and operated to achieve a minimum coefficient of uniformity of 80% and preferably 90%.
A coefficient of uniformity of 80% can only be obtained by designing sprinkler systems to the
following standards. The following standards should apply for chemigation system:
The maximum pressure variation along the lateral must not exceed 20% of the sprinkler
operating pressure. Flow control nozzle must be used if pressure fluctuations exceed the
11-46
March 2009
20% allowance. Another option is to use pressure regulators at sprinkler heads operating at
pressure exceeding the normal operating range.
The sprinkler spacing along the lateral should not exceed 50% of the wetted diameter. The
spacing between laterals should not exceed 60% of the sprinkler wetted diameter.
The sprinkler is operated within the manufactures recommended pressure range that is
sufficient to provide adequate stream backup for proper dispersal.
The sprinkler head must rotate a minimum of two times per minute.
Sprinkler irrigation systems must be operated for at least 15 minutes to achieve uniform
application. A 30 minute time would attain better uniformity but may by too long for some
chemicals.
11.7.3.2
Selection of Injection Methods
The injection device typically differentiates one injection system from another; the principal types are
piston and diaphragm pumps and venturi. Often a pump is used to inject the chemical into the
pressurized irrigation pipe, while the venturi uses the force of the irrigation water as the driving force
to inject the chemical. There are numerous ways to inject chemicals into irrigation water. The most
effective method will depend on various factors such as:
Solubility of the material to be injected

Potential hazard of the chemical
Availability of power
Portable versus permanent installation
11.7.3.3
Location of the Injection Point
The chemical injection point can be located either upstream or downstream of the filter. The primary
reason for injecting upstream of the filters is that any introduced contaminants, resulting from
chemigation, will be filtered from the irrigation system. This is of major significance in preventing
emitter plugging. An injection system can be installed at the following three locations:
Main Control Head The most convenient and cost effective alternative
Sub-mains Head A common practice in field crop
Control Head of Each Block Cost is higher than above two
11.7.3.4
Size of the Chemical Tank (V)
The chemical supply tank should be constructed of material that will withstand the corrosive
chemicals that may be injected. In some cases the chemical tank will need to be diked to contain the
chemical in the event of a tank failure. The size of the supply tank should be at least sufficiently
large to contain the entire chemical for one chemical injection for the entire area irrigated. The
volume of the tank can be determined:
V=
Where,
V
=
r
=
A
=
c
=
n
=
d
=
r An
cd
(11.43)
volume (gallons),
rate of application (lbs/ac),
area to be fertigated (acres),
concentration of fertilizer source (N-P-K, decimal),
number of applications between tank fillings,
density of fertilizer material (lbs/gal)
March 2009
11-47
11.7.4
Fertigation
This section provides guidance on selecting fertilizers and calculating injection rates for fertilizer
application through microirrigation systems. Microirrigation systems provide a good method of
applying fertilizers and other chemicals. Advantages of applying fertilizers through a microirrigation
system include:
The high application efficiencies of these systems ensure even and uniform application of the
fertilizers.
Since the fertilizer is applied directly to the plants root zone, maximum availability and
efficiency can be achieved.
Labour, machinery and fuel savings are achieved over the conventional fertilizer application
methods.
Nutrient can be applied during the growing season with precalculated amounts and frequencies
to meet the demands at various growing stages.
Urea
Ammonium nitrate
Ammonium sulphate
Calcium nitrate
Potassium chloride
Potassium nitrate
Potassium sulphate
Ammonium phosphate
Fe, Zn, Cu, Mn Sulphate
Fe, Zn, Cu, Mn chlorate
Magnesium sulphate
Phosphoric acid
Sulphuric acid
Nitric acid
Fully Compatible
Reduced Solubility
Incompatible
Nitric acid
Sulphuric acid
Phosphoric acid
Magnesium sulphate
Fe, Zn, Cu, Mn chlorate
Fe, Zn, Cu, Mn Sulphate
Ammonium phosphate
Potassium sulphate
Potassium chloride
Potassium nitrate
Calcium nitrate
Ammonium sulphate
Urea
Fertilizers
Ammonium nitrate
Table 11.25 Fertilizer Compatibility Chart (Source: Soil and Plant Laboratory Inc., Bellevue, Wa)
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
To control plugging and potential compatibility problems between fertilizers, the following points
should be considered when applying nutrients or chemicals through a microirrigation system:
Chemicals must be readily soluble.

If more than one fertilizer is to be applied at one time, check to ensure that they are compatible
and will not form a precipitate in the irrigation lines. Table 11.25 provides the compatibility chart
of different fertilizers. Fertilizers should not mix for combination that are shown in red and use
caution with those shown in yellow.
Chemicals must not corrode components of the microirrigation systems.
Chemicals should always be injected before the infiltration unit.
11-48
March 2009
Chemicals must not react with elements in the water after injection. To ensure compatibility of
the chemical before injecting the chemical. Add a small amount of the chemical to be injected to
a jar filled with water from the irrigation system. Ensure that concentration will be slightly
higher than the solution anticipated in the system. Shake well and leave for 24 hours. If a
reaction is occurred during this period the chemical is not recommended for injection.
11.7.4.1
Injection Methods
Microirrigation systems can utilize numerous injection methods. The recommended injectors are:
venturis, ratio feeders, and electric or water driven injector pumps. Factors that affect the type of
injector to select include: Cost, available power source, reliability, chemical to be injected, number of
chemicals to be injected simultaneously and the ease of regulating the injection rate.
(i)
Venturi Injectors
Venturi injectors operate on the principle that a pressure drop accompanies the change in water
velocity as it passes through a contraction. Atmospheric pressure forces the chemical into the line at
this reduced pressure zone. These types of systems are not effective for low pressure situations as
they have a significant head loss across them. The pump and venturi are installed on a line that is in
parallel to the irrigation system supply lines. Table 11.26 indicates typical injection rates that can
achieved with a venturi injection system.
Table 11.26 Venturi Injection Selection
Size
Model
In/Out
Pressure
Differential
(%)
Flow Through Injector

@ 50 kPa
@ 50 psi (gpm)
(L/min)
Injection rate
L/hr
Gal/hr
6
283
26
0.5
1.89
23
287
22
0.9
3.40
30
384
25
2.1
7.94
38
10
484
18
3.4
12.85
64
17
584
18
6.4
24.20
95
25
878
16
12
45.36
227
60
1078
16
17
64.25
284
75
1583
18
34
128.52
680
180
2081
18
101
381.78
1890
500
384-x
50
2.1
7.94
132
35
885-x
32
12
45.36
530
140
1585-x
35
36
136.08
1325
350
2083-B
67
29
109.62
4275
1130
(ii)
Ratio Feeders
Ratio feeders are water driven type of injector pump. The quantity of material injected depends on
the flowrate through the injector but the concentration of chemical in the irrigation water will remain
the same. Therefore if the injector is set at a ratio of 1%, a zone flowrate of 100 gpm will have an
injection rate of 1 gpm and a zone flowrate of 50 gpm will have an injection rate of 0.50 gpm. Since
the proportion of chemical injected does not vary with the system flowrate or operating pressure,
these types of injectors can be used in situations where the system automatically can change from
one zone to another, providing the concentration required in each zone is the same. Figure 11.31
show a venturi and ratio feeder injection systems.
Ratio feeders generally operate at injection ratios from 0.2% to 2%. Venturi and ratio feeders
systems are usually installed on a by pass line that runs parallel to the main irrigation line (Figures
11.32 and 11.33).
March 2009
11-49
(a) Venturi injector
(b) Dosatron Ratio Injection System
Figure 11.31 Venturi Injector and Dosatron Ratio Injection System (Van der Gulik, 1999)
Supply
tank
Check
valve
Screen
Reduced Pressure
Backflow Device
Shutoff
valve
Venturi
Shutoff
valve
Shutoff
valve
Main Shutoff
Valve
To filtration
Unit
Figure 11.32 Installation of Venturi Injector

Proportional
Injector
Supply
tank
Check
valve
Screen
Filter
Shutoff
valve
Reduced Pressure
Backflow Device
Main Shutoff
Valve
Shutoff
valve
To filtration
Unit
Figure 11.33 Installation of Ratio Feeder Injector

(iii)
Injector Pumps
Injector pumps can be either electrically powered or water driven. They have a greater precision
than any other injection methods but are more costly. The injector pump provides variable speed
drives to allow for a wider range of injection rates. An injection pump is capable of supplying the
same concentration of chemical at a constant rate for the required duration. The pump should be
made of non-corrosive material due to the nature of the chemicals injected. An electric injector pump
is capable to continue to inject chemicals once the irrigation system has been shut down. Careful
monitoring during chemical application is therefore always important.
11-50
March 2009
Water powered injector pumps are available in turbine (impeller) or piston drive. Piston-operated
pumps use a small amount of irrigation water to drive the piston. The amount of water used to
operate the piston is usually three times the quantity of the injected solution. A drain should be
provided for this water. The injection rate is set by controlling the amount of water going to the
drive piston. Piston-drive units do not reduce the irrigation system pressure. Figures 11.34 and 11.35
show installation of water driven and electric or gas driven injection systems.
Piston Drive
Injection System
Supply
tank
Drive Water
Hand Valve
Filter
Screen
Injection Line
Hand Valve
Reduced Pressure
Backflow Device
Main Shutoff
Valve
Figure 11.34 Water Driven Injection System
To Filtration
Unit
If applicable, injection
Pump wiring should
be interlocked with
Irrigation system pump
Supply
tank
Screen
Injection
Pump
Check
Valve
Main Shutoff
Valve
Reduced Pressure
Backflow Device
To Filtration
Unit
Figure 11.35 Electric or Gas Driven Injection System

11.7.4.2
Fertilizer Selection
Selection of fertilizers can be difficult as fertilizers come in various chemical formulations containing
composition agents with different types of coatings, including wax. Fertilizers are available in liquid
and solid forms. The selection of a solid or liquid fertilizer depends on:
Storage requirements
Available storage facilities
Product suitability
Ease of handling
Method of injection
Cost and
The acidification produced by applying the fertilizer to the soil.
March 2009
11-51
To avoid damage to plant roots from high fertilizer concentrations, fertilizer concentration in the
irrigation water should not exceed 5%. Generally fertilizer concentrations of 1-2% in the irrigation
water are considered acceptable.
11.7.4.3
Fertilizer Injection Rates (Ic)
An injection rate does not need to be calculated if using a weight or volume method of application.
An injection rate should be calculated if using an injector pump or an injection system that is set up
to automatically inject from one zone to another. The injection rate depends on the concentration of
the liquid to be injected and the quantity of materials to be applied. The following equation may be
used for calculating the rate of injection:
Ic =
Where,
=
Ic
=
Qc
C
=
A
=
T
=
11.8
Qc A
C T
(11.44)
rate of chemical injection (L/min)

quantity of chemical to be applied per irrigation cycle (kg/ha)
concentration of injected solution (kg/ha)
area (ha)
total time of injection (min)
DESIGN CRITERIA
Microirrigation design criteria is generally based on the uniformity of the emitter flow, which is
affected by the hydraulic design, manufactures variation and grouping effect on the emitter spacing
with respect to the crop planting density in the field. This assumes that clogging is controlled to an
acceptable level. The design criteria of variation of flow among emitters is set as three levels for
microirrigation design; less than 10% as desired design, between 10-20% as acceptable and over
20% unacceptable. The flow variation of emitters is measured by Uniformity Coefficient (UC),
Coefficient of Variation (CVm) and Emission Uniformity (EU) as shown in Table 11.27.
Table 11.27 Relationships among Uniformity Coefficient (UC), Coefficient of Variation (CVm) and
Design Emission Uniformity (EU)
CVm (%)
5
10
15
20
25
30
UC (%)
96
91
87
83
79
74
EU (%)
94
87
81
74
67
61
Wu and Barragan (2000) determined the microirrigation system design criteria for various uniformity
parameters as shown in Table 11.28. A more descriptive design criterion is EU, which is determined
based on the types of emitters, field layout and topography of the field.
Table 11.28 Design Criteria for Uniformity of Microirrigation System Design
CVm (%)
UC (%)
EU (%)
Water is abundant with little or no

environmental pollution problems
30-20
75-85
60-75
Water is abundant with environmental

protection conditions
20-10
80-90
75-85
Limited water resources with little or no

environmental pollution problems
25-15
80-90
70-80
Water conservation and environmental

protection considerations
15-5
85-95
80-95
Design Consideration
11-52
March 2009
11.9
DESIGN PROCEDURES
Microirrigation systems are designed to transport water from source through a delivery network of
pipes and emission water devices to crops. The goal of a microirrigation system design is to provide
irrigation water uniformly and efficiently to crops to meet the evapotranspiration needs and to
maintain a favourable root zone water balance. The microirrigation systems design is the integration
of the physical components into a system arrangement which must configure the best to meet the
goal. Planning and design of an irrigation system involves data gathering and analysis, followed by a
specification process in which system layout and components are selected in accordance with
fundamental design criteria. Design process can be divided into two parts as:
Initial design steps, and

Detailed design steps
11.9.1
Initial Design Steps
Using the available data, the designer will need to develop one or more acceptable starting
scenarios. The initial steps of the design process are outlined below in the illustrated flowchart
shown in Figure 11.36. Preliminary steps of the microirrigation design process are:
a. Meet with the site owner/client to assess the desired outcomes and purpose of the irrigation
system.
Assess the general site characteristics with particular reference to the general landscape,
irrigated field, crops(s), and water supply.
b.
c. Develop an initial draft design scenarios based on the results of Step 2 and a mass balance
analysis (Eq.11.45). Determine a desired pump location if one does not currently exist. If the
entire field does not need to be irrigated simultaneously, divide the field into an appropriate
number of zones. Position lateral lines along the contour or other desired orientation, and
layout manifold and mainline pipes.
Qsys = 2.778
A Igr
Ts
(11.45)
Where,
Qsys
= the design irrigation system flowrate (L/s)
Ts
= the system operating time per irrigation cycle (hr)
= the total irrigated area (ha)
Igr
= the gross irrigation depth (mm)

d. Assess socio-economic constraints associated with the water supply, the field and the
production system. Evaluate the rough draft scenarios based on that assessment.
e. If more information is needed, go back to Step 1 and reassess the characteristics.
f.
If one or more rough draft scenarios are reasonable and/or acceptable, proceed to Step 8.
g. If the current system scenario can be modified to accommodate the additional constraints,
return to Step 1. If not, proceed to Step 10.
h. Present and explain the rough design scenario(s) to the owner/client.
i.
If any of the proposed design scenarios is acceptable to the owner/client proceed to step 11.
j.
If other microirrigation system scenarios exist proceed back to Step 1 to reassess the site
and system characteristics. If not, then stop.
k. Continue with the detailed design process.
March 2009
11-53
Example 11-5:
A 10-ha irrigated crop is to have a gross daily water application depth of 6.5 mm. The water is to be
applied to the crop in a 8.0 hours time period. What is the required system flowrate?
Solution:
Equation 11.45 is arranged to solve for Qsys using the known parameters of:
TS = 8.0 hours, A= 10 ha, Igr = 6.5 mm
Qsys = 2.778
10 6.5
8
= 22.57 L/s
Example 11-6:
A water supply has a peak available flowrate of 22 L/s. How much area can be irrigated daily if the
maximum daily operating time for the irrigation system is 11 hours and the gross peak daily
irrigation depth is 7.0 mm?
Solution:
Equation 11.45 is arranged to solve for Qsys using the known parameters of:
Qsys = 22.57 L/s, TS = 11.0 hours and Igr = 7.0 mm
A =
22 11
2.778 7
= 12.44 ha.
11.9.2
Detailed Design Steps
The next stage of the design process focuses on sizing, selecting and synthesizing the individual
components into a working system that satisfies the constraints of the problem, addresses the
established objectives and meets the desired goal. The design process for components of the system
comprises several logical steps which are illustrated by flowchart in Figure 11.37. Emitter selection,
operating time, water supply and system pressure requirements are all interdependent. Changing the
decision on one of these items will result in change to the rest of the system design. Many iterations
may need to be assessed before the correct selection and design can be match up properly.
11.9.3
System Design Information
A task is usually made much easier if the steps that to be considered are outlined in an organized
manner. The actual design is categorized into the following phases below:
11-54
Proper emitter configuration associated with rows and spacing of crops

Layout of laterals and manifolds
Layout of the mainline and the sub-mains
Water treatment and chemigation equipment
Pressure and power requirements
March 2009
Start
Assess the desired outcomes of the

microirrigation system
Inventory of site characteristics

(Land/field, Crops, Water supply)
Develop initial possible

design layout scenarios
Assess socio-economic constraints related to

the water supply, field conditions, and
production system
Is information
sufficient ?
No
Yes
Is the preliminary
layout scenario
reasonable ?
No
Can the system

be modified ?
Yes
No
Yes
Present draft layout to the
owner/client
Is any design
scenarios
acceptable ?
Yes
Continue with the detail design
process
No
Are there other

design option ?
Yes
No
Stop
Figure 11.36 Flowchart Illustrating the Initial Design Process (Adapted from Lamm, 2007)
March 2009
11-55
Start
Assess the Water Supply and Determine

Peak Flow Rate
Assess the Peak Water Requirement

of the Crop(s), ETcpeak
Determine Emitter Spacing and Emitters per Plant

or Unit Length for Closely Spaced Row Crops
Select Emitter Configuration and Determine

Emitter Operating Time
No
Is the Emitter Operating Time

Less than 12 hours
Yes
Define the total irrigated area (A) and
Determine the number of zones and
Irrigated area per zone (Az)
Determine Maximum Lateral Length from

Field Layout
Calculate lateral Flow rate
Calculate Zone Flow Rate
No
Is Water Supply Sufficient to

Provide Zone Flow Rate ?
Yes
Finalize Number of Irrigation Zones
and Determine Each Zone Area
Is the System Capable for

Irrigating all Zones Operating
Time Less than 24 hrs ?
No
3
1
11-56
Yes
March 2009
2
No
Are all three

Criteria Satisfied?
Yes
3
1
Yes
Design Submains, Manifolds and Laterals

that Maintain Allowable Emitter Discharge
Differences
Design an Economical Mainline Size,

Pumping Plant, and Control Head
Select Appropriate Filtration System
Determine Maximum Presure

Variation throughout Zone
and Chemigation Unit
Determine Total Dynamic Head and

No
Select Proper Pumping Unit
Is the Pressure Variation

Acceptable for the Emitter
Being Used ?
Develop an Initial Cost Analysis of the

Current Design Scenario
Yes
Consult with the System Owner to Select the
Desired System Design and Configuration
Develop an Irrigation Application and

Operating Schedule
1. Can the Water Need crop be met?

2. Is the System Convenient to Operate?
3. Does System Management Confirm to
the cultural constraints?
Finalize the System Design

and Final Report
Yes
Stop
Figure 11.37 General Design Steps for Microirrigation Systems

11.9.3.1
Design Data Form
The data must be collected for crop, land and water resources prior to beginning the design
computations are summarized in the Microirrigation Design Data Form as shown in Table 11.29.
11.9.3.2
Design Parameters or Factors
A brief explanation about all design parameters and computation formulas are given in previous
sections A number of computations must be made prior to designing the hydraulic network. These
factors are presented in Design Factors Form as shown in Table 11.30.
Peak Evapotranspiration Rate (ETpeak) and Crop Coefficient (kc)

Plant Spacing
Irrigated Area
Wetted Area
Emitter Performance
- Emitter operating Pressure
- Emitter Discharge Rate
- Emission Uniformity
- Application Efficiency of the System
Plant Water Requirements
- Water requirements per plant per day for tree plants
- Water requirements closely spaced row crops
Total System Design Capacity
March 2009
11-57
Table 11.29 Microirrigation Design Data Form

i)
Symbol
Unit of
Measurements
(b) Field area
ha
(c) Effective rain
Rn
mm
(d) Residual soil water
Ms
Mm
PROJECT
(a) Field number
(e) Water supply
L/s
(f) Water storage
ha-m
(g) Water quality
ECW & SAR dS/m (mmhos/cm)
(h) Water quality classification

ii)
SOIL AND CROP

(a) Soil texture
(b) Available water capacity
AW
(c) Soil depth
mm/m
m
(d) Soil limitations

(e) Management allowed deficiency
MAD
Sp x Sr
mm/m
(h) Plant root depth
Drz
(i) Percent shaded area
Pd
(j) Average peak ET
Ud
mm/day
(k) Seasonal water requirement
mm
LRt
decimal
Nos
(c) Pressure [head]
P [H]
kPa or m
(d) Rated discharge
L/hr
(e) Discharge exponent
decimal
CVm
decimal
(g) Discharge coefficient
Kd
decimal
(h) Connection loss equivalent
fe
(f) Crop
(g) Plant spacing
(l) Leaching requirement

iii)
EMITTER
(a) Type
(b) Outlets per emitter
(f) Coefficient of variability
11-58
March 2009
Table 11.30: Microirrigation Design Factors Form

i)
PROJECT
Parameters
Symbol Unit of Measurements
(a) Emission point layout

m2
(b) Emitter spacing

(c) Emission points per plant/Number of Emitters
Np
nos
(d) Percent wetted area
Pw
(e) Maximum net depth
dx
mm
(f) Average peak transpiration
Td
mm/day
(g) Irrigation interval
fx
days
(h) Irrigation frequency
ii)
(i) Net depth per irrigation
dn
(j) Emission uniformity
EU
(k) Gross depth per irrigation
dg
mm
(l) Gross water per plant or per unit length
l/day or l/m
(m) Application time
Ta
hr
Ta
hr
(b) Irrigation interval
days
(c) Gross depth per irrigation
mm
(d) Average emitter discharge
qa
L/hr
(e) Average emitter head
ha
Hs
(g) Emitter spacing
m2
(h) Percent wetted area
Pw
(i) Number of stations
Ns
nos
(j) System capacity
Qs
L/s
(k) Seasonal efficiency
Es
(l) Seasonal irrigation
Vs
ha-m
(m) Seasonal operation
Ot
hr
(n) Total dynamic head
TDH
EU
ln
mm/hr
FINAL DESIGN
(a) Application time
(f) Allowable head variation
(o) Actual uniformity

(p) Net application rate
March 2009
11-59
11.9.3.3
Design System Components
The list of basic components to be designed for any microirrigation system as follows:
Proper Emitter Configuration

- Emitter spacing
- Emitter per plant
- Emitter per unit length of closely spaced row crops
Irrigation Water Delivery and Distribution Networks
- Laterals design
- Manifolds and header design
- Main and submains design
Water Quality Enhancement Equipment
- Filter Selection
- Injector selection
Fertigation and Chemigation Equipment
System Pressure Requirements
Pump Selection and Power Requirements
11.9.4
Emitter Selection Criteria
The heart of a microirrigation system is the emitter. General emitter suitability means how well the
emitter fits into the particular design and matches the size and water requirements of the crop.
Emitters must be able to deliver the right flowrate at the right pressure as well as fitting with the
intended cropping pattern. The discharge device should be unique to a microirrigation system.
Ideally, emitters should have the following attributes [For detail: Section 11.6):
long lasting and inexpensive;

relatively low discharge rate that does not vary significantly between emitters; and
relatively large passageways or self-flushing to reduce clogging.
It is very difficult to know the right emitter for a particular design. Two criteria must be used in
selecting emitters:
Type and number of emitters chosen must wet adequate root volume.
Flowrates of emitters must supply the peak water demands when will be operated on a
schedule allowing sufficient off time so that root impairment are avoided.
The selection of emitters depends not only on emitter physical characteristics, but also on emitter
placement, type of operation, diameter of laterals, and user preference. The basic steps require for
the selection of emitters as follows:
11.9.5
Choosing the general type of emitter that will best meet the need in the area to be wetted;
Choosing the specific emitter that will meet the required discharge, spacing, and other
planning considerations;
Determining the average emitter discharge (qa) and pressure-head (ha) requirements; and
Determining the allowable subunit pressure-head variation (hs) for the desired EU.
Emitters Design Steps
The basic steps of the generalized design process are:

Step 1: Data Collection
Reliable data on the crop, climate, soil, topography and irrigation water quality, field shape and size,
and water availability are required.
Step 2: Determine Emission Point Layout for an Emitter
A reasonable design objective is to have enough emission points to wet at least one-third (Pw =
33%) and up to one-half of the potential horizontal cross section of the root system. The selected
11-60
March 2009
emitter should have emission points to wet 33% > Pw < 67%. It may involve field test to determine
the wetted width or diameter (w). This will determine the number of emitters per plant (Np).
For single laterals with equally spaced emission plants, the following equation can be used to
determine the emission devices per plant.
Np = K
P Sp Sr
Dw Se
(11.46)
and
S e 0.8 D w
Where
Np
Se
Sp
Sr
Dw
K
P
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
(11.47)
number of emitters per plant or emission point

spacing between the emission devices of an emission point (cm)
plant row spacing (m)
maximum wetted diameter formed by a single point source emission device (cm)
unit constant (K = 100 for Sp and ST in m and Se in cm)
percent of crop area (Sp Sr) being irrigated (P = 30 to 100%, for widely spaced tree
crops P = 30 60% and 100% for closely spaced row crops).
A line source of water is achieved when the spacing between emission points is less than or equal to
0.8 Dw.
For a microirrigation trickle system with double laterals of zigzag, pigtail and multiexit layouts, Np is
determined as:
N p = 2K
P Sp Sr
S e (S e + D w )
(11.48)
The spacing between double laterals should be equal to Dw. This spacing gives the largest Ai and
leaves no extensive dry areas between double lateral lines. For the greatest Ai with zigzag, pigtail
and multiexit layouts, the emission devices should be spaced at distance equal to Dw in each
direction. If the layout is not designed for maximum wetting and Se < Dw, then Dw in Eq. 11.64
should be replaced by Se.
The number of microsprinklers per plant or emission point is computed using the Eq. 11.49.
Np =
P Sp Sr
D w Ps
100 A s +
2K
(11.49)
and
Se =D T +
Where,
As
Ps
DT
K
=
=
=
=
Dw
2K
(11.50)
wetted area by a microsprinkler (m2)

perimeter wetted area by microsprinkler (m)
distance of throw (m)
unit constant (K = 100 for Se and DT in m and Dw in cm)
Step 3: Estimate the peak use of ET. Average peak daily consumptive use rate (Td) can be computed
using Eq. 5.44.
March 2009
11-61
Step 4: Estimate Maximum net depth (dx), and Maximum irrigation interval (fx) using Eqs. (5.43 and
5.46).
Step 5: Select the target design emission uniformity (EU)
The recommended range of target value for EU usually is 90% [Section 11.6 or 11.8]
Step 6: Select transmission ratio (Tr) from Table 5.12 or 5.13.
Step 7: Estimate the leaching requirement (LRt) if needed using Eq. 5.15.
LRt should be estimated based on crop type and irrigation water quality which is described and
detailed in Chapter 5: Water Demand Estimation.
Step 8: Calculate gross depth per application (dg) using Eqs. 5.50 or 5.54. Let f = 1 day, then dn =
ETd.
Step 9: Calculate gross volume of water required per plant per day (Vg) using Eq. 5.55.
Step 10: Calculate the daily hours of operation (Ta) for a subunit during the peak use period. The
duration of application for periods of peak use is calculated by Eq. (11.51)
Ta =
Where,
Ta
Vg
Np
qa
=
=
=
=
Vg
(11.51)
Np q a
irrigation application time required during the peak use period (hr/day)
daily gross volume of water required per plant during peak use period (L/day)
number of emitters per plant
average emitter discharge (L/hr) which is the rated discharge usually given by the
manufacturer.
Step 11: Determine number of subunits or operating stations (Ns)

If Ta = 24 hrs then Ns = 1
If Ta = 12 hrs then Ns = 2
If Ta = 8 hrs then Ns = 2 or 3 and so on.
Step 12: Maximum number of operation hours per day
The maximum number of hours of operation per day should not exceed 90% of the available time
(i.e., 21.6 hr/day). This is necessary to allow some margin of safety for system failure or other
unexpected downtime. However systems should be operated, as nearly continuously as, is practical
at least 12 hr/day to keep investment cost low. Furthermore, systems can be subdivided into whole
numbers (1, 2, 3, .. Ns) of operating stations, Ns. Thus the gross daily water required per plant G
must be provided in no more than 21.6/Ns hr or less.
Step 13: Compute reasonable value of Ta and rearranging emitters
The reasonable value for Ta lies between 12 < Ta < 21.6 hr/day. If the preliminary value of Ta is
computed greater than 21.6 hr/day, the emitter discharge would need to be increased. When the
amount of increase exceeds the recommended operating range then either larger emitter or more
emitters per plant are required. Decision strategies for other preliminary values are:
If Ta = 21.6 hr/day, then N = 1, select Ta 21.6 hr/day and adjust qa accordingly.
If Ta = 10.8 hr/day, then N = 2, select Ta 10.8 hr/day and adjust qa accordingly.
If 12 < Ta < 18 hr/day, it may be desirable to use different emitters or more emitters per plant to
operate closer to 90% of the time, providing this will reduce investment costs.
Step 14: Compute average emitter discharge (qa), letting Ta 21.6 hr/day using Eq. (11.51).
Step 15: Compute average emitter pressure head (ha)
11-62
March 2009
The average emitter pressure head that will produce the average emitter flowrate (qa). This can be
computed from the basic emitter discharge specifications. When the published data for the emitter
are given as a series of pressure heads versus discharges, x must be determined using the Eq.11.25.
q
h a = h a
q
(11.52)
or
q
h a = a
Kd
(11.53)
Where,
ha
= average emitter pressure head (m)
qa
= average rated emitted discharge (L/hr)
Kd
= emitter discharge coefficient.
To determine Kd and x, the discharge from an emitter at two different operating pressures must be
known [Section 11.6.2.1].
Step 16: Calculate minimum allowable emitter discharge (qn)
Karmelli and Keller (1975) developed the formula to estimate the emission uniformity for the
proposed design. The minimum allowable emitter discharge (qn) having the determined qa can be
estimated by:
qn =
qa EU
100(1.0 1.27 v s )
(11.54)
and
c
EU =100 1.0 1.27 v
Np
q
n
q
a
If qn > qa then, this would not be the reasonable calculation result.

Step 17: Calculate minimum permissible pressure head (hn)
The minimum permissible pressure head in any subunit is computed by:
q
h n = h a n
qa
(11.55)
Step 18: Compute allowable pressure head variation (hs)

Emitter performance is influenced by system pressures and emitter design. Variation is caused by
pressure differences, manufacturing variability, emitter blockage and wear and tear. The change in
operating pressure head in the subunit is caused by the friction loss. Allowable variation in subunit
pressure head is computed for the design purposes by:
h s = 2.5(h a h n )
(11.56)
Where,
hs
= allowable variation in subunit pressure head that will give an EU reasonably close to the
desired design value (m)
ha
= pressure head that will give the qa required to satisfy eq. (11.52 or 11.53) (m)
hn
= pressure head that will give the qn required to satisfy eq. (11.55) (m)
To satisfy the design EU, the pressure head must be held between hn and (hn + hs). If the
calculated hs is too small to allow for both pipe friction and elevation differences, adjustments are
necessary. The options are:
March 2009
11-63
Selection of another emitter with a lower v, x, or both

Providing more emitters per plant to increase Np
Choosing different emitter or rearranging the system to get higher ha or flexible design EU
requirement
Step 19: Calculate total system capacity (Qs)

The system capacity describes the maximum number of emitters operating at any given time
multiplied by average emitter discharge (qa). The capacity with any emitter layout for balanced
systems is computed by:
Qs = K
A Z Np qa
Ns Sp Sr
(11.57)
For uniformly spaced laterals and emitters,

Qs = K
Where,
Qs
K
Az
qa
Np
Ns
Sp
Sr
qa
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
A qa
Ns Se Sr
(11.58)
total system capacity (L/s)

conversion constant (K = 2.778)
field zone area (ha)
average emitter discharge (L/s)
number of emitter per plant
number of operating stations
spacing between plant (m)
spacing between rows (m)
average emitter discharge (L/s)
Step 20: Calculate gross seasonal volume of irrigation water required (Vs)
To compute Vs using Eq. 5.56, the net and gross seasonal irrigation depths Dn and Dg must be
computed using Eqs. (5.47 and 5.53 or 5.54).
Step 21: Calculating operation time per season (Qt)
The number of hours the pumping plant must be operated per year can be computed by:
Qt =K
Where,
Qt
K
Vs
Qs
=
=
=
=
VS
QS
(11.59)
average pump operating time per season (hr)

conversion constant (K = 2778)
total volume (m3)
total system capacity (L/s)
11.9.6
Lateral Line Design
11.9.6.1
System Hydraulics
Microirrigation lateral lines convey water from the headers or manifolds to emitters. The combination
of laterals and manifold pipe constitute a hydraulic subunit. The design process is used to size the
diameters and lengths of the lateral lines and manifold within a subunit in order to achieve an
acceptable level of emitter discharge variation. A general recommendation is to design the system to
have 50% of the subunit pressure head variation (hs) occur in the lateral lines (hl) and the 50%
to occur within manifold ((hm) (Keller and Bliesner, 1990). A good guiding principle for lateral
design is to ensure that lateral friction losses are less than 15% of the emitter operating pressure.
Emitter discharge rates of non-compensating emitters vary along the lateral due to internal pressure
changes associated with friction head losses and/or elevation head fluctuations. The location of the
11-64
March 2009
maximum and minimum emitter discharge rates is dependent on the lateral diameter and flow
related friction characteristics, emitter discharge rate characteristics and orientation of the lateral
(level, upward or downward slope). Therefore manufacturers variation needs to be considered in the
design of the laterals along with the flow variations that will occur due to pressure head changes.
When the Hazen-Williams friction head loss formula is used, the pressure head loss ratio (Ri) is
expressed as:
Ri =
L
h
= 1 1 i
H
L
2.852
(11.60)
Where, Ri is the pressure head loss ratio, which represents the fraction of the total pressure drop
that occurs at a location Li along a lateral of length L.
When laterals are laid on downward slope, dz/dL is negative and pressure head will initially decrease
with lateral line length (at a rate less than the uphill case) until a minimum value is reached, and
then will increase due to elevation head gains that are greater than friction head losses. Depending
on the slope, elevation head gains can closely match or even exceed friction head losses so that the
distal end pressure head of the lateral exceeds this inlet end pressure head.
This is shown for a hypothetical case where the minimum pressure head occurs at Li/L = 0.30, the
maximum pressure head occurs at Li = L and demonstrates that the location of pmax and pmin and
subsequently qmax and qmin is not predictable as upward or zero slopes orientation.
A typical scenario in Figure 11.38 shows effects of lateral operating on a slope and undulating
terrain. Indicate seepage from low lying emitters, effects of friction versus pressure gain. For a
lateral on an uniform slope, the pressure head (hi) at a position Li can be determined using the inlet
pressure (at Li = 0; hi= ho), the slope (s, positive for upward sloped laterals and negative for
downward sloping laterals), and the pressure head loss ratio Ri can be expressed as:
h i = h o - (s L i ) - R i h f
(11.61)
For level, constant-diameter laterals, approximately 75% of the pressure head loss occurs at a lateral
position of Li/L equal to 0.40 (Keller and Bliesner, 1990).
Lateral Tubing
Elevation Contours
Emitter
Submain
2.2
kPa
Ground
Level
2.3
kPa
2.6
kPa
Seepage
from Emitter
2.75
kPa
Figure 11.38 Elevation Effects on Lateral Distribution Uniformity (Van der Gulik, 1999)
A general relationship to estimate the lateral inlet pressure head (ho) for constant diameter laterals.
h o = h a + 0.5 (s L ) + 0.75 h f
March 2009
(11.62)
11-65
Where,
ho
ha
s
L
hf
=
=
=
=
=
lateral inlet pressure (m)

the average lateral pressure head (m)
slope (positive for upward sloped laterals and negative for downward slopping laterals).
length of the lateral (m)
friction head loss for the lateral (m).
An expression for the location of the minimum pressure in a downward slopping lateral (or manifold)
is derived (Zazueta and Smajstrala, 1995). This relationship is specific for use with Hazen-Williams
and multiple outlet based analysis as:
z
Lm
= 1
L
hf
Where.
Lm
=
z
=
hf
=
L
=
0.54
(11.63)
distance from the inlet of the lateral to the location of the minimum pressure (m)
elevation difference along the lateral (m)
friction head loss for the lateral pipe size without considering outlets
length of the pipe (m)
The minimum pressure head (hmin) in the lateral at the location (Lm) I given by:
h min = h o s (L m )
h f L m
1 1
2.852
L
2.852
(11.64)
Emitter flow variation of 10% or less is generally desirable, acceptable when between 10% and 20%
and unacceptable when greater than 20%. The emitter flowrate relationship (Eq. 11.24) can be used
with Eq. 11.37 to express the emitter flow variation in terms of maximum and minimum lateral
pressure heads as:
h
q var = 1 min
h max
= 1 (1 h var ) x
(11.65)
and
h var =
Where
hvar =
hmax =
hmin =
x
=
h max h min
h
= 1 min
h max
h max
(11.66)
is the lateral pressure head variation

is the maximum lateral pressure head
is the minimum pressure head
flow exponent
h min
1
= (1 q var ) x
h max
11.9.6.2
(11.67)
Lateral Design Steps
Computation requires information on the average slope for the lateral, the emitter discharge
characteristics, the emitter spacing and the lateral average desired operating or inlet pressure head.
A computer or spreadsheet analysis can simplify this procedure. Flowchart shown in Figure 11.39
illustrates the design steps. The computation steps are as follows:
11-66
March 2009
Step 1:
Get emitter characteristics (Kd, x, emitter spacing and CVm) and determine allowable emitter flow
variation (qvar) with Eq. 11.65 due to hydraulics for the subunit.
Step 2:
Compute acceptable pressure head ratio (hmin/hmax) using Eq. 11.67 based on allowable emitter flow
variation from Step 1.
Step 3:
Partition the allowable subunit pressure head variation from Step 2 between the lateral and the
manifold. Use 50/50 partitioning as an initial starting point. This ratio is adjusted as laterals are
designed to allow more or less variation to occur within the manifold to accommodate specific or
designed length, slope and orientation characteristics of laterals and the manifold.
Step 4: Select (assume) a lateral length (L) and inside diameter (D) for the lateral.
Step 5:
Determine the number of emitters (Ne) on the lateral by dividing the lateral length (L) by the emitter
spacing (Se). The length of the lateral can be computed as follows:
L = Ne Se
(11.67a)
Where, Ne is number of emitters along the lateral and Se is the spacing between emitters on the
lateral (m).
Step 6:
Specify a desired average operating pressure or head (ha) and then estimate of the average emitter
flowrate using Eq. 11.39 and lateral flowrate. The flowrate of a lateral within a subunit is computed
by:
QL = Ne qa
(11.68)
Where
QL
= average lateral flowrate (L/hr)
Ne
= number of emitters along the lateral
qa
= average emitter flowrate (L/hr)
If the inlet pressure head (ho) is fixed or already specified, use that value as an initial estimate of the
average pressure head (ha)
Step 7:
Estimate the total friction head loss using both Eqs. 11.13 and 11.23 with ha and lateral flowrate
from Step 6.
Step 8:
Calculate the lateral inlet pressure head (ho) using Eq. 11.62. If the value is fixed or specified,
rearrange Eq. 11.62 to calculate ha and compare with estimated value of ha from Step 6. If those
values are very different, repeat Steps 6 and 7. Variation of calculated and estimated values of 1 to
2% are generally acceptable.
Step 9: If the lateral is downward sloping orientation, go to Step 12.
Step 10:
If the lateral is on an upward sloping orientation compare elevation head (s L) with the allowable
pressure head loss (hmax hmin). If the elevation head loss exceeds the allowable pressure head loss,
then the lateral length must be decreased or another lateral orientation must be chosen that reduces
elevation head losses.
March 2009
11-67
Start
Select Emitter Configuration and

Determine Emitter Flow Variation (qvar)
using Eq. 11.37
Compute Allowable Pressure Ratio using Eq. 11.67

Based on Step 1
Partition the Allowable Pressure Head Variation

50/50 as Intial Start for Manifold and Laterals
Determine Maximum Lateral Length from

Field Layout and Select Diameter
Determine Number of Emitters

from Step 5
Calculate Total Lateral Flow

(Use Eqs. 11.51 and 11.68)
Estimate Frcition Head Loss

(Use Eqs. 11.30 and 11.40)
Calculate Lateral Inlet Pressure (ho) using Eq.
11.62. If ho is fixed then Rearrange Equation and
Calculate (ha) and Compare with Desired Emitter
Operating Head (ha) using Eq. 11.52 or 11.53
No
Is It
Acceptable (1-2%) ?
Yes
If Upward Slope
If Level or Acceptable
Upward Slope
Confirm
Orientation of the Laterals
If Downward Slope
Step 11
Step 10
Step 12
Compute Flow Variation (qvar)

(Use Eq. 11.65)
Check
Is It
Acceptable ?
No, then Step 15

Shorten the Lateral Length, Select
Large Diameter
(Less or Equal)
Accept the Design
End
Figure 11.39 Flowchart Illustrating Lateral Design Process
11-68
March 2009
Step 11:
If the lateral is on a level or acceptable uphill sloping orientation, calculate the distal end pressure
head using Eq. 11.64 (hi = hL and Ri = 1 at Li = L) and then determine the pressure head ratio and
resultant emitter flow variation (qvar) using Eq. 11.65 with the inlet and distal end pressure heads
compare with Step 1. Go to Step 13.
Step 12:
Compute a pressure head loss profile using Eq. 11.61 with the value of ho from Step 8 for about 10
equally spaced segments along the total lateral length and identify the maximum and minimum
pressure head values. As an alternative to computing a pressure head loss profile Eqs. 11.63 and
11.64 can also be used to estimate the location and the value of the minimum pressure head. Then
determine the pressure head ratio and resultant emitter flow variation (qvar) using Eq. 11.65 and
compare with the criteria established in Step 1.
Step 13:
If the computed value of qvar is less than or equal to the initial design criteria, accept the design.
Step 14:
If the computed value qvar is substantially less than the initial design criteria, consider increasing the
lateral length or decreasing the diameter and repeat the design procedure.
Step 15:
If the computed value of qvar is substantially greater than the initial design criteria, adjust the design
criteria as appropriate or reject the design and repeat the design procedure using a shorter length, a
larger diameter, and/or by adjusting the operating pressure head.
Step 16:
When the lateral design is accepted, review and establish the allowable pressure head variation
along the manifold based on the subunit flow and pressure head variation criteria established in
Steps 1, 2, and 3. When the new manifold pressure head variation criteria appear acceptable,
proceed with the manifold design.
11.9.7 Manifolds Design
11.9.7.1
System Hydraulics
The manifold pipe supplies water from the mainline to the lateral pipelines. Design principles are
similar to laterals and the previously discussed procedures and equations can be applied. The
manifolds should be designed with sufficient capacity to convey water within safe flow velocity
guidelines and to maintain an acceptable pressure head variation across inlets to all lateral lines.
Sometimes a small header pipe may be used to supply water from main manifold to 2 - 4 lateral
lines. Better pressure control can be achieved by installing pressure regulators on the supply to each
header.
Manifolds line can be buried to ease the field operation. Submain feeding laterals and mainline
feeding submain from one end connections are shown in Figures 11.40 and 11.41. Figure 11.42
shows detailed of a manifold connection from the submain to the laterals. Guidelines to consider
when designing manifold lines are:
For long crop rows, the manifold should bisect the crop row to shorten the lateral line
length. On flat level land the manifold is normally oriented the rows in the middle.
The lateral run downhill can be longer than the run towards uphill. Where possible, manifold
should be fed from the centre. It often makes easier to design the system within the
pressure range that is required.
The manifold is installed on the contour whenever possible. If this is not possible care must
be taken to ensure that the elevation difference is within the pressure range allowed for the
emitter selected.
Safe flow velocity guidelines must be followed.
March 2009
11-69
Manifold pipes are normally placed up/down the slope; elevation head differences are often greater
than in the laterals. Pressure head losses on steep upward slope orientations may require high inlet
pressures to the manifold to compensate for the distal end elevation head losses. Larger pipe sizes
may be needed to minimize friction head losses. These conditions may result in non-uniform or
higher than desired pressure head levels along the manifold and may require pressure regulators for
several or all laterals.
Pressure head gains on steep downward slope orientations may require pressure reducing valves to
ensure an acceptable level of pressure head variation along the manifold. Pressure head losses on
steep upward slope orientations need high inlet pressures to the manifold to compensate for the
distal end elevation head losses. Sometimes small pipe sizes are used to balance elevation head
gains with friction head losses but safe flow velocity must be followed.
18 m
16 m
14 m
Automatic
Valve
Laterals
Pressure
Regulator
Submain
Mainline
20 m
Elevation
Contours
Figure 11.40 Submain from One End With Header and Laterals Connection (Van der Gulik, 1999)
Figure 11.41 Submain from one End with Header and Laterals Connection (Van der Gulik, 1999)
11-70
March 2009
150 to
200 mm
(6"-8")
Ground Level
450 mm
(18")
Polyethylene
Lateral
PVC or
Large Diameter
Polyethylene Pipe
PVC Submain
Figure 11.42 A Buried Manifold with Laterals Connection (Van der Gulik, 1999)
11.9.7.2
Manifold Design Steps
Step 1: Determine the manifold length of a zone

Manifolds extend in opposite directions from a main line outlet referred as a pair of manifolds and
only one manifold is connected to an outlet referred as a single-manifold configuration. The length of
a single manifold is given by:
L sm = (Nr 0.5) S r
(11.69)
The length of a pair of manifolds is given by:

L pm = (N r 1) S r
Where,
Lsm
=
Lpm =
Nr
=
Sr
=
(11.70)
length of a single manifold (m)

length of a pair of manifolds (m)
number of rows served from a common main line outlet
row or lateral spacing (m)
Step 2: Determine discharge rate for a zone manifold

Q m = NL Q L
(11.71)
Where,
Qm
= discharge for a manifold (m3/s)
NL
= no of laterals
QL
= total discharge per lateral
Step 3: Select manifold diameter that has an acceptable flow velocity (< 1.5 m/s) using Appendix
11.G to test.
Step 4: Calculate friction head loss (hfm) for multiple outlet using both Eqs. 11.22 and 11.23.
Step 5: Calculate head loss variation
The manifold pressure head variation hm for level and uphill manifolds is estimated by the following
equations:
L
h m = h fm + s m
100
March 2009
for s 0
(11.72)
11-71
For downhill manifolds when E < hfm,

0.36 L m
h m = h fm + s 1.0
n 100

for s < 0
(11.73)
Where,
hm
= pressure head variation along the manifold (m)
hfm
= manifold pipe friction head loss (m)
S
= slope of the manifold which is positive (+) for uphill and negative (-) for downhill
manifolds (m)
Lm
= length of a manifold (m)
n
= number of pipe sizes used in the manifold.
Step 6: Estimate the inlet pressure head for the manifold using Eq. 11.86 by rewritten of Eq. 11.62
In this case, ha term in the Eq. 11.62 will be the inlet pressure of the manifold. The Eq. 11.62 can be
rewritten for the manifold as:
h mo = h ma + 0.5 (s )(L m ) + 0.75 h fm
(11.74)
Where,
hmo
= inlet pressure for the manifold (m)
hma
= average operating pressure head for lateral along the manifold (m)
h
Step 7: Determine pressure head variation m
h ma
h
The pressure head ratio m
h ma
hm
1
=
hma hma
is computed using the Eq. 11.75,
1.852
5Q
4.2 10 4.87 + s
(11.75)
For upward slope condition, elevation head losses for manifolds may exceed an acceptable pressure
head loss based on the desired pressure head ratio and operating pressure. In this condition, the
operating pressure must be increased to compensate for the elevation head losses or a different
manifold orientation may need to be investigated.
For downward slope condition, hm/hma is negative. This indicates that total elevation end gains
exceed total friction losses. If the absolute value of hm/hma is less than the desired pressure head
ratio, the selected pipe size is acceptable. However, it should be followed to assess the true locations
of the maximum and minimum pressure heads and resulting pressure head ratio. Smaller pipe size
may be used but it may exceed of the allowable limit of flow velocity. So, larger pipe sizes with
pressure regulation components need to be incorporated into the design for some downslope
orientations.
Step 8: Determine the location of the minimum pressure head of the manifold using Eq. 11.75 by
rewritten of Eq. 11.63.
L m in
Lm
z
= 1
h fm
0.54
(11.76)
Where.
Lmin = is the distance from the inlet of the lateral to the location of the minimum pressure (m),
z
= is the elevation difference along the lateral
11-72
March 2009
Step 9: Estimate the minimum pressure head for the manifold using Eq. 11.76 by rewritten of Eq.
11.64.
h min = h m o s (L min )
h fm L min
1 1
2.852
Lm
2.852
(11.77)
Step 10: The maximum pressure head which will be at the distal end of the lateral that can be
calculated using the equation 11.77.
h max = h ma + Z h fm
(11.78)
Step 11: Calculate the resulting pressure head variation using the Eq. 11.66.
h var =
h max h min
h
= 1 min
h max
h max
Step 12: Check the resulting pressure head variation with respect to the maximum pressure head
variation. The resulting pressure head variation should be less than maximum pressure head
variation (hvar < hmax).
Step 13: Calculate the Emission Uniformity using the estimated minimum emitter discharge at the
minimum pressure location of the lateral. With an expected average emitter discharge rate and
manufacturers variation EU is calculated using Eq. 11.28. If estimated EU of the subunit should have
equal or more of the design EU for the selected lateral and manifold design conditions.
11.9.7.3
Manifold Spacing (Sm)
A manifold spacing must be selected to establish the lateral length. It is convenient to have the same
spacing throughout the field. The procedure for selecting the manifold spacing is:
Step 1: Inspect the field layout and select a reasonable manifold spacing based on a whole number
of tree spacing of adjacent manifolds.
Step 2: Determine the lateral pipe friction loss (hf) with laterals half as long as Sm by the Eq. 11.13
and 11.23.
Step 3: Compare hf with allowable head variation hs for a subunit. If hf is much larger than 0.5hs,
the manifold spacing should be decreased. Manifold spacing may be increased if hf is much smaller.
11.9.7.4
Multiple Manifold/Submain Pipe Size Friction Loss Calculation
For longer submains it is often much cheaper to reduce the submain pipe size as the flow decreases.
Not only is the pipe cheaper but fitting costs are reduced substantially. The Uniplot Method shown in
Appendix 11.L can be used to design submains where more than one pipe size is to be used.
However, for simple submain designs Appendix 11-M can be used to determine submain size.
11.9.8
Flushing Manifold
Microirrigation systems usually require line flushing as part of an overall maintenance schedule. The
sufficient flow must be available to exit the material from the line. Flushing is very important for
subsurface drip irrigation system. About 50 or more lines can be flushed at the same time by using
the flushing valve at the end of the flushing line. The size of both the header and flushing manifold
may be dictated by the flushing requirement rather than the irrigation requirement if flushing is done
by this method. The flush valve must be sized correctly to ensure sufficient flow is achieved.
March 2009
11-73
11.9.8.1
Inlet Pressure
The pressure required at the zone inlet to ensure adequate flushing will depend on:
The lateral friction loss for the flow that passes through the lateral as flushing water.
The lateral friction loss for the flow that is discharged through the emitters.
The pressure required at the flushing manifold including:
- friction in the flushing manifold
- friction through the flushout valve
- elevation change between the end of the lateral and the discharge from the flush valve
- hanges in elevation along the line may also need to be considered
- friction loss of fittings
Overcoming the pressure losses in the flushing manifold will require a higher pressure in the lateral
line. The inlet pressure ranged 5 20 kPa are reasonable to design for a dripline downstream
pressure during flushing. The higher lateral operating pressure may increase the emitter flowrates
which increase lateral friction losses. The friction losses for various valves that may be used for
flushing are shown in Table 11.31.
Table 11.31 Valve Friction Losses
Flow
(gpm)
Nominal Valve Size (inch)

Loss (psi)
Conversion Factor:
1 psi = 6.90 kPa = 0.70 m, 1 kPa = 0.145 psi, 1 m = 10 kPa

1 US gpm = 0.063 L/min, 1 L/min = 0.265 US gpm
1 US gallon = 0.0038 m3 or 3.79 litres and 1 m3 = 264.2 US gallons
11.9.8.2
Flushing Flowrate
A minimum flow velocity of 0.3 m/s (1 ft/s) is suggested. Table 11.32 provides the discharge
flowrate that is required to achieve a flow velocity of 0.3 m/s at the end of the lateral for various
lateral sizes.
11-74
March 2009
Table 11.32 Suggested Lateral Flushing Rates

Lateral Size
(Nominal)
Lateral Internal
Diameter
(inches I.D.)
Flowrate (gpm)
Flowrate (gpm)
(Flow Velocity - 1 ft/sec)
(Flow Velocity - 0.3

m/sec)
10 mm
0.4
0.39
1.48
13 mm
0.52
0.66
2.50
15 mm
0.6
0.88
3.33
16 mm
0.62
0.94
3.56
20 mm
0.82
1.65
6.25
26 mm
1.05
2.75
10.41
3/8 in
0.375
0.34
1.29
1/2 in
0.6
0.88
3.33
3/4 in
0.82
1.65
6.25
1 in
1.05
2.75
10.41
11.9.8.3
Design Guidelines
Flushing manifold only needs to carry the amount of flow that is exiting the lateral line. The flushing
manifold should also have a minimum flow rate of 0.30 m/s to be flushed properly. At the same time
pressure loss through the manifold should be kept to a minimum to ensure adequate flushing and
cleaning. The pipe line should be selected as small as possible with allowable friction loss. Table
11.33 provides the flow rate required to achieve a flow velocity of 0.3 m/s for nominal PVC pipe.
Table 11.33 Flushing Header PVC Pipe Sizes
Nominal Pipe Size
(inch)
1.0
1.25
1.5
2.0
2.5
11.9.9
Minimum Flowrate to Achieve 0.30 m/s

(mm)
12.7
19.05
25.4
31.75
38.10
50.8
63.5
(L/min)
4.54
7.57
11.36
18.93
24.60
41.64
56.78
Mainline Pipe Design Procedure
There are four common types of pipe material used in irrigation systems are: Aluminum, Steel,
PolyVinyl Chloride (PVC) and Polyethylene. Mainline pipes convey water from the pump to the
manifolds and lateral network. The selection of an adequate mainline to deliver water from the
source to the irrigation system depends on:
The
The
The
The
The
amount of water to be supplied

friction loss in the pipe is acceptable
type of pipe and length of the pipe
safe water velocity (below 1.5 m/s)
pipeline is economical
The Tables in Appendices 11.H to 11.L can be used to size the mainline pipe. The main lines must
supply filtered and treated water to each subunit. It is usually best to layout mainlines so that the
flow is splitted as close to the supply end as possible. The direction is parallel or at right angles to
the rows and their length is as short as practical.
March 2009
11-75
Different methods are used to determine the main line pipe size. The recommended technique is the
economic method. Other methods are:
(i)
Unit head loss method
The head loss per unit length is set (i.e., 2.0 m/100 m)
(ii)
Velocity method
A permissible velocity is set usually 1.5 m/s. Each size of pipe for flowrate limitation is:
Q=
VD 2
K
Where,
Q
=
K
=
V
=
D
=
flowrate (L/s)
conversion constant (K = 1273)
velocity of flow in pipe (m/s)
inside diameter of pipe (mm)
(iii)
Percent head loss method
(11.79)
A limit on the friction head loss in the main line network is set usually 10-20% of the desired average
operating pressure. Mainlines and submains (including manifolds) are generally buried PVC plastic
pipe. Laterals or feeder lines need to be installed as nearly level as possible. On sloping fields
submains and mainlines should be installed up and down the slope. A 1.5 m of elevation change
represents about 14 kPa changes and this can change emitter discharge more than the allowable 10
percent in low pressure systems. To maintain uniform pressure at outlets to laterals the designer
should consider the following:
Divide the submains into shorter lengths so that less than a 1.5 m drop exists between inlet
of the mainline and lowest outlet to a lateral pipeline.
Install pressure regulators at each outlet to laterals.
Install flow regulators at each outlet to laterals.
Use pressure compensating emitters where needed.
Size submains and laterals to reduce and sometimes nearly eliminate friction losses.
Provide adequate pressure regulators to operate pressure and flow at design discharge.
11.9.10
Control Head or Station
The designers need to determine the total irrigation system needs. These include settling basins,
screens, filters, pumps, flow meters, fertilizer injectors, chlorine or acid injectors, mainlines,
submains, laterals, emitters, valves (both manual and electric valves for automatic operation),
pressure gauges, drains, timer clocks, and soil moisture monitoring devices. Not all systems require
all equipment. Important features have been described in the previous sections to select components
of the control head.
The final portion of the irrigation design process consists of selecting components of the control
station. One critical aspect of the control station is the selection of a suitable filtration system. It is
an essential component of all microirrigation systems. The most common filtration components used
are media filters (sand, crushed granite, etc.) in conjunction with screen filters. Another filtration
device sometimes used is a sand separator, which removes sand particles before water enters the
media or screen filters. The filters must be selected to handle the flowrate and desired water quality
for the system. Filters must be cleaned periodically and can be provided with manual, semiautomatic or automatic flush controls. Tables and charts are available from manufacturers showing
rated flow and other characteristics for filter selection. Detailed about selecting filters is provided in
Section 11.7. It is sometimes desirable to install screen filters at each submain or at each lateral as a
backup or final filter component (Figures 11.43).
11-76
March 2009
The control station also should have components for backflow prevention to prevent water that is
contaminated in any way from flowing back into the water supply. This is of particular concern when
any type of chemical is injected into the irrigation water. Another component at the control station is
a chemigation or injection station, consisting of some type of injection device, a supply tank and
injection ports for placing fertilizers, chlorine or other chemicals in the irrigation water. Injection
stations should be installed between backflow prevention equipment and the main filters. At least 810 m of pipeline should separate the injection point and the main filters. This arrangement will give
adequate time for any chemical reactions so that if precipitates (solid particles) result from injection
they can be caught by the filters.
A variety of pressure gauges and other control devices also must be selected that are compatible
with the pipe size and flow requirements of the system. Regular monitoring of accurate pressure
gauges will detect many kinds of problems that may occur in a microirrigation system. A flow meter
should be installed on every microirrigation system. Although not necessary for operation, a flow
meter is one of the best tools available for monitoring the system. Decreases in flow can indicate
system plugging. Propeller type flow meters are more accurate and therefore more useful than pitot
type meters, especially for needed procedures like chlorination. Cumulative flow amounts, which
propeller meters show, can help in irrigation scheduling.
(a) In submain Filter
(b) In lateral Line Filter
Figure 11.43 In Line Filters Installation (Van der Gulik, 1999)

When a microirrigation system is automated, a controller that opens and doses valves to each zone
is used. This controller must be selected based on the number of valves and other components that
are to be controlled. The controller may start and stop the pump, back-flush the filters, and operate
the fertilizer injection system as well as open and close valves in the field.
11.9.11
Total Dynamic Head (TDH) and Pump Selection
The total dynamic head or system inlet head is straightforward. This can be determined using Eq.
11.10. Safety factor is added usually 10% to the friction losses. A separate safety factor can be
added to the TDH for compensation for emitter plugging and degradation (For detailed, Please see
Chapter 8).
11.10
DESIGN APPLICATION OF MICROIRRIGATION SYSTEMS
11.10.1
Subsurface Drip Irrigation System (SDI)
Subsurface drip irrigation (SDI) system provides water and nutrients directly to the plant root zone
through built-in emitters on polyethylene tubes that are buried below the soil surface. Water drips to
the surrounding soil through built-in emitters (specialized small openings). SDI places water directly
March 2009
11-77
into the root zone of the crop. The objectives of SDI systems are to improve crop yield and quality;
maintain a dry soil surface to reduce weed growth, moisture loss and diseases; and achieve a broad
lateral spread throughout the soil profile that maximizes the wetted root volume and minimizes
percolation losses. The discharge rate of the emitter is usually 7.5 L/hr (ASAE, 2001). The design,
maintenance and installation of SDI systems are different from that of surface systems. SDI systems
can have long life expectancy, but good design and maintenance are required. Clogging of drip line
emitters is the primary reason for the system failure. SDI system has higher initial investment costs
compared to traditional types of irrigation systems.
There are also challenges associated with the burial of drip irrigation lines. These include:
water being piped to the soil surface through passage caused by the flushing of sand and
clay particles close to the emitter outlet and through a vertical path to the soil surface;
root intrusion plugging the emitter;
flow being restricted by the lateral lines becoming pinched upon installation or as a result of
soil compaction over time;
reduced flowrates in buried emitters of 10 20% due to hydraulic pressure that builds up in
the saturated soil around the emitter;
it is not easy to check the system visually to determine if it is operating properly.
11.10.1.1 System Components
A good first step toward maintaining a profitable SDI system is proper selection of the system
components. Figure 11.44 shows the basic components of a typical SDI system and a general
organization of the components. These basic components are required for any system. An SDI
system can function without all of the listed components, but it may be difficult to manage and
maintain and may perform poorly.
Submain continues
to other zones
Flush valve, air/vacuum relief

and pressure gauge
Flushline
Driplines or laterals
Zone 2 valve and controls
Zone 1 valve and controls
Manifold or header
Air/vacuum relief
Chemical
tank
Injector
pump
Submain
Mainline
Mainline continues
to other submains
Pressure
gauge
Water
meter
Pump
Backflow
prevention
device
System
controlled and
monitoring
Antisiphon
valve
Filtration
system
Pressure
regulator
Figure 11.44 Schematic of a SDI System (Burt and Styles, 1994)
11-78
March 2009
Important considerations for selecting components are:
The size of the pump will depend on the water supply capacity, system pressure needs, zone
size (area to be irrigated at one time), and the filter and flush line flushing requirements.
Water quality, emitter requirements, and system flowrate are important filtering factors.
The manufacturers emitter rating and the pipeline pressure losses during the delivery of the
water to the dripline connection point are important considerations.
The types of chemicals used, rate of injection, method of injection, and the precision
required are determining factors in selection of the best type of injector.
The pressure regulator must be sized to provide this pressure while accounting for pressure
losses that occur between the regulator and the emitters.
System pressure, required flowrates, water hammer, and pipe cost are the consideration
factors for consideration.
Tubing wall thickness, emitter spacing, discharge rate, soil texture, and soil water holding
capacity are considerations because these affect plant root zone water content and
distribution.
Emitters are typically rated by manufacturers to provide a specific flowrate if operated at a
given pressure.
11.10.1.2 Planning and Design Considerations
(i)
Crops
The adaptation of SDI system into diverse cropping systems is unpredictable and depends on the
geographical region, soils, and climate conditions. Crops that are cultivated successfully under SDI
systems are strawberries, peppers, chillies, lettuce, broccoli, beans, peanuts, onions, tomatos, water
melons, maize, coffee, tea trees, grazing, and nuts. When irrigating with saline water, it is advisable
to place the dripper lines shallower. This will prevent built-up of salts in the active root zone.
(ii)
Soil Preparation
Subsurface drip irrigation is usually buried for a period of 10 years and more. Therefore it is very
important to do proper soil preparation first. If proper soil preparation is done, there should be no
difficulty to insert the laterals in the soil. It will also ease to install the laterals at a uniform depth.
Installation should be avoided during the high rainfall period and too wet soil condition. Three
different positions of placing the subsurface drip irrigation system are:
(iii)
Shallow - 0.5- 10cm deep

Medium 10- 25cm deep
Deep deeper than 25 cm
Field Size, Shape, and Slope
SDI system can be successfully used on a variety of fields. The most limiting factor is field slope,
especially undulating or variable multidirectional sloped fields. In general, surface furrow irrigated
fields can be irrigated by an SDI system with few design difficulties. If sufficient water is available,
the field size, shape, and topography, along with the dripline hydraulic characteristics, will dictate the
number of zones. Minimizing the number of necessary zones will result in a more economical system
to install and operate. Whenever possible, dripline laterals should be installed downslope on slopes of
less than 2 percent. On steeper terrain, the driplines should be placed along the field contour and/or
techniques for pressure control should be used. Since subsurface runoff occurs on areas with a slope
of greater than 3%, consideration must be given to dripline density from the top to the bottom of
the slope. The dripline on the top two-thirds of the slope should be placed at the recommended
spacings for the soil type and plant material in use. On the lower one-third, the driplines should be
spaced 25% wider. The last dripline can be eliminated on slopes exceeding 5%. For areas exceeding
ten feet in elevation change, zone the lower one-third of the slope separately from the upper twothirds to help control drainage.
March 2009
11-79
(iv)
Water Quality
Water quality is an important consideration for SDI. Water quality can have a significant effect on
performance and longevity of subsurface drip irrigation (SDI) system. In some instances, poor water
quality, such as high salinity, can cause soil quality and crop growth problems. However, proper
treatment and management of water with high mineral loading, nutrient enrichment, or high salinity
can be used successfully in SDI systems. No system should be designed and installed without
assessing the quality of the proposed irrigation water supply.
(v)
Root Intrusion and System Longevity
Emitter plugging due to root intrusion is major problem with SDI system, but can be minimized by
chemicals, emitter design and irrigation management. Smaller orifices have less root intrusion but
are more susceptible to plugging by particulate matter. Some emitters are constructed with physical
barriers to root intrusion. Root intrusion appears to be more severe where emitters are located in
areas of preferential root growth, such as along seams of thin-walled tubes. However, root intrusion
problems appear to be greater for emitters, tubes, and porous tubes that are not chemically treated.
Irrigation management can influence root intrusion by controlling the environment immediately
adjacent to the emitter. When injecting chemicals into SDI system, the entire system should be
thoroughly flushed after each injection event.
11.10.1.3 Design Parameters
Design of SDI systems is similar to that of surface drip systems, especially with regard to hydraulic
characteristics. However, special attention is required for water filtration, proper number and location
of air-vacuum relief and check valves, pressure regulation, flow measurement, and flushing for
successful SDI systems. Air-vacuum relief valves are needed to prevent aspiration of soil particles
into emitter openings when the system is depressurized. Water filtration is often more critical for SDI
systems than for surface drip systems because the consequences of emitter plugging are more
severe and more costly. The specific crop and soil essentially determine the system capacity, emitter
spacing, and lateral depth and spacing. If water supplies are not limiting, system capacity, along with
effective precipitation and stored water, must satisfy peak crop water requirements.
The system can be designed with or without a collection manifold to flush the system. A SDI system
should be designed to have discharge uniformity (EU) of 90% to 95%. Narrow, linear tree and shrub
plantings require narrow, linear subsurface grids consisting of two to four laterals. More intense
plantings that provide a complete foliage canopy at maturity require a grid design that applies
uniform moisture levels within the foliage canopy (dense shrub and tree plantings).
(i)
Irrigation System Capacity (Qs)
The general recommendation is that SDI systems should be designed to provide full irrigation. SDI
systems with less than full irrigation capacity, must adjust their management strategies to recognize
the increased risk. The desired irrigation capacity, combined with the pump or well discharge
capacity, determines the number of acres that can be irrigated.
(ii)
Dripper/Emitter Types
The selection of drippers is of crucial importance. It makes no sense to select drippers designed only
for one or two of seasons. It should be functional for 5-10 years. Drippers with turbulent flow paths
are much more resistant to clogging than drippers with a laminar flow path. The wider, deeper and
shorter the flow path in the dripper, the less the chance is of clogging. Pressure compensating
drippers and lower discharge rates of drippers; allow longer runs of laterals, while staying within the
design norms. The danger of high discharge rate drippers is the possibility of deep percolation. There
are claims being made those drippers with a split or flap opening, provide more resistance against
root intrusion into the drippers. It is recommended to use drippers where the filter/intake of the
dripper itself, is located in the area of cleaner water away from the sidewall of the lateral.
11-80
March 2009
The following considerations are important when determining the most suitable emitter products:
Pressure compensating versus non-pressure compensating dripline: Toro recommends that pressurecompensating dripline be used when long runs, steep slopes and rolling terrain are factors in your
design. Use non-pressure-compensating dripline in applications with less than 20 PSI pressure in flat
areas. On steep slopes, design the system so that the dripline lateral follows the contours of the
slope. If this is possible, the extra cost of pressure regulators required for non-pressurecompensating dripline will likely be less than the incremental cost of pressure-compensating dripline.
If forced to run the dripline perpendicular to the contours of the slope, pressure-compensating
dripline may be the only solution. Rolling terrain is the most difficult situation for subsurface drip,
due to the risk of soil ingestion. If the difference in height from trough to peak exceeds six feet,
pressure-compensating dripline should be used. Vacuum relief valves must be placed at the top of
each rise.
Using Microline in Subsurface Drip Irrigation: Microline is ideal for small, tight areas because of its
flexibility. It can also be used to loop around trees and bushes. It is often used to retrofit sprinkler
risers and bubblers to subsurface drip because it easily attaches to a multi-outlet manifold.
(iii)
Dripper/Emitter Spacing
Emitter spacing ranging from 10 to 76 cm is readily available from the manufacturers, and other
spacing can be made to meet specific application. It is advisable to lay out dripper test lines to
determine the lateral water movement in the soil. The wetted soil volume with the same dripper is
bigger for subsurface than on surface. Many field tests have showed that the wetted radius of the
subsurface drip is 80% compared to the surface drip. So, the wetted radius for SDI is:
(Wetted Radius)SDI = (Wetted Radius)DI x 0.80
(iv)
(11.80)
Dripline Spacing
Dripline spacing is usually one dripline per row/bed or an alternate row/bed middle pattern (Figure
11.45) with one dripline per bed or between two rows. SDI systems on some widely spaced tree
crops may have multiple driplines between tree rows to wet a larger portion of the canopy floor. In
review of SDI, dripline spacing from 0.25 to 5.0 m is often used for vegetables and tree crops. The
soil and rooting characteristics affect the required spacing, but there is general agreement that the
alternate row/bed dripline spacing abut 1.5 m is adequate for most of the deep-rooted agronomic
crops on medium to heavy structured soils.
Driplin
e
Driplin
e
Figure 11.45 Alternate Row/Bed SDI Dripline Spacing for Corn Rows (Lamm et al. 2007)
March 2009
11-81
The line spacing is often determined by the row spacing of the crop while the emitter spacing is
determined by plant spacing within the row. The line spacing should be determined by estimating
the lateral extent of the crop root zone and the lateral movement of water in the soil. For crops
grown in beds less than 0.75 m wide one drip line should be sufficient. Crops grown in beds that are
wider than 0.75 m may require more than one drip line per bed. Lateral spacing will depend on the
crop rooting depth, mulching and soil factors. Table 11.34 can be used as the guideline to determine
the burial depth and corresponding lateral spacing for SDI systems. TORO Manufacturer Company
recommends the spacing guidelines to determine the proper emitter and lateral spacing. As shown in
Table 11.35)
Table 11.34 Drip Tape Spacing and Burial Depth Guidelines (Rainbird, 2008)
Crops
Burial Depth (mm)
Line Spacing (m)
Tree fruits
> 400
As per as spacing
Berries
> 200
As per as spacing
Row Crops
> 300
Maximum of 1.5
Raised Bed Single Row
50 - 100
One line offset 100 150

mm from centre of bed
Raised Bed Double Rows
50 - 100
One line down centre of

bed
Raised Bed Double Rows > 0.75 m width
75 - 150
Two lines spaced the

bed width apart.
Table 11.35 Dripline Spacing Guidelines (TORO, 2008)

Soil Types
Emitter Spacing
(cm)
Row Spacing
Emitter Flow
Burial Depth
(cm)
(L/min)
(cm)
Medium Sand
30
45
3.79
10
Loam
45
45
3.79
15
Clay
60
60
1.90
15
(v)
Wall Thickness of Driplines/Laterals
Under normal circumstances thin wall dripper lines (0.1 - 0.6 mm) are installed subsurface. This is
possible because the dripper lines are protected underground. This reduces the cost of the dripper
lines. It is possible that deeper installation of drippers (> 200 mm) can cause a reduction of 10-20%
in the flow. This is the result of the soil pressure on top of the drippers. This might be possible
where very thin wall thickness (0.1 - 0.2 mm) products are being used at operating pressures of 50
80 kPa (0.5 0.8 Bar). However experiences have showed that a wall thickness < 0.3 mm is very
susceptible is to insect damage.
(vi)
Emitter Flowrate
Wide ranges of emitter flowrates are available from the various dripline manufacturers. The
evapotranspiration needs of the crop have little influence on choice of emitter flowrate because most
emitter flowrates and dripline spacings have specification rates well in excess of peak reference ETc
(Table 11.36). The choice of emitter must take into consideration the soil hydraulic properties to
avoid backpressure on emitters and surfacing of water. Emitter flowrate reductions can be attributed
up to 50% due to backpressure. The controlling factors for the existence of backpressure and the
emitter flowrate reduction are soil type, emitter flowrate, presence of cavities around the emitter and
SDI hydraulic properties (Shani et al. 1996).
11-82
March 2009
Table 11.36 Application Rate (mm/hr) for Various Combinations of Emitter Flowrates and Emitter and
Dripline Spacings (Lamm et al. 2007)
Emitter
Spacing, cm
Dripline
Spacing, m
10.2
20.3
30.5
45.6
61.0
76.2
0.50
10.2
20.3
30.5
45.6
61.0
76.2
0.75
10.2
20.3
30.5
45.6
61.0
76.2
1.00
10.2
20.3
30.5
45.6
61.0
76.2
1.50
10.2
20.3
30.5
45.6
61.0
76.2
2.00
10.2
20.3
30.5
45.6
61.0
76.2
3.00
Emitter Flowrate, L/h

0.60
0.80
1.00
2.00
11.76 15.69
9.85
7.88
5.91
6.56 13.11
5.25
3.93
8.77
4.39
3.51
2.63
6.56
3.28
2.62
1.97
5.25
2.62
2.10
1.57
0.20
3.92
1.97
1.31
0.88
0.66
0.52
0.50
9.80
4.93
3.28
2.19
1.64
1.31
3.79
7.57
2.61
1.31
0.87
0.58
0.44
0.35
6.54
3.28
2.19
1.46
1.09
0.87
7.84
3.94
2.62
1.75
1.31
1.05
10.46
5.25
3.50
2.34
1.75
1.40
13.07
6.57
4.37
2.92
2.19
1.75
13.14
8.74
5.85
4.37
3.50
16.57
11.08
8.28
6.63
16.55
13.25
1.96
0.99
0.66
0.44
0.33
0.26
4.90
2.46
1.64
1.10
0.82
0.66
5.88
2.96
1.97
1.32
0.98
0.79
7.84
3.94
2.62
1.75
1.31
1.05
9.80
4.93
3.28
2.19
1.64
1.31
9.85
6.56
4.39
3.28
2.62
18.67
12.43
8.31
6.21
4.97
16.60
12.41
9.93
1.31
0.66
0.44
0.29
0.22
0.17
3.27
1.64
1.09
0.73
0.55
0.44
3.92
1.97
1.31
0.88
0.66
0.52
5.23
2.63
1.75
1.17
0.87
0.70
6.54
3.28
2.19
1.46
1.09
0.87
13.07
6.57
4.37
2.92
2.19
1.75
12.45
8.28
5.54
4.14
3.32
16.55
11.07
8.27
6.62
0.98
0.49
0.33
0.22
0.16
0.13
2.45
1.23
0.82
0.55
0.41
0.33
2.94
1.48
0.98
0.66
0.49
0.39
3.92
1.97
1.31
0.88
0.66
0.52
4.90
2.46
1.64
1.10
0.82
0.66
9.80
4.93
3.28
2.19
1.64
1.31
18.58
9.33
6.21
4.16
3.11
2.49
18.65
12.41
8.30
6.20
4.97
0.65
0.33
0.22
0.15
0.11
0.09
1.63
0.82
0.55
0.37
0.27
0.22
1.96
0.99
0.66
0.44
0.33
0.26
2.61
1.31
0.87
0.58
0.44
0.35
3.27
1.64
1.09
0.73
0.55
0.44
6.54
3.28
2.19
1.46
1.09
0.87
12.39
6.22
4.14
2.77
2.07
1.66
12.43
8.27
5.53
4.14
3.31
16.62
12.43
9.95
11.10.1.4 SDI Design and Installation
Most SDI laterals are installed by tractor-mounted shanks equipped with feed tubes mounted on the
backside of the shank to install the tubing at the proper depth. During installation, care should be
taken to avoid stretching of the tubing. Care should also be taken to install the drip tubing at a
uniform depth throughout the field, especially around the field perimeter. During installation, drip
laterals should be oriented so that the emitters are on top to minimize plugging from particulate
matter that accumulates along the bottom of the lateral. Manifold or header pipes are installed
deeper than laterals to reduce interference with tillage operations, to prevent them from draining, to
accelerate pressurizing the system, to avoid damage from field equipment, and to prevent particulate
matter from entering the lateral. Manifolds, mains, and sub-mains are plastic, usually PVC, and are
connected to laterals using a variety of connectors, depending upon the type of tubing.
March 2009
11-83
(i)
Emitter Orientation
Contaminants that settle out of the irrigation water will be deposited at the bottom of the lateral.
Therefore, as with surface systems, SDI systems should always have the emitter installed with the
orifice pointing up, allowing sediments and organic particles to settle down and away from the
outlets. The effective wetted volume of soil from a subsurface drip system is greater than that of a
surface system, as shown in Figure 11.46.
Crop
Crop
Emitter/
Emitter/
Lateral Line
Lateral Line
Figure 11.46 Subsurface Emitter Orientation (Van der Gulik, 1999)

Emitter spacing and flowrate are determined by crop rooting patterns, driplines depth, and soil
characteristics. Emitters should provide overlapping wetted areas along the lateral for most row
crops.
(ii)
Zone Size
Irrigation capacity defines the daily average depth of water that could be applied to an entire field.
The portion of the field that is watered at the same time is generally called a zone. The zone size for
an SDI system is determined by the operating characteristics of the dripline selected (emitter
discharge rate and spacing, dripline spacing, and operating pressure) and the discharge rate of the
pump or well. The amount of dripline needed per acre is determined by the line spacing.
11.10.1.5 Flushing Requirements and Flushline Design
Proper flushing is important to ensure that the systems will not clog. The flushing can be done on
individual laterals or combined into a flushing manifold. It is recommended to use a reliable
computerized design program to design the flushing manifolds. The lateral length and design
pressure should also be correct to ensure proper flushing of the laterals. The design of the flushing
manifold depends on the minimum flow velocity of the laterals. The flush valve must also be sized
correctly to ensure sufficient flow is achieved.
Drip systems usually require line flushing as part of an overall maintenance schedule. For line
flushing to be successful, sufficient flow must be ensured to move the material out of the end of the
line. For subsurface systems, line flushing is very important and is usually done through a common
manifold instead of the individual tape lines.
(i)
Flushing Velocity
A minimum flushing velocity 0.3 m/s is recommended for microirrigation (ASAE, 2003). There is
some practical rationale for a higher flushing velocity for SDI with values ranging from 0.3 - 0.6m/s
(Burt and Styles, 1994). The required flushing velocity and flushline hydraulics greatly affect the SDI
11-84
March 2009
system design. Higher velocities require shorter lengths of run to keep the flushing pressures below
the maximum allowable dripline operating pressure and also require large supply lines and flushlines.
The general guideline is that the required flushing velocity should be maintained in all segments of
the SDI system, but there are locations where this guideline cannot be followed. The following
flushing velocities are recommended in Table 11.37.
Table 11.37 Recommended Flushing Velocities for Different Diameter Laterals
(ii)
Nominal pipe diameter (mm)
Design flushing velocity (m/s)
16
0.35
22
0.40
35
0.55
Inlet Pressure
Overcoming the pressure losses in the flushing manifold will require a higher pressure in the lateral
line. The inlet pressure ranged 5 20 kPa are reasonable to design for a dripline downstream
pressure during flushing. The higher lateral operating pressure may increase the emitter flowrates
which increase lateral friction losses.
(iii)
Flushing Flowrate (Qf)
To design the size of the flushing manifold and the impacts the manifold will have on the rest of the
trickle system a flushing flowrate must be selected. A minimum flow velocity of 0.3 m/s (1 ft/s) is
suggested. Table 11.38 provides the discharge flowrate that is required to achieve a flow velocity of
0.3 m/s at the end of the lateral for various lateral sizes. The flushing flowrate into each equal length
branch of the flushline for a dripline can be calculated as:
D2
d
Q =V N
f
f d
4
Where,
Qf
=
Vf
=
Dd
=
Nd
=
(11.81)
flushing flowrate (L/s)

flushing velocity (m/s)
diameter of the dripline (m)
number of driplines.
Table 11.38 Suggested Lateral Flushing Rates for SDI (Adapted from Table 11.32)
Lateral Size
March 2009
(Nominal)
Flowrate (L/min) at Flow

Velocity 0.3 m/sec
10 mm
5.60
13 mm
9.46
15 mm
12.50
16 mm
13.48
20 mm
23.66
26 mm
39.40
11-85
(iv)
Sizing the Flushline
The dripline connection, flushline and flush valve should be sized so that the total downstream
dripline pressure during flushing is as low as economically and operationally practical, typically less
than 10 to 15 kPa. Typical flushline assemblies for SDI systems are shown in Figures 11.47 and
11.48. The size or cross-sectional area of the flushline can be related to the cumulative crosssectional area of all the driplines that contribute flow to that portion of the flushline. A flushline cross
sectional area of 25% or more of the cumulative cross sectional area of the driplines is typically
acceptable for a 0.3 m/s dripline flushing velocity. This sizing procedure will maintain friction losses
within the flushline at approximately 5 kPa or less. The friction loss for a level-grade flushline (hf)
can be calculated using the Hazen-Williams equation and by using multiple factor.
Figure 11.47 Typical Arrangement of Manifold (Burt and Styles, 1994)

The sizing guideline is adequate for dripline diameters of 16 to 35 mm. The guideline can still be
used to determine an initial diameter, with the more formal friction loss calculation procedure then
being used on the next smaller and larger pipe diameters. A simple equation for determining the
guideline flushline diameter (Df) is:
D f = 0.5 D d N d
(11.82)
Where,
Df
= flushline diameter (mm)
Dd
= is the dripline trial diameter (mm)
Nd
= number of driplines.
(v)
Sizing Flush Valve
The friction loss for the flush valve assembly can be calculated using the Darcy-Weisbach equation
by various fitting friction losses. The flush valve size is determined as:
Q 0.5
v
D v = K v 0.5
P
v
(11.83)
Where,
Dv
= the flush valve size (mm)
Kv
= the valve coefficient (35.7 for the branched in Figure 11.48a and 33.4 for the
unbranched flush valve assemblies in Figure 11.48b).
11-86
March 2009
Qv
Pv
= the total flowrate (L/s) through flush valve

= the allowable pressure loss (kPa).
Limiting the allowable pressure loss through the assembly to 3 kPa or less is desirable to help
minimize the overall downstream dripline pressure. A graphical solution to Eq. 11.83 for maximum
allowable pressure loss of 3 kPa is given in Figure 11.49.
Pressure gauge
Air/vacuum relief
Flush
valve
Elevation head
Flush valve
To dripline
Ground
surface
Dripline
depth
Flushline
depth
Flushline
(a) Typical Flush Valve Assembly for a Branched Flushline
Pressure gauge
Air/vacuum relief
Flush
valve
Ground
surface
Dripline
Depth
Elevation
Head flush
Valve
To dripline
Flushline
depth
Flushfline
(b) Typical Flush Valve Assembly at One End of The Flushline

Figure 11.48 Typical Flush Valve Assemblies with Flushline (Burt and Styles, 1994)
March 2009
11-87
200
Branched flow flushline
Flush valve size (mm)
180
Unbranched flow flushline
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Flushing flowrate (L/s)

Figure 11.49 Appropriate Flush Valve Size for Vf = 0.3 m/s and Pv = 3 kPa
11.10.1.6 Considerations for System Flushing
When flushing, the inlet pressure must be increased to account for increase in flow creating
additional friction loss through the lateral, submain, flushing header pipe, fittings and valves.
To accommodate the extra pressure requirement the pressure regulator at the zone inlet
must be set higher.
The additional pressure that is required to obtain effective flushing rates can often be 42 to
55 kPa. For linear tape system thicker walled tape may be required to withstand the
additional pressure for flushing, even it may not be required for normal irrigation.
The losses through the flushing valve are often more significant than the header line loss.
Ensure that the valve selected is large enough.
The system delivery rate will need to be oversized in order to supply the flowrate while
flushing. As a rule of thumb the lateral flows should be increased by 30% when operated at
the flushing pressures. The system must be able to supply the flushing flowrate.
Better flushing is usually obtained by flushing only one part of the zone at a time. For small
zones dividing the zone in two should be sufficient. Larger zones should be divided into four
sections. The flush valves should be situated next to each other for ease of operation.
The height of the flushing valve has a significant effect on the flushing performance. Keep
the valve as low as possible.
11.10.2
Greenhouse Drip Systems
The general guidance on soilless irrigation system is provided for greenhouse crops. The design and
selection of a greenhouse irrigation system is dependent to some extent on the type of greenhouse
structure. Structure designs which limit air infiltration have an effect on the amount of moisture
retained in the greenhouse. Tighter greenhouse will have higher humidity levels. The material of
this section adapted from Green House Crop Production Factsheet of British Colombia (Gulik 1999).
This could lead to the following undesirable results:
Increased dampness inside the greenhouse which may induce weed, insect, and disease
problems.
Water condensation inside the greenhouse may reduce natural light levels which may lower
production.
11-88
March 2009
Condensate dripping from the roof could damage ornamental foliage and cause fruit
damage.
Plant growth may be reduced.
To overcome the humidity problems, increased ventilation and heating are often used. Humidity can
also be reduced by limiting the amount of excess water entering the greenhouse. An efficient
irrigation system would deliver the plant water requirement uniformly through the growing media
with minimal over drainage. Many greenhouses now use recirculation systems that collect and reuse
the over drainage from greenhouse irrigation systems. Removing the excess water quickly will
reduce ventilation needs and energy requirements.
11.10.2.1 Greenhouse Crop Water Requirements
The water requirement of a greenhouse crop will depend on the type of soil or soil mixture, size of
the container or bed and many of the other factors listed below. A leaching requirement (over
drainage) of 25 50% should be added to the daily crop water requirement if the over drainage is
not collected and recirculated through the greenhouse. This over drainage is required to ensure
adequate leaching of salts and to achieve a good fertilizer distribution when fertigation.
The amount of water required by greenhouse crops is effected by:
The crop growth stage and fruit load

solar radiation and light intensity
time of year (i.e. winter vs spring or summer production)
the amount of nutrient feeding required
the number of emitters per plant
the container size
over drainage or leaching requirement if not recirculated, and
the type of soil mix or culture used.
11.10.2.2 Greenhouse Emitter Selection and Installation
(i)
Emitter Selection
Greenhouse crops require low dosages of water to be applied very frequently. The duration of each
application can be as low as 75 seconds. Emitters must therefore be very uniform to ensure that
each plant receives the same amount of water. Two types of drip systems are presently used in the
greenhouse industry.
(ii)
Microtube Systems
Microtube systems use a small spaghetti tube to deliver water from the lateral to the plant. The
diameter and length of the tube will determine how much flow is delivered by the emitter. For these
systems it is important to cut the delivery tube to each plant to the same length. Figures 11.50 and
11.51 show the delivery flows for different sizes of microtube. A check should be done at the site to
verify the microtube flowrates. See section 11.5.
Microtube or spaghetti systems are inexpensive but are fully laminar flow. They are therefore more
susceptible to plugging and pressure differentials.
March 2009
11-89
0.045 I.D. MICROTUBING
1.8
2
1.6
8
1.4
9
1.2
10
FLOW RATE gpm
11
12
1.0
0.8
0.6
(NUMBER OPPOSITE CURVES
ARE TUBE LENGTHS IN FEET)
0.4
0.2
00
10
15
20
25
30
PRESSURE psi
Figure 11.50 Chart for 0.045 Tubing (Adapted from Van der Gulik, 1999)
Conversion Factor:
1
1
1
1
inch = 2.54 cm
ft = 0.3048 m
US gpm = 3.79 L/min
psi = 6.90 kPa
11-90
1
1
1
1
cm = 0.394 inch
m = 3.28 ft
kPa = 0.145 psi
March 2009
0.060 I.D. MICROTUBING
1.5
8.0
2
2.5
7.0
3
6.0
FLOW RATE gpm
4
5.0
6
4.0
8
3.0
2.0
(NUMBER OPPOSITE CURVES
ARE RUBE LENGTHS IN FEET)
1.0
0
0
12
16
18
20
Figure 11.51 Chart for 0.060 Tubing (Adapted from Van der Gulik, 1999)
Conversion Factor:
1
1
1
1
inch = 2.54 cm
ft = 0.3048 m
US gpm = 3.79 L/min
psi = 6.90 kPa
March 2009
1
1
1
1
cm = 0.394 inch
m = 3.28 ft
kPa = 0.145 psi
11-91
(iii)
Emitters Systems
Emitters systems still use microtubes to deliver the water to the plant but utilize an emitter installed
at the lateral to control the flow. The emitter provides better flow regulation than the microtube
system. A 2 3 L/hr emitter is often used. In this case the microtubes are only used to transfer
water from the emitter to the plant. Non leaking emitters can also be used to prevent both the
microtube and lateral from draining after each irrigation. This allows for quicker startups, better
uniformity and less moisture in the greenhouse. Figure 11.52 shows the difference between a
microtube and emitter system. Figure 11.53 shows installation of each of these systems in a
greenhouse.
Stake
Weight
Emitter
Lateral
Spaghetti
Microtubing
Line
Copper
Grommet
Emitter System
Spaghetti System
Figure 11.52 Greenhouse Drip Systems (Van der Gulik, 1999)
(a) Microtube System in Tomatoes
(b) Emitter System in Peppers
Figure 11.53 Emitter Systems in Greenhouse Crop Production (Van der Gulik, 1999)
(iv)
Emitter Installation
An emitter flowrate and the number of emitters per bag must first be determined to calculate the
proper line sizing, zone control and pump requirements. The number of emitters per plant can vary
depending on the type of growing media and trellising system used.
11-92
March 2009
For plants that are grown in pots or bags, two or three emitters should be installed per bag to
ensure adequate moisture distribution through the growing media. The additional emitters also
ensure that the plants will always get some water should one of the emitters clog. Figure 11.54
shows a drip system operating in a potted floriculture system. Generally emitter discharge rates of 2
4 L/hr are selected. Lower emitter rates will usually provide better uniformity as the system can be
operated for slightly longer periods of time to apply the same amount of water.
Figure 11.54 Greenhouse Drip Irrigation System for Potted Plants (Van der Gulik, 1999)
Greenhouse vegetables are grown in various production systems. The most common are single row
V systems and double row systems. In both cases the growing media, usually either rockwool or
sawdust is contained in plastic bags. The plants are started in small containers that are embedded in
the growing media. Depending on the size of the plastic bags, two to four plants are embedded in
each bag.
In this system only one emitter is installed per plant, however since four plants share one bag there
are four emitters supplying water to each bag. The plants can therefore obtain moisture from more
than one emitter should one emitter become clogged. Figure 11.55 shows emitter installation in
soilless culture. Figures 11.56 and 11.57 illustrate different growing methods for greenhouse crops.
11.10.2.3 Greenhouse Drip System Design
(i)
Lateral and Header Line Sizing
Greenhouse trickle systems are often used to also supply the plant nutrients. The header and lateral
lines must therefore be sized correctly to ensure that water is distributed evenly throughout the
entire greenhouse, achieving good uniformity. A coefficient of uniformity of 90% or better should be
achieved.
It is important to keep lateral sizes as small as possible while maintaining uniformity. This can be
done by keeping laterals short. Since greenhouse trickle systems are operated frequently but for
short durations, the fill time requirements as well as lateral seepage during shutdown must be
minimized to achieve good uniformity of application. Non leaking emitters can be used to keep lines
March 2009
11-93
full at all times. PVC pipes that are exposed to light should be painted to keep light from entering the
pipe and promoting algae growth.
The irrigation system should be designed to be able to supply the maximum plant density during the
peak of the growing season.
Figure 11.55 Emitter Installations in Soilless Culture (Van der Gulik, 1999)
(a) Single Row System
(b) Double Row System
Figure 11.56 Greenhouse Emitter Installations
11-94
March 2009
Figure 11.57 Greenhouse Drip System for Vegetable Crops (Van der Gulik, 1999)
11.11 OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE
Microirrigation systems may become plugged from algae, growths of bacterial slimes due to the
presence of iron and sulphur or the formation of chemical precipitates such as calcium carbonate and
ferric oxide. These problems can be held in check with various forms of chemical treatment. Most
irrigation water supplies do not require continuous treatment with chemicals. Spot treatments are
suggested and should be initiated as problems begin to occur. An emitter that is completely plugged
cannot usually be cleaned by chemical treatment.
11.11.1
Operation
Microirrigation systems can be operated fully automatic, semiautomatic, or manually. A time clock or
Programmed control panel can be installed to operate solenoid valves, to start and stop the
irrigation, and to control each submain and lateral. This degree of automatic control is simple, the
parts are readily available, and it effectively controls the desired amount of water to be applied. A
manual priority switch that can override clock or control panel switches is desirable to postpone or
add irrigations. A fully automatic system, using soil moisture sensors to provide the triggering
mechanism to start irrigation, is also simple to install and operate. Several sensors may be needed,
depending on soils and rooting depth of crops to be grown. Where water supply is adequate over
irrigation is the biggest water management problem with automated systems.
11.11.2
System Monitoring and Maintenance
System monitoring is important to determine what type of maintenance program is needed. The
following monitoring process is suggested:
The zone flowrates should be monitored during the irrigation season with a flow meter. A
reduction in the zone flowrate would indicate that the emitters are starting to plug.
If a flowrate reduction is noticed, first check to make sure the filtration system is operating
properly. Secondly check the emitters closely for the buildup of organics or chemical
precipitates. The emitters at the end of the lines should be checked closely as this is where the
plugging usually start first.
Flush the lateral lines at the beginning and end of the irrigation season. When inspecting the
emitters flush one lateral to observe the amount of debris that has accumulated. If the water
runs dirty for 5 seconds or more all the laterals should be flushed.
If algae growth in the emitters or laterals seems apparent, chlorine treatment may be required.
Most forms of algae can be controlled by injecting chlorine into the irrigation water. Copper
Sulphate can be if the algae treatment is to be applied to a storage reservoir.
Acid injection may be required to treat chemical precipitates.
March 2009
11-95
Frequent maintenance is essential to keep emitters functioning at design flow. Maintenance items
include:
Clean or backflush filters when needed.

Flush lateral lines regularly. The frequency of flushing depends on the amount and kinds of
sedimentation in the tape.
Check emitter discharge often; replace as necessary.
Check operating pressures often; a pressure drop (or rise) may indicate problems.
Inject chemicals as required to prevent precipitate buildup and algae growth. Inject liquid
fertilizers when needed.
Service pumps regularly.
Filters must be managed and changed as needed. Even with filtration, however, drip tape
must be flushed regularly.
11.11.3
Algae Control
The filtration system should prevent most aquatic plants and other organic material from entering
the microirrigation system, but algae can pass through the filtration system and continue to grow in
the laterals and emitters. Various methods are available for controlling algae in microirrigation
systems.
11.11.3.1 Copper Sulphate
Copper sulphate is often used to control algae growth in ponds and reservoirs. However, copper
sulphate is very toxic to fish and some plants. A maximum level of 1 to 2 mg/L in the upper 2 meters
of the reservoir is suggested. To achieve this 1 kg of copper sulphate should be added for every
million litres that the reservoir stores.
11.11.3.2 Light Exposure
Since algae need light to grow, limiting the amount of light that can enter components of the trickle
system will reduce algae growth. Irrigation pipes and other components that may be transparent
should be painted to reduce light infiltration.
11.11.3.3 Chlorination
Algae often grow at the emitter orifice. Chlorination the water as required to kill the algae is the best
treatment method.
11.11.3.4 Bacteria and Bacterial Slimes
Bacteria and bacterial slimes can cause filamentous material to grow and attach to microirrigation
system components. Bacterial slimes bind and glue together all types of suspended sediments to
form large clusters of debris that can clog laterals and emitters. There are various sources for these
bacteria and slimes. The treatment method is to use a combination of chlorination and pH control
with an acid.
(i)
Iron and Manganese Precipitation
Iron bacteria have their name derived from the fact that these organisms flourish in the presence of
iron precipitates. There are various sources for these bacteria and slimes. Iron (Fe) in association
with bacteria can become a problem at concentrations as low as 0.1 mg/L.
(ii)
Sulphur
Sulphur bacteria may produce white cottony balls of slime which can completely block emitter
orifices. Sulphur bacteria can be active at sulphur concentrations as low as 0.1 mg/L. Concentration
of sulphur greater than 0.5 mg/L can be expected to require treatment.
11-96
March 2009
11.11.4
Chlorination Dose
Chlorination is effective in controlling algae and bacterial growths as well as oxidizing iron in
irrigation water supplies. Chlorine can exist in several forms in solution. The amount of free chlorine
in solution depends on whether the treatment method is continuous, intermittent or a high rate
super chlorination. Free chlorine is the amount left in solution helps to control the growth of algaes
and slimes. A free chlorine of 1 mg/L (1.0 ppm) should be left in the water. The residual chlorine
should be tested near the end of the lateral.
The guidelines for the enhancement of the water quality by chemical treatments are provided in
Table 11.39. The rate at which chlorine needs to be added to water depends on the chlorine
concentration of the chemical solution to be injected, the water supply flowrate and the desired
chlorine concentration in the supply water. Equation 11.46 can be used to compute the required
rate.
Ri =
Where,
Ri
Q
Cd
Ci
=
=
=
=
6 10 3 Q C d
Ci
(11.84)
rate at which the chemical solution is to be added to the supply water (L/hr, gpm)
supply flowrate (L/min, gpm)
desired concentration of chemical to be required in water supply (%)
concentration of chemical in the solution to be injected (%)
Table 11.39 Recommended Chemical Treatments for Selected Conditions (James 1988)
Water Quality
Suggested Treatment (1 mg/L = 1.0 ppm)
Ca > 50 ppm
Hard water, caused by high concentrations of Ca or Ma, can reduce

flowrates by the buildup of scales on pipe walls and emitter orifices.
Periodic injection of an HCl solution may be required throughout the
season. Lower concentrations of Ca and Ma may require HCl treatment
every few years
Mg > 50 ppm
Fe > 0.5 ppm

S > 0.5 ppm
Iron and sulphur, as well as other metal contaminants, provide an

environment in water that is conducive to bacterial activity. The byproducts of the bacteria in combination with the fine, less than 100micron suspended solids can cause system plugging. Bacterial activity
can be controlled by chlorine injection and line flushing on a regular
basis throughout the irrigation season. Bacterial activity is prevalent in
concentrations of Fe and S over 0.5 ppm, but also occurs at lower
concentrations
11.11.4.1 Continuous Chlorine Treatment
Continuous chlorine treatment is required:
To precipitate iron or manganese oxides prior to the filtration system

Where organic loading of the water source is very high
For controlling bacterial and algae growths that are excessive
For continuous chlorination a residual level of 0.5 1.0 mg/L should be sufficient.
11.11.4.2 Intermittent Chlorine Treatment
The intermittent treatment is easier since the chlorine is usually applied manually. The chlorine level
should be 10 20 mg/L and held at least for one hour for intermittent treatment. If the free chlorine
level at the ends of the laterals during the treatment are well below the original concentration it
March 2009
11-97
suggests that more frequent chlorination may be required. If the free chlorine levels at the end of
the lateral are close to the concentration at the injection point it is an indication that fewer
treatments can be applied over the course of the irrigation season.
11.11.4.3 Super Chlorination
Supper chlorination may be one method of clearing the problem when emitters are totally plugged
by organic matter. The chlorination levels for super chlorination can be from 200 500 mg/L. These
high chlorine levels should be kept in the system for 24 hours. At the end of the treatment system
should be flushed starting with the mains, submains and then the laterals.
11.11.4.4 Selecting Source of Chlorine
Chlorine is available in three forms namely calcium hypochlorite, sodium hypochlorite and chlorine
gas. Table 11.40 provides a comparison of chlorine sources and the amounts required to achieve a
concentration of 1.0 mg/L.
Table 11.40 Comparison of Chlorine Sources
Chlorine Source
% Chlorine
Calcium Hypochlorite
60 - 70
Sodium Hypochlorite
5
10
12
15
16
18
Chlorine Gas
11.11.5
Amount to Supply
1 kg Cl2
Amount per 1000 m3 to provide 1.0 mg/L
1.5
1.47 kg
16.7 litres
8.35 litres
6.96 litres
5.57 litres
5.21 litres
4.64 litres
1 kg
16.5 litres
8.27 litres
6.89 litres
5.52 litres
5.16 litres
4.58 litres
1 kg
Acid Addition
The acidification to a microirrigation system water supply has the following benefits:
Reduces the water pH to make chlorination more effective
Lower the level of bicarbonate in the water to reduce plugging of emitters due to calcium and/or
magnesium carbonate formation with water evaporation. The acid also breaks up existing
precipitates. A pH level of 6.5 lowers the bicarbonate level to half while a pH of 4.5 takes 95% of the
bicarbonate out of the water. Lowering the pH below 6.5 can be corrosive to metal components of
the irrigation system. Use extreme caution. If the emitters are totally plugged the microirrigation
laterals may have to be removed from the field and dipped in an acid bath with a pH level around 2.
Hydrochloric acid (HCl), Phosphoric acid (H3PO4) and Sulphuric (H2SO3) and Sulphurous (H2SO4) acid
are used.
The above acids are available in various degrees of strength and purity. Before using any acid the
following points should be kept in mind:
When injecting acids longer than one hour, the pH level should not be reduced below 6.5.
Excessive acidification can be corrosive to pipes, fittings and will eventually harden rubber
valves seats.
If the water is acidified to a level pH 4.0, the acid must be injected downstream of any metal
components.
Acid should always be added to water, not vice versa.
11-98
March 2009
REFERENCES
ASAE (2003). EP405.1 ASAE Engineering Practice EP405.1, FEB03, Design and installation of
microirrigation systems. ASAE, St. Joseph, Michigan. Pp. 901-905.
Burt C.M., and Styles S.W. (1994). Drip and Microirrigation for Trees, Vines. and Row Crops.
Irrigation Training and Research Center, California State University, San Luis Obispo, CA.
Benham B. and Ross B. (2002). Filtration, Treatment, and Maintenance Considerations for
Microirrigation Systems. Biological Systems Engineering, Publication 442-757, Virgenia Cooperative
Extension.
Boswell M.J. (1984). Hardie Irrigation Design Manual. 1984. James Hardie Irrigation. Laguna Niguel,
CA.
Burt C., OConner K. and Ruehr T. (1998). Fertigation. Irrigation Training and Research Center
(ITRC), California Polytechnic State University, California, pp 295.
pp. 652.
Bucks D.A. and Nakayama F.S. (1980). Injection fertilizer and other chemicals for drip irrigation.
Proceedings Agri-Turf Irrigation Conference, Houston, Texas. The Irrigation Association, Silver
Spring, MD. Pp 166-180, 1980.
Boswell M.J. (1990). Microirrigation Design Manual. James Hardie Irrigation Co., El Cajon CA.
Hassan A.F. (1997). Microirrigation management and maintenance. Agro Industrial Management,
Fresno, California.
James L.G. (1988). Principles of farm irrigation system design. John Wiley & Sons, New York, pp.
543, 1988.
Karmelli D. and Keller J (1975). Trickle irrigation design. 1st Edition. Rainbird Sprinkler Mfg. Corp.,
Glendora, California. pp. 133.
pp. 652.
Lamm F.R., Ayars J.E. and Nakayama F.S. (2007). Microirrigation for crop production. Design,
operation and management. Developments in Agriculture Engineering 13, Elsvier, Netherland. PP
618.
Larry M.C. and Tyson T.W (2008). System Design. http://www.aces.edu/dept/irrig/ANR-645.php.
Moshe S. (2006). Microirrigation in arid and semi-arid regions: Guidelines for planning and design.
International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage (ICID), pp 126.
Masahharu, K. (2005). Planning and design of microirrigation in humid regions. International
Commission on Irrigation and Drainage (ICID), 2005.
Nakayma F.S. and Bucks D.A. (1986). Trickle irrigation for Crop Production. Elsivier Science
Publishers, Amsterdam, Netherlands.
NETAFIM (2008) (http://www.netafim.com/Irrigation_Products/).
Rainbird (2008). http://www.rainbird.com/.
March 2009
11-99
Robert B. and Edward W.H.. Microirrigation design considerations.

http://winegrapes.tamu.edu/grow/irrigationdesign.pdf.
Shraples R.A., Rolston D.E, Biggar J.W and Nightiangle, H.I (1985). Evaporation and soil water
balances of young trickle irrigated almond trees. In Drip/trickle Irrigation in Action, Proceedings if
Third International Drip/Trickle Irrigation Congress, November 18-21, Fresno, California, vol. II, pp.
792-797, ASAE.
TORO (2008). http://www.toroag.com/.
USDA-NRCS (1997). Irrigation guide. National Engineering Handbook.
USDA (2001). Agricultural drainage. National Engineering Handbook.
Van der Gulik, T. (1999). Trickle Irrigation Manual. B.C. Ministry of Agriculture and Food.
Van der Gulik, T. and Ted W.. (1999)Digital Drip Designer.
http://www3.telus.net/public/c_burton/soil_water_storage.htm.
Shani U., Xue S., Gordin-Katz R. and Warrick A.W (1996). Soil-limiting flow from subsurface emitters.
I. Pressure measurements. ASCE J. Irrig. Drain. Engr. 122: 291-295.
Wu I.P. and Gitlin H.M. (1982). Drip Irrigation lateral line network design. Trans. ASAE 25(3):675685.
Zazueta F.S and Smajstrala A.G (1995). A simple method to design tapered sloping manifolds. p.
425-429. In: Microirrigation for a Changing World: Conserving Resources/Protecting the
Environment. Proc. Fifth Intl. Microirrigation Congress, F.R. Lamm, (Ed.), Orlando, FL. April 2-6,
1995. ASAE Publication 4-95, ASAE St. Joseph.
11-100
March 2009
March 2009
11-101
APPENDIX11.A Values of Velocity Head (V2/2g) for Various Flowrates (Q in L/S) and
Diameters of the Flow Area (D, mm) (Lamm et al. 2007)
Diameter of flow area (mm)
Flow
Q (L/s)
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.5
2
3
4
5
6
8
10
12
15
20
25
30
40
50
60
80
100
125
150
March 2009
15
0.07
0.15
0.26
0.41
0.59
1.04
1.63
20
0.05
0.08
0.13
0.19
0.33
0.52
0.74
1.16
2.07
25
0.05
0.08
0.14
0.21
0.30
0.48
0.85
1.90
40
0.05
0.07
0.13
0.29
0.52
0.81
1.16
2.07
50
0.05
0.12
0.21
0.33
0.48
0.85
1.32
1.9
75
0.07
0.09
0.17
0.26
0.38
0.59
1.04
1.63
100
0.05
0.08
0.12
0.19
0.33
0.52
0.74
1.32
2.07
150
0.07
0.10
0.15
0.26
0.41
0.59
1.04
1.63
200
250
0.05
0.08
0.13
0.19
0.33
0.52
0.81
1.16
0.05
0.08
0.14
0.21
0.33
0.48
11A-1
APPENDIX11.B Friction Factors Kf for Various System Fittings and Valves for Use with
Eq.11.18 (Lamm et al. 2007)
Fitting or valve
25
Screwed fittings (mm)

50
75
100
100
Flanged fittings (mm)

125
150
200
250
Elbows
Regular 90
Long radius 90
Regular 45
1.50
0.75
0.34
1.00
0.42
0.30
0.80
0.30
0.29
0.70
0.25
0.28
0.31
0.22
0.18
0.30
0.20
0.18
0.29
0.18
0.17
0.27
0.16
0.17
0.25
0.14
0.16
Tees
Line flow
Branch flow
0.90
1.90
0.90
1.40
0.90
1.20
0.90
1.10
0.15
0.70
0.13
0.66
0.12
0.62
0.10
0.58
0.09
0.54
Valves
Globe
Gate
Swing check
Angle
Foot
8.70
0.25
3.00
4.70
0.80
5.60
0.12
2.00
1.00
6.30
0.16
2.00
2.10
6.00
0.13
2.00
2.10
5.90
0.11
2.00
2.10
5.80
0.08
2.00
2.10
5.80
0.06
2.00
2.10
1.10
0.95
0.85
0.75
0.65
Basket strainer
7.00
6.00
0.17
0.14
2.30
2.10
2.00
1.40
For all diameters
1.50
1.30
1.10
0.05
0.04
0.04
Couplings/Unions
0.08
Sudden reduction
Dr = ratio for smaller to larger pipe
For 0.25<Dr<1.0,
kf = 0.45 + 0.10*Dr - 0.54*Dr2
Sudden enlargement
Dr = ratio for smaller to larger pipe
kf = (1 Dr 2)2 ; use velocity of smaller pipe
Inlets/Entrances
Bell-mouth
Square edged
Inward projecting
0.05
0.50
1.00
For all diameters

For all diameters
For all diameters
Source : Engineering Data Book, First Edition. 1978, Hydraulic Institute, Cleveland, OH.
11A-2
March 2009
APPENDIX 11.C Emitter Components (Adapted James 1988)

Outlet
Outlet
Orifice
Diaphragm
Pipeline or
Tubing wall
Orifice
Water
entry
Vortex
chamber
Water entry
orifice
Flow
Emitter using flexible
Orifice-vortex emitter
Orifice emitter
Slot
Seat
Ball
Orifices in series
Barbs for
Making
lateral
Flow
Long
Flow path
Flow
Plug into
lateral
Long path emitter
Small tube
Ball and slotted

Seat emitter
Four individual
Long path ways
Long path emitters
Flow
passage
Elastomer
Dual outlet
flap
Groove
Common long
Flow
path
Gasket
Sliding pin
Elastomer
disc
Long path multiple

Outlet emitter
Groove and flap
Groove and disc
Short path emitter
Short path emitter
Manual flushing
Elastomer
possible
Exit orifices
disc
Spiral path
Inner orifices
(for each inner orifices there
Are several exit orifices)
Continuous flow principle of
Multiple flexible orfices
March 2009
Compensating long path emitter
Twin-wall emitter lateral
11A-3
APPENDIX 11.D Emitters Used in Microirrigation Practices (NETAFIM, 2008)
11A-4
UniRam CNL
DripNet PCTM
PC Dripper
PCJ LCNL Drippers
In-Line Dripper
PCJ HF Bubblers
March 2009
APPENDIX 11.E Sprinklers and Jets (NETAFIM, 2008)
PowerNet
R-2000 and R-2000 WF
GyroNet
SpinNet
CoolNet
GyroNet Turbo
SuperNet
GyroNet Jet
Spray Stake
March 2009
11A-5
APPENDIX 11.F Microsprinklers (NETAFIM, 2008)
GyroNet LR & LRD
GyroNet HF
GyroNet UD - Up-side-Down
GyroNet Turbo
SpinNet
SpinNet SD
11A-6
March 2009
APPENDIX11.G Average Flow Velocity (V) and Head Loss Gradient Factors (J) for SDR 41
PVC Thermoplastic Pipe for Various Flowrates (Q) and Smaller Pipe Sizes
(Lamm et al. 2007)
PVC Class 100 IPS Plastic Pipe: SDR = 41

OD
ID
OD
Diameter (mm)
33.40
31.80
48.30
Nom. Size (in)
1.00
1.00
1.50
Q
v
J
v
L/s
m/s
m/100 m
m/s
0.10
0.13
0.08
0.06
0.20
0.25
0.28
0.12
0.30
0.38
0.59
0.18
0.40
0.50
1.00
0.24
0.50
0.63
1.52
0.30
0.60
0.76
2.13
0.36
0.70
0.88
2.83
0.42
0.80
1.01
3.62
0.48
1.00
1.26
5.48
0.60
1.20
1.51
7.68
0.73
1.40
1.77
10.21
0.85
1.60
2.02
13.08
0.97
1.80
2.27
16.26
1.09
2.00
2.52
19.77
1.21
2.50
1.51
3.00
1.81
3.50
2.11
4.00
2.42
4.50
2.72
5.00
5.50
6.00
8.00
10.00
12.00
14.00
16.00
ID
45.90
1.50
J
m/100 m
0.01
0.05
0.10
0.17
0.25
0.35
0.47
0.60
0.91
1.28
1.70
2.18
2.71
3.29
4.98
6.98
9.28
11.89
14.79
OD
60.30
2.00
v
m/s
0.12
0.15
0.19
0.23
0.27
0.31
0.39
0.46
0.54
0.62
0.70
0.77
0.97
1.16
1.35
1.55
1.74
1.93
2.13
2.32
C = 150
ID
OD
57.40
88.90
2.00
3.00
J
v
m/100 m
m/s
0.03
0.06
0.09
0.12
0.16
0.20
0.31
0.43
0.57
0.73
0.91
1.11
1.68
2.35
3.13
4.01
4.99
6.06
7.23
8.50
0.05
0.07
0.09
0.11
0.12
0.14
0.18
0.21
0.25
0.28
0.32
0.36
0.45
0.53
0.62
0.71
0.80
0.89
0.98
1.07
1.42
1.78
2.14
2.49
2.85
ID
84.60
3.00
J
m/100 m
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.02
0.03
0.05
0.07
0.09
0.11
0.14
0.17
0.25
0.36
0.47
0.61
0.75
0.92
1.09
1.29
2.19
3.31
4.64
6.17
7.91
Pipe dimensions of Outside Diameter (OD) and Inside Diameter (ID) are shown in mm, Nominal size
is in inches and Velocity is shown in meters per second (m/s)
Head Loss Gradient (J) is calculated using the Hazen-Williams formula and is expressed as meters of
head loss per 100 meters of pipe (m/100m)
** Velocities over 1.5 m/s are not recommended (Shaded areas)
March 2009
11A-7
APPENDIX11.H Average Flow Velocity (V) and Head Loss Gradient Factors (J) for SDR 41
PVC Thermoplastic Pipe for Various Flowrates (Q) and Larger Pipe Sizes
(Lamm et al. 2007)

OD
ID
OD
Diameter (mm) 114.30
108.70
168.30
Nom. Size (in)
4.00
4.00
6.00
Q
v
J
v
L/s
m/s
m/100 m
m/s
1.00
0.11
0.01
1.20
0.13
0.02
1.40
0.15
0.03
1.60
0.17
0.03
1.80
0.19
0.04
0.09
2.00
0.22
0.05
0.10
2.50
0.27
0.07
0.12
3.00
0.32
0.10
0.15
3.50
0.38
0.14
0.17
4.00
0.43
0.18
0.20
4.50
0.48
0.22
0.22
5.00
0.54
0.27
0.25
5.50
0.59
0.32
0.27
6.00
0.65
0.38
0.30
8.00
0.86
0.64
0.40
10.00
1.08
0.97
0.50
12.00
1.29
1.36
0.60
14.00
1.51
1.82
0.70
16.00
1.72
2.33
0.80
18.00
1.94
2.89
0.89
20.00
2.15
3.52
0.99
25.00
2.69
5.31
1.24
30.00
1.49
35.00
1.74
40.00
1.99
45.00
2.24
50.00
2.48
60.00
2.98
70.00
80.00
90.00
100.00
120.00
140.00
ID
160.10
6.00
J
m/100 m
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.02
0.03
0.03
0.04
0.05
0.06
0.10
0.15
0.21
0.28
0.35
0.44
0.53
0.81
1.13
1.51
1.93
2.40
2.92
4.09
OD
219.10
8.00
v
m/s
0.10
0.12
0.13
0.15
0.16
0.18
0.23
0.29
0.35
0.41
0.47
0.53
0.59
0.73
0.88
1.03
1.17
1.32
1.47
1.76
2.05
2.35
2.64
C = 150
ID
OD
208.40
273.10
8.00
10.00
J
v
m/100 m
m/s
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.10
0.12
0.15
0.22
0.31
0.42
0.53
0.66
0.81
1.13
1.51
1.93
2.40
0.11
0.15
0.19
0.23
0.26
0.30
0.34
0.38
0.47
0.57
0.66
0.75
0.85
0.94
1.13
1.32
1.51
1.70
1.89
2.26
2.64
ID
259.70
10.00
J
m/100 m
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.03
0.04
0.05
0.08
0.11
0.14
0.18
0.23
0.28
0.39
0.51
0.66
0.82
1.00
1.40
1.86
11A-8
March 2009
APPENDIX11.I Average Flow Velocity (V) and Head Loss Gradient Factors (J) for SDR 26
PVC Thermoplastic Pipe for Various Flowrates (Q) and Smaller Pipe Sizes
(Lamm et al. 2007)

OD
ID
OD
Diameter (mm)
33.40
30.80
48.30
Nom. Size (in)
1.00
1.00
1.50
Q
v
J
v
L/s
m/s
m/100 m
m/s
0.10
0.13
0.09
0.06
0.20
0.27
0.32
0.13
0.30
0.40
0.68
0.19
0.40
0.54
1.16
0.26
0.50
0.67
1.76
0.32
0.60
0.80
2.46
0.38
0.70
0.94
3.27
0.45
0.80
1.07
4.19
0.51
1.00
1.34
6.34
0.64
1.20
1.61
8.88
0.77
1.40
1.88
11.82
0.90
1.60
2.14
15.14
1.03
1.80
2.41
18.82
1.15
2.00
2.68
22.88
1.28
2.50
1.60
3.00
1.92
3.50
2.25
4.00
2.57
4.50
2.89
5.00
5.50
6.00
8.00
10.00
12.00
14.00
16.00
ID
44.50
1.50
J
m/100 m
0.01
0.05
0.11
0.19
0.29
0.41
0.55
0.70
1.06
1.48
1.97
2.52
3.14
3.81
5.76
8.08
10.75
13.76
17.11
OD
60.30
2.00
v
m/s
C = 150
ID
55.70
2.00
J
m/100 m
0.12
0.16
0.21
0.25
0.29
0.33
0.41
0.49
0.57
0.66
0.74
0.82
1.03
1.23
1.44
1.64
1.85
2.05
2.26
2.46
0.04
0.07
0.10
0.14
0.18
0.24
0.36
0.50
0.66
0.85
1.06
1.29
1.94
2.72
3.62
4.64
5.77
7.02
8.37
9.84
OD
88.90
3.00
v
m/s
ID
82.10
3.00
J
m/100 m
0.06
0.08
0.09
0.11
0.13
0.15
0.19
0.23
0.26
0.30
0.34
0.38
0.47
0.57
0.66
0.76
0.85
0.95
1.04
1.13
1.51
1.89
2.27
2.65
3.03
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.05
0.08
0.10
0.13
0.16
0.19
0.29
0.41
0.55
0.70
0.87
1.06
1.27
1.49
2.54
3.83
5.37
7.15
9.15
March 2009
11A-9
APPENDIX11.J Average Flow Velocity (V) and Head Loss Gradient Factors (J) for SDR 41
PVC Thermoplastic Pipe for Various Flowrates (Q) and Larger Pipe Sizes
(Lamm et al. 2007)

OD
ID
OD
Diameter (mm) 114.30
105.50
168.30
Nom. Size (in)
4.00
4.00
6.00
Q
v
J
v
L/s
m/s
m/100 m
m/s
1.00
0.11
0.02
1.20
0.14
0.02
1.40
0.16
0.03
1.60
0.18
0.04
0.08
1.80
0.21
0.05
0.09
2.00
0.23
0.06
0.11
2.50
0.29
0.09
0.13
3.00
0.34
0.12
0.16
3.50
0.40
0.16
0.18
4.00
0.46
0.21
0.21
4.50
0.51
0.26
0.24
5.00
0.57
0.31
0.26
5.50
0.63
0.37
0.29
6.00
0.69
0.44
0.32
8.00
0.92
0.75
0.42
10.00
1.14
1.13
0.53
12.00
1.37
1.58
0.63
14.00
1.60
2.10
0.74
16.00
1.83
2.69
0.84
18.00
2.06
3.35
0.95
20.00
2.29
4.07
1.06
25.00
2.86
6.15
1.32
30.00
1.58
35.00
1.85
40.00
2.11
45.00
2.37
50.00
2.64
60.00
3.17
70.00
80.00
90.00
100.00
120.00
140.00
ID
155.30
6.00
J
m/100 m
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.05
0.06
0.07
0.11
0.17
0.24
0.32
0.41
0.51
0.62
0.94
1.31
1.74
2.23
2.78
3.38
4.73
OD
219.10
8.00
v
m/s
C = 150
ID
202.20
8.00
J
m/100 m
0.11
0.12
0.14
0.16
0.17
0.19
0.25
0.31
0.37
0.44
0.50
0.56
0.62
0.78
0.93
1.09
1.25
1.40
1.56
1.87
2.18
2.49
2.80
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.02
0.03
0.05
0.07
0.09
0.11
0.14
0.17
0.26
0.36
0.48
0.62
0.77
0.93
1.31
1.74
2.23
2.77
OD
273.10
10.00
v
m/s
ID
252.00
10.00
J
m/100 m
0.11
0.12
0.16
0.20
0.24
0.28
0.32
0.36
0.40
0.50
0.60
0.70
0.80
0.90
1.00
1.20
1.40
1.60
1.80
2.00
2.41
2.81
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.05
0.06
0.09
0.12
0.17
0.21
0.26
0.32
0.45
0.60
0.76
0.95
1.15
1.62
2.15
11A-10
March 2009
APPENDIX11.K Average Flow Velocity (V) and Head Loss Gradient Factors (J) for
Polyethylene Pipe for Various Flowrates (Q) and Smaller Pipe Sizes
(Lamm et al. 2007)

ID
ID
Diameter
(mm)
15.80
20.90
Nom. Size
(in)
0.50
0.75
Q
Q
v
J
v
J
m/100
L/min L/s
m/s m/100m m/s
m
2
0.03 0.17
0.30
0.10
0.08
4
0.07 0.34
1.09
0.19
0.28
6
0.10 0.51
2.31
0.29
0.59
8
0.13 0.68
3.94
0.39
1.00
10
0.17 0.85
5.96
0.48
1.51
12
0.20 1.02
8.35
0.58
2.12
14
0.23 1.19
11.11
0.68
2.82
16
0.27 1.36
14.22
0.78
3.62
18
0.30 1.53
17.69
0.87
4.50
20
0.33 1.70
21.50
0.97
5.47
22
0.37 1.87
25.65
1.07
6.52
24
0.40 2.04
30.14
1.16
7.66
26
0.43 2.21
34.95
1.26
8.89
28
0.47 2.38
40.09
1.36 10.19
30
0.50
1.45 11.58
35
0.58
1.70 15.41
40
0.67
1.94 19.73
45
0.75
2.18 24.54
50
0.83
2.42 29.83
60
1.00
70
1.17
80
1.33
90
1.50
100
1.67
125
2.08
150
2.50
175
2.92
C = 150
ID
ID
ID
26.60
35.10
40.90
1.00
1.25
1.50
m/s
m/100m
m/s
m/100m
m/s
J
m/100
m
0.18
0.24
0.30
0.36
0.42
0.48
0.54
0.60
0.66
0.72
0.78
0.84
0.90
1.05
1.20
1.35
1.49
1.79
2.09
2.39
0.18
0.31
0.47
0.65
0.87
1.12
1.39
1.69
2.01
2.36
2.74
3.15
3.57
4.75
6.09
7.57
9.20
12.90
17.17
21.98
0.10
0.14
0.17
0.21
0.24
0.28
0.31
0.34
0.38
0.41
0.45
0.48
0.52
0.60
0.69
0.78
0.86
1.03
1.21
1.38
1.55
1.72
2.15
0.05
0.08
0.12
0.17
0.23
0.29
0.36
0.44
0.53
0.62
0.72
0.82
0.93
1.24
1.59
1.98
2.40
3.37
4.48
5.74
7.14
8.68
13.12
0.08
0.1
0.13
0.15
0.18
0.2
0.23
0.25
0.28
0.3
0.33
0.36
0.38
0.44
0.51
0.57
0.63
0.76
0.89
1.01
1.14
1.27
1.59
1.9
2.22
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.11
0.14
0.17
0.21
0.25
0.29
0.34
0.39
0.44
0.59
0.76
0.94
1.14
1.6
2.13
2.73
3.39
4.12
6.23
8.74
11.62
March 2009
11A-11
Appendix 11.L Uniplot for Lateral Line and Submain Design (Adapted from Hardie
Microirrigation Design Manual (Boswell, 1984)
Uniplot curves are used to design submain and laterals with many discharge outlets where the flow
decreases uniformly (i.e. rectangular shaped fields). Uniplot is a simple and versatile design tool; it
may be used to design submains and laterals of one or many pipe sizes, and it may be used in the
design of submains and laterals on non-uniform terrain. The steps which follow serve to illustrate the
proper use of the Uniplot System.
Procedure
1. Calculate the specific discharge rate (SDR) (Figures 11.M-1 and 11.M-2)
SDR =
Total Discharge
Total Length
2. Use this SDR to determine the working curve to be used for each pipe size from the working curve
Nomograph (Figure 11.M-3 and 11.M-4). Lay a rule along the diagonal line for the appropriate SDR
as determined above. At the point where this line intersects the horizontal line for the actual internal
diameter of the pipe being used, read off the working curve to be used on the working curve axis.
Internal diameters for PVC pipes are given in Table X-1.
3. Place a sheet of tracing paper over the Uniplot curves (Figure 11.M-6). Draw the vertical and
horizontal axes. Draw a vertical line at the distance along the horizontal axis equal to the length of
the pipeline
For level ground: Draw a line above the horizontal axis at a height equal to the design tolerance for
the emitter used.
For slopping ground: Assuming the pipeline is running downhill, draw a line from the bottom left
hand corner (origin) to the elevation change at the other end of the pipeline. Draw a second line
parallel to this line and separated from it by a vertical distance equal to the design tolerance for the
emitter being used. This creates the pressure envelop (Figure 11.M-5).
4. Start at the closed end of the pipeline and match the working curves determined in Step 2 to the
pressure envelop determined in Step 3. The tracing paper can be moved vertically but the vertical
axis of the curves and tracing paper must remain aligned.
5. Segments of different working curves may be used for various pipe sizes to arrive at a submain or
lateral design.
6. The design requirement will be met provided the working curves are within the pressure envelop.
The following possibilities can occur:
11A-12
If one curve is completely contained in the pressure envelop for the entire pipe length, then
a single pipe diameter can be selected for the pipeline design.
If more than one curve is completely contained within the pressure envelop, a choice of pipe
diameters is possible. The smallest diameter will be the most economical. However, selecting
the curve which is most nearly parallel the contour envelop will give the least pressure
variation along the pipe. (A contour envelop is not necessarily a straight line but follows the
land surface shape)
If there is no single curve contained in the pressure envelop then a single pipe diameter is
not adequate and a pipe size change somewhere along the line must be made.
March 2009
Figure 11.M-1 Specific Discharge Rate for PVC Pipe (gph/ft)
Figure 11.M-2 Specific Discharge Rate for Polyethylene Pipe (gph/ft)
March 2009
11A-13
Table 11.L-1 Internal Diameter for PVC Pipe (Imperial Unit)

Nominal Pipe
Size
(in)
0.50
Schedule
Class
40
80
200
0.75
40
80
1.00
40
80
200
200
1.25
40
80
200
160
200
160
200
160
200
160
200
1.50
2.00
2.50
3.00
Working
Pressure
(psi)
600
850
200
480
690
200
450
630
200
370
520
200
160
200
160
200
160
200
160
200
Inside
Diameter
(in)
0.622
0.546
0.68
0.824
0.742
0.89
1.049
0.957
1.155
1.38
1.278
1.5
1.74
1.72
2.193
2.149
2.655
2.601
3.23
3.116
Table 11.L-2 Internal Diameter for PVC Pipe (SI Unit)

Nominal Pipe
Size
(mm)
12.7
Schedule
Class
40
80
200
19.05
40
80
200
25.4
40
80
31.75
40
80
200
38.1
50.8
63.5
76.2
11A-14
200
160
200
160
200
160
200
160
200
Working
Pressure
(m)
422
598
141
337
485
141
316
443
141
260
366
141
112
141
112
141
112
141
112
141
Inside
Diameter
(mm)
15.80
13.87
17.27
20.93
18.85
22.61
26.64
24.31
29.34
35.05
32.46
38.10
44.20
43.69
55.70
54.58
67.44
66.07
82.04
79.15
March 2009
W.
C.1
9.5
W.
C.1
7
W
.C
.2
1
15FT
10
.2
W.C
0
100
200
300
400 FT
.C
.1
9
Figure 11 L-3 Using Uniplot Lateral on Level Ground
W.
C.1
5
15FT
4
C.2
W. .24
C
W.
10
0
100
285
160
200
300
460
400 FT
Friction Head
Friction Head
Figure 11 L-4 Using Uniplot Lateral on Slopping Ground
Pressure Envelope
Distance
FOR LEVEL GROUND
Design
Tolerence
eE
sur
res
lo
nve
pe
Design
Tolerence
Elavation
Change
Distance
FOR SLOPING GROUND
Figure 11.L-5 Determination of Pressure Envelopes for Uniplot

March 2009
11A-15
11A-16
100
0
Closed End of Pipe
10
20
30
200
10
300
12
400
DISTANCE (Feet)
14
500
16
600
18
32
34
36
38
40
30
28
26
24
22
800
700
Direction of Water Flow
20
FRICTION HEAD (Feet)
Figure 11 L-6 Uniplot Design Curves
March 2009
Appendix 11.M Pipe Friction Loss (m) for Submain Line Design
Size
(mm)
25.4
31.75
Flow
(L/min)
3.79
7.58
11.37
15.16
18.95
22.74
26.53
30.32
34.11
37.90
41.69
45.48
49.27
26.53
30.32
34.11
37.90
41.69
45.48
49.27
53.06
56.85
60.64
64.43
68.22
72.01
75.80
83.38
90.96
98.54
106.12
113.70
March 2009
2
0.001
0.002
0.007
0.007
0.014
0.021
0.021
0.028
0.035
0.042
0.056
0.063
0.070
0.007
0.007
0.014
0.014
0.014
0.021
0.021
0.028
0.028
0.035
0.035
0.042
0.042
0.049
0.056
0.070
0.077
0.091
0.105
3
0.001
0.004
0.014
0.014
0.028
0.035
0.049
0.056
0.077
0.091
0.105
0.126
0.147
0.014
0.021
0.021
0.028
0.035
0.035
0.042
0.049
0.056
0.063
0.070
0.077
0.091
0.098
0.112
0.133
0.154
0.182
0.203
5
0.002
0.006
0.014
0.021
0.035
0.049
0.070
0.091
0.112
0.133
0.161
0.189
0.217
0.021
0.028
0.035
0.042
0.049
0.056
0.063
0.077
0.084
0.098
0.105
0.119
0.133
0.147
0.175
0.203
0.231
0.266
0.308
Length of Line (m)

6
8
0.003
0.004
0.008
0.011
0.021
0.028
0.035
0.042
0.049
0.063
0.070
0.084
0.091
0.119
0.119
0.147
0.147
0.182
0.175
0.224
0.210
0.266
0.252
0.315
0.287
0.364
0.028
0.042
0.042
0.049
0.049
0.063
0.056
0.070
0.063
0.077
0.077
0.091
0.084
0.112
0.098
0.126
0.112
0.140
0.126
0.161
0.140
0.182
0.161
0.196
0.175
0.217
0.189
0.238
0.231
0.287
0.266
0.336
0.315
0.392
0.357
0.448
0.406
0.511
9
0.004
0.013
0.028
0.049
0.070
0.105
0.140
0.175
0.224
0.266
0.322
0.371
0.434
0.049
0.056
0.070
0.084
0.098
0.112
0.133
0.147
0.168
0.189
0.217
0.238
0.266
0.287
0.343
0.406
0.469
0.539
0.609
12
0.006
0.017
0.042
0.063
0.098
0.140
0.182
0.238
0.294
0.357
0.427
0.497
0.581
0.063
0.077
0.098
0.105
0.126
0.147
0.175
0.196
0.224
0.252
0.287
0.315
0.350
0.385
0.462
0.539
0.623
0.714
0.812
15
0.007
0.007
0.021
0.049
0.084
0.126
0.175
0.231
0.294
0.364
0.448
0.532
0.623
0.728
0.077
0.098
0.119
0.133
0.154
0.189
0.217
0.252
0.287
0.315
0.357
0.399
0.441
0.483
0.574
0.672
0.784
0.896
11A-17
APPENDIX 11.N Worked Example

11.N-1 Design Example for Drip Irrigation System in Greenhouse
Design drip irrigation system for chili crops planted under greenhouse (100 m width by 50 m long).
Single plants is planted in polybag (30 cm dia.x 30 cm ) with growing media (mixture of cocopeat
and burn rice husk) in single row system with spacing 1.5 m between rows and 0.6m within row. The
land area is flat with ample water sources coming from municipal water supply.
Step 1: Plant Layout
No of plant row = 100 m / 1.5 m = 66 plant row
No of plant per row = 50 m / 0.6 m = 80 plant per row
Step 2: Plant Water Requirement
According to literature, peak chili water requirement is 2 L/plant/day.
With 10% over drainage for leaching, peak water requirement = 2.2 L/plant/day
The water to be applied 4 times a day (twice in morning and twice in afternoon)
Thus, the amount of water to apply per irrigation = 2.2 L / 4 = 0.55 L
Step 3: Emitter and Microtube Selection
Emitter type = pressure compensating arrow
Emitter flowrate =2 L/hr
No of emitter per bag = 2 no.
Irrigation period = 0.55 L/(2 L/hr x 2 no) = 0.1375 hr = 8.25 min = 500 sec
Microtube size= 4 mm internal dia
Step 4: Lateral Line Sizing
a) Lateral flowrate = 80 plant x 2 emitter per plant x 2 L/hr = 320 L/hr (0.089 L/s)
b) Calculate the head loss (hf) in lateral using Eqs 11.13 or 11.14. Calculated hf = 0.15 m
The lateral size choose = 16 mm dia
Step 5: Manifold Design
Crop areas are divided into 3 sub-unit consist of 22 plant row each
a) Manifold flowrate = 80 plant x 2 emitter per plant x 2 L/hr x 22 row = 7040 L/hr (0.00196 m3/s =
1.96 L/s)
b) Calculate length of manifold (Lsm) using Eqs 11.69, Calculated Lsm = 32.25 m
c) Calclate zone manifold discharge rate (Qm) using Eqs 11.71. Calculated Qm = 0.00196 m3/s (1.96
L/s)
Select manifold diameter with flow velocity <1.5 m/s using Appendix 11.I. The selected OD diameter
is 60.3 mm.
11A-18
March 2009
d) Calculate friction head loss (hf) using Eqs 11.13 or 11.14. Calculated (hf) = 0.346 m
e) Calculate friction head loss in lateral (hp) using Eq. 11.23. Calculated (hp) = 0.128 m.
Step 6: Mainline Design
a) The amount of water to be supplied to the greenhouse = 80 plant x 2 emitter per plant x 2 L/hr x
66 row = 21120 L/hr (0.00587 m3/s or 5.87 L/s)
b) Select mainline diameter with flow velocity <1.5 m/s and head loss <0.2 m using Appendix 11.I.
The selected OD diameter is 88.9 mm.
c) Calculate friction head loss (hf) in main line using Eqs 11.13 or 11.14. Calculated (hf) = 0.966 m
d) Calculate friction head loss in manifold (hp) using Eqs. 11.23. Calculated (hp) = 0.455 m.
Step 7: Filtration System Design
a) The amount of water to be supplied to the greenhouse as calculated above = 21,120 L/hr
(0.00587 m3/s or 5.87 L/s)
b) The irrigation water is considered good quality as it is coming from Municipal supply. But, as
preventive measure disc filter is recommended to be installed. The selected disc filter is 200 micron
(80 mesh) with inlet size of 85 mm diameter and capacity 50,000 L/hr.
Step 8: Pump and Power Requirement
a) The system flowrate = 21,120 L/hr or 0.00587 m3/s or 5.87 L/s. The sub-unit can be irrigated
simultaneously or in rotation.
b) Calculate the TDH using Eq. 11.10.
TDH = Hs + He + Hf + Hp
Where:
Hs = static suction head (water level to pump) = 0.5 m (assumed)
He = static discharege head (pump to irrigation emitter) = 0.5 m (assumed)
Hf = friction head loss (in pipe, fitting, filter) = 0.966 + 3(0.455) = 2.331 m
Hp = pressure head required to operate emitter = 5.6 m
Calculated TDH = 8.931 m
c) Calculate water power WP using Eq 8.4
WP = (QxTDH)/102
Where:
Q = Total pump discharge = 5.87 L/s + 10% = 6.46 L/s
TDH = 8.931 m
Calculated WP = 0.566 KW
d) Calculate brake horse power BHP as follows:
BHP = WP/n
Where,
March 2009
11A-19
n = pump efficiency = 70%

Calculated BHP = 0.8 KW (1.1 hp)
SUB UNIT 1
SUB UNIT 2
SUB UNIT 3
Figure 11M-1 Design Layout
11A-20
March 2009
11.N-2 Work Example for Micro jet System
Design micro jet irrigation system for 5 ha fruit orchard on slopping land (Figure 1) planted with
single row matured durian tree with spacing 10 m by 10 m. The area comprises clay loam with
ample water sources coming from small stream passing thro the farm
Step 1: Plant Layout
No of plant = (5 ha X 10,000 m2)/10 X 10 m = 500 plant
No of plant per row = 200 m / 10 m = 20 plant per row
No of row = 250 m / 10 m = 25 row
Step 2: Plant Water Requirement
a) Calculate plant water requirement (LPD) using Eq. 5.41.
LPD = ETo x S x A x Kc
Where:
ETo = peak ET for Malaysia = 6 mm/day
S = effective soil water storage factor = 0.75
A = plant area = 10 m x 10 m = 100 m2
Kc = crop coefficient = 0.75
Calculated LPD = 338 L/day
b) Calculate effective soil water storage capacity (ESWS) using Eq. 5.42
ESWS = Wa x Drz x MAD
Where:
Wa = available water holding capacity of soil (Table 5.3)= 183 mm/m
Drz = plant root zone depth (Appendix 5.A) = 1.22 m
MAD = management allowed deficit (Table 5.11) = 50%
Calculate ESWS = 111.63 mm
c) Calculate maximum net depth per irrigation (dx) using Eq. 5.43
dx = (MAD/100) x (Pw/100) x Wa x Drz
Where:
Pw = percentage wetted area = 20%
Calculated dx = 22.3 mm
d) Calculate irrigation frequency (fx) using equation below:
fx = ESWS/(ETo x kc)
Where:
ESWS = 111.63 mm
ETo = peak ET for Malaysia = 6 mm/day
March 2009
11A-21
Kc = crop coefficient = 0.75

Calculated If = 25 day (Irrigation to be applied every 25 day interval)
Step 3: Emitter and Microtube Selection
Emitter type = spray emitter system (Refer to Section 11.5.6.2 and Figure 11.23)
Emitter flowrate =50 L/hr
No of emitter per plant = (338 L/plant/day) / (50 L/hr) = 6 no (to many, so decided 4 nos)
Emitter to be placed around the plant by putting 2 emitter of each plant side, thus 2 rows of lateral
is proposed)
Irrigation period = 338 L/(50 L/hr x 4 no) = 1.69 hr = 100 min
Microtube size= 4 mm internal dia
Step 4: Lateral Line Sizing
a) Lateral flowrate = 10 plant x 2 emitter per plant x 50 L/hr = 1000 L/hr (0.278 L/s)
b) Calculate the head loss (hf) in lateral using Eq. 11.13 or 11.14.
L= pipe length = 100 m
Q = flowrate = 0.278 L/s
C = Hazen-Williams friction coefficient = 150
D = inner pipe diameter = 21 mm
Calculated hf = 3.6 m
As the land slope is 3%, the head gain is 3 m
Thus the net head loss is 3.6 m 3.0 m = 0.6 m
Step 5: Manifold Design
Crop areas are divided into 10 sub-unit consist of 5 plant row each
a) Manifold flowrate = 10 plant x 2 emitter per plant x 50 L/hr x 5 row x 2 = 10,000 L/hr (0.0028
m3/s = 2.8 L/s)
b) Calculate length of manifold (Lsm) using Eq. 11.69, Calculated Lsm = 45 m
c) Calclate zone manifold discharge rate (Qm) using Eqs 11.71. Calculated Qm = 0.0028 m3/s (2.8
L/s)
Select manifold diameter with flow velocity <1.5 m/s using Appendix 11.I. The selected OD diameter
is 60.3 mm.
d) Calculate friction head loss (hf) using Eqs 11.13 or 11.14.
D = inner pipe diameter = 60.3 mm
Calculated (hf) = 0.93 m
As the land slope is 2%, the head gain is 0.90 m
Thus the net head loss is 0.93 m 0.9 m = 0.03 m
11A-22
March 2009
e) Calculate friction head loss in lateral (hp) using Eq. 11.23.

hp = F x hr
where:
F = 0.4 (Table 11.5)
hr = 0.93 m
Calculated (hp) = 0.372 m
a) The amount of water to be supplied to the whole farm = 20 plant x 2 emitter per plant x 50 L/hr x
25 row x = 100,000 L/hr (0.028 m3/s or 27.7 L/s)
We can irrigate half of the farm simultaneously, thus the Q = 13.85 L/s
b) Select mainline diameter with flow velocity <1.5 m/s and head loss <0.2 m using Appendix 11.I.
The selected OD diameter is 114.3 mm.
c) Calculate friction head loss (hf) in main line using Eqs 11.13 or 11.14.
D = inner pipe diameter = 108.7 mm
Calculated (hf) = 4.3 m
a) The amount of water to be supplied to the farm as calculated above = 13.85 L/s
b) The irrigation water is considered poor quality as it is coming from stream. As preventive measure
sand and disc filter are recommended to be installed. The selected sand and disc filter is 60-200
micron with inlet size of 114.3 mm diameter and capacity 60 -100 m3/hr.
Step 8: Pump and Power Requirement
a) The system flowrate = 13.85 L/s. Half of the farm can be irrigated simultaneously or in rotation.
Where:
Hs = static suction head (water level to pump) = 2.5 m (assumed)
He = static discharege head (pump to irrigation emitter) = 5 m (assumed)
Hf = friction head loss (in pipe, fitting, filter) = 4.3 + 5 (0.9) = 8.8 m
Hp = pressure head required to operate emitter = 10 m
March 2009
11A-23
c) Calculate water power WP using Eq. 8.4

WP = (QxTDH)/102
Where:
Q = Total pump discharge = 13.85 L/s + 10% = 15.24 L/s
TDH = 26.3 m
BHP = WP/n
Where,
N = pump efficiency = 70%
Calculated BHP = 5.6 KW (7.7 hp)
2%
1%
Figure 11M-2 Design Layout
11A-24
March 2009

Chapter 12 - Sprinkler Irrigation
Chapter 12 - SPRINKLER IRRIGATION
Table of Contents
List of Tables. 12-iv
List of Figures 12-iv
12.1 INTRODUCTION... 12-1
12.2 SYSTEM TYPES AND COMPONENTS . 12-1
12.2.1 Sprinkler Systems Types. 12-1
12.2.1.1 Periodic Move or Portable Systems12-2
12.2.1.2 Wheel Move Systems 12-2
12.2.1.3 Gun Type Sprinkler Systems 12-2
12.2.1.4 Solid-set or Permanent System...12-2
12.2.2 Systems Components 12-2
12.2.2.1 Pump..12-3
12.2.2.2 Mainline.12-3
12.2.2.3 Laterals 12-3
12.2.2.4 Sprinklers.12-3
12.2.2.5 Valves 12-4
12.3 GENERAL PLANNING AND DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS .. 12-5
12.3.1 Land Topography... 12-5
12.3.2 Field Shape. 12-5
12.3.3 Soil-Water-Plant Factors.. 12-5
12.3.3.1 Soil Type 12-5
12.3.3.2 Water Source.12-6
12.3.3.3 Crop 12-6
12.3.4 Crop Water Requirements12-6
12.3.4.1 Root Zone Depth. 12-6
12.3.4.2 Application Depth and Irrigation Interval . 12-6
12.3.4.3 Peak Use Period12-6
12.3.4.4 Leaching Requirements12-7
12.3.5 Peak Irrigation System Flowrates...12-7
12.3.6 Intake and Optimum Application Rates12-7
12.3.7 System Hydraulic Requirements. 12-8
12.3.7.1 Sprinkler Performance12-8
12.3.7.2 Factors Affecting Performance 12-12
12.3.7.3 Set Time12-13
12.3.7.4 Flow in Pipes .12-13
12.3.7.5 Effects of Ground Elevation on Pressure 12-14
12.3.7.6 Pumping Pressure Requirements 12-14
12.3.8 Sprinkler Irrigation Efficiency 12-15
12.4 WATER QUALITY ENHANCEMENT .. 12-16
12.4.1 Filters. 12-16
March 2009
12-i
12.4.2 Chemigation and Fertigation Equipment .. 12-17

12.5 GENERAL DESIGN CRITERIA . 12-17
12.5.1 Criteria for Solid-set, Periodic Move and Big Gun Systems.. 12-17
12.5.1.1 Design Capacity.. 12-17
12.5.1.2 Design Application Rate.. 12-17
12.5.1.3 Lateral Lines.. 12-17
12.5.1.4 Distribution Patterns and Sprinkler Spacing. 12-18
12.5.1.5 Riser12-19
12.5.2 Climate Control and/or Modification .12-19
12.5.3 Chemical and Nutrient Application. 12-19
12.5.3.1 Design Application Rate and Timing. 12-20
12.5.3.2 Coefficient of Uniformity. 12-20
12.5.3.3 Nutrient and Pest Management.. 12-20
12.5.4 Criteria for Leaching.. 12-20
12.6 DESIGN OF PERIODIC MOVE SYSTEMS .. 12-20
12.6.1 Planning and Design Considerations. 12-20
12.6.1.1 Sprinkler Heads . 12-20
12.6.1.2 Laterals .. 12-20
12.6.1.3 Set Times.12-20
12.6.1.4 Lateral Setting Sequence 12-21
12.6.1.5 Design Sprinkler Efficiency.12-21
12.6.1.6 Layout Patterns 12-22
12.6.2 Design Procedures.. 12-23
12.6.2.1 Sprinkler Selection 12-24
12.6.2.2 Layout of Sprinkler Systems.... 12-26
12.6.2.3 Pressure Variation in Laterals . 12-28
12.6.2.4 Design Lateral Size .. 12-29
12.6.2.5 Main Line Design 12-32
12.6.2.6 Selection of Pump and Power Unit .. 12-32
12.6.2.7 Adjustment to Meet Layout Conditions . 12-33
12.7 DESIGN OF SOLID-SET OR PERMANENT SYSTEM.... 12-33
12.7.1 Planning and Design Considerations. 12-33
12.7.1.1 Solid Set Portable Laterals. 12-33
12.7.1.2 Solid Set Permanent Laterals 12-33
12.7.1.3 Layout Patterns 12-33
12.8 DESIGN OF TRAVELLING SPRINKLER SYSTEM. 12-34
12.8.1 Planning and Design Considerations 12-34
12.8.1.1 System Layout. 12-34
12.8.1.2 Water Source and Pumping Plant Location.. 12-35
12.8.1.3 Minimum Clearance Standard.. 12-35
12-ii
March 2009
12.8.2.1 Sprinkler Selection. 12-36

12.8.2.2 Towpaths.12-36
12.8.2.3 Application Rate and Travel Speed 12-36
12.8.2.4 Hose and Traveler Friction Losses. 12-38
12.8.2.5 Travel Lane Spacing..12-39
12.8.2.6 Design Mainlines and Submains. 12-39
12.9
DESIGN OF STATIONARY GUN SYSTEM.. 12-39

12.9.1 Nozzle Types..12-39
12.9.2 Application Rate 12-40
12.9.3 Instantaneous Application Rate.. 12-40
12.9.4 Overlap Application Rates.. 12-40
12.9.5 Spacing Selection 12-41
12.9.6 Operating Pressure. 12-41
12.9.7 Application Efficiency. 12-41
12.10 FLOW CONTROL VALVES.12-41

12.11 OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE 12-42
12.11.1 Mainline and Laterals 12-43
12.11.2 Couplers.. 12-43
12.11.3 Valves.. 12-43
12.11.4 Filters. 12-43
12.11.5 Risers 12-43
12.11.6 Rotary Sprinklers 12-44
12.11.7 Pressure Regulators. 12-44
12.11.8 Pumps and Motors. 12-44
12.11.9 Water Hammer. 12-44
REFERENCES ........ 12-46
APPENDIX 12.A: Effective Crop Root Depths Contain Approximately 80 Percent of the
Feeder
Roots in Deep, Uniform, Well-Drained Soil Profile. 12A-1

APPENDIX 12.B: Sprinkler Types and Performance Characteristics .. 12A-2
APPENDIX 12.C: Minor Loss Coefficients.. 12A-3
APPENDIX 12.D: Values for C and Ks. ... 12A-6
APPENDIX 12.E: Values of F Used when the Distance to the First Sprinkler Equals the Sprinkler
Head Spacing . 12A-7
APPENDIX 12.F: Values of F Used when the Distance to the First Sprinkler Equals One-half of
the Sprinkler Head Spacing.... 12A-8
APPENDIX 12.G: Size Determination of the Lateral Pipes 12A-9
APPENDIX 12.H: Manufacturer Specifications for Gun Type Nozzles.12A-14
APPENDIX 12.I: Depth of Water Applied by Travelling Guns12A-17
APPENDIX 12.J: Worked Examples.12A-18
12.J-1: Travelling Gun Design12A-18
12.J-2: Stationary Gun System Design.... 12A-21
12.J-3: Design of Solid-set Sprinkler System... 12A-25
March 2009
12-iii
List of Tables
Table
Description
Page
12.1
Sprinkler Operating Pressures, Characteristics and Adaptability
12-4
12.2
System Flowrate Requirements Based on Peak Rates
12-7
12.3
Suggested Maximum Sprinkler Application Rates
12-8
12.4
Typical Sprinkler Data
12-11
12.5
A Guide to Nozzle Sizes And Pressure For Proper Break up of Water Jets
12-12
12.6
Effect of Wind Speed on Sprinkler Spacing
12-12
12.7
Recommended Minimum Operating Pressures
12-13
12.8
A Guide for Selecting Pipe Sizes
12-14
12.9
Sprinkler Spacing Recommendation
12-18
12.10
Suggested Sprinkler Discharge And Riser Height
12-19
12.11
Irrigation Application Efficiencies for Various Sprinkler Systems
12-21
12.12
Values of Kl and Ks for Different Spacing Patterns
12-25
12.13
Recommended Pressure Ranges for Nozzle Sizes
12-25
12.14
Constants Values for Friction Loss Equation
12-28
12.15
Values of C
12-35
12.16
Values of K
12-36
12.17
Basic Characteristics of Gun Type Sprinklers
12-36
12.18
Gross Depth of Water Applied for Continuous Moving Large Gun Type Sprinkler 12-37
Heads
12.19
Instantaneous Application Rates for Part Circle Gun
12-38
12.20
12-38
12.21
Friction Loss in Flexible Irrigation Hose Used on Travelling Gun Type Sprinkle
System
Guidelines for Sizing Travelling Gun Type Sprinkler Hoses
12.22
Maximum Travel Lane Spacing for Travelling Gun Type Sprinklers
12-39
12.23
Specification for Different Stationary Gun Types
12-40
12.24
Maximum Design Application Rate
12-40
12.25
Recommended Minimum Operating Pressures for Gun Systems
12-41
12.26
Nozzle Size And Recommended Pressure for Flow Control Valves
12-42
12-39
List of Figures
Figure
Description
Page
12.1
Different Types of Sprinkler Irrigation Systems
12-1
12.2
Basic Components of a Sprinkler System
12-2
12.3
Common Sprinklers in Agriculture
12-3
12.4
Crop Water Use During Peak Period
12-6
12.5
Water Throw by Sprinkler
12-9
12.6
Application Patterns of an Individual Sprinkler for Different Operating Pressures
12-9
12-iv
March 2009
12.7
Overlapping Sprinkler Profiles
12-9
12.8
Evaluation of Different Lateral Spacings by Can-Catch Data
12-10
12.9
Wetting and Distribution Patterns for a Single Sprinkler
12-10
12.10
Wetting and Distribution Patterns for Multiple Sprinklers
12-10
12.11
Effect of Wind on Sprinkler Geometry
12-12
12.12
Effect of Operating Pressure on Sprinkler Performance
12-13
12.13
Effects of Ground Elevation Pressure
12-14
12.14
Pumping Pressure Requirements
12-15
12.15
Characterization of Water Application
12-15
12.16
Sprinklers Spacing Layout
12-18
12.17
Mainline and Pumping Layouts of General Periodic Move Systems
12-22
12.18
Sprinkler Selection Process
12-24
12.19
Spacing Patterns for Irrigation Sprinklers
12-25
12.20
Lateral Layouts for Periodic-Move Sprinkler Systems with Different Topographic

Situations
12-27
12.21
Location for the Average Pressure of Multiple Sprinklers
12-30
12.22
Location for the Average Pressure of a Single Sprinkler
12-30
12.23
Lateral Pipe Size Determination Process
12-31
12.24
Economic Pipe-Selection Chart
12-32
12.25
Travelling Gun Type Sprinkler System Layout
12-35
12.26
Gun Spray Trajectories
12-36
12.27
Stationary Gun Equipment
12-39
March 2009
12-v
12-vi
March 2009
12 SPRINKLER IRRIGATION
12.1
INTRODUCTION
This Chapter aims to guide manual user step-by-step in planning and designing sprinkler irrigation
systems suitable for irrigated crops in the country. It covers all necessary facilities for efficiently
applying water by means of nozzles operated under pressure. The chapter also describes the basics
and process as well as guidance on soils, crops, and irrigation water requirement information needed
to plan, design, and manage irrigation systems. The systematic arrangement of the best information
guideline and current technology will be useful for engineers, contractors and farm owners to
produce acceptable quality and yield of crops.
12.2
SYSTEM TYPES AND COMPONENTS
12.2.1
Sprinkler Systems Types
Sprinkler irrigation systems are usually classified by operation of the laterals and known as solid set
or permanent, movable or portable, and continuous or self move systems. There are many more
types under movable sprinkler system available. This is because of the wide variety of soil conditions
and crops to which sprinklers can be adapted. The diagram in Figure 12.1 shows five main types of
sprinkler irrigation systems. Continuous move systems are usually use in the wide range fields. So
far, this type is not economical and feasible due to small range irrigated fields in Malaysia and will
not cover in this Chapter.
Systems
Continuous Move
Systems
Stationary Systems
Linear Move
Solid Set
System
Semi-portable
System
Hand-move
Laterals
End-tow
Laterals
Side roll (Wheel)

Laterals
Periodic Move or
Portable Systems
Gun-type
Sprinklers
Hose-fed Laterals
Semi-permanent
System
Center-Pivot
Perforated Pipe
Sprinklers
Boom Type
Sprinklers
Stationary Gun
Travelling Gun
Figure 12.1 Different Types of Sprinkler Irrigation Systems
March 2009
12-1
12.2.1.1
Periodic Move or Portable Systems
This system consists of aluminium piping which is moved by uncoupling the lateral lines and
manually transferring the pipes to the next set. Lateral line sizes of 5 cm, 7.5 cm and 10 cm
aluminium are normally used. Lateral pipe lengths are usually 9 m or 12 m. Each lateral pipe will
contain one sprinkler; therefore, sprinkler spacing along the lateral will be 9 m or 12 m.
12.2.1.2
Wheel Move Systems
A wheel move system consists of 10 or 12.5 cm aluminium piping mounted on wheels. Sprinklers are
usually spaced 12 m along the wheel line one sprinkler per pipe section. Sprinkler spacing can be
adjusted as required with spacings ranging from 9 to 15 m. It is recommended that wheel lines be
limited to a maximum length of 450 m. Longer lengths make it difficult to advance the system.
Wheel sizes can vary from 1.5 to 3.0 m depending on crop growth height. The circumference of the
wheel usually coincides with lateral spacings of 18 m. Mainline lengths are usually 9 m, therefore a
hydrant location for every two sections of mainline matches the wheel move spacing.
12.2.1.3
Gun Type Sprinkler Systems
The gun type sprinkler is used to apply high volume sprinklers with discharge rate exceeding 13
L/min. Flowrate varies from 13 to 265 L/min. Operating pressure range from 28 90 m (280 900
kPa).
12.2.1.4
Soild-set or Permanent System
When sufficient number of laterals and sprinklers are provided to cover the whole irrigated area, so
that no equipment needs to be moved, the system is called a solid-set system. Solid-set or
permanent systems normally use small sprinklers and application rates in the range of 3.05 6.35
mm/hr. Normally single nozzle sprinklers are used on spacings of (12 m x 12 m) to (20 x 22 m).
Spacings are normally 50 to 65 percent of sprinkler wetted diameter. Lateral spacings and sprinkler
spacings on the lateral are adjusted to meet row and tree spacings. Sprinkler pressures are normally
69 103 kPa higher than those used for irrigation to give small droplets and therefore, better
coverage and higher sprinkler rotation speeds.
12.2.2
System Components
There are many types of sprinkler system available to adapt the systems with the wide variety of soil
conditions and crops. However, all the systems generally have the following basic components
(Figure 12.2) in common; i.e.
Pump
Mainline
Laterals
Risers
Sprinklers
Valves
Sprinkler
Riser Pipe
Valve
Lateral
Priming Pump
Mainline
Delivery
Pump
Water Source
Figure 12.2 Basic Components of a Sprinkler System

12-2
March 2009
12.2.2.1
Pump
The pump draws water from water sources and delivers it into the irrigation system. It is driven by a
power unit such as an electric motor or internal combustion engine.
12.2.2.2
Mainline
The mainline is a pipe which delivers water from the pump to submains and the laterals. In some
cases the mainline is permanent and is laid in the field either above or more usually, below ground.
In others it is portable and can be moved from field to field. Permanent pipes are usually made of
aluminium, steel, polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and polyethylene. Portable pipes are usually made of light
weight aluminium alloy, galvanized steel or plastic.
12.2.2.3
Laterals
The lateral is a pipe which delivers water from the mainline to the sprinklers. It can be portable or
permanent and is made of similar materials to the mainline, but is usually smaller in size.
12.2.2.4
Sprinklers
The two main types of sprinklers used in agriculture are: the rotary sprinkler and the sprayline
(Figure 12.3). The rotary sprinkler is the most commonly used type. A sprayline consists of a pipe
with small holes or nozzles fitted along its length through which the water is sprayed. Sprayline can
be stationary or oscillate from side to side or they can be made to rotate about a central axis. Many
factors need to be considered when deciding which system to use. The widely used sprinklers with
operating capacities, characteristics and adaptability are given in Table 12.1.The sprinklers
classification is described follows:
Tension Spring
Swing Arm
Nozzle
Rotating
Bearing
Connection to Lateral
(a) Rotary Sprinkler System
(b) Sprayline Type

Figure 12.3 Common Sprinklers in Agriculture
March 2009
12-3
Table 12.1 Sprinkler Operating Pressures, Characteristics and Adaptability (Adapted from SCS, 1983)
Sprinkler
Types
Very
Low
Pressure
Operating
Pressure
Range (kPa)
34-105
General
characteristics
Wetted
diameter
(m)
Water
application
rates
(mm/hr)
Low
Pressure
Medium
Pressure
High
Pressure
100-210
210-415
350-690
550-830
70-350
30-140
95-295
Special
thrust
springs
or
reaction
type
arms
Usually
single
nozzle
rotates by
spring or
reaction
Either
single or
double
nozzle
Usually
double
nozzle
One large
nozzle with
small
nozzles
Low
angle
nozzle
Rectangular
small
perforation
Multiple
Nozzles (As
Shower
Nozzles)
6 ~ 15
18 ~ 24
23 ~ 37
34 ~ 70
60 ~ 120
12 ~ 27
Strips
6 ~15
3~8
10
13
16
12
20
Very High
Pressure
Under
Tree
Perforated
Fixed/Spray
head
Water drops
size
Fair
Large
Fairly
well
broken
Well
broken
Well broken
Fairly
well
broken
Large
Quite well
broken
Water
distribution
Fair
Fair
Fair to
good
Very
good
Good in no
wind
Fairly
good
Fairly good
Fair
Adaptability
Small
acreage
confined
to soil
Small
acreage
permeable
soil
Under
tree
sprinkling
for
vegetable
For all
field
crops
over
tree
system
Nearly same
to
intermediate
close
growing
crops
Orchard
especially
where
wind
distorts
over tree
system
For
vegetables
undesirable
for tall
crops
For lawns,
young
orchard
nursery
permeable
soil
Slow Rotary or Impact Sprinkler: Most agricultural sprinklers are of the slow rotation types. They
may range from small single-nozzle sprinklers to giant multiple-nozzle sprinklers. Relatively small
sprinklers are rotated by periodic impact of a lever arm, and high-pressure giant types are rotated by
water activated gear drivers. It produces a circular wetted area.
Reaction Rotary Sprinkler: This type, whirling sprinkler, has one or two nozzles and rotates by the
reaction from the jets causes them to whirl. Cover area is small because of the fast rotation. They
are useful for small plots or under-tree irrigation, but their use is rare for general agricultural fields.
Perforated Pipe Sprinkler: Perforated pipe is portable pipe or hose with many holes which are spaced
either upper third/half or side of pipe to discharge water. With the low operating pressure, use is
restricted to flat fields. Because of the very small orifices, clogging is an important problem.
Fixed Head Sprinkler: There are various types of fixed head sprinklers operated under low pressure.
They are almost small and mainly used for lawns, young orchard and green house.
12.2.2.5
Valves
Valves are integral parts of the pressurized pipelines utilized in farm irrigation systems. They provide
on-off service, throttling (i.e., flow regulation), pressure regulation, surge control, pressure relief, air
release, vacuum relief and backflow prevention and each is described below:
On-of Valves: On-off valves allow water to be delivered and cycled to different parts of the system to
meet irrigation requirements of each part of the farm. These may be manual, with timed or
automatic. On-off valves allow set-move systems to be moved without stopping pump. They are also
located at the downstream end of permanent pipes to allow flushing of sediment and debris.
12-4
March 2009
Throttling Valves: Throttling valves are used for partially closing the manual valves. The flow will
remain constant with respect to the pressure and valve setting remain unchanged. Automatic valves
allow constant flow regardless of changing pressures. Throttling valves are located at the upstream
end of mainlines, submains and laterals.
Pressure Regulating Valves: Pressure regulating valves control pressure within desired limits of
discharge. These are automatic valves are used where system pressure fluctuations make it difficult
to apply water uniformly and supplies a constant pressure to the field regardless of which other
fields are being irrigated. Frequently pressure regulating valves provide surge control by protecting
downstream pipes from upstream originating surges.
Check Valves: Check valves control the reverse flow in pipelines. Backflow protection is essential
when fertilizers and/or agro-chemicals are injected.
Surge Control Valves: Surge Control Valves protect pumps and distribution systems from pressure
waves caused by rapid changes in pipeline velocity. The gradual starting and stopping of pumps can
not generate harmful surges. However a power failure causes dangerous surges in the system which
can damage equipment. Thus the control of surges in pumping systems is extremely important.
12.3
GENERAL PLANNING AND DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
Planning and designing an efficient irrigation system requires a good understanding of soil, crop and
moisture relationships. The effects of soil type, crop root depth and climate are important when
considering irrigation system application rates and set times. Four specific design criteria should be
calculated. They are as follows:
Maximum
Maximum
Maximum
Maximum
soil water deficit

irrigation system application
irrigation interval
system water requirement
The criteria for the design of components shall be consistent with sound engineering principles. The
selected system shall be based on a site evaluation, expected operating conditions and verification
that soils and topography are suitable for the intended purpose(s). Choice may also be affected by
the cost of developing and maintaining the system.
12.3.1
Land Topography
The type of sprinkler system used depends on the land slope. If land slope is less than 5% any
sprinkler system can be used. On land steeper than 5% it becomes more difficult to keep mobile
rainguns in line when moving across the slope. Slopes greater than 15% are only suitable for
conventional portable and permanent system.
12.3.2
Field Shape
All sprinkler system are easily adapted to regular shaped fields such as square or rectangles.
Conventional and mobile raingun can be adapted to irregularly shaped fields such as slope condition
(undulating or flat), land shape (irregular or rectangular) and acreage and perimeter of the farm.
12.3.3
Soil-Water-Plant Factors
12.3.3.1
Soil Type
A sprinkler system must be adapted to the soil condition so that the water application rate is always
less than the rate at which the soil can absorb it. This avoids surface runoff and soil erosion
occurrences. The soil factors needed to be considered in the design of sprinkler system are soil
properties, water holding capacity and infiltration characteristics
March 2009
12-5
12.3.3.2
Water Source
The amount and quality of available water may affect the choice of sprinkler system. The most
important water sources factors need to be considered are type of water source and quality.
12.3.3.3
Crop
Most crops can be irrigated using conventional sprinkler system including row or bedded crops, close
growing crops and permanent crops. Mobile raingun is also suitable for most crops. The crop types
that need to be considered to plan, design and install a sprinkler system are row crop or single plant,
crop spacing, root depth and crop water requirement
12.3.4
Crop Water Requirements
Systems are usually designed so that the discharge, application depth and irrigation frequency will
meet crop water requirements during the peak period. Local soil conditions, water management, and
economic considerations require for determination of the amount of water used for irrigating.
12.3.4.1
Root Zone Depth
Knowing the effective root depths of various crops is essential to determine crop water demand
accurately. The effective root depth represents the depth at which crops will get most of their
needed water. The root zone depths for the common crops are given in Appendix 12.A or Appendix
5.A. Irrigation systems must be designed for mature crop requirements.
12.3.4.2
Application Depth and Irrigation Interval
Net depth of application shall meet criteria for the intended purpose, not exceeding the available soil
water holding capacity. Water holding capacity of agricultural soils is usually between 10 20% by
volume. The maximum net depth per irrigation is the depth of water applied to replace the soil
moisture deficit at the Management Allowed Deficit (MAD) which is computed by Eq. (5.43). The
maximum irrigation interval is the maximum number of days between irrigations that a crop can
sustain optimum growth and production. Irrigation interval is computed using the Eq. (5.46)
12.3.4.3
Peak Use Period
Irrigation system is usually designed for the most water demand conditions. The value of crop
evapotranspiration during the peak use of period depends on the crop type, the weather and places.
When a system is to irrigate different crops in the same or different seasons, the crop with the
highest peak ET should be used to determine the system capacity (Figure 12.4).
8
Peak ET
ET (mm)
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
Week
Figure 12.4 Crop Water Use during Peak Period
12-6
March 2009
12.3.4.4
Leaching Requirements (LR)
Leaching may be required if annual rains are not enough to flush the root zone. If ECw is low it may
not be necessary to consider leaching in the design. Design equation for leaching is given in Section
5.5.3 in Chapter 5. If LR < 0 the irrigation water is too salty and crop would either die or suffer
severely at this level.
Peak Irrigation System Flowrates (Qs)
12.3.5
The required capacity of a sprinkle irrigation system depends on the size of the area to be irrigated,
gross depth of water to be applied per irrigation, and the operating time allowed for applying the
water. To be suitable for irrigation, an irrigation system must provide water at the volumetric rate
computed using Eq. 12.3.
Qs =
Where,
Qs
DDIRf
A
HPD
K
Ei
=
=
=
=
=
=
K DDIR f A
Ei HPD
(12.1)
system design capacity (l/min)

design daily irrigation requirements (mm/day) (Described in Chapter 5)
area irrigated (ha)
actual system operation time (hrs/day) to cover entire area
unit constant (16667 for SDC in l/min and DDIR in mm/day and A in ha)
irrigation efficiency (%) (Table 5.6 or Table 12.11)
A guideline is also adapted from (Gulik, 1989) shown in Table 12.2 can be used in determining the
peak water supply flowrate using 0% risk factor and the average peak ET rate. Irrigation system
designed at flowrates higher than per hectare values indicated in Table 12.2 are usually overdesigned.
Table 12.2 Irrigation System Flowrate Requirements Based on Peak ET (Adapted from Gulik, 1989)
12.3.6
ET (mm/day)
Irrigation System Flowrate (L/min/ha)
3.55
4.06
4.57
5.08
5.58
5.84
6.35
7.36
7.62
37.50
42.25
47.00
52.00
56.50
61.00
66.00
75.00
85.00
Intake and Optimum Application Rates
Application rates shall be selected such that runoff and deep percolation are minimized. The
irrigation system application rate should be limited to the infiltration capability of the soil. Proper
nozzle selection and maintenance is important to ensure that maximum soil infiltration rates are not
exceeded. Acceptable maximum application rates for irrigation set times will be less or exceeded for
the different time frames. For sloping ground the maximum application rate must be reduced. A
general rule is to reduce the maximum application rate by 25% for field slopes exceeding 10% and
50% for field slopes exceeding 20%. Field tests under actual sprinkler conditions should be
conducted to determine accurate application rates. The minimum practical rate of application to
attain good distribution and high efficiency under favourable climatic conditions is about 3 mm/hr.
The suggested maximum sprinkler application rates for average soil, slope and tillage depth are
given in Table 12.3.
March 2009
12-7
Table 12.3 Suggested Maximum Sprinkler Application Rates (mm/hr) (Keller and Bliesner, 1990)
Slope Range
Soil Texture and Depth
0-5%
5-8%
8-12%
12-16%
Coarse sandy soil

1.8 m
Coarse sandy soils over more compact soils
50
38
25
13
25
19
10
Light sandy loams

1.8 m
Light sandy loams over more compact soils
25
20
15
10
19
13
10
Silt loams
1.8 m
Silt loams over more compact soils
13
10
2.5
Heavy textured clay or clay loams
2.5
1.5
12.3.7
38
System Hydraulics Requirements
In sprinkler irrigation, water is obtained from a source (e.g., aquifer, river or reservoir) through pipes
to the sprinklers and then sprayed as uniformly as possible over the crops. A working knowledge of
how water is pumped and flows through pipes and how it is distributed by sprinklers will help the
irrigator to make full and proper use of his equipment.
12.3.7.1
Sprinkler Performance
Coefficient of Uniformity (CU) data or distribution uniformity (DU) shall be used in selecting sprinkler
spacing, nozzle size, and operating pressure. Operating pressure and nozzle geometry are the
primary factors that control the operation of sprinklers. The performance of sprinkler is described by
its discharge, distance of throw, water distribution pattern, application rate and droplet size.
(i)
Sprinkler Discharge
Sprinkler discharge is the volume of water per unit time passing out of the sprinkler nozzle. The
common unit is liters per minute (L/min) and gallons per minute (gpm). Manufacturers commonly
provide tables of pressure and discharge data for various nozzle diameters. Sprinkler discharge to
operating pressure and nozzle geometry is expressed as:
n
q=
KC
A i PiX i
(12.2)
i=1
Where,
q
i
K
C
A
P
xi
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
sprinkler discharge
number of nozzles with total n
conversion constant
coefficient depends on shape and roughness of opening in nozzle i
cross-sectional area of the nozzle i
operating pressure of nozzle i
exponent for nozzle i.
Values of C and x for each nozzle are normally determined empirically. The value of x is about 0.5
for most sprinklers.
12-8
March 2009
(ii)
Distance of Throw
The spacing between adjacent sprinklers depends on the where throw by sprinkler. Spacing usually
increases with distance of throw rises. Manufactures commonly provide wetted diameter or distance
of throw for different operating pressures, nozzle sizes, shapes and angles. Wetted area is
determined using the area formula of circle (Figure 12.5)
Throw
Sprinkler
Rotation
Figure 12.5 Water Throw by Sprinkler

(iii)
Water Distribution Pattern
The degree of uniformity of the sprinkler system depends largely on the water distribution pattern
and spacing of the sprinklers (Figure 12.6). Nozzle shape and opening size usually do not affect
distribution pattern as much as operating pressure. The pattern of wetting distribution is shaped like
a triangle. For good uniformity overlap should be 65% of the wetted diameter for multiple sprinklers.
The precipitation profile (uniformity) depends on many factors such as nozzle pressure, nozzle shape
and size, sprinkler head design, presence of straightening vanes, sprinkler rotation speed, trajectory
angle, riser height and wind speed and direction. The overlapping of sprinkler wetting profiles is
Pressure is too low
Pressure is OK
Pressure is too high
Figure 12.6 Application Patterns of an Individual Sprinkler for Different Operating Pressures
lateral
lateral
lateral
uniform
uniform
Figure 12.7 Overlapping Sprinkler Profiles

March 2009
12-9
The uniformity of distribution of a stationary sprinkler system can be tested in the field like as Figure
12.8. To do this several small cans are placed in a square grid between the sprinklers (i.e., 3m x
3m). The system is then operated for a typical irrigation set time and water is collected in the cans.
By measuring the depth of water in each of the cans it is possible to see irrigation uniformity.
Catch-Cans
Sprinkler
Lateral
Sprinkler
Figure 12.8 Evaluation of Different Lateral Spacings by Can-Catch Data

Wetting Patterns for Single Sprinkler: The sprinkler rotates in a horizontal direction and produces a
circular wetting pattern. A typical wetting and distribution patterns for single sprinkler is shown in
Figure 12.9.
Wetting Patterns for Multiple Sprinklers: To make the distribution more even or uniform, several
sprinklers are operated close together so that their distribution patterns overlap (Figure 12.10). This
determines the spacing needed between sprinklers.
Sprinkler
Soil
Depth
of water
Depth of water
Figure 12.9 Wetting and Distribution Patterns for a Single Sprinkler
Spacing
Sprinklers
(a) Wetting pattern
(b) Individual Sprinkler Patterns Overlapped
(c) Resulting Distribution of Water in Soil

Figure 12.10 Wetting and Distribution Patterns for Multiple Sprinklers
12-10
March 2009
(iv)
Application Rate
The rate at which sprinklers apply water when a group of them is operating close together is called
application rate. This is measured in millimetres per hour (mm/hr). It is an extremely important
parameter that is used to properly match sprinklers to the soil, crop, and terrain on which they
operate. The application rate depends on:
The size of the sprinkler nozzle
The operating pressure
The spacing between the sprinklers
Increasing the nozzle size or pressure and bringing the sprinklers together will increase application
rate. The application rate should always be less than the rate at which the soil can absorb water.
This will avoid surface run-off and possible soil erosion. Table 12.4 provides a guide to typical nozzle
sizes, sprinkler spacing and application rates.
The average application rate is calculated as Eq. (12.3)
I=
Where,
I
q
Ss
Sl
Re
K
K q
Ss Sl
(12.3)
=
=
=
=
=
application rate (mm/hr)

flowrate of individual sprinkler (L/min)
sprinkler spacing along the laterals (m)
lateral spacing along the main line (m)
fraction of the water emitted by the nozzle that reaches to the soil which takes into
account the evaporative or wind loss)
= conversion constant, 60
The average application rate for a sprinkler can be modified as:

I=
(R j )
K q
2 Sa
o
360
(12.4)
Where,
= radius of wetted area (m)
Rj
= angular segment wetted by a stationary sprinkler jet in degrees
Sa
Table 12.4 Typical Sprinkler Data (Kay, 1983)
Nozzle
Diameter
(mm)
4
5
6
8
10
(v)
Pressure
(Bar)
3.0
3.0
3.0
4.0
4.5
Diameter of
Wetted Circle
(m)
29
32
35
43
48
Flow
(m3/hr)
1.02
1.67
2.44
4.96
8.13
Application Rate (mm/hr)

Spacing (m)
18 x 18
18 x 24
24 x 24
3.2
5.2
3.8
7.5
5.7
4.2
15.3
11.4
8.6
25.1
18.9
14.0
Droplet Size
A sprinkler produces a wide range of drop sizes from 0.5 mm up to 5.0 mm in diameter. The range
of drop sizes can be controlled by the size of nozzle and its operating pressure. Table 12.5 provides a
guide to nozzle sizes used for sprinklers and the pressures required for breaking the water jet
March 2009
12-11
properly into drops. At lower pressures drops tend to be large. At higher pressure they are much
smaller and misting may occur.
Table 12.5 A Guide to Nozzle Sizes and Pressure for Proper Break up of Water Jets (Kay, 1983)
Nozzle Size
Adequate Jet Break up
(mm)
(bar)
(kPa)
(bar)
(kPa)*
3.0 4.0
2.0
206.84
2.75 3.50
275 345
4.5 6.0
2.75
275.79
3.50 4.25
345 414
344.73
4.25 5.0
414 - 483
6.0 19.0
3.50
Approximate values only [1 m = 10 kPa]
12.3.7.2
Preferred Pressure Range
Factors Affecting Performance
The effectiveness of water distribution can be seriously affected by wind and operating pressure.
Wind: Spray from sprinklers is easily blown by wind and this can distort wetting patterns and upset
irrigation uniformity (Figure 12.11). To reduce the effects of wind, the sprinklers can be brought
closer together. The effect of different wind speeds on the required spacing of sprinklers is shown in
the Table 12.6. In strong wind condition the designer will normally position the lateral at right angles
to the wind direction and reduce the sprinkler spacing along the lateral.
Table 12.6 Effect of Wind Speed on Sprinkler Spacing (Kay, 1983)
Wind Speed
(km/hr)
Sprinkler Spacing Percentage of Wetted Diameter
0 6.5
6.5 13.0
Over 13.0
65
50
40
Wind
Reduced
Coverage
Soil
(a) Normal
Soil
(b) Wetting Pattern due to Wind Effect
Figure 12.11 Effect of Wind on Sprinkler Geometry

Operating Pressure: A sprinkler performs best at a given pressure which is normally specified by the
manufacturer. If the pressure is substantially above or below this recommended value, then the
distribution of water can be quite different from that normally expected (Figure 12.12). If the
pressure is too low, the water jet does not break up easily and most of the water falls some distance
from the sprinkler. Large water drops are produced and these can destroy soils structure and
damage delicate crops. If the pressure is too high, the jet breaks up too much causing misting and
most of the water falls close to the sprinkler. Pressure gauges on the mainline and laterals help the
irrigator to maintain correct pressure in the system.
12-12
March 2009
Table 12.7 Recommended Minimum Operating Pressure

Flow Range
(L/min)
Minimum Pressure
(m)
(kPa)
380 - 760
50
760 1140
48
1140 1520
80
1520 -1900
55
1900 Over
62
Conversion: 1 US GPM = 3.80 L/min, 1 m = 9.80 kPA and 1
12.3.7.3
490
470
784
539
608
psi = 6.90 kPa
Set Time
The set-time is the time required for sprinklers to complete irrigation in one position. The set-time
depends on the sprinkler application rate and the irrigation need. Once the irrigations system is
installed, changes in the amount of water applied can only be made by varying the set time.
12.3.7.4
Flow in Pipes
Pipes are used to supply water to the sprinklers. The size, wall thickness and strength depend on the
discharge. They must carry the pressures required in the system. Pressures vary throughout a pipe
system as losses occur from friction. Pressures are usually highest at the head of a system, close to
the pump, and gradually reduce towards the tail. As sprinkler systems work under pressure, pipes
must be able to withstand high pressures without bursting. Pipes are usually specified by their
internal diameter or external diameter depending on the material from which they are made.
As water flows along a pipe, there is a gradual loss in pressure from friction which slows down an
object as it is pushed across some rough surface. Pressure loss depends not only on the roughness
but also on the discharge, the pipe diameter and the pipe length. If the discharge in the pipe
increases, the velocity flow also increases and this causes the friction to rise very rapidly resulting in
much greater pressure loss. To overcome this, larger diameter pipe can be used which has greater
discharge capacity and much lower flow velocity. The length of the pipe has a direct effect on the
pressure loss. Table 12.8 is a guide to selecting suitable pipe sizes for different flows and pipe
lengths. This is only a guide and should not be used for design as each manufacturers pipe varies to
some extent in its friction loss characteristics.
Throw
Sprinkler
Correct Pressure
Wetting Pattern
Soil
Sprinkler
Low Pressure
Wetting Pattern
Soil
Sprinkler
High Pressure
Wetting Pattern
Soil
Figure 12.12 Effect of Operating Pressure on Sprinkler Performance

March 2009
12-13
Table 12.8 A Guide for Selecting Pipe Sizes (mm) (Kay, 1983)
Discharge
(m3/h)
5
10
25
50
60
70
80
*
Velocity of flow
12.3.7.5
< 250
50
75
75
100
100
100
125
should always be less than 1.5 m/s.
Pipe Length (m)

250 - 500
50
75
75
100
125
125
150
> 500
150
150
150
Effects of Ground Elevation on Pressure
Sprinkler systems are often used in areas where the land topography is undulating or sloping
steeply. Change in ground elevation will cause changes in pressure in a pipe. For example, if a
sprinkler lateral is laid on uphill slopes (Figure 12.13) then the pressure in the pipe will drop by 10
kPa for every 1.0 m rise in ground level. This pressure drop will obviously affect the sprinkler
performance further up the slope, particularly as pressure is also being lost along the pipe through
friction. To avoid this problem, sprinkler laterals should be laid out level along the ground contour.
If this is not possible then allowances for the elevation change must be made when determining the
pressures required in the system. Laying sprinkler laterals on a gentle downhill slope can benefit as
the pressure increases by 10 kPa for every 1.0 m. This increase can be used to offset losses from
pipe friction.
Pressure drops
10 kPa for each
1m rise
Pressure raises
10 kPa for each
1m drop
Figure 12.13 Effects of Ground Elevation on Pressure

12.3.7.6
Pumping Pressure Requirements
The pressure to be supplied to the sprinkler system by pumping (Figure 12.14) must be accounted
of:
Recommended pressure at sprinkler
Pressure losses in the mainline and laterals
Changes in ground elevation
12-14
March 2009
Pressure can only be maintained in the pipe system using larger pumps to cope with the greatly
increased pressure losses. Thus it involves the cost of increased of installation, operation and
maintenance.
12.3.8
Sprinkler Irrigation Efficiency
Irrigation efficiency is used extensively in system design and management. It can be divided into two
components, uniformity of application and losses. If either uniformity is poor or losses are large,
efficiency will be low. Several factors affect the water-application efficiency of sprinkle irrigation
systems:
Variation of individual sprinkler discharge along lateral lines can be held to a minimum by
proper lateral design.
Variation in moisture distribution within the sprinkler-spacing area is caused primarily by
wind movement. This can be partially overcome by closely spacing sprinklers. But, there is
always variability in the distribution pattern of individual sprinklers. The extent of this
variability depends on sprinkler design, operating pressure, and sprinkler rotation.
Loss of water by direct evaporation from the spray increases as temperature and wind
velocities increase and as drop size and application rate decrease.
Pressure loss from

friction, (hf)
Operating
pressure, (ho)
Total pumping
pressure
Pressure loss
from elevation
change, (hd)
Figure 12.14 Pumping Pressure Requirements

Uniformity is poor if the average depth is not enough to refill the root zone to field capacity. Thus
uniformity is mainly a function design and subsequent system maintenance, but application depth is a
function of management (Figure 12.15).
Root Zone
Depth
Application Root Zone

Depth
Depth
(a) Uniform but Average Depth Exceeded
Application
Depth
(b) Non-Uniform but Average Depth is Correct
Figure 12.15 Characterization of Water Application

March 2009
12-15
Irrigation Application Uniformity

Distribution uniformity (DU) is a useful term for placing a numerical value on the uniformity of
application. The DU indicates the uniformity of infiltration throughout the field. It is defined as
follows:
DU =
X LQ
X
(12.5)
x 100
where,
= amount of low-quarter average depth or volume caught or infiltrated (mm)
XLQ
X
= average amount depth or volume caught or infiltrated of all observations (mm)
Christiansen Coefficient of Uniformity (CU) is also continuously to evaluate sprinkle irrigation

uniformity which is:
CU = 1001.0
where,
=
Xi
X
=
n
=
i
=
X X
X
n
i=1 i
n
i=1
(12.6)
absolute deviation of the individual observations from the mean (mm)

mean depth of observations (mm)
total number of observations
ith number of observation
The relationship between DU and CU can be approximated by:
or,
CU = 100 0.63(100 DU)
(12.7)
DU = 100 1.59(100 CU)
(12.8)
These equations are used in evaluations of sprinkler systems for both design and operation. Typically
85 to 90% is the practical upper limit of DU for set systems. DU > 65% and CU > 78% are
considered to be the minimum acceptable performance level for an economic system design. For
shallow rotted high value crops, it is to be desired DU > 76% and CU > 85%. The CU > 70%, the
test data normally conform to a normal distribution, symmetrical about the mean value. The CU also
is determined using the following equation:
CU =
Average Low Half Depth of Water Received

X
(12.9)
or,
CU = 100 1.0
12.4
WATER QUALITY ENHANCEMENT
12.4.1
Filters
(12.10)
Filters are classified into different categories dependent upon the method used to filter the water.
The detail of the most common filtration systems has been described detail in the Chapter 11. There
is no exact answer which filters to use. The budget, water quality level, and availability of the filter
and parts must be considered. Screen filters are generally the least expensive and medial filter is
much expensive. Sometimes a combination of more than one type of filter will be needed.
12-16
March 2009
Rule of Thumb Guidelines: A 70 mesh (200 micron) filter will remove most particles capable of
plugging a sprinkler nozzle. However, use of a 100 mesh (150 micron) and often use a 150 mesh
(100 micron) filter in order to also remove the particles that can cause wear on the system and
damage the valves.
12.4.2
Chemigation and Fertigation Equipment
The application of chemicals (pesticides and fungicides) through sprinkler systems is defined as
chemigation. The depth of application varies tremendously depending on the type of chemical used,
the location of the target pest, number of applications of each chemical during the season. Sprinkler
irrigation systems are well adapted to chemigation. All types of chemicals can be applied through
these systems. Center pivot and lateral-move systems are particularly well suited because of their
high uniformity of water application (coefficient of uniformity, CU). Most types of sprinkler irrigation
systems can be designed and operated to achieve a CU of 0.85 or above. However, some solid-set
and periodic-move sprinkler irrigation systems as well as travelling gun type systems will achieve CUs
between 0.7 and 0.8.
Fertigation is defined as the application of nutrients using an irrigation system by introducing the
nutrients into the water flowing through the system. It is recommended that sprinkle fertigation be
carefully avoided during windy periods because of the effect of wind on sprinkler system application
uniformity. Effective fertigation requires knowledge of certain plant characteristics such as optimum
daily nutrient consumption rate and root distribution in the soil. Nutrient characteristics such as
solubility and mobility are important and irrigation water quality factors such as pH, mineral content,
salinity and nutrient solubility is discussed in Chapter 11.
Both sprinkler and microirrigation systems can be used to apply agricultural chemicals and fertilizers
along with the irrigation water. The selection of minimum of equipment is required for applying
chemicals and fertilizers. The system details and their suitable selection discussed in the earlier
Chapter.
12.5
GENERAL DESIGN CRITERIA
12.5.1
Criteria for Solid-set, Periodic Move and Rain Gun Systems
12.5.1.1
Design Capacity
Sprinkler irrigation systems shall have either (1) a design capacity adequate to meet peak water
demands of all crops to be irrigated in the design area, or (2) adequate capacity to meet
requirements of selected water applications during critical crop growth periods when less than full
irrigation is planned. In computing capacity requirements, allowance must be made for reasonable
application water losses.
12.5.1.2
Design Application Rate
The design application rate shall be within a range established by the minimum practical application
rate under local climatic conditions, and the maximum application rate consistent with soil intake
rate, slope, and conservation practices used on the land. If two or more sets of conditions exist in
the design area, the lowest maximum application rate for areas of significant size shall apply.
12.5.1.3
Lateral Lines
Unless pressure reducers or regulators are installed at each outlet, or other pressure compensating
or flow control devices are used, lateral lines shall be designed so that the pressure variation or flow
variation at any sprinkler, resulting from friction head and elevation differential, does not exceed 20
percent of the design operating pressure or 10 percent of the design flow of the sprinklers,
respectively.
March 2009
12-17
12.5.1.4
Distribution Patterns and Sprinkler Spacings
Efficient irrigation system design requires the selection of a proper sprinkler spacing combination.
Sprinkler spacing is often determined by the type of nozzle used and operating pressure selected.
Every sprinkler nozzle combination has a specific operating pressure range. Too much pressure will
disperse the water stream into a very fine spray resulting in increased evaporation losses or poor
distribution. Wind effects on sprinkler distribution patterns are then also much more pronounced.
Too little pressure will not sufficiently break up the water stream and may result in puddling, runoff,
poor distribution and crop damage. Sprinkler irrigation system spacings are usually denoted by the
sprinkler spacing along the lateral and lateral spacing. Therefore 12 m x 18 m denotes a 12 m
sprinkler spacing and 18 m lateral spacing. The actual layout of the system may be square,
rectangular or triangular (Figure 12.16).
The maximum spacing of a sprinkler system is determined by the wetted diameter of the sprinkler
and the wind speed. The wetted diameter of a sprinkler is a function of nozzle size and operating
pressure. Refer to sprinkler manufacturers charts to obtain wetted diameter information. Table 12.9
indicates a typical guideline of sprinkler spacing as a percentage of wetted diameters based on wind
speed. To obtain good uniformity, sprinkler systems must provide some degree of overlap. The
amount of overlap obtained by spacing sprinklers as recommended in Table 12.9 should allow the
system to achieve a coefficient of uniformity of 80% for normal operating conditions.
Sprinkler
Location
Sprinkler
Spacing
Sprinkler
Spacing
Lateral
Spacing
Valve
Lateral
Spacing
Valve
(a) Rectangular
(b) Triangular
Figure 12.16 Sprinklers Spacing Layout

Table 12.9 Sprinkler Spacing Recommendation
Wind Speed (km/hr)
< 6.5
6.5 13.5
> 13.5
Spacing as % of Wetted Diameter

60
50
40
A combination of sprinkler spacing, nozzle size, and operating pressure that provides the design
application rate and distribution shall be selected.
If available, CU (or DU) data shall be used in selecting sprinkler spacing, nozzle size, and operating
pressure. CU shall not be less than the following:
75 % (60% DU) for deep-rooted (1 m or more) field and forage crops where fertilizers and
pesticides are not applied through the system.
85 % (76% DU) for high-value or shallow rooted crops and for any crop where fertilizer or
pesticides are applied through the system.
12-18
March 2009
In the absence of CU data, maximum lateral and nozzle spacing shall comply with the following
criteria:
For low (14-248 kPa), moderate (248-345 kPa), and medium (345-517 kPa) pressure sprinkler
nozzles, the spacing along lateral lines shall not exceed 50 percent of the wetted diameter, when
the sprinkler is operating at design pressure. The spacing of laterals along the main line shall not
exceed 65 percent of this wetted diameter. If winds that can affect the distribution pattern are
likely during critical crop growth periods, spacing should be reduced to 60 percent for average
velocities of 1.6 to 8 km/hr, to 50 percent for average velocities of 9.7 to 16.0 km/hr, and to 45
percent for average velocities greater than 16 km/hr.
For high-pressure and big gun type sprinklers (>517 kPa), the maximum distance (diagonal)
between two sprinklers on adjacent lateral lines shall not exceed two-thirds of the wetted
diameter under favorable operating conditions. If winds that can affect the distribution pattern
are likely during critical crop growth periods, the diagonal spacing should be reduced to 50
percent of the wetted diameter for average velocities of 8 to 16 km/hr and to 30 percent for
average velocities greater than 16 km/hr.
Sprinkler spacing requirements for orchards, including fruits:
-
Triangular pattern. The spacing along lateral lines shall not exceed 65 percent of the
effective wetted diameter. The spacing of laterals along the main line shall not exceed 70
percent of the effective wetted diameter.
Square or rectangular pattern. The nozzle spacing along the lateral and the lateral spacing
along the main line shall not exceed 65 percent of the effective wetted diameter at the
design operating pressure.
Spacing between sprinklers and lateral lines shall be reduced by 2.5 percent for every 5
km/hr average wind velocity normally occurring during planned hours of operation.
12.5.1.5
Riser
Except for under-tree operation, riser pipes used on lateral lines shall be high enough to prevent
interference with the distribution pattern when the tallest crop is irrigated. Riser heights shall not be
less than shown in Table 12.10 below:
Table 12.10 Suggested Sprinkler Discharge and Riser Height
Sprinkler Discharge (gpm)
< 10
10-25
25-50
50-120
> 120
12.5.2
Sprinkler Discharge (L/min)

< 38
38 95
95 190
190 455
> 455
Riser Length (mm)

152
228
304
457
915
Climate Control and/or Modification
For temperature control, the sprinkler irrigation system shall have sufficient capacity to satisfy the
evaporative demand on a minute-by-minute basis throughout the peak use period.
12.5.3
Chemical and Nutrient Application
The installation and operation of a sprinkler irrigation system for the purpose of chemical or nutrient
application (chemigation) shall comply with all federal, state and local laws, rules and regulations.
Injectors (chemical, fertilizer or pesticides) and other automatic operating equipment shall be located
adjacent to the pump and power unit and installed in accordance with state regulations or in
accordance with manufacturers recommendation. The chemical injection device shall be within 1
March 2009
12-19
percent of maximum injection rates and easily calibrated and adjustable for all chemicals at the
required injection rate. Sprinkler irrigation systems used to apply waste shall be designed with
sprinkler nozzles of sufficient size to prevent clogging. Treatment of the wastewater using solid
separators, two stage lagoons, two-stage waste holding ponds, etc., may be needed to reduce
percent solids.
12.5.3.1
Design Application Rate and Timing
Application rates shall meet the levels specified in General Criteria. Timing of chemical applications
shall be the minimum length of time it takes to deliver the chemicals and flush the pipelines at rates
specified by the label.
12.5.3.2
Coefficient of Uniformity (CU)
If available, CU (or DU) data shall be used in selecting sprinkler spacing, nozzle size, and operating
pressure. The CU shall not be less than 70% for wastewater and not less than 85% (76% DU) for
chemigation or fertigation. If CU data is not available, distribution patterns and spacing requirements
shall be in keeping with the appropriate specific criteria of this standard.
12.5.3.3
Nutrient and Pest Management
Chemicals, fertilizers and liquid manure shall be applied in accordance with appropriate practice
standards. Chemical or nutrient application amounts shall not exceed these standards.
12.5.4
Criteria for Leaching
Application rates shall meet the specified levels and design depth shall be determined for crop water
requirements.
12.6
DESIGN OF PERIODIC MOVE SYSTEMS
12.6.1
Planning and Design Considerations
12.6.1.1
Sprinkler Heads
Rotating impact type sprinkler heads operating at intermediate pressure 200 to 400 kPa are
commonly used for periodic move lateral type systems. Rotating impact sprinkler heads have many
variations including full circle, part circle, low and standard trajectory height, with and without
straightening vanes, and single or double nozzle. The second nozzle on a double nozzle head is
typically a 2.4 or 3.2 mm diameter orifice. It is used as a fill-in to improve pattern uniformity. Flow
control valves at the base of each sprinkler head or flow control nozzles may be required where the
terrain undulates or has significant changes in elevation. Flow control nozzles require about 14 to 28
kPa. Impact type sprinkler heads can be operated at 170 to 244 kPa to reduce energy. Some
systems operate under gravity pressure.
12.6.1.2
Laterals
Laterals are usually laid out perpendicular to the slope. To obtain near-uniform application of water
throughout the length of lateral, pipe diameter and length should result in discharge at the sprinkler
nozzle within plus or minus 10 percent of design (A maximum nozzle pressure difference of 20
percent provides a discharge not varying more than 10 percent from each nozzle). To create less
confusion, the same sprinkler head, nozzle size, and diameter of lateral are recommended
throughout the length of hand move laterals.
12.6.1.3
Set Times
Convenient set times are 23.5, 11.5, or 7.5 hours, thus allowing a half hour for draining and moving
laterals, with one, two, or three moves per day. Moving the lateral three times a day is not popular
12-20
March 2009
because one move always comes in the dark at inconvenient time and with increased labor cost. The
suitable set time can be determined using Eq. 12.11.
HPD
Where
HPD
Pf
D
DDIR
=
=
=
=
0.24 Pf D
DDIR
(12.11)
set time (hr)

percent of total field irrigated when the system is operating
desired depth of irrigation (mm), it is normally equals readily available water (RAW).
design daily irrigation requirements for D mm (mm/day)
The desired depth D can be computed once a value of HPD is selected as:
D=
HPD DDIR
0.24 Pf
(12.12)
The term Pf equals 100 percent for continuous-move sprinkle systems or when an entire solid system
is operating (i.e., all sprinklers are operating simultaneously). Pf is determined for solid-set and setmove systems.
L L l Nl
K Af
Pf =
Where,
L
Ll
Nl
Af
K
=
=
=
=
=
(12.13)
length of the lateral (m)

spacing of lateral (m)
number of laterals operating simultaneously
total field area (ha)
unit constant (K = 100.0 when Ll and L are in m and Af is in ha)
12.6.1.4
Lateral Setting Sequence
Lateral sets can be sequenced in several ways. The typical spacing 7.5 to 30 m for a periodic move
lateral system is recommended. Laterals must be dismantled and hauled back to the first set
position. Side roll laterals must be rolled all the way back to initial set position. The irrigator may
choose to apply half the irrigation application in each direction. However, this requires twice the
number of moves. With any set sequence, alternating day-night set with each rotation across the
field is recommended. About 10 percent more net application is accomplished with night time sets.
12.6.1.5
Design Sprinkler Efficiency
The design efficiency is used to determine the gross application depth obtained from net application
depth. The design efficiency should be specific to the percentage area and receiving the desired
depth of water. The design efficiency can be determined from the Table 12.11.
Table 12.11 Irrigation Application Efficiencies for Various Sprinkler Systems
System Types
Periodic move lateral
Periodic move gun type or boom sprinklers
Fixed laterals (solid set)
Travelling sprinklers (gun type or boom)
Center pivot - standard
Linear (lateral) move
LEPA - Center pivot and linear move
March 2009
Irrigation Efficiency, Ei (%)

60
50
60
55
75
80
90
75
60
75
65
85
87
95
12-21
12.6.1.6
Layout Patterns
Figure 12.17 shows various mainline configurations and pumping plant locations. Mainline and
submains should always run up and down predominant land slopes. Where laterals are downslope,
the mainline should be located along ridge with laterals slopping downward on each side (Figure
12.17-e). The water supply should be located near the center of the design area. The flexibility for
locating pumping plant is limited when surface water is utilized. The location should be selected to
minimize cost for the mainline.
Positions
1
Lateral
Submain
Main
Pump
Channel
portable
system
with
a) a)
Fully Fully
portable
sprinklersprinkler
system with
portable
lateral
and moveable
pumpingpumping
plant.
plant
lateral
and movable
1
Positions
Pump
portable
Buried
mains
and submains
withlaterals.
d)d)Buried
mains
and submains
with portable
portable laterals
Pump
Laterals
Main
Main
b) Portable
laterals
linesstationary
with
b)
Portable laterals
andand
mainmain
lines with
pumping plant.
stationary
pumping plant
Lateral
Pump
Pump
c)c)Portable
laterals,
buried
main line,
and
stationary
Portable
laterals,
buried
main
line,
and
pumping
plant.
stationary pumping plant
e)
e) Buried main lines and fixed laterals.
Buried main lines and fixed laterals
Figure 12.17 Mainline and Pumping Layouts of General Periodic Move Systems
12-22
March 2009
12.6.2
Design Procedures
Design procedures for a periodic-move sprinkler irrigation system are:

Step 1:
Identify resource concerns and problems. Determine objective(s) and purpose of new or
revised irrigation system. Include soil, water, air, plant, and climatic and human
considerations.
Step 2:
Inventory resources for field or farm. Include area irrigated, soil(s), topography, water
source, and when available, water quantity and quality, power type and location, crops,
type of sprinkler system and timeframe for moving laterals, labor availability, availability of
sprinkler irrigation equipment, and water management skill and irrigation decision maker.
Step 3:
Determine soil characteristics and limitations. Include available water capacity, maximum
allowable application rate, usable rooting depth, acidity, salinity, and water table. Typical
(actual) crop rooting depth needs to be identified for specific fields and soils. In most soils,
actual depth is less than usable rooting depth because of farm management decisions and
type of field equipment used. A field investigation is strongly recommended.
Step 4:
Determine net irrigation water requirements for crops to be grown. Use season, month,
and peak or average daily use rate, accounting for expected rainfall and acceptable risks.
Step 5:
Determine net application depth, irrigation frequency, gross application based on estimated
application efficiency (Eqs. 5.43, 5.46 and 5.50 or 5.51), and minimum system capacity
requirements using Eq. 12.1.
Step 6:
Determine alternative irrigation systems suitable to the site. Evaluate alternative irrigation
systems and their impacts on the environment (soil, water, plant, climate and human
considerations) with user.
Step 7:
Provide preliminary sprinkler head design. Include spacing, discharge, operating pressure,
wetted diameter, head type, nozzle size(s), average application rate, and performance
characteristics.
Step 8:
Determine number of laterals needed for selected time of set, set spacing, moves per day,
and frequency of irrigation in days.
Step 9: Evaluate design objective and purpose(s) identified in step 1.

Step 10: Make adjustments as needed. This process may need to be done more than once so the
system fits the field, soils, crops, water supply, environmental concerns, and the desires of
the irrigation decision maker.
Step 11: Finalize sprinkler irrigation system design, layout, and management skills required by the
irrigation decision maker.
Step 12: Determine lateral size(s) based on number of heads, flowrate, pipeline length, and
allowable pressure loss differential between first and last sprinkler head. Determine
pressure or flow regulators if they are needed. Determine minimum operating pressure
required in mainline(s) at various critical locations on the terrain.
Step 13: Determine mainline sizes required to meet pressure and flow requirements according to
number of operating laterals. This includes diameter, pipe material, mainline location, and
the location and type of valves and fittings.
Step 14: Determine maximum and minimum Total Dynamic Head (TDH) required for critical lateral
location conditions. Determine total accumulated friction loss in mainline, elevation rise
(drop) from pump to extreme point in the fields, water surface to ground surface (lift) at
March 2009
12-23
pump, column loss with vertical turbine pumps, and miscellaneous losses (fittings, valves,
elbows) at the pump and throughout the system.
Step 15:
Determine maximum and minimum pumping plant capacity using required flowrate and
TDH. Estimate brake horsepower for the motor or engine to be used.
Step 16: Select several alternative pumps and use pump performance curves prepared for each
model of pump. Every pump has a different set of performance curves relating to
operating head output and discharge capacity. Select pump(s) and power unit(s) for
maximum operating efficiency within the full range of expected operating conditions. Only
pump capacity and TDH requirements are recommended to be provided to the user. A
pump needs to match the required capacity and TDH for efficient and economic
performance. Never select a pump based on horsepower alone.
Step 17: Prepare final layout and operation, maintenance, and irrigation water management plans.
12.6.2.1
Sprinkler Selection
Sprinklers must have proper nozzle (trajectory) angle, droplet size, distance of throw and application
pattern characteristics for the crop soil and wind condition in which they will operate. Selecting the
proper sprinkler is important for analyzing the amount of water to be distributed and the area to be
irrigated. Sprinkler selection will determine the pressure requirement, pump size, and irrigation run
times. The following guidelines (Figure 12.18) are used for sprinkler selection.
Determine Wetted Area
Select Nozzle Angle

and
Spray Patterns
Select Nozzle Size

and
Operating Pressure
Compute
Rate
Compute Application
Application Rate
Compare with
Compare
withAllowable
Allowable
Application
ApplicationRate
Rate
Figure 12.18 Sprinkler Selection Process

Step 1: Select or estimate the desired wetted area.
The wetted diameter for set-move, solid-set and traveler sprinkler systems can be determined using
following equations.
L K lD
(12.14)
S K sD
(12.15)
and
12-24
March 2009
where,
L
S
Kl and Ks
D
=
=
=
=
distance between laterals (m)

distance between sprinklers on lateral (m)
constants depends on sprinkler spacing pattern and wind (Table 12.12)
diameter of the wetted area (m)
Table 12.12 Values of Kl and Ks for Different Spacing Patterns
Wind Velocity Range

Triangular
Square
Rectangularb
(m/s)
Kl
Ks
Kl
Ks
Kl
Ks
0 1.3
a
0.60
0.55
0.55
0.60
0.50
1.3 3.1
a
0.55
0.50
0.50
0.60
0.45
3.1 5.4
a
0.50
0.45
0.45
0.60
0.40
Constant Kl = 0.86 Ks and b Assumes laterals are perpendicular to prevailing wind direction
(a) Triangle
(b) Square
(c) Rectangle
Figure 12.19 Spacing Patterns for Irrigation Sprinklers (James, 1988)

Triangular sprinkler spacing patterns are not commonly used with set-move system because of
inconvenience of shifting the entire lateral. It is best suited to solid set or permanent system.
Step 2: Select nozzle angle
The standard trajectory of most sprinklers ranges from 18 to 28. The trajectory affects the throw
radius and the precipitation rate of the sprinkler. For irrigating with treated wastewater consider
using low trajectory sprinklers with angles of 13o to 15o. The lower trajectory shortens the throw
distance radius of the head and increases the precipitation rate, but it also reduces the wind drift.
Low angle heads also allow for spray under low hanging tree branches or large shrub foliage.
Step 3: Select sprinkler spray pattern
Most sprinklers distribute water in a circular pattern. The pattern describes the portion of the full
circle that is covered by the sprinkler.
The fixed arc patterns are set to portions of a circle such as 360 (full), 270 (two-thirds),
180, 120, and 90. Other arcs may be available from some manufacturers.
Adjustable arc sprinklers can be adjusted to any degree desired. This feature provides the
flexibility to accommodate odd-shaped areas, as well as curves.
Step 4: Select Sprinkler (Nozzle Size, Operating Pressure etc)
Operating pressure is the pressure that provides optimum sprinkler performance. Manufacturers
establish the optimal pressures for their sprinklers and publish them in catalogues and product
literature. As a general rule, greater throw radius requires greater pressure. Pressures for standard
nozzles should be selected to fall within the following ranges (Table 12.13). The detail sprinkler types
and performance characteristics are given in Appendix 12.B.
Table 12.13 Recommended Pressure Ranges for Nozzle Sizes
Nozzle sizes (inch)
Nozzle sizes (mm)
Pressure range (psi)
Pressure range (kPa)
5/64 to 3/32
1.98 2.38
20 - 45
137.89 310.26
7/64 to 9/64
2.78 3.57
25 50
172.37 344.74
5/32 to 11/64
3.97 4.37
30 - 55
206.84 379.21
3/16 to 7/32
4.76 5.56
35 - 60
241.32 413.69
March 2009
12-25
In general the relationship between discharge and pressure from a sprinkler can be expressed by the
orifice equation:
q=K d P
(12.16)
q=K d H
(12.17)
Where,
q
Kd
P
H
=
=
=
=
sprinkler discharge (L/min)

discharge coefficient for the sprinkler nozzle [From Manufacturer]
sprinkler operating pressure (kPa)
sprinkler operating pressure head (m)
Step 5: Compute Application Rate of an Individual Sprinkler

The average application rate of an individual sprinkler can be computed using the following equation:
A =K
q
a
(12.18)
where,
A
= application rate (mm/hr)
q
= sprinkler discharge (l/min)
= wetted area of sprinkler (m2)
= unit constant (60)
Step 6: Compare with Allowable Application Rate

Sprinkler irrigation systems are designed so that no runoff occurs. Thus the allowable or maximum
application rate must be less than infiltration capacity of the soil. It is the function of soil texture, soil
structure and topography. Suggested maximum application rates of sprinkler for different conditions
are given in Table 12.3.
12.6.2.2
Layout of Sprinkler Systems
The ideal layout of the systems depends on the number of sprinklers and lateral settings required,
topography and wind conditions. Figure 12.20 shows how the lateral layout can be designed to fit
the topography. To obtain near uniform application along the length of lateral, the pipe diameter,
length and alignment must be selected so that results minimum variation in discharge between
individual sprinklers.
(i)
Number of Operating Sprinklers (Ns)
The minimum number of sprinklers that will operate at the same time is computed after calculating
the system capacity Eq. 12.1 and design flowrate of the sprinklers (Eqs. 12.16 and 12.17).
Ns =
Qs
q
(12.19)
Where,
= number of operating sprinkler
Ns
= system capacity (L/hr)
Qs
q
= flowrate of the sprinkler (L/hr)
Pipe lengths are generally standardized and small sprinklers on portable systems are normally spaced
at 9, 12 and 18 m intervals on the laterals. Furthermore, the spacing between laterals is usually at
intervals of 12, 15 and 24 m along the main line. For more odd shaped fields, the number of
12-26
March 2009
sprinklers needs to be increased from theoretical numbers and extra equipment needs to serve
irregular parts of the field. The depth per application and operating time can usually be adjusted to
optimize the fit if the system capacity is lower than the required capacity.
(ii)
Important Considerations
The minimum variation of discharge between individual sprinklers should be maintained. It

should not exceed 10% unless economically justified.
The pressure head variations in the lateral will not exceed 20% of the average design
operating pressure for the sprinklers (Pa).
Running laterals should be avoided wherever possible. Downslope laterals may be larger
than similar laterals laid on the level ground.
Pressure regulating valves are needed to avoid building excessive pressures and exceeding
the 20% of Pa variation limit.
Hand moves lateral lines need to be limited to one or two pipe sizes for easy operation.
Lateral lines must be located at right angles to the prevailing wind direction where possible.
175
120
150
PUMP
110
MAIN
125
100
100
GRAVITY LINE
(b) Layout Illustrating Use of Odd Number of Laterals
120
100
80
60
(c) Layout with Gravity Pressure Running Lateral

Downhill
100
90
BOOSTER PUMP
DISTRICT PRESSURE LINE
(a) Layout with Water Supply at Center
100
90
80
50
60
70
(d) Layout to Avoid Wide Pressure Variation

Caused by Running Laterals Upslope
100
80
90
70
80
60
(e) Layout with Two Main Lines on Ridges to
Avoid Running Laterals Uphill
70
60 50
40
(f) Layout with Split Main Lines to Avoid Running

Laterals Upslope
Figure 12.20 Lateral Layouts for Periodic-Move Sprinkler Systems with Different Topographic
Situations (Keller and Bliesner, 1990)
March 2009
12-27
12.6.2.3
Pressure Variation in Laterals
The pressure variation can be estimated between locations along a pipe line using the following
Equation.
Pds = Pus K (hl Z )
where,
Pds
Pus
hl
Z
K
=
=
=
=
=
(12.20)
pressure at downstream position (kPa)

pressure at upstream position (kPa)
energy loss in pipeline between up and downstream positions (m)
elevation difference between up and downstream positions (m)
unit constant (9.81)
The sign in front of Z is plus (+) for the uphill running condition and conversely it is negative (-) for
downhill running slope.
Energy loss hl is estimated by Eq. 12.21
h l = Fh f +Ml
(12.21)
Where,
F
= constant for the number of outlets (sprinklers or laterals)
= friction loss in pipe between upstream and downstream locations (m)
hf
= minor losses for fittings pipeline (m) (Appendix 12.C).
Ml
Friction loss (hf) can be computed using Darcy-Weisbach, Hazen-Williams or Scobey equation. These
are written in the form of Eq. 12.22.
hf =
where,
K
L
Q
D
c, m, n
K c L Qm
(12.22)
D 2m+n
= friction factor for pipe materials

= length of pipe (m)
= flowrate (L/min)
= diameter of pipe (mm)
= constants (Table 12.14)
Table 12.14 Constants Values for Friction Loss Equation
Computing Equation
1.235
2.00
1.00
591722
1.000
1.85
1.17
610042
1.000
1.90
1.10
SI Unit
British Unit
Darcy-Weisbach
277778
Hazen-Williams
Scobey
K for Darcy-Weisbach equation is computed using the Eq. 12.23
f
K = 0.811
g
(12.23)
where,
f
= friction factor from the Moody diagram (Chapter 6)
g
= acceleration of gravity (9.81 m/s2)
12-28
March 2009
K for Hazen-Williams equation is computed using the Eq. 12.24

K = (0.285 C )1.852
(12.24)
where, C is the factor for pipe materials (Appendix 12.D)

K for Scobey equation is computed using the Eq. 12.25
K=
Ks
348
(12.25)
where, Ks is the factor for several pipe materials (Appendix 12.D)

Multiple outlet factors for the pipeline can be computed using the Eqs. 12.26 and 12.27 or taken
from tables in Appendix 12.E and Appendix 12.F.
For the distance to the first sprinkler equals the sprinkler head spacing,
F=
m 1
1
1
+
+
m + 1 2N
6N 2
(12.26)
For the distance to the first sprinkler equals one-half of the sprinkler head spacing,
F=
N1
1
2
+
+
(
N i)m
m
2N 1 (2N 1)N
i=1
(12.27)
where,
m
= appropriate m value
N
= number of sprinklers
Minor hydraulic losses along pipes can often be estimated as a function of the velocity head of the
water within the particular pipe section.
Ml = K r
Where,
Ml
=
Kr
=
V
=
g
=
V2
2g
(12.28)
friction head loss due to pipe fitting (m)

resistance coefficient for fitting or valve (Appendix 12.C)
velocity of water (m/s)
acceleration of gravity (9.81 m/s2)
12.6.2.4
Design Lateral Size
The fundamental design criteria is to size lateral pipes so that pressure head variation along the
length of the lateral should not be exceeded 20% of the average design pressure for the sprinklers.
Laterals must be designed for fields that are level, slope uphill or downhill from lateral inlet. The
design steps are given in this section.
(i)
Location of Average Pressure in the Lateral
The location of average pressure in the lateral is approximately 40% of the lateral length measured
from the lateral inlet (Figure 12.21). If there is only one outlet at the end of the lateral pipe, the
location of average pressure will be in the middle of the lateral pipe (Figure 12.22).
March 2009
12-29
(ii)
Lateral Inlet Pressure
The general equation for the lateral inlet pressure for single lateral pipe size is:
Pl = Pa +
3
1
Pf + Pe + Pr
4
2
(12.29)
3
1
h f + H e + H r
4
2
For dual pipe size lateral,
Hl = H a +
Pl = Pa +
(12.30)
5
1
Pf + Pe + Pr
8
2
(12.31)
P = P a + P + Pe + Pr + Pcv
l
f
(12.32)
h l = Ha + h f + H e + Hr + h cv
(12.33)
Where,
Pl
Pa
Pf
Pr
Hl
Ha
hf
He
Hr
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
lateral inlet pressure (kPa)

average operating pressure for the sprinklers (kPa)
pressure loss due to pipe friction (kPa)
pressure required to lift water up the rises (9.81 kPa/m)
lateral inlet pressure head (m)
average sprinkler operating pressure head (m)
head loss due to pipe friction (m)
static pressure head difference (m) (Positive (+) for uphill and negative (-) for downhill)
height of riser (m)
hinlet
(h)l
decreasing discharge in lateral pipe
3/4hf
hf
ha
hend
40%L
0
60%L
distance from lateral inlet to lateral end
Figure 12.21 Location for the Average Pressure of Multiple Sprinklers

constant discharge from 0 to L
hinlet
1/2hf
ha
hf
hend
0
0
50%L
50%L
distance from lateral inlet to lateral end
Figure 12.22 Location for the Average Pressure of a Single Sprinkler

12-30
March 2009
(iii)
Lateral Head Loss Gradient (Ja)
The general equation for the allowable head loss gradient along lateral line is:
Ja = K
(0.20 Pa Pe )
( 100)
= K
(12.34)
FL
(Pf )a
( 100)
(12.35)
FL
(h f )a
( 100)
(12.36)
FL
Where,
Ja
= friction loss gradient in m per 100 m
Pe = static pressure difference (kPa)
(iv)
Single Lateral Size Determination
Using Lateral Head Loss Gradient (Ja) value with the lateral capacity, the size of the pipe can be
determined using the Appendix 12.G. The flowchart shown in Figure 12.23 gives the determination
procedures of lateral size.
Lateral Size
Determination
Know Average Sprinkler Discharge,

Average Operating Pressure
(From Manufacturer)
Compute Allowable Pressure Loss

(hf) due to Pipe Friction
Eq. 12.21
Compute Lateral
Head Loss Gradient
using Eq. 12.35
Determine Lateral
Pipe Diameter using
Appendix 11.F
Determine Lateral
Inlet Pressure
12.29 to 12.33
End
Figure 12.23 Lateral Pipe Size Determination Process

March 2009
12-31
12.6.2.5
Main Line Design
Proper design, installation and operation of the mainline piping system will increase the effective life
and ensure a reliable water supply to an irrigation system. Mainline design must take into
consideration system flowrate, total pressure required, terrain, and pipe material to be used. The
most economical pipe sizes for the system are determined for the required system capacity using
economic Pipe-Selection Chart (Figure 12.24). Irrigation systems are designed to limit flow velocities
in irrigation piping at 1.5 m/s. A flow velocity 1.5 m/s allows friction loss to remain at an acceptable
level and limits surge pressures to tolerable levels. Appendix 12.G can be used to determine the
suggested maximum flow capacities of various pipe types and sizes. All values below the dark lines in
the friction loss tables are in excess of 1.5 m/s and should therefore be avoided.
3000
12-
101000
Conversion Factor:
8-inch
REGION
1 US gpm = 3.79 lpm

1 in = 25 mm
6-
500
5300
1.85 in.
Total Pump or System Capacity, QS - gpm
2000
200
1.0 in.
100
200
300
500
1000
2000
3000
Rate in Pipe Section, Q - gpm

Figure 12.24 Economic Pipe-Selection Chart
12.6.2.6
(i)
Selection of Pump and Power Unit
Total Dynamic Head (TDH)
The Total Dynamic Head (TDH) is the head that required for an irrigation system to deliver the
specified total system discharge (Qs). The accurate estimation of TDH is essential for selecting a
pumping plant. The TDH is the sum of the pressure, elevation, and friction loss heads during normal
operation as follows (Figure 12.24):
12-32
Pressure head required to operate the critical lateral (m)

Friction head-loss in main and submains (m)
Friction losses in fittings and valve (m)
Difference in elevation from water surface (static head) (m)
Suction assembly friction head losses (m)
Miscellaneous losses for safety usually taken 20% of the pipe and fitting losses (m).
March 2009
(ii)
Pump Selection
Selected pump shall provide the required Qs and TDH and also operate at a high efficiency. Pump
characteristics curves are a useful tool in the selection process. They show the head and volume
range of a given pump, as well as the efficiencies at which the pump operates within this range. All
pump characteristics curves are related to the discharge. Pump efficiency is usually given by
manufacturers. The detail of the pump and power requirement is described in Chapters 8 and 11.
12.6.2.7
Adjustment to Meet Layout Conditions
The final adjustment of the total system capacity must satisfy the maximum demands. It is often
necessary to adjust one or more of the following variables after completing the preliminary layout of
laterals and mainlines.
Number of sprinklers (Ns)

Water application rate (I)
Gross depth for each irrigation (ds)
Average sprinkler discharge (q)
Spacing of sprinklers (Se and/or Sl)
Actual operating time (HPD)
Days to complete one irrigation (fx)
Total operating time per irrigation
Total system capacity (Qs)
12.7
DESIGN OF SOLID-SET OR PERMANENT SYSTEM
12.7.1
12.7.1.1
Solid Set Portable Laterals
Solid set portable lateral systems are generally used for high value crops, such as nurseries,
vegetables, or turf production, where the system can be moved from the field before harvest.
However, they also can be used with permanent crops, such as orchards and berries, where the
portable laterals can be left in the field. This type of system is sometimes used to germinate crops.
With portable mainline(s), control valves are typically operated manually.
12.7.1.2
Solid Set Permanent Laterals
This sprinkler irrigation system is similar to the portable system except both mainline(s) and laterals
are generally buried below the depth of normal field operations. Sprinkler lateral flow can be
sequenced manually or automatically by various timers activated electric solenoid valves. With
annual crops, the risers are installed outside of any tillage operations. This system is most adapted
to permanent crops, such as orchards, grapes, berries, landscaping, and golf courses. Solid set
systems can be used on annual crops. However, caution must be exercised during tillage or harvest
operations to prevent damage to risers and sprinkler heads.
12.7.1.3
Layout Patterns
A diamond or triangular pattern for sprinkler head layout is recommended for solid set systems, for
improving application uniformity. Adequate (typically 50%) overlapping patterns from adjacent
sprinkler nozzles are essential for temperature modification systems and for shallow rooted annual
crops regardless of sprinkler head layout. Deep rooted perennial crops like trees, blueberries, and
vines tolerate less application uniformity.
12.7.2
Design Procedures
Design of solid set systems is similar to periodic move systems. The only difference is that each
lateral is individually designed. Sizes must be effectively reduced toward the end of the lateral as
March 2009
12-33
flow decreases. Blocks of laterals are then tied together using submains to create operating blocks
and minimize the number of control valves. Individual sprinkler heads and spacing are designed to fit
soil, crop, desired application rates and amounts, local wind conditions, and management available.
12.8
DESIGN OF TRAVELLING SPRINKLER SYSTEMS
The travelling gun is a high capacity, single-nozzle sprinkler fed with water from a flexible hose that
is either dragged on the soil surface or wound on a reel. The gun is mounted on wheels and travels
along a straight line while operating. The sprinkler can wet a 60 120 m wide strip of land. After the
unit reaches the end of a travel path, it is moved and set to water an adjacent strip of land. The
three general types of travelling gun sprinklers are cable reel, hose reel, and self-powered/propelled.
Appendix 12.H provides typical discharges and wetted diameters for gun type sprinklers with 24o
angle of trajectory and tapered nozzles operating when wind is favorable.
(i)
Cable Reel
It is mounted with a large gun type sprinkler on a 4-wheel chassis equipped with a water piston or
turbine-powered winch. The typical hose is 10 12 cm in diameter and up to 200 m long. This
allows the unit to travel up to 402 m.
(ii)
Hose Reel
The hose reel unit is equipped with a water turbine or gasoline auxiliary engine to power the hose
reel. The hose reel can be located either at the sprinkler or at the water source (pipe outlet valve).
When included with the sprinkler, a 4-wheel chassis carries the hose reel and sprinkler, which is
pulled in by the hose attached to a water source (pipe outlet valve). The hose is usually flexible,
reinforced, polyethylene material and is typically between 10.15 and 12.7 cm in diameter. Generally,
the maximum hose length is 260 m feet. This allows the unit to move 520 m.
(iii)
Self-powered/Propelled
This system has a self-contained pump and is self-propelled by drive wheels. A gun type sprinkler is
mounted on top of the unit. The machine straddles a supply ditch and is guided by the ditch.
12.8.1
Large gun type sprinklers require the highest pressures of any sprinkler system. In addition to the
high operating pressure required at the sprinkler nozzle, hose losses can add another 140 to 280 kPa
(14 28 m) to the total system dynamic pressure head (TDH). Therefore, gun type sprinklers are
well suited to supplemental irrigation where seasonal net irrigation requirements are small. This
helps to mitigate the high power costs associated with high operating pressure. Travelling gun
sprinklers can be used where crops and irrigation needs are rotated from field to field. Table 12.17
displays friction loss in flexible pressure irrigation hose used on travelling gun type sprinklers.
Distribution uniformity is typically fair in the inner part of a 30 to 60 m wide strip; however, along
the ends and sides it is poor. Typically, the ends and sides of the strip are inadequately irrigated.
Application uniformity of large gun sprinklers is adversely affected by wind speeds of more than 8
km/hr. A gun type system is not recommended in windy areas. Power requirements to drag a hose
depend on the size of hose, soil texture, soil moisture conditions, and crop. Guidelines for sizing
travelling gun type sprinkler hoses are shown in Table 12.18. Table 12.19 provides recommended
maximum travel lane spacing as a function of wetted diameter and average wind speed. The gross
depth of water applied for continuous moving large gun type sprinkler heads is given in Table 12.20.
12.8.1.1
System Layout
Figure 12.25 shows a typical travelling gun type system layout. Traveler systems should be laid out
to be convenient to operate and to minimize operation costs. Odd-shaped fields and broken terrain
complicate this process.
12-34
March 2009

Extent of planted area
Travel direction
Towpaths
Pumping
unit
Buried main
Hose
Catch container
row
Connections
to main
Figure 12.25 Travelling Gun Type Sprinkler System Layout

12.8.1.2
Water Source and Pumping Plant Location
Pumping plant should be located at a central point for delivery to all points of the design area.
Booster pumps should be considered for higher elevation. The use of booster pumps lower pumping
cost by reducing the pressure that must be supplied by the main pumping plant. The water source
and pumping plant should be located to minimize pipe and pumping costs.
12.8.1.3
Minimum Clearance Standard
To ensure safe operation of irrigation equipment near transmission lines minimum separation
distances are required. The clearance required between the water jet and the live conductors is a
function of the voltage of the conductor. The values should follow the guidelines of the power and
transmission department. Nelson Irrigation Corporation has developed a formula for determining the
maximum stream height and location of maximum stream height for gun systems based on the
wetted diameter and pressure.
Z = (C D) K D 2
(12.37)
X = 0.3 D
(12.38)
Where,
Z
=
X
=
D
=
C
=
K
=
minimum stream height above sprinkler nozzle (ft)

horizontal distance from the nozzle at which maximum stream height occurs (ft)
wetted diameter (ft)
dimensionless factor dependent on barrel trajectory
dimensionless factor dependent on barrel trajectory and operating pressure
Figure 12.26 shows a graphic display of various parameters. The dimensionless factors C and K can
be determine from Table 12.15 and 12.16.
Table 12.15 Values of C (Nelson, 2008)
Trajectory
C
March 2009
15o
0.067
18o
0.081
21o
0.096
24o
0.111
27o
0.127
12-35
Table 12.16 Values of K ( 10-3) (Nelson, 2008)

psi
40
68
80
100
15o
0.181
0.121
0.091
0.072
Trajectory [1 psi = 6.90 kPa and 1 ft = 0.3048 m]

18o
21o
24o
0.187
0.194
0.203
0.125
0.129
0.135
0.093
0.097
0.101
0.075
0.078
0.081
27o
0.213
0.142
0.107
0.085
Y
Z
L
X
D
Figure 12.26 Gun Spray Clearances

12.8.2
Design Procedures
12.8.2.1
Sprinkler Selection
Sprinkler characteristics that need to be considered are nozzle size and type, operating pressure, jet
trajectory, and sprinkler body design. The operating conditions that enter into the selection process
are soil infiltration characteristics; desired depth and frequency of irrigation; towpath length,
potential towpath spacings and number of paths for each potential spacing; wind conditions; crop
characteristics; and the mechanical properties of the soil. The gun type sprinklers that are typically
used with traveler system operate at pressure in excess of 500 kPa. The basic operating
characteristics are shown in Table 12.17.
Table 12.17 Basic Characteristics of Gun Type Sprinklers
Parameters
Pressure (kPa)
Discharge (L/min)
Wetted diameter (m)
Nozzle size (mm)
Trajectory Angles (degrees)
12.8.2.2
Range of Values
400 - 825
380 3800
61 183
0.50 -1.75
18 32
Towpaths
A towpath is a crop free lane on which the traveler unit and sprinkler travel. Towpaths should be laid
across land slopes or along field contours if possible. Towpaths are normally 400 m long or more.
12.8.2.3
(i)
Travel Speed and Application Rate
Travel Speed (Vt)
The traveler unit must move along towpath at constant speed for uniform water distribution over the
irrigated area. The traveler speed (ft/hr) needed to apply for a given depth of water is computed
using the following Equation.
12-36
March 2009
Vt =
(ii)
Max Length or Tow Path (m)

Set time (hr)
(12.39)
Application Rate (A)
The peak application rate of traveler sprinkler is computed with the Eq. 12.40.
A = 96.3
(12.40)
(S Vt )
Where,
A
= amount of water applied during irrigation interval (in)
Q
= gun sprinkler discharge (L/min)
Vt
= gun cart travel speed (ft/hr)
Table 12.18 or Appendix 12.I provides data on amount of water applied by travelling guns during
irrigation for various flows, lane spacing and travel speeds.
To ensure that cart is pulls through the unirrigated portion of the field, part circle guns are used with
travelling gun systems. The instantaneous application rate is therefore higher than a full circle gun.
The instantaneous application rate is therefore higher than a full circle gun. Table 12.19 adapted
from Manufatures can be used as a guide to determine the instantaneous application rate for
travelling gun. Instantaneous application rate for part circle guns is:
IAR = 96.3
Where,
IAR
Q
r
c
=
=
=
=
(12.41)
r2 c
instantaneous application rate (in/hr)

gun flowrate (gpm)
wetted radius of the gun (ft)
conversion factor (%)
Table 12.18 Gross Depth of Water Applied for Continuous Moving Large Gun Type Sprinkler Heads
Sprinkler
flow
(gpm)
Spacing
between
travel
lanes
(ft)
Depth of water applied

Travel speed (ft/min)
0.4
0.5
2.4
4.9
4.0
6.0
4.4
6.7
5.3
6.7
5.3
8.9
7.3
10.4
8.5
10.7
8.9
12.0
10.0
1.9
3.9
3.2
4.8
3.6
5.3
4.3
5.3
4.3
7.1
5.8
8.3
6.8
8.5
7.1
9.6
8.0
1.0
2.0
1.6
2.4
1.8
2.7
2.1
2.7
2.1
3.6
2.9
4.2
3.4
4.3
3.6
4.8
4.0
0.5
1.0
0.8
1.2
0.9
1.3
1.1
1.3
1.1
1.8
1.5
2.1
1.7
2.1
1.8
2.4
2.0
10
0.24
0.5
0.4
0.6
0.4
0.7
0.5
0.7
0.5
0.9
0.7
1.0
0.8
1.1
0.9
1.2
1.0
0.16
0.32
0.27
0.4
0.3
0.44
0.36
0.44
0.36
0.6
0.5
0.7
0.6
0.7
0.6
0.8
0.7
0.12
0.24
0.2
0.3
0.22
0.33
0.27
0.33
0.27
0.45
0.36
0.5
0.4
0.5
0.4
0.6
0.5
0.09
0.19
0.16
0.24
0.18
0.27
0.21
0.27
0.21
0.36
0.29
0.42
0.34
0.43
0.36
0.5
0.4
inches
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
March 2009
165
135
200
200
270
240
300
270
330
270
330
270
330
330
360
300
360
12-37
Table 12.19 Instantaneous Application Rates for Part Circle Guns
(iii)
Gun Flowrate
(gpm)
Gun Radius
(ft)
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
550
600
650
700
130
150
160
175
185
190
200
210
215
220
225
230
235
Instantaneous Application Rate (in/hr)

180o arc
240o arc
(C = 0.5)
(c = 0.67)
0.27
0.36
0.31
0.41
0.36
0.48
0.37
0.50
0.40
0.54
0.44
0.59
0.46
0.61
0.47
0.63
0.49
0.66
0.52
0.70
0.54
0.73
0.56
0.75
0.58
0.78
Rate of Irrigation Coverage (RIC)
The rate of irrigation coverage is a function of travel speed and towpath spacing. The rate of
coverage can be computed by:
RIC =
S Vt
K
(12.42)
Where,
RIC
= rate of irrigation coverage (ha/hr)
S
= towpath spacing (m)
K
= conversion constant (1666.7)
12.8.2.4
Hose and Traveler Friction Losses
The standard hose length is 200 m. The selection of hose diameter is made on the basis of tolerable
pressure loss.
Table 12.20 Friction Loss in Flexible Irrigation Hose Used on Travelling Gun Type Sprinkler System
Flow
(gpm)
100
150
200
250
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
Friction Loss (lb/in2/100ft)

---------------------------------------hose size (in)---------------------------------------2
3
3
4
4
5
------------------------------------- psi per 100ft-------------------------------------1.6
0.7
0.3
3.4
1.4
5.6
2.5
1.4
0.6
3.6
0.9
5.1
2.6
1.3
0.6
2.6
1.3
3.5
2.1
4.9
2.7
1.1
3.6
2.1
4.6
2.7
3.4
4.2
[Conversion: 1 US gpm = 3.79 L/min, 1 psi = 6.90 kPa, 1 in = 2.54 cm]
12-38
March 2009
Table 12.21 Guidelines for Sizing Travelling Gun Type Sprinkler Hoses
Flow Range (gpm)
50 to 150
150 to 250
200 to 350
250 to 500
500 to 700
> 700
12.8.2.5
Hose Diameter (in)

2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
Travel Lane Spacing
Maximum travel lane spacing for travelling gun type sprinklers as a function of wetted diameter and
wind speed. Table 12.22 can be used as a guide for selecting travel lane spacing.
Table 12.22 Maximum Travel Lane Spacing for Travelling Gun Type Sprinklers
---------------------------------------Wind Speed (mi/hr)------------------------------->10
5-10
0-5
0
-------------------------------Percent of Wetted Diameter------------------------------50
60
70
80
Maximum travel lane spacing
-----------------------------------------------------(feet)---------------------------------------------------200
100
120
140
160
300
150
180
210
240
400
200
240
280
320
500
250
400
350
400
600
300
360
420
480
Wetted diameter
(ft)
12.8.2.6
Mainlines and Submains
Submains and mainlines should bisect towpaths to minimize host length whenever possible.
Submains and mainlines that feed traveler hoses should be laid up and down prominent land slopes
to allow towpaths to be across the slope. Traveler systems have either portable or buried mainlines
and submains. Portable pipes are made of aluminum while buried mainlines and submains usually
PVC.
12.9
DESIGN OF STATIONARY GUN SYSTEM
Gun system as shown in Figure 12.27 is used to apply water with discharge rates exceeding 190
L/min. Flowrates can vary from 720 14325 L/min. Operating pressure may range from 275 900
kPa depending on the gun and type of nozzle selected. Water is usually supplied to the gun by
above ground aluminum pipes or buried PVC pipe with hydrants at strategic locations.
Gun
Aluminium Lateral
12.9.1
Nozzle Types
Stand
Figure 12.27 Stationary Gun Equipment
Guns come in variety of sizes, trajectory angles and available nozzles. The trajectory angle is
important in determining maximum spray height and distance of throw. Gun system can utilize two
types of nozzles, taper bore or ring nozzles. Taper bore nozzles provide better stream integrity and
March 2009
12-39
create maximum distance of throw with less distortion due to wind. Ring nozzles provide better
stream break up and offer greater choice in nozzle sizes. Three different sizes or series of gun
systems are available in the market. They are shown in Table 12.23.
Table 12.23 Specification for Different Stationary Gun Types
Nozzle Size
inch
mm
Smallest Gun
0.5 - 1.0 12.5 25.0
Medium Gun
0.7 1.7
18 - 44
Largest Gun
1.0 2.0
25 - 50
[Conversion: 1 psi = 6.90 kPa, 1
Pressure
Gun Type
12.9.2
Psi
kPa
50 - 100
345 690
60 - 110
414 758
70 130
483 896
US gpm = 3.79 L/min, 1
Discharge Rate
gpm
L/min
50 - 250
190 - 3785
100 - 500
378 - 1893
250 - 1000
946 - 3785
inch = 25.4 mm]
Application Rate
Gun systems are operated differently from conventional sprinkler systems due to the inherent high
application rates that are produced. Irrigation set times is therefore shorter to apply the required
amount of water. Two guns should never be operated simultaneously side by side. Maximum
application rate should not exceed the values stated in Table 12.24.
Table 12.24 Maximum Design Application Rate (cm/hr)
Textural Class
Sand
Loamy Sand
Sandy Loam
Fine Sandy Loam
Loamy Sand
Silt Loam
Clay Loam
Clay Loam
Organic Soils
12.9.3
Grass Land
1.91
1.65
1.14
1.02
0.89
0.89
0.76
0.64
1.27
Crop Fields
1.02
0.89
0.64
0.64
0.51
0.51
0.38
0.25
1.27
Instantaneous Application Rate (IAR)
The instantaneous application rate is the value which is checked against the maximum design rate
values shown in Table 12.24. The instantaneous application rate can be calculated by the following
formula:
IAR = 96.3
Q
r2
(12.43)
Where,
IAR
= instantaneous application rate (in/hr)
Q
= gun flowrate (gpm)
r
= wetted radius of the gun (ft)
12.9.4
Overlap Application Rates (OAR)
This is the rate is used to determine the amount of water applied to the soil over an irrigation
interval. It is calculated from the gun spacing.
Q
OAR = K
(12.44)
S1 S 2
Where,
OAR = overlap application rate (cm/hr)
Q
= gun flowrate (L/min)
12-40
March 2009
S1
S2
K
= gun spacing along lateral (m)

= lateral spacing (m)
= conversion factor (96.3)
12.9.5
Spacing Selection
Gun systems are spaced on the same design parameters as sprinkler irrigation systems. However,
additional caution should be taken with guns as they are subjected to poor distribution uniformities
during windy conditions, due to the large wetted radius and height of throw. Instantaneous
application rates also increases substantially when guns are operated during windy conditions. It is
strongly recommended that gun systems should not be operated during windy conditions. Table 12.9
can be used to determine appropriate gun spacings for good operating conditions.
12.9.6
Operating Pressure
Higher operating pressure must be selected to ensure good stream break up. An increase in pressure
at the gun nozzle increases stream velocity which breaks the water into fine droplets. A fast stream
velocity also provides a larger wetted diameter which helps to reduce the instantaneous application
rate. Proper selection of a gun operating pressure must take into account soil and crop conditions. In
most cases, large droplets are to be avoided as they cause soil compaction and could damage crops.
Gun systems are available in various trajectory angles. The higher trajectories maximize the wetted
radius and allow for a near zero horizontal droplet velocity before reaching the crop. Low trajectories
operate more efficiently in windy conditions but do not have desirable droplet conditions. Lower
trajectory guns should also be operated at high pressures to ensure proper stream dispersal before
contacting the crop. Table 12.25 presents recommended minimum operating pressures for various
gun sizes based on a flowrate.
Special nozzle configurations have been developed to allow gun systems to operate at pressure as
low as 310 345 kPa. Designers should check manufacturers recommendations when using low
pressure gun systems. Selecting a flowrate, nozzle size and operating pressure can be simplified
using Appendix 12.H.
Table 12.25 Recommended Minimum Operating Pressures for Gun Systems
12.9.7
Flow Range
Minimum Pressure
(L/min)
379 757
756 1136
1136 1514
1514 1892
> 1892
(kPa)
448
483
552
586
620
Application Efficiency
Stationary gun systems are less efficient than sprinkler systems due to higher operating pressures,
susceptibility to wind drift and high application rates. The set times for gun systems are usually
shorter than sprinkler systems to avoid over application and runoff. For design purposes, if gun
spacings are selected as indicated in Table 12.9, application efficiencies of 68% should be used to
temperate zone and 70% for humid climates.
12.10
FLOW CONTROL VALVES (FCV)
Flow control valves are used in irrigation for the following situations:
To maintain constant sprinkler discharge along a lateral line that runs up or down a slope
To regulate flows in laterals or sprinklers that are subjected to high pressures
March 2009
12-41
To maintain constant flow in laterals or sprinklers due to pressure variations. To control

irrigation system flowrates to a specific water allocation.
Flow control valves may used at the sprinkler head, beginning of each lateral or at the water source.
The type and size of FCV used will depend on site specific conditions. FCV can be separated into two
categories as:
Master control valves which are installed to regulate flow to an entire system or lateral. This type can
be spring activated or operate by use of a flexible orifice. A minimum of 69 kPa loss can exist for a
spring activated FCV while 172 kPa losses may be experienced for the flexible orifice type. Threshold
pressures of 345 414 kPa are required for valves in the 56 190 L/min range while 345 483 kPa
is required for FCVs over 190 L/min. Sprinkler control valves which regulate flow to individual
sprinkler heads. Table 12.26 provides information on matching sprinkler flow control valves with
appropriate nozzle pressure combinations from manufacturers recommendations. Note that
minimum line pressure suggested is 69 138 above sprinkler nozzle operating pressure.
Table 12.26 Nozzle Size and Recommended Pressure for Flow Control Valves (Nelson, 2005)
Pressure
Nozzle Size
Nozzle Pressure
Minimum Line
Pressure
psi
kg/cm2
psi
kg/cm2
in
mm
psi
kg/cm2
1.50
0.11
3/32
2.38
35
2.46
45
3.16
2.00
0.14
7/64
2.78
34
2.39
44
3.09
2.50
0.18
1/8
3.18
31
2.18
41
2.88
3.00
0.21
9/64
3.57
28
1.97
38
2.67
1/8
3.18
44
3.09
54
3.80
3.50
0.25
9/64
3.57
38
2.67
50
3.52
4.00
0.28
9/64
3.57
49
3.45
61
4.29
5/32
3.97
34
2.39
46
3.23
5/32
3.97
50
3.52
65
4.57
1/8 x 3/32
3.18 x 2.38
50
3.52
65
4.57
11/64
4.36
50
3.52
65
4.57
5/32 x 3/32
3.97 x 3.97
39
2.74
54
3.80
9/64 x 3/32
3.57 x 2.38
53
3.73
68
4.78
3/64
1.2
48
3.37
65
4.57
11/64 x 3/32
0.17 x 0.09
40
2.81
57
4.01
13/64
5.16
44
3.09
62
4.36
11/64 x 3/32
0.17 x 3.97
53
3.73
71
4.99
3/16 x 3/32
4.76 x 2.38
50
3.52
68
4.78
5.00
6.00
7.00
8.00
9.00
10.00
12.11
0.35
0.42
0.49
0.56
0.63
0.70
7/32
5.55
53
3.73
73
5.13
2
Note: 1 kg/cm = 98.0661 kPa = 10 m of Water and 1 psi = 0.7037 m of water
OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE
An operation and maintenance plan must provide specific instructions for operating and maintaining
the system to insure that it functions properly. It should also provide information regarding periodic
inspections and prompt repair or replacement of damaged components. The plan, at minimum, shall
include provisions to address the following:
12-42
March 2009
Periodic checks and removal of debris and sediment as necessary from nozzles to assure
proper operation.
Inspection or testing of all pipeline and pumping plant components and appurtenances, as
applicable.
Regular testing of pressures and flowrates to assure proper operation.
Periodic checks of all nozzles and spray heads for proper operation and wear.
Routine maintenance of all mechanical components in accordance with the manufacturers
recommendations.
Prior to retrofitting any electrically powered irrigation equipment, electrical service must be
disconnected and the absence of stray electrical current verified.
12.11.1
Mainline and Laterals
Permanent underground pipes usually require no maintenance once they are installed. They are
provided adequately protected against corrosion. This is usually done by dipping them in asphalt or
wrapping with bituminous felt, plastic or fiberglass. Steel pipe also can be protected by galvanizing.
Portables pipes, particularly aluminium are easily damaged with continual rough handling. As they
form a large part of the cost of any sprinkler system, they should be treated with care to avoid
expensive repair and replacement costs.
When the lateral is laid in position it is good practice to flush the pipe out before fitting the
end plug.
When irrigation begins the pipes are full of air. This ahs to escape before the pipe can fill with
water. Air usually escapes through the sprinklers and pipe joints or valve can be provided.
Open the valve coupler controlling flow into the lateral very slowly to avoid strain on the
pumps and water hammer.
12.11.2
Couplers
Couplers are an important part of the pipe system. Treat them with the same care and attentions as
the pipes. Sealing rings are made of natural rubber and prevent leakage at pipe joints. Inspect them
each season for signs of perishing or damage. Damage occurring during use will be evident from
leakage at the coupler. Remove sealing rings from couplers at the end of the season. To avoid
perishing, brush with clean water, allow to dry and store in boxes away from light in a cool place.
When replacing seals again make sure that the ring seats evenly around the inside of the coupler
and that no debris is trapped between the ring and the wall.
12.11.3
Valves
Valves are used to control the low flow of water and pressure in mainlines and laterals. Always open
and close valves slowly to avoid damage to the pipe system and pumps from water hammer. At the
end of the season, check valve stems and seating pads for pitting or damage and replace where
necessary. Valves should not seal tight when not in use. To avoid the rubber sticking to the seat.
open them so that there is a small gap between the valve rubber and seat.
12.11.4
Filters
Filters prevent sprinkler nozzle blockage. For portable systems, clean filter every time the pipe is
moved. For more permanent systems remove and clean filter each week. If the filter is damaged or
deformed, replace it. Blockages can often be detected by checking the operating pressure in the
mainline. An undue rise in pressure may be the result of pipe or filters blocking. A drop in pressure
just beyond a much higher one should point to the location of the blockage.
12.11.5
Risers
Risers are usually made from galvanised steel or thick walled aluminium tube for strength. Always
use recommended jointing compounds when joining as this makes them easier to remove at a later
March 2009
12-43
date. Compound is essential when jointing galvanised steel to aluminium to prevent corrosion
between the two metals.
12.11.6
Rotary Sprinklers
Rotary sprinklers are precision made in order to achieve good uniform irrigation and correct drop size
distribution. Frequent check should be made on their performance to ensure that they continue to
operate satisfactorily. Following checks should be made during operation.
Ensure that nozzles are completely free of any obstruction.
When the sprinklers are fitted with removable flow straighter, take care when removing
nozzles to prevent their loss
Ensure that swing arms are free to rotate
Check that the main body of each sprinkler is free to rotate on its main bearing.
At the end of the irrigation season, check all sprinklers to wear in the main and swing arm
bearings. Wash and brush them in clean water to remove any girt.
12.11.7
Pressure Regulators
Pressure regulators are usually preset by the manufacturer to suit a particular sprinkler system. They
should not require adjustment in the field. Always make sure that the regulator is placed the right
way up in the riser table.
12.11.8
Pumps and Motors
Pumps should be operated as manufacturer guidelines. Regular maintenance is essential if a pump is

to provide reliable and efficient service.
Ensure that all pumps components are lubricated as recommended by the manufacturer.
Many pumps have water lubricated seals. These seals must not be lubricated with oil.
Must avoid overloading to avoid excessive wear on the pump and shorten its working life.
Check the working pressure of a pump regularly against valves provide by the manufacturer
when it was new.
Electric motors are an alternative form of power and reliable than diesel engine. It requires very little
maintenance as there is only one moving part- the rotor. Care should always be taken to open the
pump delivery valve slowly so as not to increase the discharge and power demand on the motor.
12.11.9
Water Hammer
Water hammer can occur in a sprinkler system. In larger pipes, such as those used in irrigation,
rapid closure of pumps and valves can cause abrupt pressure rises in the pipe many times greater
than the normal working pressure. In some cases, the pressure rise may burst pipes and pumps.
Water hammer can easily be prevented by avoiding sudden changes in the flow. Some water
hammer is unavoidable in sprinkler systems and so it is common practice to protect the pump from
damage by using no return valve.
Water velocity in a pipe of constant cross-sectional area will change due to:
Operating or closing a valve

Starting or stopping a pump
Movements of air pockets along a pipeline
Sudden release of air from a pipeline
The pressure increase in pipeline flowing full of water due to a change in water velocity can be
determined by:
12-44
March 2009
P = C a V
Where,
P
V
a
C
=
=
=
=
(12.45)
pressure increases (psi)

velocity change (ft/sec)
velocity of pressure wave (ft/sec)
0.13 (W/144g, W = 62.4 lbs/ft2 and g = 32.2 ft/sce2)
March 2009
12-45
REFERENCES
Allen and Fisher (1988). Irrigation Guide, Cited from USDA-NRCS (1997). Publication No. 3396.
Kay, M (1983). Sprinkler Irrigation: Equipment and practice. Batsford Academic and Educational Ltd,
London.
Keller, J. and Bliesner, R.D. (1990). Sprinkle and Trickle Irrigation. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New
York.
James, L.G. (1988). Principles of farm irrigation system design. John Wiley & Sons, New York, pp.
543.
Rain Bird (2008). Rain Bird Technical Data. Rain Bird sprinkler Mfg. Crop.
Nelson Big Gun Sprinkler (2005). Fact sheet, Nelson Irrigation Corporation, Washington.
NETAFIM (2008) (http://www.netafim.com/Irrigation_Products/)
SCS (1983) Adapted from Soil and Water Conservation Engineering, 5th Edition Delmar Leraning
Publication. 502p
Van der Gulik, T. 1999. B.C. Sprinkler Irrigation FACT SHEET. B.C. Ministry of Agriculture and Food.
12-46
March 2009
APPENDIX 12.A
Crop
Effective Crop Root Depths Contain Approximately 80 Percent of the

Feeder Roots in Deep, Uniform, Well-Drained Soil Profile
Root Depth (m)
Asparagus
Min
1.83
Max
0.61
Banana
0.30
Bean (dry)
Crop
Root Depth (m)
Lettuce
Min
0.15
Max
0.46
0.61
Lucerne
1.22
1.83
0.46
0.61
Olives
0.61
1.22
Bean (green)
0.46
0.61
Onion
0.30
0.40
Beans (lima)
0.91
1.52
Parsnip
0.61
0.91
Beet (sugar)
0.46
0.76
Passion fruit
0.30
0.46
Beet (table)
0.30
0.46
Pastures (annual)
0.30
0.76
Berries
0.91
1.52
Pastures (perennial)
0.30
0.76
Broccoli
0.61
0.76
Pea
0.46
0.61
Brussels sprout
0.61
0.76
Pepper
0.61
0.91
Cabbage
0.61
1.68
Pumpkin
0.91
1.22
Cantaloupe
0.61
1.22
Radish
0.30
0.40
Carrot
0.46
0.61
Safflower
0.91
1.52
Cauliflower
0.61
0.76
Sorghum
0.61
0.91
Celery
0.61
0.70
Sorghum (silage)
0.91
1.22
Chard
0.61
0.91
Soybean
0.61
0.76
Cherry
0.76
1.22
Spinach
0.46
0.61
Citrus
0.61
1.22
Squash
0.61
0.91
Coffee
0.91
1.52
Strawberry
0.30
0.46
Corn
0.61
0.91
Sugarcane
0.46
1.07
Corn (sweet)
0.46
0.61
Tobacco
0.61
1.22
Cotton
0.61
1.83
Tomato
0.61
1.22
Cucumber
0.46
0.61
Turnip (white)
0.46
0.76
Eggplant
0.76
1.07
Walnuts
1.68
2.44
Grapes
0.46
0.91
Watermelon
0.61
0.91
March 2009
12A-1
APPENDIX 12.B Sprinkler Types and Performance Characteristics
Pressure
Range
Discharge
Range
Distance
of Throw
(kPa)
(L/min)
(m)
Single nozzle
103-207
119-19
Double nozzle
103-207
Single nozzle
Double nozzle
Application
Type
Droplet
Size
18-24
Low
Large
11-38
21-25
Medium
Large
207-414
15-76
21-43
Low- Medium
Medium
207-414
15-360
21-61
Medium
Medium
Single nozzle
345-690
15-416
27-73
Medium
Small
Double nozzle
345-690
15-530
27-73
Medium-High
Small
276-552
8-38
27-37
Low- Medium
Medium
Diffused-jet nozzles
172-345
8-195
20-40
Medium
Small
Gun-type
276-896
197-4542
61-183
Medium-High
Small
35-276
1-95
2-11a
Very High
Fine
Very High
Fine
High- Very High
Fine
6-17
High- Very High
Fine
4-15a
High
Small
Medium-High
Small
Sprinkler Type
Impact
Low pressure
Medium pressure
High pressure
Constant-discharge
nozzle
Spray Sprinklers
180 spray nozzles
3-12
360 spray nozzles
with
smooth,
flat
deflector
plate
35-276
360 spray nozzles

with
serrated,
flat
deflector plate
35-276
a
b
12A-2
1-95
1-95
3-12
8-21
Sprinklers are mounted 2 m (6.6 ft) above ground surface.
Sprinklers are mounted 3.6 m (12 ft) above ground surface.
March 2009
APPENDIX 12.C Minor Loss Coefficients (James, 1988)

Appendix 12.C-1 Minor Loss Coefficients
March 2009
12A-3
APPENDIX 12.C2 Minor Loss Coefficients (Contd).
12A-4
March 2009
APPENDIX 12.C3 Minor Loss Coefficients (Contd.)
March 2009
12A-5
APPENDIX 12.D: Values for C and KS

Appendix 12.D1: Values of C for Hazen-Williams Formula
Type of Pipe
Asbestos-cement
C
140
Brass
130-140
Brick sewer
100
Cast iron
New, unlined
130
Old, unlined
40-120
Cement lined
130-150
Bitumastic enamel lined
140-150
Tar-coated
115-135
Concrete or Concrete Lined

Steel forms
140
Wooden forms
120
Centrifugally spun`
135
Copper
130-140
Fire hose (rubber lined)
135
Galvanized iron
120
Glass
140
Lead
130-140
Plastic
140-150
Steel
Coat-tar enamel lined
145-150
New unlined
140-150
Riveted
110
Tin
130
Vitrified clay
100-140
Appendix 12.D2: Values of Ks for Scobey Formula
Pipe
Ks
2- and 2.5 in O.D. welded steel
0.34
3-in O.D. welded steel
0.33
4-,5- and 6-in O.D. welded steel
0.32
Aluminum tubing without couplers
0.33
Aluminum tubing with couplers each 20 ft
0.43
0.40
0.39
12A-6
March 2009
APPENDIX 12.E: Values of F Used when the Distance to the First Sprinkler Equals the
Sprinkler Head Spacing
Number of Sprinkler
Heads on Lateral (N)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
22
24
26
28
30
35
40
50
100
More than 100
March 2009
m = 1.85
1.0
0.639
0.535
0.486
0.457
0.435
0.425
0.415
0.409
0.402
0.397
0.394
0.391
0.387
0.384
0.382
0.380
0.379
0.377
0.376
0.374
0.372
0.370
0.369
0.368
0.365
0.364
0.361
0.356
0.351
F
m = 1.9
1.0
0.634
0.528
0.480
0.451
0.433
0.419
0.410
0.402
0.396
0.392
0.388
0.381
0.381
0.379
0.377
0.375
0.373
0.372
0.370
0.368
0.366
0.364
0.363
0.362
0.359
0.357
0.355
0.350
0.345
m = 2.0
1.0
0.625
0.518
0.469
0.440
0.421
0.408
0.398
0.391
0.385
0.380
0.376
0.373
0.370
0.376
0.365
0.363
0.361
0.360
0.359
0.357
0.355
0.353
0.351
0.350
0.347
0.345
0.343
0.338
0.333
12A-7
APPENDIX 12.F: Values of F Used when the Distance to the First Sprinkler Equals OneHalf of the Sprinklers Head Spacing
Number of Sprinkler
Heads on Lateral (N)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
22
24
26
28
30
35
40
50
100
12A-8
m = 1.85
1.000
0.518
0.441
0.412
0.397
0.387
0.381
0.377
0.374
0.371
0.369
0.367
0.366
0.365
0.364
0.363
0.362
0.361
0.361
0.360
0.359
0.359
0.358
0.357
0.357
0.356
0.355
0.354
0.353
F
m = 1.9
1.000
0.512
0.434
0.405
0.390
0.381
0.375
0.370
0.367
0.365
0.363
0.361
0.360
0.358
0.357
0.357
0.356
0.355
0.355
0.354
0.353
0.352
0.351
0.351
0.350
0.350
0.349
0.348
0.347
m = 2.0
1.000
0.500
0.422
0.393
0.378
0.369
0.363
0.358
0.355
0.353
0.351
0.349
0.348
0.347
0.346
0.345
0.344
0.343
0.343
0.342
0.341
0.341
0.340
0.340
0.339
0.338
0.338
0.337
0.335
March 2009
APPENDIX 12.G Size Determination of the Lateral Pipes (Keller and Bliesner, 1990)
12.G1 Friction Loss Gradients (J) in m per 100 m (1 ft Per 100 ft) for Different Flowrates
in Portable Aluminium Pipe Used for Sprinkler Irrigation Laterals With 1.27 mm
(0.05 in) Wall Thickness and Couplings Every 9.0 m (30 ft)
Flowrate
L/s
(gpm)
2-in.
0.63
10
0.40
1.26
20
1.44
1.89
30
3.05
2.52
40
5.20
3.15
50
7.85
3.79
60
11.01
4.42
70
14.65
5.05
80
18.76
5.68
90
23.33
6.31
100
28.36
7.57
120
8.83
140
10.1
160
11.4
180
12.6
200
13.9
220
15.1
240
16.4
260
17.1
280
18.9
300
20.2
320
21.5
340
22.7
360
24.0
380
25.2
400
26.5
420
27.8
440
29.0
460
30.3
480
31.2
500
32.8
520
34.1
540
35.3
560
36.6
580
37.9
600
1
Based on Hazen-Williams Eq. 11.12 with C = 130
2
Outside and nominal diameter; 1 in. = 25.4 mm
March 2009
Aluminium pipe size

3-in.
4-in.
0.05
0.18
0.39
0.66
1.00
1.40
0.33
1.87
0.44
2.39
0.57
2.98
0.70
3.62
0.85
5.07
1.20
6.74
1.59
8.64
2.04
10.74
2.54
13.06
3.08
15.58
3.68
18.30
4.32
21.22
5.01
24.35
5.75
6.54
7.37
8.24
9.16
10.13
11.14
12.19
13.28
14.42
15.61
16.83
5-in.
0.19
0.23
0.28
0.39
0.52
0.67
0.83
1.01
1.21
1.42
1.65
1.89
2.15
2.42
2.71
3.01
3.33
3.66
4.01
4.37
4.75
5.14
5.54
5.96
6.39
6.83
7.29
7.76
12A-9
12.G2 Friction Loss Gradients (J) in m per 100 m (ft Per 100 ft) for Different Flowrates in
IPS-PVC Thermoplastic Pipe Used for Sprinkle Irrigation Laterals and Trickle
Manifolds
Flowrate
L/s
(gpm)
1 in.
38.9
(1.532)
0.19
0.39
0.95
1.71
2.67
3.81
5.13
6.62
8.27
10.09
12.06
14.19
16.48
18.92
21.50
Nominal pipe size and inside diameter, mm (in.)

1 in.
2-in.
2 in.
3-in.
44.6
55.4
67.4
83.4
(1.754)
(2.193)
(2.655)
(3.284)
0.10
0.01
0.20
0.07
0.03
0.50
0.17
0.07
0.03
0.90
0.31
0.13
0.05
1.40
0.48
0.19
0.07
2.00
0.69
0.28
0.10
2.69
0.93
0.37
0.14
3.46
1.19
0.48
0.17
4.33
1.49
0.60
0.22
5.28
1.81
0.73
0.26
6.31
2.17
0.87
0.32
7.42
2.55
1.02
0.37
8.62
2.96
2.29
0.43
9.89
3.39
1.36
0.49
11.24
3.86
1.54
0.56
14.17
4.86
1.95
0.70
17.41
5.96
2.39
0.86
7.17
2.87
1.04
8.47
3.39
1.22
10.24
4.09
1.48
12.16
4.86
1.75
14.22
5.68
2.05
6.56
2.37
7.50
2.70
8.49
3.06
9.53
3.44
10.64
3.83
11.79
4.25
4.68
5.13
6.10
7.14
9.43
0.25
4
0.38
6
0.63
10
0.88
14
1.14
18
1.39
22
1.64
26
1.89
30
2.15
34
2.40
38
2.65
42
2.90
46
3.15
50
3.41
54
3.66
58
4.16
66
4.67
74
5.17
82
5.68
90
6.31
100
6.94
110
7.57
120
8.20
130
8.83
140
9.46
150
10.09
160
10.73
170
11.36
180
11.99
190
12.62
200
13.88
220
15.14
240
17.67
280
20.19
300
22.71
360
25.24
400
For flowrates under shadow, the velocity exceeds 1.5 m/s (5 ft/s)
12A-10
4-in.
108.7
(4.280)
.03
.04
.05
.06
.08
.09
.10
.12
.14
.16
.20
.25
.30
.34
.42
.49
.58
.65
.76
.86
.96
1.07
1.19
1.31
1.44
1.71
2.0
2.64
3.36
4.16
5.03
March 2009
12.G3 Friction Loss Gradients (J) in m Per 100 m (ft per 100 ft) for Different Flowrates
in Sprinkler Irrigation Main Line of Portable Aluminium Pipe with Couplers
Connecting 9.0 m (30 Ft) Lengths1
Flowrate
Aluminium pipe size, (thickness and inside diameter, in.)

5-in.
6-in.
8-in.
10-in.
12-in
L/s
(gpm)
(0.050)
(0.058)
(0.072)
(0.091)
(0.091)
(4.900)
(5.884)
(7.856)
(9.818)
(11.818)
6.3
100
0.28
0.12
9.5
150
0.60
0.24
12.6
200
1.01
0.42
0.10
15.8
250
1.53
0.63
0.15
18.9
300
2.15
0.88
0.22
22.1
350
2.86
1.17
0.29
25.2
400
3.66
1.50
0.37
0.12
28.4
450
4.56
1.87
0.46
0.15
31.5
500
5.54
2.27
0.56
0.19
34.7
550
6.61
2.71
0.66
0.22
37.9
600
7.76
3.18
0.78
0.26
41.0
650
9.00
3.69
0.90
0.31
44.2
700
4.24
1.04
0.35
0.14
47.3
750
4.81
1.18
0.40
0.16
50.5
800
5.42
1.33
0.45
0.18
53.6
850
6.07
1.49
0.50
0.20
56.8
900
1.65
0.56
0.23
59.9
950
1.83
0.62
0.25
63.1
1000
2.01
0.68
0.27
69.4
1100
2.39
0.81
0.33
75.7
1200
3.81
0.95
0.39
82.0
1300
3.26
1.10
0.45
88.3
1400
3.74
1.26
0.51
94.6
1500
4.25
1.44
0.58
100.9
1600
4.79
1.62
0.66
113.6
1800
5.96
2.01
0.82
126.2
2000
7.25
2.45
0.99
138.8
2200
8.64
2.92
1.18
151.4
2400
3.43
1.39
164.0
2600
3.98
1.61
176.7
2800
4.56
1.85
189.3
3000
5.18
2.10
220.8
3500
2.80
252.4
4000
3.58
1
Based on Hazen-Williams Eq. 11.12 with C = 130; for 6.1 m (20 ft) pipe increase by 7% and for
12.2 m (40 ft) pipe decrease by 3%
2
1.0 in. = 25.4 mm
March 2009
12A-11
12.G4: Friction Loss Gradients (J) in m per 100 mm (ft per 100 ft) for Different Flowrates
in SDR 41 - IPS-PVC (Class 6.8 atm or 100 psi) Thermoplastic Pipe Used for
Sprinkle irrigation Mainlines.
Flowrate
L/s
(gpm)

4-in.
6-in.
8-in.
10-in.
12-in
108.7
160.0
208.4
259.7
308.1
(4.280)
(6.301)
(8.205)
(10.226)
(12.128)
0.42
0.86
1.42
2.09
2.88
0.47
3.77
0.62
4.77
0.80
5.86
0.99
1.20
0.33
1.42
0.40
1.67
0.47
1.93
0.54
2.22
0.62
0.21
2.51
0.70
0.24
2.83
0.79
0.27
3.16
0.88
0.30
3.51
0.98
0.34
4.25
1.19
0.41
0.18
5.07
1.41
0.49
0.21
5.94
1.66
0.57
0.25
1.92
0.66
0.29
2.20
0.76
0.33
2.50
0.86
0.38
2.81
0.97
0.43
3.14
1.08
0.48
3.48
1.20
0.53
4.23
1.46
0.64
5.03
1.74
0.76
2.04
0.89
2.36
1.03
2.70
1.18
3.05
1.34
3.45
1.51
4.28
1.88
5.19
2.28
6.3
100
9.5
150
12.6
200
15.8
250
16.9
300
22.1
350
25.2
400
28.4
450
31.5
500
34.7
550
37.9
600
41.0
650
44.2
700
47.3
750
50.5
800
53.6
850
56.8
900
63.1
1000
69.4
1100
75.7
1200
82.0
1300
88.3
1400
94.6
1500
100.9
1600
107.3
1700
113.6
1800
126.2
2000
138.8
2200
151.4
2400
164.0
2600
176.7
2800
189.3
3000
201.9
3200
227.1
3600
252.4
4000
Based on Eq. 11.17
For flowrates under shadow, the velocity exceeds 1.5 m/s (5 ft/s)
12A-12
March 2009
12.G5: Friction Loss Gradients (J) in m per 100 m (ft per 100 ft) for Different Flowrates
in SDR 41 PIP-PVC Thermoplastic Pipe Used for Sprinkle Irrigation Laterals and
Trickle Main Lines
Flowrate
L/s
(gpm)
18.9
22.1
25.2
28.4
31.5
34.7
37.9
41.0
44.2
50.5
56.8
63.1
69.4
75.7
82.0
88.3
100.9
113.6
126.2
138.8
151.4
164.0
176.7
189.3
220.8
252.4
283.9
315.5
347.0
378.5
410.1
441.6
300
350
400
450
500
550
600
650
700
800
900
1000
1100
1200
1300
1400
1600
1800
2000
2200
2400
2600
2800
3000
3500
4000
4500
5000
5500
6000
6500
7000
March 2009

6-in.
8-in.
10-in.
12-in.
15-in
148.3
197.1
246.4
295.7
369.7
(5.840)
(7.762)
(9.702)
(11.642)
(14.554)
0.68
0.90
1.15
1.42
1.73
0.44
2.06
0.52
2.41
0.61
2.79
0.71
3.20
0.81
0.28
4.08
1.03
0.35
5.06
1.28
0.44
6.14
1.55
0.53
1.85
0.63
0.26
2.17
0.74
0.31
2.51
0.86
0.35
2.88
0.98
0.41
3.67
1.25
0.52
0.18
4.56
1.55
0.64
0.22
5.52
1.88
0.78
0.27
6.58
2.24
0.93
0.32
2.63
1.09
0.37
3.04
1.26
0.43
3.48
1.44
0.49
3.95
1.64
0.56
2.17
0.74
2.77
0.94
3.44
1.17
4.17
1.42
1.69
1.98
2.29
2.63
12A-13
12A-14
P.S.I
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
Ring
0.768
GPM
DIA
88
225
96
240
104
250
111
265
117
275
124
280
130
290
Nozzle
0.6
GPM DIA
66
213
74
225
81
240
88
250
94
260
100 270
106 280
111 290
Nozzle
0.75
GPM DIA
103 240
115 256
126 270
136 283
146 295
155 306
163 316
171 324
Ring
0.857
GPM
DIA
115
240
125
260
135
275
145
285
154
295
162
305
170
315
Nozzle
0.7
GPM DIA
91
230
100 245
110 260
120 275
128 285
135 295
143 305
150 315
Ring
0.812
GPM
DIA
100
230
110
245
118
260
127
275
134
285
142
295
149
305
Nozzle
0.65
GPM DIA
78
222
87
235
96
250
103 263
110 273
117 283
123 293
129 303
Ring
0.895
GPM
DIA
129
250
141
270
152
290
163
300
173
310
182
320
191
325
Nozzle
0.8
GPM DIA
118 250
130 265
143 280
155 295
165 305
175 315
185 325
195 335
204
224
243
258
274
289
304
300
316
338
354
362
372
380
Nozzle
1.0
GPM DIA
Ring
0.965
GPM
DIA
167
260
183
280
198
300
211
315
224
325
236
335
248
345
Nozzle
0.9
GPM DIA
152 262
165 280
182 295
197 310
210 325
223 335
235 345
247 355
Ring
0.927
GPM
DIA
150
255
164
275
177
295
189
305
201
315
212
325
222
335
Nozzle
0.85
GPM DIA
134 256
150 273
164 288
177 302
189 314
201 326
212 336
222 344
The diameter of throw is approximately 3% less for the 21o trajectory angle, 6% less for 18o
Ring
0.712
GPM
DIA
74
220
81
235
88
245
94
255
99
265
105
270
110
275
RING NOZZLES
TAPER BORE NOZZLES

Nozzle
Nozzle
0.5
0.55
P.S.I GPM DIA GPM DIA
40
47
191
57
202
50
50
205
64
215
60
55
215
69
227
70
60
225
75
238
80
64
235
79
248
90
68
245
83
258
100
72
255
87
268
110
76
265
92
278
12.H-1 SERIES 100 GUNS 24O TRAJECTORY
APPENDIX 12.H Manufacturers Specification for Station Gun Nozzles
March 2009
March 2009
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
P.S.I
GPM
100
110
120
128
135
143
150
157
Ring
.86
GPM
130
143
155
165
175
185
195
204
Ring
.97
DIA
265
280
290
300
310
320
330
335
Nozzle
.8
GPM
DIA
130
270
143
285
155
300
165
310
175
320
185
330
195
340
204
350
Ring
1.08
GPM
DIA
165
285
182
300
197
310
210
320
223
330
235
340
247
350
258
360
Nozzle
.9
GPM
DIA
165
290
182
305
197
320
210
335
223
345
235
355
247
365
258
375
Ring
1.18
GPM
DIA
205
300
225
315
245
330
260
340
275
350
290
360
305
370
320
380
Nozzle
1.0
GPM
DIA
205
310
225
325
245
340
260
355
275
365
290
375
305
385
320
395
Ring
1.26
GPM
DIA
255
320
275
335
295
350
315
360
335
370
355
380
370
390
385
400
Nozzle
1.1
GPM
DIA
255
330
275
345
295
360
315
375
335
390
355
400
370
410
385
420
Ring
1.34
GPM
DIA
300
335
330
350
355
365
380
380
405
390
425
400
445
410
465
420
Nozzle
1.2
GPM
DIA
300
345
330
365
355
380
380
395
405
410
425
420
445
430
465
440
The diameter of throw is approximately 3% less for the 21o trajectory angle, 6% less for 18o
DIA
245
260
270
280
290
300
310
315
Nozzle
.7
GPM
DIA
100
250
110
265
120
280
128
290
135
300
143
310
150
320
157
330
RING NOZZLES
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
P.S.I
12.H-2 Series 150 Guns 24o Trajectory
Ring
1.41
GPM
DIA
350
350
385
365
415
380
445
395
475
405
500
415
525
425
545
435
Nozzle
1.3
GPM
DIA
350
360
385
380
415
395
445
410
475
425
500
440
525
450
545
460
12A-15
12A-16
Nozzle
1.05
GPM
DIA
250
345
270
360
290
375
310
390
325 400
340
410
355
420
370
425
Nozzle
1.3
GPM
DIA
385
390
415
410
445
430
475
445
500
460
525
470
545
480
565
485
1 5/8 Ring
(1.66 actual)
GPM
DIA
410
390
445
410
480
425
515
440
545
455
575
465
605
475
630
485
655
490
Nozzle
1.4
GPM
DIA
445
410
480
430
515
450
545
465
575
480
605
495
630
505
655
515
Nozzle
1.9
GPM
DIA
825
495
890
515
950
535
1005 555
1060 575
1110 590
1160 605
1210 620
2 Ring
(1.93 actual)
GPM
DIA
640
435
695
455
755
475
805
490
855
505
900
520
945
535
985
545
1025
550
Nozzle
1.75
GPM
DIA
695
470
755
495
805
515
855
535
900
550
945
565
985
580
1025 590
1 7/8 Ring
(1.83 actual)
GPM
DIA
535
420
585
440
630
455
675
470
715
485
755
500
790
510
825
520
860
525
Nozzle
1.6
GPM
DIA
585
445
630
465
675
485
715
505
755
520
790
535
825
550
860
560
1 Ring
(1.74 actual)
GPM
DIA
470
405
515
425
555
440
590
455
625
470
660
480
695
490
725
500
755
505
Nozzle
1.5
GPM
DIA
515
430
555
450
590
470
625
485
660
500
695
515
725
530
755
540
The diameter of throw is approximately 2% less for the 24o trajectory angle, 5% less for the 21o trajectory angle
1 Ring
(1.56 actual)
GPM
DIA
350
370
385
390
415
405
445
420
475
435
500
445
525
455
545
465
565
470
Nozzle
1.2
GPM
DIA
330
375
355
395
380
410
405
425
425
440
445
450
465
460
485
465
1 3/8 Ring
(1.46 actual)
GPM
DIA
300
355
330
370
355
385
380
400
405
415
425
425
445
435
465
445
485
450
Nozzle
1.1
GPM
DIA
385
355
310
380
330
395
350
410
370
420
390
430
405
440
425
445
RING NOZZLES
1 Ring
P.S.I
(1.29 actual)
GPM
DIA
50
230
325
60
250
340
70
270
355
80
290
370
90
310
380
100
325
390
110
340
400
120
355
410
130
370
415
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
P.S.I
12.H-3 Series 100 Guns 24o Trajectory
March 2009
APPENDIX 12.I-1 Depth of Water Applied by Travelling Guns (in)

Flow
Per
gun
(gpm)
100
Lane
Spacing
(ft)
Travel Speed
(ft/hr)
20
30
120
4.01
2.68
135
3.56
2.38
150
3.21
2.14
150
135
5.35
3.57
150
4.82
3.21
165
4.37
2.92
180
4.01
2.68
200
150
4.28
165
5.83
3.89
180
5.35
3.56
200
4.81
3.21
250
160
5.01
180
4.46
200
4.00
220
5.47
3.65
300
180
5.35
200
4.81
220
4.37
240
4.00
350
180
200
5.61
220
5.11
240
4.68
400
200
220
5.84
240
5.35
260
4.94
450
200
5.42
4.33
220
4.92
3.94
240
4.51
3.61
260
4.17
3.33
500
220
5.47
4.38
240
5.01
4.01
260
4.62
3.70
280
4.30
3.44
550
220
6.01
4.81
240
5.51
4.41
260
5.09
4.07
280
4.73
3.78
600
240
6.02
4.82
260
5.55
4.44
280
5.15
4.13
300
4.81
3.85
650
240
5.21
260
6.02
4.82
280
5.59
4.47
300
5.22
4.17
700
260
5.19
280
6.02
4.82
300
5.62
4.49
320
5.27
4.21
[Conversion: 1 US gpm = 6.90 L/min,
March 2009
40
60
2.00
1.33
1.78
1.18
1.60
1.07
2.68
1.78
2.41
1.61
2.19
1.46
2.00
1.34
3.21
2.14
2.92
1.95
2.68
1.78
2.40
1.60
3.76
2.50
3.34
2.23
3.00
2.00
2.74
1.82
4.01
2.68
3.61
2.40
3.28
2.19
3.00
2.00
4.68
3.12
4.21
2.81
3.83
2.55
3.51
2.34
4.81
3.21
4.37
2.92
4.01
2.68
3.70
2.47
3.61
2.71
3.28
2.46
3.00
2.26
2.78
2.08
3.64
2.74
3.34
2.51
3.09
2.31
2.87
2.15
4.01
3.00
3.67
2.76
3.40
2.55
3.15
2.36
4.01
3.00
3.70
2.78
3.44
2.58
3.21
2.41
4.35
3.26
4.01
3.00
3.73
2.79
3.48
2.61
4.32
3.24
4.01
3.00
3.75
2.81
3.51
2.63
1 ft = 0.3048 m]
80
100
120
150
180
1.00
.89
.80
1.34
1.20
1.09
1.00
1.61
1.46
1.34
1.20
1.38
1.67
1.50
1.34
2.00
1.81
1.64
1.50
2.34
2.11
1.92
1.76
2.41
2.19
2.00
1.85
2.17
1.97
1.81
1.67
2.18
2.00
1.85
1.71
2.40
2.20
2.04
1.89
2.40
2.22
2.06
1.92
2.60
2.40
2.24
2.09
2.59
2.40
2.24
2.10
0.80
0.71
0.64
1.07
0.96
0.88
0.80
1.28
1.17
1.07
0.96
1.50
1.34
1.20
1.09
1.60
1.44
1.31
1.20
1.87
1.68
1.53
1.40
1.92
1.75
1.60
1.48
1.81
1.64
1.50
1.39
1.82
1.67
1.54
1.43
2.00
1.84
1.70
1.58
2.00
1.85
1.72
1.60
2.17
2.00
1.86
1.74
2.16
2.00
1.87
1.75
0.67
0.59
0.54
0.89
0.80
0.73
0.67
1.07
0.97
0.89
0.80
1.25
1.11
1.00
0.91
1.34
1.20
1.09
1.00
1.56
1.40
1.28
1.17
1.60
1.46
1.34
1.23
1.55
1.41
1.29
1.19
1.56
1.43
1.32
1.23
1.71
1.58
1.46
1.35
1.72
1.59
1.47
1.38
1.86
1.72
1.60
1.49
1.85
1.72
1.61
1.50
0.54
0.48
0.43
0.71
0.64
0.58
0.54
0.86
0.78
0.71
0.64
1.00
0.89
0.80
0.73
1.07
0.96
0.88
0.80
1.25
1.12
1.02
0.94
1.28
1.17
1.07
0.99
1.35
1.23
1.13
1.04
1.37
1.25
1.16
1.07
1.50
1.38
1.27
1.18
1.50
1.39
1.29
1.20
1.63
1.50
1.40
1.30
1.62
1.50
1.40
1.32
0.43
0.39
0.36
0.59
0.54
0.49
0.45
0.71
0.65
0.59
0.54
0.84
0.74
0.67
0.61
0.89
0.80
0.73
0.67
1.04
0.94
0.85
0.78
1.07
0.97
0.89
0.82
1.10
1.09
1.00
0.93
1.22
1.11
1.03
0.95
1.34
1.23
1.13
1.05
1.34
1.23
1.15
1.07
1.45
1.34
1.24
1.16
1.44
1.34
1.25
1.17
12A-17
APPENDIX 12.J WORKED EXAMPLES

APPENDIX 12.J-1: Travelling Gun Design
A farmer in the IADP Selangor intends to grow egg plant on a deep silty loam soil. The area to be
irrigated is 350 m x 400 m by travelling gun sprinkler system. The maximum crop evapotranspiration
value is 6.0 mm/day. The average land slope is 5%. The detail design is required to install the
system.
Solution:
Step 1: Soil, Field and Crop Report
From Appendix 5.A:
The root zone depth for egg plant is 0.90 m
From Table 5.3:

holding
The available water holding capacity is 167 mm/m. So the total water
capacity @167 mm/m is (1.67 x 0.90) =150 mm
From Appendix 5.A:
The coefficient of maximum available deficit (MAD) is 0.50

So, the maximum soil water deficit = 0.5 x 150 = 75 mm
Using Eq. 5.45:
The maximum irrigation interval =
Maximum Soil Water Deficit

Max. ET
= 75/6.0 = 12.5 days

From Table 12.3:
The suggested maximum application rate = 13 mm/hr
The area to be irrigated, A = 350 x 400 = 14 ha

Crop
Soil
Egg Plant
Silty Loam
Root Depth (m)
0.90
Total Water Holding Capacity (mm)
150
MAD
0.5
Max Soil Water Deficit (mm)
75
Max Application Rate (mm/hr)
13
(From Table 12.3)

Step 2: Peak Irrigation System Flowrate
From Table 12.2:
For an ET rate 6 mm/day the flowrate per hectare is approximately 61.0 l/min
So, Approximate system flowrate = 14 x 61 = 854 L/min (225 gpm)
(Conversion Factor, 1 US gpm = 3.79 l/min)
Step 3: Select Nozzle for Gun Sprinkler System

From Appendix 12H-2:
Flowrate, Q
12A-18
Select 1 Taper bore nozzle operating at 70 psi
= 245 gpm = 928 L/min = Wetted diameter = 340 ft = 103 m
March 2009
Step 4: Machine Pressure

The operating pressure supplied to the machine will depend on the hose length and size. This is
normally should follow manufacturers recommendations.
Step 5: Lane Spacing
From Table 12.6:
The maximum lane spacing should not be exceeded 60% of the wetted
diameter = 0.60 x 103 = 61.8 m
Here, 55 (180 ft) m lane spacing is selected.
Step 6: Travel Speed

Consider that 2 units of travelling gun will be operated. So, the total field length will be 200 m for
each gun sprinkler system. Travel speed is computed using Eq. 12.39.
The travel speed Vt =
Max Length or Towpath

Set time
= 200/11.5
= 17.39 m/hr (57 ft/hr)

From Appendix 12.I:
speed
For a 245 gpm (928 L/min) on a 180 ft (50 m) lane spacing and a travel
57 ft/hr (17.39 m/hr) the gross amount to be applied is approximately 1.78
in (45.21 mm)
Using Eq. 12.40 of Application Rate,

A = 96.3
245
Q
= 96.3
1
80
57
S Vt
= 2.29 in = 58 mm
Net amount applied = 58 x 0.65 = 37.7 mm
Irrigation interval = 37.7/11.5 = 3.27 days
For a field 200 m wide and a towlane spacing 55 m and travel speed 17.39 m/hr, a travelling gun will
cover the half of the field in 3.5 days. To complete whole area, a travelling gun requires
approximately 7 days or 3.5 days for two travelling guns.
From Table 12.19, the instantaneous application rate of the 245 gpm gun will be approximately 12.7
mm/hr (0.5 in/hr) which is very close to maximum application rate 13 mm/hr). So, the gun should be
operated with 180o arc.
Step 7: Mainline Size
The mainline can be buried so that PVC is to be used in this case. The pipe pressure requirement
must be determined.
From Appendix 12G.3, For a flowrate 15.76 l/s (245 gpm) 150 mm (6) PVC will be selected since it
is the minimum pipe size above the dark line.
This 15.76 l/s 150 mm PVC pipe has a friction loss 0.63 m/100 m.
For 350 m pipe line = 350 0.63/100 = 2.20 m
March 2009
12A-19
Step 8: Total System Operating Pressure

Irrigation system operating pressure = 49. 26 m (70 psi)
Assume, Elevation (30 ft)
= 9.15 m
Friction loss
= 2.20 m
Total Pressure = 60.61 m
The, maximum operating pressure must be checked of the pipe materials. If it is exceeded then pipe
size should be increased.
Step 9: Pump Size and Power Requirements
Once the total pressure requirements and system capacity are known, the suitable pump and power
requirements can be determined. The detail procedure is described in Chapter 8.
17.39 m/hr
400 m
200 m
150 mm
55 mm
325 m
Figure 12 J-1: Designed Layout for Travelling Gun Sprinkler System

Designed Information
Total Area = 14 ha
Application Depth = 58 mm
Irrigation Internal = 3.27 days for 2 Guns and 7 days for 1 gun
12A-20
March 2009
APPENDIX 12. J-2: Stationary Gun System Design

Design Stationary Gun System for grain corn planted on 10 ha rectangular field (500 m x 200 m)
with clay loam soil on flat land (Figure 12J-2.1). The area provided with good ample water sources
coming from small stream passing nearby the farm
Solution:
Step 1. System water requirement
a) Soil water holding capacity of clay loam as given in Table 5.3 (Chapter 5) is 183 mm/m
b) The root zone depth of grain corn as given in Appendix 12. A is 0.60 m.
c) Calculate maximum net depth per irrigation (dx) using Eq. 5.43
dx = (MAD/100) x (Pw/100) x Wa x Drz
Where:
dx = maximum net depth of water to be applied per irrigation (mm)
Pw = percentage wetted area = 100%
Calculated dx = 55 mm
d) Calculate maximum irrigation interval (fx) using Eq. 5.46
fx = dx/ETd
where:
fx = irrigation interval or frequency (days)
ETd = average daily evapotranspiration during peak-use period = 7 mm/d
Calculated fx = 7.85 day (approximately 8 days)
The farm will be divided into 8 plots
e) Calculate system design capacity (Qs) using Eq. 12.1
Qs = (K x DDIRf x A)/(Ei x HPD)
Where:
Qs = system design capacity, l/min
DDIRf = design daily irrigation requirement (7 mm/day)
A = area irrigated (10 ha)
HPD = actual system operation time to cover entire area (14 hrs/day)
K = unit constant (16667)
Ei = irrigation efficiency as in Table 12.2 (70%)
Calculated Qs is 116,669 l/min
f) Maximum gun application rate as given in Table 12.3 is 4 mm/hr
March 2009
12A-21
Step 2. Nozzle type

Nozzle type = taper bore nozzle (Table 12.23)
Gun type = smallest gun
Nozzle size = 14 mm
Presure = 3.5 7.0 kg/cm2
Discharge rate = 13.1 m3/h (217 L/min)
a) Application rate as given by Table 12.24 for crop field with clay loam is 0.38 cm/hr (3.8 mm/hr)
b) Calculate instantaneous application rate using Eq. 12.41 to check against the maximum design
rate value given in Table 12.24.
IAR = 96.3
Q
r 2 c
Where:
IAR = instantaneous application rate (cm/hr)
Q = gun flowrate (217 L/min)
r = wetted radius of gun (30 m)
K = conversion factor (96.3)
Calculated IAR is 0.46 cm/hr so it close to the maximum design rate
c) Calculate overlap application rate (OAR) using Eq. 12.44
OAR = K
Q
S1 S 2
Where:
OAR = overlap application rate, cm/hr
Q = gun flowrate (217 L/min)
S1 = gun spacing along lateral (50 m)
S2 = lateral spacing (60 m)
K = conversion factor (96.3)
Calculated OAR is 0.437 cm/hr
Step 3. Sprinkler spacing
a) Gun spacing as recommended by Table 12.9 is 50%
b) Operating pressure
Table 12.25 recommended minimum operating pressure for small gun system at 4.57 kg/cm2 with
flowrate 380 760 L/min.
Step 4. Lateral line sizing
a) Lateral flowrate = 217 L/min x 2 nozzle per lateral = 434 L/min
Step 5. Mainline Design
12A-22
March 2009
a) The amount of water to be supplied to each plot = 217L/min x 2 nozzle/lateral x 2 lateral = 868
L/min
b) Select mainline diameter with flow velocity <1.5 m/s and head loss <0.2 m using Appendix 12.G.
The selected OD diameter is 114 mm.
Step 6. Filtration System Design
a) The amount of water to be supplied to the plot as calculated above = 868 L/min
b) The irrigation water is considered medium quality as it is coming from stream. But, as preventive
measure sand filter is recommended to be installed. The selected sand filter is 200 micron (80 mesh)
with inlet size of 114 mm diameter and capacity 120 m3/hr (2000 L/min).
Step 7. Pump and power requirement
a) The system flowrate = 868 L/min. The plot can be irrigated in rotation of 8.
Where:
Hs = static suction head (water level to pump) = 5 m (assumed)
He = static discharge head (pump to irrigation emitter) = 2 m (assumed)
Hf = friction head loss (in pipe, fitting, filter) = 14.5 m
Hp = pressure head required to operate nozzle = 45 m
c) Calculate water power WP using Eq 8.4
WP = (QxTDH)/102
Where:
Q = Total pump discharge = 868 L/min + 10% = 955 L/min = 16 L/s
TDH = 66.5 m
BHP = WP/
Where,
= pump efficiency = 70%
Calculated BHP = 15 KW
March 2009
12A-23
500 m
Plot 1
Plot 2
Plot 3
Plot 4
200 m
Main line
Lateral
Plot 7
Plot 6
Plot 5
Plot 8
125 m
Figure 12 J-2.1: Farm and Raingun Irrigation System Layout for Corn Farm (10 ha)
12A-24
March 2009
APPENDIX 12.J-3: Design of Solid-set Sprinkler System

A farmer intends to grow vegetables (carrots, Cauliflower, Broccoli with clay loam soil on flat land (05% slope). The area to be irrigated is 200 m x 250 m by solid-set sprinkler system for the daily
operation of 15 hrs. The maximum crop evapotranspiration value is 7.0 mm/day. The detail design is
required to install the system. The area is suitable for supplying irrigation water coming from small
stream passing nearby the farm. The detail design is required to install the system.
Step 1: Water Requirement
Soil water holding capacity for clay loam using Table 5.3 in Chapter 5,
AWHC = 183 mm/m
The root zone depth of vegetables as given in Appendix 12.A,
Drz = 0.60 m.
Management allowed deficit MAD as given in Table 5.11,
MAD = 50%
Percentage wetted area, Pw = 100%
So, maximum net depth per irrigation (dx) using Eq. 5.43,
dx =
MAD Pw
AWHC D rz
100 100
54.90 mm
Maximum irrigation interval (fx) using Eq 5.46 (where dn = dx and Evapotranspiration Td = 7.0
mm/day),
fx =
dn
Td
= 54.90/7.0 = 7.84 days

7 days
Step 2: System design capacity (Qs) using Eq. 12.1
Qs =
K DDIR f A
= 555.56 L/min =
E i HPD
Where,
= 7.0 mm/day
Design daily irrigation requirements, DDIRf
Irrigated area, A = 200 m x 250 m= 5 ha
Actual system operation time, HPD = 20 hrs/day to cover entire area (Assume)
K = 16667
Irrigation efficiency, Ei = 70% (Table 12.11)
Step 3: Sprinkler Selection
Usually impact/rotary sprinklers are used for agriculture that can be either single nozzle or double
nozzle. According to section 12.2.1.4, Table 12.1 and Appendix 12.B,
March 2009
12A-25
For very low pressure sprinkler (Appendix 12.B),

Operating Pressure Range = 103 - 207 kPa
Discharge range = 119 190 L/min
Distance of Throw = 18 24 m
Water application rates = 5 mm/hr
For very low pressure sprinkler (Table 12.1)
Operating Pressure Range = 34-105 kPa
Wetted diameter = 6 15 m
Water application rates = 10 mm/hr
Choose Triangular spacing patterns for irrigation sprinklers
RainBird sprinkler Model 2045J is selected (www.rainbird.com/ag/products/impacts/2045pj.htm)
Specifications:
Bearing: 13 mm Plastic Impact Sprinkler
Trajectory Angle: 23 degrees
Operating Range: 172-413 kPa (25-60 psi)
Flow Rate: 0.34-1.45 m3/hr (1.5-6.4 GPM)
Radius: 6.71-13.42 m ( 22-44ft)
Considering with average values from the specification,
Operating pressure = 413 kPa = 41.3 m
Flow rate, q = 0.90 m3/hr = 15 L/min
Radius = 10 m
Wetted diameter, D = 20 m
Area, a = 314 m2
Step 4: Compute Application Rate of an Individual Sprinkler
The average application rate of an individual sprinkler can be computed using the following equation
12.18:
A =K
q
a
= 60
15
= 2.87 mm/hr < maximum application rate of 4 mm/hr
314
From Table 12.3, the maximum or allowable application rate for clay loam soil is 4 mm/hr. The
application rate for the selected sprinkler Model: Rain Bird Model 2045J) is therefore appropriate for
the irrigation sprinkler.
Step 5: Spacing between Sprinklers
Spacing will vary between sprinklers depending on sprinkler size and nozzle size. Typical spacings
are in the 12 to 18 m range.
Using Eq. 12.15, spacing among sprinklers can be determined as follows:
S = K s D [For wind speed 1.3 to 3.1 m/s using Table 12.12, Ks = 0.55 for Triangular
patterns]
12A-26
March 2009
= 0.55 x 20 = 11 m
Step 6: Distance between Laterals
The spacing of the lines should not exceed 65% of the diameter of coverage or wetted diameter.
Using Eq. 12.14, spacing between laterals can be determined as follows:
L = K lD
= 0.86 Ks D = 9.46 m < 0.60D

= 9.0 m
Step 7: Required Minimum Number of Sprinklers
Using Eq. 12.19, Number of sprinklers is determined as follows:
Ns =
Qs
q
555.56
= 38 sprinklers
15
Pipe lengths are generally standardized. For depending on the shape of field, the number of
sprinklers needs to be increased from theoretical numbers and extra equipment needs to serve
irregular parts of the field. The depth per application and operating time can usually be adjusted to
optimize the fit if the system capacity is lower than the required capacity.
Step 8: Total Sprinklers based on the Actual Field Operations and Layout
Number of sprinklers for each lateral = (200-20)/11 = 18 sprinklers/Lateral line
10 m from each side of the field should not be considered.
Step 9: Total Laterals
Number of laterals = (250-20)/9 = 25 Lateral lines
Step 10: Lateral Line Design
Lateral flowrate = 15 L/min x 18 nozzle per lateral = 270 L/min
Using Appendix 12.G2 with flow velocity <1.5 m/s and head loss < 0.25 m,
The lateral size choose = 108.7 mm diameter (4 inch)
Total pipe length of the lateral line = 180 x 25 = 4500 m
Using Appendix 12.G3 with flow velocity <1.5 m/s and head loss < 0.24 m,
March 2009
12A-27
The selected OD diameter is 152 mm (6 inch)

Total pipe length of the main line = 300 + 200 = 500 m
Consider additional 500 m is required to convey water to the field.
The irrigation water is considered medium quality as it is coming from stream. But, as preventive
measure sand filter is recommended to be installed. The selected sand filter is 200 micron (80 mesh)
with inlet size of 114 mm diameter and capacity 120 m3/hr (2000 L/min).
Step 13: Pump and power requirement
The system flowrate = 555.56 L/min.
The TDH is determined using Eq. 11.10 as follows:
Consider the following parameters as previous example 12.J-2
Hs = static suction head (water level to pump) = 5 m (assumed)
He = static discharge head (pump to irrigation emitter) = 2 m (assumed)
Hf = friction head loss (in pipe, fitting, filter) = (11.25 + 1.25 + 2) = 14.50 m
Hp = pressure head required to operate nozzle = 41.3 m
Total head, TDH = 5 + 2 + 14.50 + 41.30 = 62.8 m
With 10% safety factor, Q = 555.56 + 55.56 = 612 L/min = 10.2 L/s
Step 14: Required Water power using Eq 8.12
Q TDH
102
10.2 62.8
=
= 6.28 KW
102
WP =
Step 15: Required brake horse power BHP as follows:

BHP = WP/
= 6.28/0.70 = 8.98 KW
Where,
= pump efficiency = 70%
12A-28
March 2009
Figure 12.J-3: Design Layout for Solid-set Sprinkler System
March 2009
12A-29
Part D Drainage Design

Chapter 13 - Surface Drainage
Chapter 13 - SURFACE DRAINAGE
Table of Contents
List of Tables .................................................................................................................... 13-iv
List of Figures ................................................................................................................... 13-iv
13.1
INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................... 13-1
13.2
COMPONENTS OF A FARMLAND DRAINAGE SYSTEM ................................................ 13-1
13.3
TYPES OF SURFACE DRAINS................................................................................... 13-2
13.4
13.3.1
Open Drain.............................................................................................. 13-2
13.3.2
Pipe Drain .............................................................................................. 13-3
SURFACE DRAINAGE SYSTEM ................................................................................. 13-3

13.4.1
Field Drain .............................................................................................. 13-3
13.4.2
Collector Drain......................................................................................... 13-4
13.4.3
Main Drain .............................................................................................. 13-5
13.5
TEMPORARY AND PERMANENT DRAINS................................................................... 13-5
13.6
PLANNING AND DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS............................................................. 13-6

13.6.1
System Variables ..................................................................................... 13-6
13.6.2
Land Grading and Leveling........................................................................ 13-6
13.6.3
13.6.2.1
Design Considerations .............................................................. 13-6
13.6.2.2
Construction Considerations...................................................... 13-7
Farm Bedding .......................................................................................... 13-9

13.6.3.1
Design Considerations .............................................................. 13-9
13.6.3.2
Construction Considerations...................................................... 13-9
13.6.4
Hydrologic Considerations......................................................................... 13-11
13.6.5
Hydraulic Considerations........................................................................... 13-11
13.6.6
Farming Factors....................................................................................... 13-11
13.6.7
Drainage Reserve..................................................................................... 13-11
13.6.8
Layout of Field Drainage System ............................................................... 13-11
13.6.9
Drainage Control...................................................................................... 13-12
13.6.10 Drainage Outlet ....................................................................................... 13-12

13.6.11 Operational Factors .................................................................................. 13-12
13.7
13.8
GENERAL DESIGN PROCEDURES............................................................................. 13-12

13.7.1
Delineation of Sub-catchment Areas .......................................................... 13-13
13.7.2
Drainage Layout ...................................................................................... 13-14
13.7.3
Time of Concentration .............................................................................. 13-15
13.7.4
Design Rainfall IDF .................................................................................. 13-15
13.7.5
Calculation of Discharge ........................................................................... 13-15
13.7.6
Select Type of Drain................................................................................. 13-15
13.7.7
Design Formulas ...................................................................................... 13-17
SPECIFIC DESIGN PROCEDURES ............................................................................. 13-17

13.8.1
Lined Channel.......................................................................................... 13-17

13.8.1.1
March 2009
Lining Material......................................................................... 13-17
13-i
13.9
Side Slopes ............................................................................. 13-17
13.8.1.3
Minimum Velocity .................................................................... 13-17
13.8.1.4
Free-board.............................................................................. 13-18
13.8.1.5
Necessary Equations ................................................................ 13-18
13.8.1.6
Design Steps ........................................................................... 13-20
13.8.2
Unlined Channel ...................................................................................... 13-21
13.8.3
Erodible Unlined Channel.......................................................................... 13-21

13.8.3.1
Method of Maximum Permissible Velocity................................... 13-21
13.8.3.2
Empirical Design Formula ......................................................... 13-21
13.8.4
Stable Unlined Channel Section ................................................................. 13-23
13.8.5
Optimum Section ..................................................................................... 13-23
13.8.6
Engineered Waterway .............................................................................. 13-23
TRANSITIONS AND CONSTRICTIONS ...................................................................... 13-24

13.9.1
13.9.2
13.10
13.8.1.2
Transition Analysis ................................................................................... 13-24

13.9.1.1
Subcritical Transitions .............................................................. 13-24
13.9.1.2
Supercritical Transition Analysis ................................................ 13-26
Constriction Analysis ................................................................................ 13-26
BENDS AND CONFLUENCES.................................................................................... 13-26

13.10.1 Bends
.............................................................................................. 13-26
13.10.1.1 Subcritical Bends ..................................................................... 13-26

13.10.1.2 Supercritical Bends .................................................................. 13-27
13.10.2 Confluences ............................................................................................ 13-27
13.10.2.1 Subcritical Flow in Confluence................................................... 13-27
13.10.2.2 Supercritical Flow in Confluences .............................................. 13-28
13.11
special Drainage CONSIDERATIONS ........................................................................ 13-28

13.11.1 Hilly Areas .............................................................................................. 13-28
13.11.1.1 Structural Methods .................................................................. 13-28
13.11.1.2 Non-structural Methods............................................................ 13-28
13.11.1.3 Subsoil Drainage...................................................................... 13-29
13.11.1.4 Geotechnical Analysis............................................................... 13-29
13.11.1.5 Construction and Maintenance .................................................. 13-29
13.11.2 Peat Soil Areas ........................................................................................ 13-29
13.11.2.1 Characteristics of Peat Soil ....................................................... 13-30
13.11.2.2 Planning Considerations ........................................................... 13-30
13.11.2.3 Design Considerations.............................................................. 13-30
13.11.2.4 Good Drainage Practices .......................................................... 13-31
13.11.2.5 Hazard Management ................................................................ 13-31
13.11.3 Low-lying Areas ....................................................................................... 13-31
13.11.3.1 Design Tailwater...................................................................... 13-32
13.11.3.2 Design of Flood Gate and Tidal Gate ......................................... 13-33
13.11.3.3 Selection of Pump.................................................................... 13-36
13.12
Maintenance.......................................................................................................... 13-36
13.12.1 Classification of Maintenance .................................................................... 13-36
13.12.2 Open Drain ............................................................................................. 13-36
13.12.3 Pipe Drain .............................................................................................. 13-36
13-ii
March 2009
13.12.4 Miscellaneous Facilities ............................................................................. 13-36

13.12.5 Budget for Maintenance............................................................................ 13-39
REFERENCES .................................................................................................................... 13-40
APPENDIX 13.A Design Charts .......................................................................................... 13A-1
APPENDIX 13.B Design Example of Unlined Drain............................................................... 13A-4
APPENDIX 13.C Design Example of Composite Drain (Adapted from DID, 2000) ................... 13A-5
APPENDIX 13.D Design Example of Tidal Gate (Adapted from DID, 2000) ............................ 13A-7
March 2009
13-iii
List of Tables
Table
Description
Page
13.1
Recommended Maximum Side Slopes
13-17
13.2
Suggested Values of Mannings Roughness Coefficient, n
13-18
13.3
Maximum Permissible Channel Velocity for Erodible Channel Design
13-21
13.4
Values of Kennedys Constant, K
13-22
13.5
Lacys Silt Factor (f ) for Various Materials
13-23
13.6
Optimum Channel Cross-sectional Values for Maximum Flow Capacity
13-23
13.7
Subcritical Transition Energy Loss Coefficients
13-26
13.8
Typical Characteristics of Peat Soil
13-30
13.9
Estimated Subsidence (m) in Peat for Various Depths of Drain
13-31
List of Figures
Figure
Description
Page
13.1
Components of a Typical Drainage System
13-1
13.2
Typical Examples of Agricultural Open Drains
13-2
13.3
Typical Example of Composite Drains
13-2
13.4
Pipe in Surface Drainage
13-3
13.5
Types of Passable Field and Collector Drains
13-4
13.6
Pipe Connection from Field to Collector Drain
13-4
13.7
Main Drain in an Agricultural Field
13-5
13.8
Various Shapes of Land Grading Slopes
13-7
13.9
Typical Catchment-wide Planning of Suitability for Land Grading
13-7
13.10
Steps in Grading Operations
13-8
13.11
Typical Bedding by Manual System for Small Plots
13-9
13.12
Typical Bedding and Drainage for a Mechanised Agricultural Plot
13-10
13.13
Recommended Row Length in Relation to Slope and Erodibility of Soils
13-10
13.14
Recommended Reserve for Open Drains
13-12
13.15
Example of Typical Irrigation and Drainage Layout
13-13
13.16
Various Drainage Layouts
13-14
13.17
Graphical Estimation of Time of Concentration for Overland Flow
13-16
13.18
Solution to Mannings Equation for Open Drains
13-19
13.19
Typical Design Procedure for Engineered Waterways
13-25
13.20
Fire Hazard Signage for Peat Soil
13-32
13.21
Drainage Problems in Low-lying and Tidal Areas
13-32
13.22
Drainage Control in Low-lying and Tidal Areas
13-33
13.23
Various Sea Levels for Drainage Control in Tidal Areas
13-33
13.24
Design Flowchart for a Flood Gate
13-34
13.25
Design Flowchart for a Tidal Gate
13-35
13.26
Design Flowchart for a Pump Drainage System
13-37
13.27
State of the Drain before and after Maintenance
13-38
13.28
Access Ramp for Maintenance of Lined Drain
13-38
13.29
Flushing of Pipe Drain
13-38
13-iv
March 2009
13
13.1
SURFACE DRAINAGE
INTRODUCTION
Surface drainage is the most common drainage system in Malaysia, which is used to remove excess
water rapidly from agricultural land. It is easy to construct, operate and maintain. Due to high local
rainfall intensity, surface drainage will generally perform better for agricultural fields with less
permeable soil (e.g. clay soil). Drainage by this method applies to nearly level topography where:
Less permeable surface soil exists;
Impermeable layer exists beneath the surface soil;
Natural topography consists of an uneven land surface which causes ponding; and
Surface drainage supplements subsurface drainage.
System and technology related to the surface drainage system were discussed in Chapter 3. This
Chapter deals with the methods required to design the surface drainage system for irrigated lands.
The user may need to refer to the MSMA (DID, 2000) for certain information which is applicable for
the drainage of agricultural lands. The specific reference to the relevant Chapters of MSMA is given
as and when required.
13.2
COMPONENTS OF A FARMLAND DRAINAGE SYSTEM
The major components (Figure 13.1) of a modern drainage system for agricultural lands are as
follows:
Field system (surface, sub-surface and bio-drainage);
Main system (usually open channel);
Treatment system (ponds and wetlands); and
Outlet system.
A surface drainage system has two components: (1) land forming, which includes bedding and land
grading (2) construction of field and collector drains.
Collector
Outlet
Field Drain
Main
Outlet
Figure 13.1
March 2009
Components of a Typical Drainage System (FAO, 1996)
13-1
13.3
TYPES OF SURFACE DRAINS
Generally open drains are preferred for surface drainage systems unless the land is really very costly.
Shallow pipe drains beneath the top soil can be constructed if the land above the drains is found to
be effective for more production.
13.3.1
Open Drain
The most common surface drain for agricultural lands is unlined earthen open channel. These can be
trapezoidal (most common), triangular, rectangular and composite. Land forming and grading can be
considered as part of open drainage systems too. Concrete open channels are necessary to control
erosion and scouring of the drainage system in hilly farm lands. However, pervious types of
agricultural open drains, as shown in Figure 13.2 are preferred over the fully lined drains, unless
required to suit the site conditions.
a) Unlined
Figure 13.2
b) Lined
Typical Examples of Agricultural Open Drains
Composite drains might be required to accommodate flow within the conveyance system or to
construct drains in erodable soils. The design procedure of composite drain is similar to that of open
channel design except that the equivalent roughness coefficient needs to be considered. However,
additional care should be taken during the construction of the composite drains. A typical figure of
constructing composite drain consisting of bottom riprap and unlined sides is shown in Figure 13.3.
(a) Grass and Concrete

Figure 13.3
13-2
(b) Earth and Stone

Typical Example of Composite Drains
March 2009
13.3.2
Pipe Drain
Pipe drain is seldom used in flat agricultural areas. Pipe drain is commonly used for subsurface
drainage system. Surface pipe drains might be necessary for hilly areas to reduce the flow velocity
and soil erosion. It can also be used to cross the bund or farm roads. The most common pipe
materials are clay, concrete and plastic (Figure 13.4). Corrugated flexible pipes are very common
these days, which can be rolled for easy transportation.
(a) Material
(b) Construction
Figure 13.4
13.4
c) Operation
Pipe in Surface Drainage
SURFACE DRAINAGE SYSTEM
The surface drainage system consists of three distinct levels of drains, which are described in the
following sections. Depending on the drainage hierarchy the system can be categorized from primary
(main drain) up to quaternary levels.
13.4.1
Field Drain
The drain that receives excess water from the crop fields is called Field Drain. According to the
drainage hierarchy and depending on the complexity of the drainage system field drains can consist
of secondary, tertiary or quaternary level drains. Field drains are shallow and have flat side slopes.
Simple field drains are usually V-shaped and can be constructed easily by backhoe. Their dimensions
are determined by the construction equipment, maintenance needs, and their "crossability" by farm
equipment. Side slopes should not be steeper than 6 to 1. Nevertheless, long field drains under
conditions of high rainfall intensities, may require a conveyance capacity greater than that of a
simple V-shaped channel. Without increasing the drain depth too much, its capacity can be enlarged
by constructing a flat bottom, thereby creating a shallow trapezoidal shape.
Figures 13.5a and 13.5b give some dimensions of V-shaped and trapezoidal drains. A variation is the
W-shaped field drain, which is applicable where a farm road has to run between the drains (Figure
13.5c). These drains are generally farmed through and their upper slopes may well be planted. All
field drains should be graded towards the collector drain with grades between 0.1 and 0.3%.
Open collector drains collect water from field drains and transport it to the main drainage system. In
contrast to the field drain, the cross-section of collector drains should be designed to meet the
required discharge capacity. The hydraulic design is similar to the design of irrigation canals. Besides
the discharge capacity, the design should take into consideration that, in some cases, surface runoff
runoff from adjacent fields also flows directly into the field drains, which then require a gentler side
slope. When designing the system, maintenance requirements must be considered. For example, if
the collector drains are to be maintained by mowing, side slopes should not be steeper than 3 to 1.
Attention must also be given to the transition between the field drains and the collector drains,
because differences in depth might cause erosion at those places. For low discharges, pipes are a
suitable means of protecting the transition (Figure 13.5). For higher discharges, open drop structures
are recommended.
March 2009
13-3
V-drain
Excess Material
Small
Ditch
depth (m) : 0.15-0.30
1:6
side slope :
Large
Ditch
0.30-0.50
1:10
Flat Bottom-Drain
Excess Material
depth (m) : 0.25-0.50 m

side slope : min. 1:10
W-Drain
Excess Material
5 15 m
Figure 13.5
13.4.2
Types of Passable Field and Collector Drains
Collector Drain
Collector drains receive water from the field drains and usually are of secondary or tertiary level.
Open collector drains can be constructed manually or mechanically. Care should be taken that the
spoil from the drains does not block the inflow of runoff, but is deposited on the correct side of the
ditch or is spread evenly over the adjacent fields.
Collector drains (Figure 13.6) are usually constructed with different machinery from that used for
field drains (i.e. excavators instead of land planes). The soil is placed near the sides of the drain.
Scrapers are needed when the excavated soil is to be transported some distance away.
Collector
Drain
Figure 13.6
13-4
Farm Road
Field Drains
Pipe Connection from Field to Collector Drain (FAO, 1996)
March 2009
13.4.3
Main Drain
Collector
One sided entry
Figure 13.7
13.5
Field drain
Collector
Slope of the land
Main drain
(lateral)
Field drain
Main or trunk drain receives excess water from the field drains and release into the treatment
facilities or nearby rivers (Figure 13.7). For large agricultural fields, the main drains can be designed
and constructed as an engineered waterway (DID, 2000).
(lateral)
Main drain
Double sided entry
Main Drain in an Agricultural Field (Smedema et al., 2004)
TEMPORARY AND PERMANENT DRAINS
Temporary drains are constructed, during the land conversion periods, to ensure proper drainage,
reduce water logging and minimise non-point source pollution. However, permanent drainage
facilities are required to ensure expected crop yield during the cultivation period. Proper land grading
can minimise the number of temporary drains. The following sections highlight the points to be
considered to ensure temporary drainage during the land conversion period, while the remaining part
of the chapter mainly focuses on the permanent drainage facilities.
Land should be cleared and developed in progressive stages.
Vegetation buffer strips should be retained along watercourses for erosion control, water quality
improvement and for aesthetic reasons.
During the clearance of natural vegetation and shaping of the agricultural plots, high amount of
sediment is generated. It is recommended that a good system of temporary drainage be laid
during these stages to channel runoff laden with sediments to sediment traps and basins.
Construct drainage routes and channels in such a way that the beds do not degrade and
contribute to the sedimentation problems.
Remove the sediment load accumulated in channels during the dry season to avoid downstream
sedimentation.
For hillside areas, slope drains must be constructed or extended as work progresses. Such
drains include berm drains, cascading drains, and sumps at the toes of the cascading drains to
reduce the velocity. Diversion banks may be necessary to intercept runoff from higher areas and
to divert it away from exposed areas. The longitudinal slope of the bank must not be excessive
or the bank itself will erode.
In granular soil areas, a diversion drain may serve the same purpose as a diversion bank, but is
more effective if it is lined with a geofabric material to resist erosion of the drain.
For unsealed roads, culverts and cross drains must be constructed where the road intercepts a
stream depression or natural drainage channels. The practice has been to direct the runoff from
the table drains into the upstream end of the culverts. To reduce erosion, it is better to locate
table drain culverts 20 30 m from the watercourse so that it provides a natural filter for the
runoff before it enters the stream.
Temporary interceptor ditches and berms with filters at inlets should be constructed to direct
runoff from the development area into any sediment basin.
March 2009
13-5
The drainage and deviation of natural watercourses, including provisions of bunds and culvert
shall be carried out wherever appropriate.
No watercourse or the reserve along the watercourse shall be disturbed until full plan details of
the proposed works have been submitted to and approved by the DID. A system shall be
maintained such that existing downstream water quality with respect to total sediment load is
maintained, or improved if so directed by the authorities concerned. The authorities concerned
shall approve any sediment traps that are provided with the drainage works.
The authorities concerned may require permanent drains to have sediment traps of adequate
capacity and other conservation measures. The sediment traps shall have the capacity to hold
no less than 10 cm of silt and sediment at any time. Material removed from the traps shall not
be placed in such a way that it becomes a source of sediment input for the downstream drains.
Drains that are not mechanically stabilised shall be grassed and maintained.
Ineffective drainage should be noted (especially during wet weather) and promptly corrected.
Precautions should be taken to minimise the quantities of fertilisers entering drainage systems.
13.6
The surface drainage can be lined or unlined, artificial or natural; or may consist of various
combinations. Therefore, there is a need for several approaches to design and select the most
suitable one which suits the site condition. However, the most suitable surface drainage for irrigated
lands is open unlined drains.
13.6.1
System Variables
The system variables that need to be considered to plan and design a proper drainage system are:
Terrain condition;
Layout and alignments;
Conveyance capacities;
Types of surface drains;
Structures in the drainage system;
Depths; and
Materials.
13.6.2
Land Grading and Leveling
The main objective of proper land grading in an agricultural plot is to ensure efficient drainage
without water logging while minimizing erosion. Appropriate grading is also essential for smooth
access of farming machinery and other vehicles. Land grading should be done carefully in hillside
farms to protect against any slope failure. An effective grading design and construction should
prevent or minimize potential subsequent on-site and off-site damage due to runoff, sediment
discharge and groundwater movement.
Proper leveling is very important for paddy fields where rice can be grown in upland, wet soil and
deep water conditions. Proper leveling of land is very important for maintaining required amount of
water for wet paddy fields. Land consolidation (merger of many small plots) might be necessary to
ensure proper leveling and subsequent efficient use of irrigation water in the paddy fields. High
precision leveling can be achieved by using the techniques mentioned in Chapter 3 of this Manual.
13.6.2.1
Land grading can have various shapes of slopes, as shown in Figure 13.8. However, steepness of the
slopes must be determined based on the soil, hydrologic and groundwater characteristics of the land.
In the cases of converting large areas for agricultural developments, detailed slope stability analyses,
either manual or by computer simulations, should be done to minimise erosion and slope failure. A
detailed slope stability map can be prepared, as shown in Figure 13.9, based on the calculations
13-6
March 2009
which can be followed during land grading for agricultural activities. Sensitive areas should not be
converted and must be protected or reinforced against erosion and failure.
b) Concave Slope
a) Planar
Figure 13.8
13.6.2.2
c) Convex
d) Compound
Various Shapes of Land Grading Slopes (Schor and Gary, 2007)
Construction Considerations
Proper construction methods are equally important as sound design of a land grading plan for the
conversion of land for agricultural development. The following points need to be considered during
the formation of the grades as per designed.
Construction during the non-rainy seasons;
Selection of proper grading equipment and skilled operators
Continuous on-site monitoring of subsurface conditions, to identify any unusual observation that
might not be picked during the planning and design stage;
Removal of deleterious materials;
Immediate measures for unstable slopes and soils;
Proper surface runoff and water table management during construction period;
Quick and appropriate compaction of cut and fill areas; and
Immediate planting of the crops to avoid excessive erosion.
Channel
Unstable Zone (predicted)
Landslide Probable Landslide
Basin boundary
Figure 13.9 Typical Catchment-wide Planning of Suitability for Land Grading (Schor and Gary, 2007)
March 2009
13-7
Grading operations involve a number of steps (Figure 13.10). The first step is to prepare the site. If
the land has already been cleared, the work mainly involves removing or destroying vegetation and
other obstacles, and leveling ridges or rows. This can normally be done with farm equipment. The
surface should be dry, firm and well-pulverized to enable the equipment to operate efficiently.
a) Remove Vegetation
b) Rough Grading (with cut and fill)
c) Final Grading with Field Drains

Figure 13.10
Steps in Grading Operations (FAO, 1996)
The second step is rough grading. This can be done with various types of equipment (e.g. dozers,
motor graders, scrapers). The choice will depend on the soil conditions, the amount of earthwork
needed, the time and equipment available, the size of the fields to be graded as one unit, and local
experience.
The third step is the finished grading. On small fields, drags, harrows, and floats can be used. These
can be pulled by a farm tractor or by animal traction. On larger fields, a land plane (a bottomless
13-8
March 2009
scraper) pulled by a farm tractor is used. For the final smoothing, several passes are usually made at
angles to one another.
When extensive grading is done with heavy equipment, it is likely to cause the soil to become
compacted. This compaction should be relieved to eliminate differences in soil productivity. Various
tillage tools can be used for this work (e.g. subsoilers, chisels, and rippers).
13.6.3
Farm Bedding
Proper bedding of the farmland might be helpful to improve surface drainage where mechanical land
forming cannot be done with adequate accuracy. Bedding is the oldest surface drainage practice and
not much practiced by the farmers who can afford controlled mechanized landforming.
According to the bedding system, the land surface is formed into beds of narrow widths. This work
can be done by manual labour, animal traction, or farm tractors. The beds are separated by parallel
shallow, open field drains, oriented in the direction of the greatest land slope (Figure 13.11). The
water drains from the beds into the field drains, which discharge into a collector drain constructed at
the lower end of the field and at right angles to the field drains.
f ie ld
n
drai
lan
e
lop
ds
sur
fac
e ru
nof
f
collector drain
Figure 13.11
13.6.3.1
Typical Bedding by Manual System for Small Plots (FAO, 1996)
To ensure good drainage in a bedding system (Figure 13.12), the beds should not be more than 10
m wide. However, the width of the beds is also governed by the following:
The kind of crops to be grown: Field crops require narrower beds than permanent pasture or hay
crops do;
Farming operations on beds: Ploughing, planting, and cultivating should fit the width of a bed;
Bed width should be a multiple of the effective width of farm equipment; and
Soil characteristics: Soils with low infiltration and low hydraulic conductivity require narrower
beds than soils with better characteristics.
13.6.3.2
Construction Considerations
It often takes several years of ploughing to obtain an adequate bedding system. During the first
ploughing, care should be taken to make beds of uniform width throughout the field and to have the
field drains running in the direction of the greatest slope. Any obstructions or low points in the field
drains should be eliminated or properly designed as pond because they will cause standing water
and loss of crops. The collector drain should be laid out in the direction of the lesser field slope, and
should be properly graded towards the main drainage system.
March 2009
13-9
field drain
ploughed bed
unploughed
centre of bed
to collector drain
to collector drain
Figure 13.12
Typical Bedding and Drainage for a Mechanised Agricultural Plot (FAO, 1996)
When grading land for surface drainage, the slope does not need to be made uniform, as for
irrigation; a non-uniform slope will suffice. In addition, the types of crop and how they will be grown
have to be considered. Crops like maize, potatoes, and sugar cane are grown in rows with small
furrows in between. For such crops, the length of the rows and the slopes of the field must be
selected so as to avoid erosion and overtopping of the small furrows. To prevent erosion, it is
recommended that the flow velocities in the furrows should not exceed 0.5 m/s. In highly erodible
soils, the row length is limited to about 150 m. Slightly erodible soils allow longer rows, up to 300 m.
Figure 13.13 shows recommended lengths and slopes of rows (and the small field drains) in relation
to soil erodibility. The direction of the rows and furrows need not necessarily be at right angles to the
slope, but can be selected in any way that meets the above recommendations.
Row length in m
300
slightly erodible soil
200
moderately erodible soil
highly erodible soil
100
0.2
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
Row slope in %
Figure 13.13
Recommended Row Length in Relation to Slope and Erodibility of Soils (FAO, 1996)
Small grains and hay crops are grown by broadcast sowing or in rows, but on an even surface (i.e.
no furrows). For such crops, surface drainage takes place by sheet flow. This flow is always in the
direction of the maximum slope. With sheet flow, the flow resistance is much higher than in small
furrows, and the flow velocity on the same land slope is less. Even after careful land grading and
13-10
March 2009
smoothing, however, sheet flow always has a tendency to concentrate in shallow depressions, and
gullies are easily formed. With the transport duration for low flow velocities in mind, it is
recommended that the field length in the flow direction be limited to 200 m or less.
13.6.4 Hydrologic Considerations
The main hydrological considerations required for agricultural surface drainage include:
Design return period or Average Recurrence Interval (ARI);
Time of concentration (tc);
I-D-F relationship of the design rainfall;
Soil characteristics;
Ground water level; and
Excess water from irrigated lands.
13.6.5
Hydraulic Considerations
Design and construction of surface drainage need the following hydraulic considerations to be taken
care of:
Type and shape of drain;
Drainage pattern and layout;
Drain material;
Hydraulic structures;
Size, depth, velocity and gradient; and
Drainage outfall.
13.6.6
Farming Factors
The most important farming factors needed to be considered in the design of drainage system are:
Farming system;
Crop variety; and
Farming practices.
13.6.7
Drainage Reserve
The drainage reserve depends on the nature of activities within the farm, land availability, types of
drains, etc. However, at least one meter of drainage reserve should be provided for all surface drains
for the stability of the banks. This reserve can be as high as 3m if heavy machinery is supposed to be
used on the farmland. Larger reserve might be required if farm roads are expected to be constructed
in that area. Typical ranges of reserves are discussed below for open and pipe drains, which should
be considered as a guide only.
Open drainage can be lined or unlined and the reserve can vary depending on the farm activities and
how the drains will be maintained. For small grassed channels, which will be maintained manually,
the minimum reserve should be at least 1.0 m (Figure 13.14). As the pipe drains are buried
underground they might not require reserve, unless heavy farming machinery is expected to cross
over the drains. However, appropriate markers should be fixed in the ground such that the drains
can be easily identified for repair and maintenance work.
13.6.8
Layout of Field Drainage System
The gravity drainage should be aligned according to the contour or natural slope of the cropland.
Example of an agricultural drainage layout is shown in Figure 13.15.
March 2009
13-11
Drainage Reserve
1.0 m (min)
Design flow width

+ freeboard
1.0 m (min)
(a) Grassed Channel
Drainage Reserve
1.0 m (min)
1.0 m (min)
(b) Lined Channel
Figure 13.14
13.6.9
Recommended Reserve for Open Drains
Drainage Control
Provision of drainage control is an important factor to be considered

of an irrigation scheme. Various types of hydraulic structures can
level or depth of water in the drainage system. Sub-surface
incorporated to maintain the desired water level and water table in
Drainage control is mainly required for the following purposes:
in the planning and design stage

be used for maintaining certain
drainage system also can be
the drain and field, respectively.
Maintain specific water level in the drain to reduce infiltration and seepage loss from the
field;
To prevent water released to the sea;
To reduce erosive velocity of the flowing water; and
To meet the requirement of specified water level for a certain stage of the crop. For
instance, paddy fields require to maintain water level in the drain not lower than 0.30 to 0.60
m from the field ground surface.
13.6.10
Drainage Outlet
Drainage outlet is the terminal component of the whole system, which releases the flows into a
major natural water body in the vicinity (e.g. river, lake and sea). Location and elevation of the
outlet should be suitable for the whole gravity drainage system.
13.6.11
Operational Factors
While selecting and designing any surface drainage system for agricultural land, appropriate attention should be
given to the operation and maintenance issues pertaining to the efficient use of the drainage system. Sufficient
budget must be allocated for the proper operation and maintenance of the drainage components.
13.7
GENERAL DESIGN PROCEDURES
The following steps are required to design the surface drainage system:
13-12
March 2009
Determine the Layout of the Drainage System
Calculate Sub-catchment Areas
Calculate Time of Concentration (tc)
Determine IDF of Design Rainfall
Determine Peak Discharge/Hydrograph (including the baseflow)
Select Type of Surface Drain
Determine Shape, Optimum Size and Slope
Prepare Drawings for Construction
B
C
.75
16
13.
75
14.25
14.75
15
.25
16
.25
15.75
16.25
G
G
road
irrigation canal
irrigation distributary
main drain
13.75
field drain
observation points
contour in m above m.s.l
0
Figure 13.15
13.7.1
500
J
1000m
Example of Typical Irrigation and Drainage Layout (FAO, 1996)
Delineation of Sub-catchment Areas
In order to optimise the size of the major and minor drains, it is important to subdivide the drainage
catchment into sub-catchments for each drain. Later, sub-catchments of similar areas can be
March 2009
13-13
grouped to minimise the number of calculations to determine the drain size. Drain design may be
done by reaches. One method is to design the drain for the required capacity of the lower end of the
reach and use that section throughout the reach. If this method is used, the upper end of the reach
will be overdesigned. Reaches should be selected so that overdesigning is minimum.
To reflect the flow conditions as nearly as possible, the selection of the length of reach is important.
To determine the beginning and the end of reaches, one of the following methods can be followed:
Tributary junctions where the required drain capacity changes;
A break in grade of the water surface profile;
Divide reach according to the flow capacity. A knowledge of where water enters the drain, as
well as the amount, helps determine how the reach should be divided; and
Bridges or culverts can be used to begin or end a reach.
After the hydraulic grade line (HGL) has been established, determine the drainage area and the
required drain capacity at the upper and lower end of each reach. At this time obtain the drainage
area and the required capacity for any drainage structure (culvert, side inlet, drop, weir, etc.). This
information is used in designing the structures (Chapter 16).
13.7.2
Drainage Layout
Sketch of a drainage layout is the first prerequisite for designing a drainage system. The layout
should contain contour lines of at least 1m intervals to determine the drainage pattern. Typical
patterns of drainage layout for agricultural lands are shown in Figure 13.16.
Parallel
Herringbone
Double Main
Targeted
Figure 13.16
13-14
Various Drainage Layouts (FAO, 1996)
March 2009
13.7.3
Time of Concentration
The time of concentration (tc) is required to estimate the design storm duration for the drainage
system. Many methods are practiced in the world. However, Bransby-Williams' Formula (Eq. 13.1)
can be used to calculate the tc of the main drains or large catchments (IEA, 1987). Alternatively,
Figure 13.17 also can be used estimate the time of concentration for a catchment. The user has to
make judgment which method would suit the site under consideration.
tc =
Fc . L
A 1 / 10 S 1 / 5
(13.1)
where,
t c = the time of concentration (minute);
Fc = a conversion factor, 58.5 when area A is in km2, or 92.5 when area is in ha;
L = length of flow path from catchment divide to outlet (km);
A = catchment area (km2 or ha); and
S = slope of stream flow path (m/km).
13.7.4
Design Rainfall IDF
The Intensity Duration Frequency (IDF) of design rainfall system variables that need to be
considered are:
Storm duration;
Return period or ARI; and
Rainfall frequency for the particular storm duration and ARI.
The time of concentration (tc) is required to estimate the design storm duration for the drainage
system. Many methods are practiced in the world. Depending on the catchment slope, size of the
land and type of crops the rainfall duration can vary from hours to days. The ARI can vary up to 10year return period, while the most recommended is a 5-year period. If the risk of loss is high then a
higher ARI should be chosen, up to 100-year for instance.
13.7.5
Calculation of Discharge
Two simple basic approaches can be used to calculate peak flows due to excess runoff from the
agricultural lands. The first approach is the Rational Method, which is more suitable for areas up to
80 ha and relates peak runoff to rainfall intensity through a proportionality factor (Chapter 14,
Section 14.5.1 of MSMA). The second approach uses a rainfall hyetograph, accounts for rainfall
losses and temporary storage effects in transit, and yields a discharge hydrograph. The hydrograph
approach is called Hydrograph Method and discussed in Section 14.6 of MSMA (DID, 2000). For both
approaches, the prevailing flow due to the excess irrigation water in the canal should be added with
the runoff flow rate.
13.7.6
Select Type of Drain
The surface drains, used in the croplands are usually open in nature. They can be either unlined or
lined, whereby unlined is the most common. Surface drains also vary in terms of shapes and sizes,
the most common being the trapezoidal shape. The following shapes can be chosen depending on
the site conditions and land availability:
Trapezoidal section;
Rectangular section;
Triangular section;
Curved section; and
Composite section.
March 2009
13-15
hour
Km
100
1500
1000
50
40
30
500
20
300
2
10
100
50
40
30
20
10
50
40
30
tc = 20
minutes
20
1000
500
400
300
5
200
Line 1
1.5
Line 2
minutes
100
13-16
10
Figure 13.17
60
Time of flood concentration.
200
Length of channel from farthead point of concentration.
Elevation of farthest point of watershed above point of concentration.
400
Line 3
Graphical Estimation of Time of Concentration for Overland Flow (Soekrasno, 1986)
March 2009
13.7.7
Design Formulas
The design of open drains generally assumes that steady and uniform flow (Chapter7) exists in the
drains. In addition to that assumption and also depending on the design concept, sediment content
in the irrigation water and the soil characteristics of the field, an open system for surface drainage
can be designed using various methods. The most common methods are:
Manning Equation (Eq. 13.3);
Chezy Formula (Eq. 13.6);
Kennedys Theory (Eq. 13.10); and
Laceys Theory (Eq. 13.12).
13.8
SPECIFIC DESIGN PROCEDURES
The design criteria for the lined and unlined channels are different, which are discussed below.
13.8.1
Lined Channel
Lining is the least recommended option for an open channel to drain excess water from an
agricultural plot. However, it might be necessary at certain locations and circumstances. Canal lining
might be necessary for irrigation purposes (to minimise infiltration loss), instead of drainage of an
agricultural field; unless the expected velocity in the channel is high enough to cause erosion.
13.8.1.1
Lining Material
The open drains in an agriculture plot can be lined with concrete, grass, clay and even with polymer
sheet. However, most usually grass, clay and concrete are the preferred choice. Concrete lined
drains are generally not used in farmlands, except for hilly areas where the velocity is highly erosive.
If the velocity is slightly erosive then (150 mm thick) clay lined earthen drains can be constructed to
minimise the maintenance cost.
13.8.1.2
Side Slopes
The recommended maximum side slopes for lined open drains are indicated in Table 13.1.
Table 13.1
Recommended Maximum Side Slopes
Drain Lining
Concrete, brickwork, and
blockwork
13.8.1.3
Maximum Side Slope (H:V)

Vertical
Stone pitching
1.5:1
Grassed/Vegetated
2.0:1
Clay
3.0:1
Minimum Velocity
Although the most suitable longitudinal grade of a drain is governed by the contour of the plot,
design of lined drains requires certain grades to maintain minimum velocity to prevent sedimentation
and vegetative growth in the channel. The minimum average flow velocity shall not be less than
0.6 m/s.
March 2009
13-17
The maximum average flow velocity should not exceed 4 m/s. For flow velocities in excess of 2 m/s,
drains should be provided with a 1.2 m high handrail or covered with solid or grated covers for the
entire length of the drain for public safety.
13.8.1.4
Free-board
Free-board provides extra safety against the overflow of the drainage banks. The free-board may
vary from 0.15 to 1.0 meter depending on the flow capacity of the drainage canal. Large drains
require more free-board due to the higher chance of overspilling due to wind action and unexpected
blockage. Alternately the free-board (F) can be estimated by Eq. 13.2 (Chow, 1959).
F = 0.55 Cy
(13.2)
where, C is a coefficient which varies from 0.5 for flow less than 0.6 m3/s to 0.76 for flow more than
85 m3/s.
13.8.1.5
Necessary Equations
The most commonly used mathematical tools for the design of lined and non-erodible channels are
Mannings Formula (13.3) and Chezy Equation (13.6).
1
Q = AR 2 / 3 S1 / 2
n
(13.3)
where n is the Mannings roughness coefficient. Choice of the design equations depends on the data
availability for the sites. Lined rectangular or trapezoidal drains can be designed and constructed
using appropriate Mannings roughness coefficient given in Table 13.2.
Table 13.2
Suggested Values of Mannings Roughness Coefficient, n

Lining Material
Suggested n Values
Minimum
Maximum
Clay
0.018
0.025
Short grass cover
0.030
0.035
Tall grass cover
0.035
0.050
Trowel finish concrete
0.011
0.015
Unfinished concrete
0.014
0.020
Stone pitching with mortar
0.015
0.017
Random rubble masonry
0.020
0.035
Rock riprap
0.025
0.030
Brickwork
0.012
0.018
Precast masonry blockwork
0.012
0.015
Polymers
0.009
0.012
Size of a drain can also be determined from design charts of known parameters, based on Manning
equation, as shown in Figure 13.18. However, these days, a computer spreadsheet for Manning
equation (13.3) would provide fast and accurate results. Composite roughness values for drains with
more than one surface lining in the cross-section can be manually calculated following the procedure
given below.
13-18
March 2009
Estimation of an equivalent or composite Mannings roughness value in a waterway of varying

roughness is often required where there is a marked variation in the boundary roughness across an
individual cross-section. For instance an engineered waterway include a grassed floodway containing
a concrete low flow invert, or a waterway containing a low level access road along one side of the
waterway. Equation (13.4) may be used to estimate the overall roughness coefficient in engineered
waterways of composite roughness. It involves the determination of flow area, wetted perimeter,
and Mannings roughness coefficient for each segment representing the varying zones of roughness
across the waterway section.
m
ni A 5i / 3
i=1
Pi 2 / 3
n =
(13.4)
A 5i / 3
P
i=1
2/3
where,
n* = equivalent Mannings roughness coefficient for the whole cross-section
n i = Manning's roughness coefficient for segment i
A i = flow area of segment i (m2)
P i = wetted perimeter of segment i (m)
m = total number of segments.
11
10
Z
Base width, B (m)
Qn
S01/2 B 8/3
Z=3
Value of
Z = 2.5
Z=1
Z=2
Z = 1.5
Z = 0.5
Z=0
0.5
0.1
0.1
0.5
Value of
Figure 13.18
March 2009
1.5
y
B
Solution to Mannings Equation for Open Drains (DID, 2000)
13-19
It is important that the designer check that the composite Mannings roughness coefficient value
obtained using Equation (13.4) is reasonable. A distorted or inaccurate value will result in inaccurate
predictions of waterway flow conditions.
Chezys coefficient has relation with hydraulic radius of the drain and Mannings roughness.
C=
R1 / 6
n
(13.5)
This relationship indicates that the Chezy discharge coefficient is a function of the Manning
coefficient and the hydraulic radius.
Q = CA
RS
(13.6)
where C is the Chezy discharge coefficient, R is the hydraulic radius and S is the slope of the channel
or the sine of the slope angle.
For laminar flow in a wide channel, assuming a parabolic distribution of velocity the value of C can be
determined by the following equation:
C
g
Re
8
(13.7)
where,
Re = 4VR/
For turbulent flow in a wide channel, the velocity distribution may be assumed to be logarithmic, as:
(v V ) C = 2 log
V 8g
y
+ 0.88
y0
(13.8)
where v is the local velocity at a depth y, and y0 is the total depth. This equation, however, does not
apply near the bed or near the surface of the flow.
In alluvial channels the magnitude of C depends upon the form of the boundary roughness.
Expressed in terms of the Darcy-Weisbach resistance coefficient f, the coefficient C is:
C=
13.8.1.6
8g
f
(13.9)
Design Steps
The brief design procedure for lined drains is given below:

Step 1: Estimate Mannings n or Chezys coefficient of the lining or non-erodible material.
Step 2: Use Figure 13.18 or Design Charts in Appendix A to determine the flow depth, y.
Step 3: Check if y is within required limits for the open drain type.
If not, adjust the drain
Step 4: Calculate the average flow velocity from V = Q /A and check that it is within the maximum
and minimum velocity criteria for the open drain type. If not, adjust the drain dimensions
and return to step 2.
Step 5: Add required freeboard to y and calculate top width of drain for drains with sloping sides.
Step 6: If required, calculate width of drainage reserve.
13-20
March 2009
13.8.2
Unlined Channel
Unlined drains are the most common in agricultural drainage networks. These are trapezoidal or
triangular in shape. Various methods can be used to design the unlined drained depending on the silt
content in the water. Unlined channels can be designed by considering erodible and stable soils,
which are discussed in the following sections.
13.8.3
Erodible Unlined Channel
If the soils are erodible, special considerations would be necessary to take care of the erosion and
sedimentation problem in the drainage system. An erodible channel may experienced certain level of
scouring but velocity is restricted such that siltation does not occur in the channel. Usually an older
unlined channel performs better than the new one due to its stability in shape. When other
conditions are the same, a deeper channel (with more water) will convey water at a higher mean
velocity without erosion than a shallower one.
13.8.3.1
Method of Maximum Permissible Velocity
According to this concept the unlined channel size is determined such that the actual flow velocity
does not exceed the greatest permissible maximum velocity. Equations (13.3) and (13.5) can be
used to design an unlined drainage system as long as the maximum velocity (V) for the design flow
(Q) does not exceed the velocity limits given in Table 13.3 for various channel materials.
13.8.3.2
Empirical Design Formula
Kennedys formula and Lacys method are the most empirical formula for Based on study in Punjab
(Pakistan), Kennedy developed the following equation to estimate velocity in a channel. Flow can be
determined by multiplying the cross-sectional area with the velocity, V.
Q = KADn
(13.10)
where K is the Kennedys constant value which depends on the sediment content in the water, as
given in Table 13.4 (Punmia and Pande, 2005).
Table 13.3
Maximum Permissible Channel Velocity for Erodible Channel Design (Akan, 2006)
Channel Material
March 2009
Maximum Allowable
Velocity (m/s)
Fine sand
0.6
Coarse sand
1.2
Fine gravel
1.8
Sandy silt
0.6
Silt clay
1.0
Clay
1.8
Bermuda grass on sandy silt
1.8
Bermuda grass on silt clay
2.4
Sedimentary rock
3.0
Soft sandstone
2.4
Soft slate
1.0
Igneous or hard metamorphic rock
6.0
13-21
Table 13.4
Values of Kennedys Constant, K
Type of Sediment
Value of K
Light Sandy Silt
0.53
Coarser Light Silt
0.59
Sandy Loam
0.65
Coarse Silt
0.70
There is no factor to consider for the slope of the channel in Eq. (13.9). Therefore, Kennedy used
Kutters Eq. (13.11) to consider the effect of channel slope on the calculation of flow velocity.
1 0.00155
+
N
S
V=
0.00155 N
)
1 + (23 +
S
R
23 +
RS
(13.11)
where N is Kutters coefficient, R is the hydraulic radius of the channel (A/P) and S is the channel
slope (m/m).
Depending on the data availability, Laceys method can be applied using Eqs (13.12 - 13.21), which
is supposed to provide stable channel section. This formula considers silt factor in designing the
canal, which shall carry sediments.
2
fR
5
(13.12)
f = 1.76 mr
(13.13)
Q=A
Qf 2
V=
140
1/6
P = 4.75 Q
D=
P P 2 6.944 A
3.472
B = P 5D
R = 2.5
R=
S=
V2
f
BD + 0.5D 2
B = 2.23D
f 5/3
3340Q1 / 6
V = 10.8R 2 / 3 S1 / 3
(13.14)
(13.15)
(13.16)
(13.17)
(13.18)
(13.19)
(13.20)
(13.21)
Where, f is the silt factor that can be estimated from Table 13.5.
13-22
March 2009
Table 13.5
13.8.4
Lacys Silt Factor (f ) for Various Materials

Material
Value of f
Large pebbles and coarse gravel
4.68
Coarse sand
1.56 1.49
Medium sand
1.31
Silt
1.0
Fine silt
0.36
Stable Unlined Channel Section
A stable channel is one which neither erodes nor accumulates silt. According to Kennedys silt theory,
the eddies generated from the bed of a stable channel support the silt to be in suspension. The
critical velocity for non-silting and non-scouring condition can be calculated by the following
equation:
V = m 0.84 D 0.64
(13.22)
where m is the critical velocity ratio which varies from 1.1 to 1.2 for coarse particles and 0.9 to 0.8
for fine particles.
13.8.5
Optimum Section
The best section of an open channel system is necessary to optimise the cost of the drainage
system. For a known cross section of a conveyance system the discharge will be maximum when the
hydraulic radius is maximum or the wetted perimeter is minimum. The optimum channel geometry
are listed in Table 13.6, which can be used for design purposes
Table 13.6
Optimum Channel Cross-sectional Values for Maximum Flow Capacity
Cross
Section
Area (A)
Wetted
Perimeter (P)
Hydraulic
Radius (R)
Depth (d)
y2
2.828 y
0.354 y
0.5 y
Rectangular
2.0 y2
4.0 y
0.5 y
Trapezoidal
1.732 y2
3.464 y
0.5 y
0.75 y
3.08 r2
5.376 r
0.573 r
1.898 r
Triangular
Circular
13.8.6
Engineered Waterway
Large conveyance facilities protected with various types of vegetation, mat, fabric and stone can be
used as engineered waterway for the drainage in large irrigation schemes. Trapezoidal or composite
sections are used for the engineered waterways to mimic the natural channels, which is more
environmentally friendly compared to concrete lined channel or other conduits. The most common
types of engineered waterways are briefly described below (DID, 2000).
March 2009
13-23
Natural Waterways : Natural waterways are the most recommended out of the various types of
constructed or modified waterways. They often, but not always, have mild slopes and are
reasonably stable. As the tributary catchment urbanises, natural waterways often experience erosion
and may need grade control checks and localised bank protection to stabilise.
Grassed Floodways : These are soft-lined waterways designed to lower flow velocities, provide
channel storage, and offer various multiple use benefits. Low flow areas generally need to be
concrete or rock lined to minimise erosion and maintenance problems.
Concrete Lined Channels : Concrete lined channels are high velocity artificial waterways that are not
encouraged in new agricultural areas. However, in retrofit situations where existing flooding
problems need to be solved and where width available for a drainage reserve is limited, concrete
channels may offer advantages over other types of engineered waterways.
Rock Lined Channels : Riprap lined channels offer a compromise between a grassed floodway and a
concrete lined channel. They can significantly reduce drainage reserve needs, but are more difficult
to keep clean than other types and are recommended for consideration only in retrofit situations
where existing urban flooding problems are being addressed.
Other Channel Liners : A variety of artificial channel liners may be used to protect the channel walls
and bottom from erosion at higher velocities. These include gabions, interlocked concrete blocks,
concrete revetment mats formed by injecting concrete into double layer fabric forms, and various
types of synthetic fibre liners. As with rock and concrete liners, all of these types are best
considered for helping to solve existing urban flooding problems, but are not recommended for new
developments. Each type of liners has to be scrutinised for its merits, applicability, how it meets
other community needs, its long-term integrity, and maintenance needs and costs.
Basically the design principals of engineered waterways are similar to those of a lined and unlined
channel discussed in the previous sections of this Chapter. The overall design mainly depends on the
ideas of the design engineers and materials availability. Detailed discussion on engineered water
ways are available in Chapter 28 of MSMA (DID, 2000). However, the design flow chart is included in
this Chapter (Figure 13.19).
13.9
TRANSITIONS AND CONSTRICTIONS
Drainage transitions are typically used to alter the cross-sectional geometry and accommodate space.
Such changes in the dimensions of the channel have merits and demerits; however, it is necessary
for the engineered waterways.
13.9.1
Transition Analysis
13.9.1.1
Subcritical Transitions
Transitions for subcritical flow are required to minimise friction losses and/or erosion tendencies.
Examples include transitions between trapezoidal and rectangular sections, modest transitions at
bridges where little change takes place in cross section, or slight encroachments into a channel to
allow for utilities. Loss coefficients shown in Table 13.7 can be applied to the difference in the
velocity head, as shown is Equation (13.23).
Analysis of transitions requires careful water surface profile analysis including verification of effective
channel hydraulic controls. It is not uncommon to have a transition which is first thought to be
performing in a subcritical mode, but subsequently found to produce a supercritical profile with a
hydraulic jump.
Energy Loss (m) = Coefficient h v1 h v 2
(13.23)
where,
13-24
March 2009
(h v1 h v2 ) = V21g V22g
V1 = flow velocity upstream of transition

V2 = flow velocity downstream of transition
Select alignment
Determine design ARI

and discharge
Select bed slope (So )
Select waterway
cross-section
Compute maximum depth (y )

and top water width (WT )
Increase base width (B )

and/or
reduce bed slope (So )
Compute average
flow velocity
Reduce base width (B )

and/or
increase bed slope (So )
Is
flow velocity
acceptable?
No
Yes
Compute required
waterway reserve width
(T + freeboard)
No
Is
reserve width
acceptable?
Lower waterway invert
and adjust reserve width
Yes
Is
waterway depth
sufficient?
No
Yes
Check flow velocity and depth
using minimum and maximum
expected n values
Figure 13.19
March 2009
Typical Design Procedure for Engineered Waterways (DID, 2000)

13-25
Table 13.7
Subcritical Transition Energy Loss Coefficients
Condition
Contraction
Expansion
0.00
0.00
0 to 0.10
0 to 0.10
Warped Type
0.10
0.20
Cylindrical Quadrant Type
0.15
0.25
Modest Transitions
0.30
0.50
Straight Line Type
0.30
0.50
Square Ended Type
0.30
0.75
Less than 100 mm between centreline and tangent lines

Less than 12.5 between centreline and tangent lines
13.9.1.2
Supercritical Transition Analysis
The configuration of a supercritical transition is entirely different from subcritical transitions.

Improperly designed and configured supercritical transitions can produce shock wave patterns which
result in channel overtopping and other hydraulic and structural problems. Supercritical transitions
require special attention and, thus, are not included in this manual.
13.9.2
Constriction Analysis
There are varieties of structures that act as constrictions, including bridges, culverts, drop structures,
and flow measurement devices. Constrictions of various types are used intentionally to control bed
stability and upstream water surface profiles. For example, a constriction may be used to cause
water to back up or overflow into the paddy or other agricultural field.
13.10
BENDS AND CONFLUENCES
Channel confluences are common in a drainage system. Flow rates can vary disproportionately with
time so that high flows from upstream channel can discharge into downstream channel when it is at
high or low level. The main emphasis in this section is on subcritical flow conditions. Since
supercritical conditions can occur in various situations, some conditions are generally reviewed;
however, supercritical flow analysis is not described in detail.
13.10.1
Bends
13.10.1.1 Subcritical Bends
Subcritical bends are required to have certain minimum curvatures. It is important that the designer
recognise the consequences of approaching and exceeding these criteria. Chow (1959), Rouse
(1949), and others illustrate flow patterns, superelevation, and backwater or flow resistance
characteristics. Superelevation refers to a rise in the water surface on the outer side of the bend.
Effectively, the bend can behave like a contraction, causing backwater upstream and in accelerated
velocity zones, with high possibility of erosion on the outside of the bend and other locations.
Concrete lined channels can be significantly affected by superelevation of the water surface. The
designer should always add superelevation to the design freeboard of the channel. The equation for
the amount of superelevation of the water surface, y, that takes place is given as:
V2 T
y = C
gr
13-26
(13.24)
March 2009
where,
C
V
T
g
=
=
=
=
coefficient, generally 0.5 for subcritical flow

mean channel velocity (m/s)
width of water surface in channel (m)
acceleration of gravity (9.81 m/s2)
= channel centreline radius (m).
13.10.1.2 Supercritical Bends
As with supercritical transitions, the hydraulics for supercritical bends are completely different from
those for subcritical bends. Supercritical channels are generally not desirable in agricultural
drainage. However, special situations may occur where supercritical flows enter a curved channel,
for example:
at confluences where one channel is largely empty, and the entering flow expands and becomes
supercritical
at a sharp bend in a conduit whose slope inherently leads to supercritical conditions
at a channel drop (in the hilly farms) that unavoidably ends up on a curve.
The key phenomenon to be aware of is shock waves, of which there are two types, positive and
negative. On the outside of an angular bend, a positive shock wave will occur which results in a rise
in the water surface. The wave is stationary and crosses to the inside of the channel, and then can
continue to reflect back and forth.
A basic control technique is to set up bend geometry to cause the positive shock wave to intersect
the point where the negative wave is propagated. A bend usually requires two deflections on the
outside and one bend on the inside. A beneficial aspect of the shock wave is that it turns the flow in
a predictable pattern, and thus the channel walls have no more force imposed on them other than
that caused by the increased (or decreased) depths. This technique is described by Ippen (USACE,
1970) and is also reported by Chow (1959).
Other control techniques include very gradual bends, super elevated floors, and controls sills, but
these methods are generally less efficient. There is limited data on channels with sloping side banks,
but it is clear there is a great tendency for shock waves to propagate up side slopes and divert flow
out of the channel.
13.10.2
Confluences
One of the most difficult problems to deal with is confluences where the difference in flow
characteristics may be great. When entering the combined channel, the flow can diverge and drop in
level if the flow capacity is suddenly increased. This can result in high velocity or unstable
supercritical flow conditions with a high erosion potential. When significant sediment flows exist,
aggradations can occur at the confluence, resulting in the loss of capacity in one or both upstream
channels.
13.10.2.1 Subcritical Flow in Confluence
The design of channel junctions is complicated by many variables such as the angle of intersection,
shape and width of the channels, flow rates, and type of flow. The design of large complex junctions
should be verified by model tests.
The following assumptions are made for combining subcritical flows:
The side channel cross-section is the same shape as the main channel cross-section
The bottom slopes are equal for the main channel and side channel
Flows are parallel to the channel walls immediately above and below the junction
March 2009
13-27
The depths are equal immediately above the junction in both the side and main channel
The velocity is uniform over the cross-sections immediately above and below the junction.
Assumption No. 3 implies that hydrostatic pressure distributions can be assumed, and assumption
No. 5 suggests that the momentum correction factors be equal to each other at the reference
sections.
Momentum computations for a confluence involve a trial and error process. Starting with a known
depth above or below the confluence, one iterates with an assumed depth on the unknown side of
the confluence until the momentum has been balanced upstream to downstream.
13.10.2.2 Supercritical Flow in Confluences
In contrast with subcritical flows at junctions, supercritical flows with changes in boundary
alignments are generally complicated by standing waves (Ippen, 1951 and Rouse, 1949). In
subcritical flow, backwater effects are propagated upstream thereby tending to equalise the flow
depths in the main and side channels. However, backwater cannot be propagated upstream in
supercritical flow and flow depths in the main and side channels cannot generally be expected to be
equal. Junctions for rapid flows and very small junction angles are designed assuming equal water
surface elevations in the side and main channels.
Supercritical flow may unavoidably occur in certain confluences. The designer should try to correct
the geometry and channel sections to avoid the situation. If the condition remains, a more detailed
hydraulic study or model study must be initiated to address the problem.
13.11
SPECIAL DRAINAGE CONSIDERATIONS
This section aims to provide designers and users with additional and specific requirements for
planning, design and implementation of drainage management in special areas such as hilly areas,
peat soil and low areas.
13.11.1
Hilly Areas
The primary goals of the design are:
to attenuate and control surface runoff quantity while enhancing total/smooth conveyance of the
reduced flow from hilly farm lands;
to reduce infiltration, erosion/sedimentation and subsequently enhance slope stability.
To achieve the prescribed goals the followings are among the requirements/measures that shall be
followed:
13.11.1.1 Structural Methods
More or larger detention facilities (lined) are required
Runoff infiltration facilities are not permitted
Conveyance facilities are fully lined
Encourage integration of efficient subsoil drainage
Biofiltration and infiltration trench are not allowed except over large (plateau) areas
Wet sediment basin and wet pond are not permitted unless they are fully lined
Enhance bioengineering stabilisation techniques.
13.11.1.2 Non-structural Methods
Water cycle changes and consequences due to development should be thoroughly understood
13-28
March 2009
Development should be properly scheduled and earthworks only undertaken in drier periods
Strengthening administrative or legal framework and local authority requirements
Submission of special earthwork and construction activity plan, erosion and sediment control plan
(ESCP) and drainage plan
Subsurface/vadose zone drainage plan shall also be submitted and approved along with the
surface drainage plans
Percent (%) imperviousness and landuse types should be carefully planned in an effort to reduce
increased runoff quantity
Proximity of hillside development area to receiving waters, lake/reservoir, river, estuary and sea
requires further design criteria for runoff control measures
Surface/subsurface soil and geological investigation should be thoroughly planned and carried
out and be critically assessed and approved by the authority concerned
Cut and fill slopes must not be steeper than the gradient of original/natural slope and platform
must be graded unless protected by retaining walls.
13.11.1.3 Subsoil Drainage
Large open areas within a hillside development should be equipped with subsoil drainage in order to
minimise infiltration and the possible effects on slope stability. Details of subsoil drainage systems
are discussed in Chapter 14 of this Manual.
The subsoil drainage system should be designed for minimum maintenance. Flow collected in the
subsoil drains must be conveyed to the main drainage system in either pipes or open drains, and
then conveyed away from the development to a suitable discharge area.
13.11.1.4 Geotechnical Analysis
In cases where the project concerned is large and more complicated, relevant software should be
used to study the impact of infiltration on the overall stability of the site. This shall be based on the
unsaturated-saturated groundwater modelling (refer Chapter 7 and 14).
13.11.1.5 Construction and Maintenance
Drainage inspection and maintenance is particularly important in hillside areas. Neglect of routine
maintenance can lead to infiltration and slope failures in hillside developments, with potentially
devastating consequences.
It is essential that the responsibility for future maintenance is clearly established and formal
arrangements should be drawn up for regular inspection and maintenance. Funding should be
agreed, staff allocated and the duties and responsibilities confirmed in writing. The frequency and
requirements for inspection will vary depending on local conditions and should be reviewed
periodically (say every two to three years) in the light of conditions experienced on site.
To achieve the construction standard, it is important that the works are supervised on site by an
appropriately trained drainage engineer or supervisor who will be responsible for ensuring that the
works are built in accordance with the plans. To do so, he or she should be knowledgeable about
the intent of the design as well as the construction methods.
13.11.2
Peat Soil Areas
Peat soil forms from the build up of partially rotted plant and other organic material in moist and
humid environments. The most common problem related to the agricultural activities in peat soil is
the control of moisture (water table) and excessive settlement. Cultivation causes peat to shrink
twice as fast as it would under pasture, and should be avoided where possible. Therefore, very welldesigned and controlled drainage is essential for the water table management in peat soils.
March 2009
13-29
13.11.2.1 Characteristics of Peat Soil
Undeveloped (immature) peat is mostly made up of organic matter and a small amount of mineral
content (Table 13.8). As the peat is developed, it shrinks and becomes denser. Developed peat has a
higher bulk density than undeveloped peat, contains less organic matter and more mineral material.
Development for pasture usually requires inputs of nitrogen and lime. As a result, the pH increases
and the carbon to nitrogen ratio decrease. This relatively high carbon content gives peat a good
physical structure for growing.
13.11.2.2 Planning Considerations
There are four key planning factors required to follow in order to maintain good water table in peat
areas:
Avoid deep drainage : Deep drains in peat cause over-drainage and rapid subsidence of peat soils. As
the peat dries it shrinks, get hardened and cracks, making soils difficult to re-wet. Rainwater flows
down into the subsoil through cracks in the peat. When peat dries it becomes waxy and doesnt
reabsorb water easily. Keeping drains shallow will help keep the water table high enough to make
the peat suitable for crops.
Table 13.8
Typical Characteristics of Peat Soil
Soil Type
pH
C:N Ratio
Undeveloped peat
Semi proved
Improved
Partly burnt
Typical mineral soil
4.2
5.1
5.4
5.2
5.6-5.8
33
28
21
14
10-12
Mineral
Bulk Density
(kg/m3 dry soil) Content (%)
55
220
385
550
500-1000
5
30
60
75
85-95
Maintain the water table : Keeping the water table high in non-rainy dry periods is important for
pasture growth and maintaining soil quality, for both peat and mineral soils. This can be achieved by
putting weirs or stop gates in the drains.
Water table management can be difficult to achieve for small individual farms. It may be useful to
get together with the neighbouring plot owners to discuss water table management during the dry
seasons or spells. Better water table management will minimize shrinkage, allowing farmers to
extend summer grass growth and farm your peat soils profitably for longer.
Fence drains and spray weeds : Controlling weeds and fencing drains to exclude stock reduces
maintenance costs associated with machine cleaning drains. Weeds should be sprayed before they
seed.
Do not deepen drains during maintenance : As peat lands are soft soils, continual deepening leads to
over-drainage, and makes pasture less productive. Drains should be kept shallower to protect
valuable pasture.
13.11.2.3 Design Considerations
Managing the water table is the best way for the farmers to slow peat subsidence or shrinkage.
Studies showed that subsidence rates are highest where water tables are lowest (Schipper and
McLeod, 2002). Where peat soils are over-drained, it is likely that some areas of peat land may sink
below current water levels, increasing the need for additional facilities and treatments. This will
significantly increase the cost of farming these soils.
13-30
March 2009
Depending on the terrain condition either open drain or lightweight (porous and non-porous)
conduits can be used for drainage in peat soil. However, appropriate drainage spacing should be
provided to avoid excess subsidence and unwanted soil movement.
The deeper and more closely spaced the drains, the quicker the peat will subside. Table 13.9 shows
how deeper drains can increase peat subsidence. There is a fine balance between achieving the right
drain spacing and depth to maintain good pasture production, yet avoid over-drainage and
accelerated shrinkage.
13.11.2.4 Good Drainage Practices
Ideally, drainage systems should be designed not just to remove excess water during the monsoon
but to maintain the watertable during the dry season to prevent over-drainage. This is not always
possible without a complex drainage system but drainage can be optimized by maintaining water
levels at an average of around 0.5 m below the surface. Monsoon water levels will rise and summer
levels will drop even when managed carefully.
Table 13.9
Estimated Subsidence (m) in Peat for Various Depths of Drain (Fitzgerald et al., 2005)
Drain depth
(m)
1
1.5
2
2.5
Distance from drain (m)

25
50
100
150
200
300
400
0.07
0.28
0.49
0.70
0
0.17
0.34
0.51
0.05
0.18
0.31
0.09
0.19
0.02
0.11
To minimize both peat shrinkage and excessive soil drying during the dry season (which retards crop
production), the watertable should be maintained as high as possible (up to within about 0.5 m) for
any given land use. Very low watertables will expose more of the peat to oxidation and shrinkage,
shortening the life of the peat resource. Watertable depth largely determines the degree and depth
of aeration, which has a major effect on the stability of peat soil and plant growth.
If open ditches are constructed to control the watertable, it should have good drainage facilities. It is
also a good practice to cover the open drains with adequate vegetation to make the side slopes
stable and to minimise soil loss due to erosion.
13.11.2.5 Hazard Management
One of the most common hazards involved in peat soil is the fire hazard. During the dry seasons or
due to drawdown of watertable, surface of the peat soil dries excessively. As the organic carbon
content in peat is very high the soil become vulnerable to fire and burning can occur even naturally
due to high temperature and direct exposure to sun. Therefore, extreme care should be taken to
avoid the lighting of fires near the peat soil. Enough signage should be fixed in the field (Figure
13.20).
Acidity of the peat also may need to be neutralized to make the soil non-hazardous to the crops and
plants intended to grow. Fencing would be necessary if grazing is allowed in the plots.
13.11.3
Low-lying Areas
The agricultural fields located in the low-lying areas may be affected by high water level in the rivers
or high tide in the seas and estuaries, as shown in Figure 13.21. Improper drainage due to high tail
water level may damage the crops and fertility of the soil. Raising platform level is, usually, not a
recommended practice for the agricultural farms located in the low-lying areas, unless suitable soils
can be dumped in the low areas free of charge due to other activities.
March 2009
13-31
The most commonly excess water from the low-lying agricultural fields is controlled by means of
pump or tidal gates (Figure 13.22). Various types of pumps and tidal gates and their installation are
possible. However, the most importantly, the system should be designed, installed and maintained
adequately to protect against mal-function and failure. Backup should be made available in case of
unexpected failure.
Figure 13.20
Fire Hazard Signage for Peat Soil
Tide Limit
Low-lying area
Drain
Sea
River
Catchment
Estuary
Controlled
upstream
catchment
flows
Drain
Coastline
Potential
flooding
during
high tide
Pump
Runoff
HAT
LAT
(a) Low-lying Area

Figure 13.21
(b) Tidal Area
Drainage Problems in Low-lying and Tidal Areas (DID, 2000)
13.11.3.1 Design Tailwater
Establishment of the appropriate level of tailwater is a key factor for proper functioning of the
drainage system in the low-lying areas. The main difference in the design criteria of these two types
of gates is that design of flood gate is controlled by the high water level in the downstream river
system due to high ARI storms and design of tidal gate is controlled by the high astronomical tides
and surge in the sea. Consideration should be given to the joint probability of occurrence of the
13-32
March 2009
design storm in the main river, tide level and storm surge together with allowance for the
greenhouse effect in determining the tailwater level. The most common tidal data available in
Malaysia is shown in Figure 13.23. Depending on the value of the crop and field the tail water level
should be considered to locate the tidal gates.
(a) Pump House

Figure 13.22
(b) Tidal Gate

Drainage Control in Low-lying and Tidal Areas
Highest Astronomical Tide (HAT)

Mean Higher High Water (MHHW)
Mean Lower High Water (MLHW)
Mean Sea Level (MSL)
Mean Higher Low Water (MHLW)
Mean Lower Low Water (MLLW)
Lowest Astronomical Tide (LAT)
Figure 13.23
Various Sea Levels for Drainage Control in Tidal Areas (DID, 2000)
13.11.3.2 Design of Flood Gate and Tidal Gate
Flood gate is required to prevent backwater flow into the land due to high water level in the
downstream rivers. On the other hand the tidal gate is required to prevent the intrusion of saline
water to the land through the drainage network. These gates are closed during periods when the
water level downstream of the outlet is higher than the water level in the drainage system within the
compartment. The hydraulic design of such tidal gates (usually fixed to either culvert or flume)
entails careful consideration to ensure effective performance of the gate. A detailed approach to the
hydraulic design of such tidal gates is provided in Chapter 46 of MSMA (DID, 2000). The design flow
charts for the design of a flood gate and a tidal gate are given in Figures 13.24 and 13.25,
respectively.
March 2009
13-33
Preparation of Flood/stage Hydrograph at

the Outlet of Proposed Gate
Develop Stage-Storage Curve of

the Drainage System
Estimate the Design Inflow

Hydrograph from the Catchment
Identify the Lowest Ground Elevation

at upstream side of proposed gate
Estimate the Gate Size
Route the Design Inflow through

the selected gate and storage
Identify when the Flows are under Controlled

Flow and Gate Closed Conditions
Superimpose Flood/Stage
Hydrograph and Inflow Hydrograph
Compute the Runoff Volume under

Controlled Flow and Closed Gate Condition
No
Is Size of the Gate
adequate ?
Yes
Finalise the Gate Size and
Number required
Figure 13.24
13-34
Design Flowchart for a Flood Gate (DID, 2000)
March 2009
Preparation of Tidal Variation Curve at

the Outlet of Proposed Gate
Develop Stage-Storage Curve of

the Drainage System
Estimate the Design Inflow

Hydrograph from the Catchment
Identify the Lowest Ground Elevation

at upstream side of proposed gate
Estimate the Gate Size
Route the Design Inflow through

the selected gate and storage
Identify when the Flows are under Controlled

Flow and Gate Closed Conditions
Superimpose Tidal Variation Curve

and Inflow Hydrograph
Compute the Runoff Volume under

Controlled Flow and Closed Gate Condition
No
Is Size of the Gate
adequate ?
Yes
Finalise the Gate Size and
Number required
Figure 13.25
March 2009
Design Flowchart for a Tidal Gate (DID, 2000)
13-35
13.11.3.3 Selection of Pump
In most of the locations, gates and pumps both are required to maintain safe water level in the
drainage system. This would allow water to drain by gravity when the tailwater level is low, saving
on pumping costs, and to be pumped when the tailwater level is high. A detailed analysis of the
storage and pump requirements will require data on the stage hydrograph of the tailwater, whether
it be a river flood or tide cycle, and the calculation should be performed by computer methods.
Detailed procedures to select a pump and design the pumping station for a drainage system is
available in Chapter 45 of MSMA (DID, 2000). However, a design flowchart is adopted in this section,
as shown in Figure 13.26.
13.12
MAINTENANCE
Similar to other infrastructures, surface drainage components also require scheduled and
unscheduled maintenance for them to function as per design and construction.
13.12.1
Classification of Maintenance
Maintenance of surface drains in an agricultural plot can be classified as follows:
Annual (minor) maintenance;
Periodic (major) maintenance;
Emergency maintenance;
Delayed maintenance; and
Retrofitting.
13.12.2
Open Drain
Monthly inspection should be conducted to examine the status of the drainage structures. Sides of
the drains (lined or unlined) must be repaired as soon as the sign of erosion or damage appears
(Figure 13.27). Excess weeds should be controlled to facilitate inspection of the drainage system.
Lined canals also should have adequate facilities at certain intervals for maintenance purposes, as
13.12.3
Pipe Drain
Sedimentation in the pipe drain is the most common problem encountered in a drainage system.
Certain instances tree branches, logs and other foreign materials may block the drain. Therefore,
regular inspection is necessary for proper function of the pipe drains. If the sedimentation is heavy,
flushing using pressurised hose would be necessary (Figure 13.29). Allocation of frequent manhole or
grated pit would ease the maintenance and inspection of the pipe drains.
13.12.4
Miscellaneous Facilities
Any special structure or drainage facility must be maintained according to the manufacturers or
contractors recommendation. Where embankments and/or spillways are subject to scour caused by
high velocities of flow, regular mowing (at least twice a year) is required to keep the grass sward in
good condition and discourage woody growth. Similar treatment is necessary in areas used for
formal recreation. Maintaining turf quality, where hydraulic protection is to be provided, requires a
good supply of nutrients, which may require the use of fertilisers. The frequency of application
depends on the quality of the soil. Normal soils may only require fertilising in the first year of growth
while poor ones may demand annual treatment for a number of years.
13-36
March 2009
1. CALCULATE DESIGN INFLOW

HYDROGRAPH
2. TRIAL ESTIMATE OF PUMP RATE,

NUMBER AND STORAGE VOLUME
3. SET MAXIMUM PERMISSIBLE

WATER LEVEL IN WET WELL
REVISE ESTIMATES OF
PUMP RATE, NUMBER AND
STORAGE VOLUME
4. DETERMINE PUMP PIT DIMENSIONS
5. DERIVE STAGE-STORAGE RELATIONSHIP
6. DETERMINE PUMP CYCLING TIME,

CALCULATE USEABLE STORAGE
7. CHOOSE TRIAL PUMP SIZE

No
8. CALCULATE TOTAL HEAD
9. LOCATE PUMP OPERATING POINT
IS
OPERATING POINT
CLOSE TO MID-POINT OF THE
DESIRED RANGE ?
Yes
10. CALCULATE POWER REQUIREMENTS
11. PERFORM ROUTING CALCULATION,

AS A CHECK
COMPLETE FINAL DESIGN
Figure 13.26
March 2009
Design Flowchart for a Pump Drainage System (DID, 2000)
13-37
Before Maintenance
After Maintenance
Figure 13.27
State of the Drain before and after Maintenance (FAO, 1996)
Figure 13.28
Access Ramp for Maintenance of Lined Drain
Reel
Pump
Feeding
mechanism
Pressure
hose
Hose
guide
Suction hose
Drain pipe
Nozzle
Figure 13.29
13-38
Flushing of Pipe Drain
March 2009
Regular removal of any accumulated silt and sediment from a detention basin is essential,
particularly where the basin floor is used for recreational purposes. Removal of accumulated debris,
trash, paper, etc. should take place every 6 months or so and vegetation growing within the basin
should not grow taller than 0.5 m. No standing water should be allowed in the basin beyond a
period of 72 hrs after a storm event. If such conditions occur, corrective maintenance should be
undertaken.
13.12.5
Budget for Maintenance
This is the most common problem for many irrigation and agricultural drainage systems. A
maintenance budget should be made available according to the existing market costs. The allotted
budget should not be used for other purposes anticipating that maintenance might not be required
for the fiscal year considered.
March 2009
13-39
REFERENCES
Akan A.O. (2006). Open channel hydraulics. Butterworth-Heinemann.

IEA (1987). Australian Rainfall and Runoff (AR&R). Institution of Engineers, Australia; Canberra,
ACT.
FAO (1996). Drainage of Irrigated Lands, Irrigation Water Management, Training Manual 9. Food and
Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations, Rome, Italy.
Fitzgerald N., Basheer S. and McLeod M. (2005). Peat Subsidence Near Drains in the Waikato Region.
Environment Waikato Technical Report 2005/40. Environment Waikato, Hamilton.
Institute of Engineers, Australia (1977). Australian Rainfall and Runoff (ARR): Flood Analysis and
Design, Canberra, ACT.
Ippen A.T. (1951). Mechanics of Supercritical Flows in High Velocity Flow Open Channels.
Transactions ASCE, Vol. 116, Paper No. 2434.
Punmia B.C. and Pande B.B.L. (2005). Irrigation and water power engineering. Laxmi Publications,
India.
Rouse H. (1949). Engineering Hydraulics. John Wiley & Sons Inc., New York.
Schipper L. A. and McLeod M. (2002). Subsidence Rates and Carbon Loss in Peat Soils Following
Conversion to Pasture in the Waikato Region, New Zealand. Soil Use and Management 18:2.
Schor H.J. and Gary D.H. (2007). Landforming: An environmental approach to hillside development,
mine reclamation and watershed restoration. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
and management of agricultural drainage systems. A.A. Balkema Publishers, ISBN 9058095541.
Soekrasno S. (1986). Hydraulic Structure. Notes Prepared for the First International Training Course
in Irrigation Engineering. Organised by Government of Indonesia. February 24 to March 27, 1986.
USACE (1970). Hydraulic Design of Flood Control Channels. Department of Army, U.S. Army Corps
of Engineers, 1110-2-1601.
13-40
March 2009
APPENDIX 13.A Design Charts

3
Swale reserve width, R (m)
( including required freeboard )
y
z
'Vee' shaped Section

1
0.5
Qn
S01/2
Z=6
Z = 5.5
Value of
Z=5
Z = 4.5
Z=4
0.1
0.05
0.01
0.005
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8 0.9
Flow Depth, y (m)
Design Chart 13.A1
March 2009
Solution to Mannings Equation for V Shaped Grassed Swale of Various Side

Slope
13A-1

10
Swale reserve width, R (m)
( including required freeboard )
9
0.9
y
50
50
Base width, B (m)
0.8
6
0.7
5
Flow depth, y (m)
0.6
Base width, B (m)
0.5
Design Flow, QD (m3/s)
3
2
Use 'vee' shaped section
0.4
1.5
0.3
1
1
1.5
Longitudinal Grade, S0 (%)
Design Chart 13.A2 Grassed Swale Base Width Preliminary Estimate

(Manning's n = 0.035, Average Velocity = 2 m/s)
13A-2
March 2009

0.1
Z=3
Z = 2.5
Z=2
0.05
Z = 1.5
Qn
B 8/3
Z=1
Z = 0.5
Value of
S01/2
Z=0
0.01
0.06
0.1
Value of
Design Chart 13.A3
March 2009
y
B
0.15
0.2
0.3
0.25
Solution to Mannings Equation for Lined Drains of Various Side Slopes
13A-3
APPENDIX 13.B Design Example of Unlined Drain
Problem:
Design a stable unlined major drainage section using Lacys method to cater for adesign flow of 5
cumec, where the expected silt factor is 0.92 and side slopes of the drains should be 1:2 (V:H).
Solution:
Step 1: As the value of f is given, Calculate flow velocity using Eq. 13.14
5x 0.92 2
V=
140
1/6
= 0.56 m/s
Step 2: Calculate Area from Q=AV

A=
5
= 8.93 m2. Round up to 9.0 m2
0.56
Step 3: Determine perimeter of the drain, P using Eq. 13.15

P = 4 . 75 5 = 10 . 62 m. Round up to 10.7 m.
Step 4: Calculate depth (D) and bottom width (B) of the channel using Eq. 13.16 and Eq. 13.17
D=
10.70 10.62 2 6.944 x 9.0

= 1.0 m
3.472
B = 10.70 2.236x1.0 = 8.46 m. Round up to 8.50 m.

Step 5: Calculate and verify mean hydraulic radius, R using Eq. 13.18 and 13.19
Calculate R = 2.5
Verify R =
0.56 2
= 0.92 m
0.85
8.50x1.0 + 0.5x1.0 2
= 0.85 m. The values are close, so acceptable.
8.50 + 2.236x1.0
Step 6: Calculate slope of the channel using Eq. 13.20

S=
0.855 / 3
3340x51 / 6
= 0.00019 = 1 / 5300
Step 7: Prepare Table showing the dimensions of the drains

Table 13.A1 Geometric Properties of the Drain
Drain ID
1
13A-4
(m)
(m)
(m2)
(m)
(m)
(m)
(m)
(m3/s)
(m/s)
8.50
1.0
9.0
10.7
1/5300
0.85
5.0
0.56
March 2009
APPENDIX 13.C Design Example of Composite Drain (Adapted from DID, 2000)
Problem:
Determine the size of a composite drain for an agricultural plot of 50 ha. The main drain is to be
designed to carry the 100 year ARI flow, which was calculated to be 2.0 m3/s.
Solution:
Step 1: Determine design flows for the drain
For this example it is given as 2.0 m3/s. From the field records it was obtained that the
average irrigation excess water (dry weather flow) for the concrete drain would be 0.30
m3/s.
Step 2: Calculate size of lined drain section (for dry-weather flow section)
Dry weather flow section of the drain is decided to be concrete and rectangular in
shape.
1.
Mannings n for concrete = 0.013
2.
The flow depth may be determined from Design Chart 13.3

Assuming the drain longitudinal slope is 0.5% and the drain width B is 0.6 m:
Qn
S 1o / 2
8/3
0.30 x 0.013
0.5
100
1/2
= 0.21
x 0.6 8 / 3
From Design Chart 13.3 with Z = 0

y
= 0.51
B
y = 0.51 x 0.6 = 0.31 m
Allowing a minimum freeboard of 50 mm, the drain dimensions are 0.6 m wide x 0.36 m
deep, which is within the recommended limits.
3.
Check flow velocity is less than upper limit of 2 m/s.

V=
Q
0.30
=
= 1.56 m/s
A 0.6 x 0.31
OK
Step 3: Calculate size of total drain section

To calculate the size of the total drain section, a composite Mannings n value for the
concrete and grass sections needs to be calculated. As the flow depth in the total drain
section is unknown, the sizing will involve a trial and error process.
Assuming an initial total flow depth of 1.0 m, trial and error calculations are summarised
in Table 13.C1. Figure 13.C1 shows the flow segments used to calculate the composite
Mannings roughness n*.
March 2009
13A-5
Table 13.C1 Iteration for the Composite Drain Sizing

yt
yd
y t y d
(m)
(m)
(m)
A 1&3
(m2)
1.00
0.36
0.64
0.75
0.36
0.70
0.71
P 1&3
A2
P2
(m3/s)
(m/s)
0.029
6.70
1.73
1.320
0.024
2.48
1.49
0.420
1.320
0.023
1.96
1.45
0.424
1.320
0.023
2.03
1.46
(m)
(m2)
(m)
1.638
2.639
0.600
1.320
0.39
0.608
1.608
0.450
0.36
0.34
0.462
1.402
0.36
0.35
0.482
1.432
P1
yt-yd
yt
N*
P3
yd
P2
Figure 13.C1
Flow Segments for Calculating Composite Roughness
The total flow depth yt is 0.71 m with an average flow velocity V of 1.46 m/s, which is
less than the maximum allowable average velocity of 2 m/s.
Adding a minimum freeboard of 50 mm, the total drain depth is 0.76 m.
The minimum drainage reserve width is therefore 2 x [(0.76-0.36) x 4] + 0.6 = 3.8 m.
Minimum drainage reserve width = 3.8 m
0.36 m
0.71 m
Flow width = 3.4 m
0.60 m
Figure13.C2
13A-6
Composite Drain Design Dimensions
March 2009
APPENDIX 13.D Design Example of Tidal Gate (Adapted from DID, 2000)
Problem:
A tidal gate is proposed to be constructed to solve the tidal problems in an irrigation project at Muar,
Johor. The peak discharge from the catchment for 5 year ARI critical duration design storm is 17.0
m3/s. Time of concentration at the proposed gate site is about 60 minute. The summarised design
data for the area is given below.
Maximum tide cycle at spring tide from the observed tidal cycle as show in Figure 13.D1;
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
High Tide Level = 1.5 m LSD

Low Tide Level = -1.0 m LSD
Invert Level at Downstream of the Gate = -1.07 m LSD
Average Ground Level = 1.2 m LSD
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
Upstream Bed Level = -0.9 m LSD

Downstream Bed Level = -1.2 m LSD
Average Slope of the Drain = 1 in 1500
Width of the Rectangular Drains = 5 m
Average Depth of the Drains = 2 m
Check adequacy of the available storage capacity of the drainage system in the case when a high
tide coincides with a heavy rainfall. If the storage capacity is inadequate design the flap tidal gate
including pumping facilities if required.
Solution:
Step 1: Prepare the Tidal Variation Curve at the Outlet of Proposed Gate
Water Level above LSD (m)
Data for hourly tidal levels are obtained for Muar and the variation can be seen in Figure 1313.D1.
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1.0
-1.2
0
10
15
20
25
30
Time (hour)
Figure 13.D1
March 2009
Variation of Tide Levels at Proposed Outlet Gate
13A-7
Step 2: Develop Stage-Storage Curve of the Drainage System

The stage-storage relationship is developed based on the double-end area method and shown in
Figure 1313.D2.
1.90
1.60
Stage (m, LSD)
1.30
1.00
0.70
0.40
0.10
-0.20
-0.50
-0.80
-1.10
0
20000
40000
60000
80000
100000
120000
Storage (m )
Figure 13.D2
Stage-storage Relationship of the Existing Drainage System
Step 3: Estimate the Design Inflow Hydrograph from the Catchment

The runoff inflow hydrograph for the critical storm in the catchment of 60 minute duration is shown
in Figure 13.D3 as hydrograph abc. However, this will not be the critical storm when storage is
considered during the tide period when the tidal gate is closed. Hydrograph abde is an assumed
trial hydrograph to give the critical storage situation.
Note: In practice, a number of different inflow hydrographs should be trialled.

20
18
16
Inflow (m /s)
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0
c
1
e
4
Time (hour)
Figure 13.D3
13A-8
Design Inflow Hydrograph at the Proposed Tidal Gate
March 2009
Step 4: Identify the Lowest Ground Elevation at Upstream of Proposed Gate

Lowest ground level at the tidal gate site is 1.2 m LSD.
Step 5: Estimate the Gate Size
Assume a 3.5 m wide and 3.0 m high gate.
Step 6: Route the Design Inflow through the Selected Gate
Assuming culvert properties during controlled flow condition discharge through per unit width of the
gate is (Equation 16.12),
Qc = 0.85x3.0x(2x9.81)0.5xH0.5
= 11.3xH0.5 cumec/m width of gate
Maximum flow through the gate will occur during weir flow condition and when the differential head
between the upstream and downstream water level will be maximum. As such, from Equation 16.3
maximum discharge per metre width is,
Qm = 1.85xH1.5 (here H = average GL U/S Bed Level)
= 1.85x2.11.5
= 5.63 cumec/m width
So the differential head at which maximum discharge will occur at controlled flow condition is,
11.3x H0.5 = 5.63
H = 0.25 m
As such with respect to the lowest safe ground level of 1.2 m LSD maximum discharge may occur
until the tide level rises at elevation of 0.95 m LSD (1.2 0.25 = 0.95 m). In other words the
controlled flow situation will start from 0.95 m level.
Step 7: Identify when the Flows are under Controlled Flow and Gate Closed Conditions
The gate is partially and fully closed when the tide level rises at elevation 0.95 m and 1.2 m LSD,
respectively. From the tide cycle (Figure 13.D1) period of controlled and no release are 0.9 (i.e. 4.1
3.2) and 3.2 hours, respectively.
Step 8: Superimpose Tidal Variation Curve and Inflow Hydrograph
The critical inflow hydrograph is superimposed on the tide cycle (Figure 13.D4) to determine the
period of fully open gate condition. Assuming that the stored runoff will be released within one tide
cycle (12 hours), duration of fully open gate is 8.8 hour (12 - 3.2).
March 2009
13A-9

2.4
2.2
2.0
1.8
Water Level above LSD (m)
Tide Level
Inflow Hydrograph
(Peak = 17 cumec)
1.6
Safe Flood Level (1.5 m)
1.4
1.2
No Flow (Gate Closed)
1.0
3.2 hr
Controlled Flow (0.95 m)

(Gate Partially Open)
0.8
0.6
4.1 hr
0.4
0.2
0.0
Free Flow (Gate open)
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1.0
Invert Level (-1.07 m)
-1.2
0
10
15
20
25
30
Time (hour)
Figure 13.D4
Superimposed Inflow Hydrograph on the Tide Level Graph
Step 9: Compute the Runoff Volume under Controlled Flow and Closed Gate Condition
From Figure 13.D4, runoff volume during controlled flow is the summation of the areas a and d.
Area a = 0.5x27x7.7x60 = 6,237 m3 and
Area d = 0.5x(7.7+17)x27x60 = 20,007 m3
So, total controlled runoff volume is 26,244 m3 (6,237+20,007).
Similarly, runoff volume during zero flow condition is the summation of the areas b and c (Figure
13.D4).
Area b = 0.5x(7.7+17)x33x60 = 24,453 m3
Area c = 17x159x60 = 162,180 m3
So total stored runoff during closed gate condition is 186,633 m3 (24,453+162,180).
Assuming 1/3 of the inflow runoff (8,748 m3) will be released due to the hydrostatic balance of the
gate during partially controlled flow condition. So, the runoff volume trapped upstream of the gate
is 2/3 of the runoff during the controlled flow. That is,
Volume during controlled flow = (2/3)x26,244 = 17,496 m3
So, total runoff volume to be released during uncontrolled condition = 17,496 + 186,633 = 204,129
m3.
For actual release through the tidal gate, the stage-discharge curve should be prepared from the
hydrostatic balance of the gate during the tide and that curve should be followed to estimate the
runoff volume released during the controlled flow.
Step 10: Is Size of the Gate Adequate?
Size of the gate should be such that it can safely release the assumed 8,748 m3 of water within 0.9
hrs. So, the average release rate is 0.77 m3/m width {8,748/(0.9x60x60x3.5)}. Storage at
controlled gate condition, i.e. at water level of 0.95 m LSD is 40,000 m3 (from Figure 13.D2).
13A-10
March 2009
If no pump is used then water volume stored in the drains from the beginning of the controlled flow
condition is 155,389 m3 (40,000 + 204,129). Corresponding water level at this storage will spill over
the banks where the ground levels are 1.2 m LSD (from Figure 13.D2)
Storage at safe water level in the drain (1.2 m LSD) is 56,000 m3 (From Figure 13.D2).
Step 11: Finalise the Gate Size, Pump Capacity and Number Required
So, volume of stored runoff to be pumped is 188,129 m3 {204,129 (56,000 - 40,000)}. Assuming
that rise of another 300 mm of water at upstream of the gate will not cause any severe
problems/losses at the commercial areas. Thus, 33,000 m3 (87,000 54,000) of water can be
stored safely within storage level from 1.2 m to 1.5 m LSD (from Figure 1313.D2). The excess
volume of water to be pumped is 155,129 m3 (188129 33,000).
As such, the average required pumping rate during the controlled flow condition {4.1 (0.9/2) =
3.65 hr} is 11.81 cumec 155,129/(3.65x60x60).
So, three (3) large submersible pumps with effective capacity of 4 cumec is proposed to discharge
the flood volume safely. The pumps can be operated at different stages (water level at the
upstream side of the gate). For detail please refer to Chapter 45.
Any critical situation such as power failure, pump breakdown, etc. may occur during the storms and
when the floodgate is closed. Thus, gate size and number should be determined to safeguard
against such critical conditions so that the runoff can be released without potential flooding at
upstream of the gate. So, the required discharge rate per metre width of the gate during 7.9 hr (12
4.1) is 2.05 cumec/m width {204,129 m3/(7.9 hr x60x60x3.5 m)}.
Number of gate required to release peak inflow is 2.37 Nos. {17/(2.05x3.5)}. So, the gate opening
should be 8.3 m wide (2.37 No.x3.5 m). In this case 2 gates of 4.5 m wide are recommended.
The procedure followed here is an approximate method. For actual simulation of tide and flap gate it
is recommended that the designer use available hydraulic computer software with tidal gate outlet
and pumping options, which allows the rapid testing of a number of design storms and tidal gate and
pump configurations.
March 2009
13A-11
13A-12
March 2009

Chapter 14 - Subsurface Drainage
Chapter 14 - SUBSURFACE DRAINAGE SYSTEMS
Table of Contents
Table of Contents .. 14-i
List of Tables 14-v
List of Figures .. 14-v
14.1 INTRODUCTION ... 14-1
14.2 TYPES AND COMPONENTS . 14-2
14.2.1
Types of Subsurface Drainage Systems 14-2
14.2.2
Components of Subsurface Drainage Systems . 14-2

14.2.2.1
Field Drains .. 14-2
14.2.2.2
Collector Drains .. 14-2
14.2.2.3
Submains and Main Drains .. 14-2
14.2.2.4
Discharge Site . 14-3
14.3 PLANNING AND DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS . 14-3

14.3.1
Local, State, and Federal Regulations 14-3
14.3.2
Adequacy of Drainage Outlet .. 14-3
14.3.3
Soil Water Concepts .... 14-3
14.3.4
Topography... 14-5
14.3.5
Depth of Watertable.. 14-5
14.3.6
Watertable Contour Map 14-6
14.3.7
Slopes of Field Drains .. 14-6
14.3.8
Present and Future Cropping Patterns .. 14-6
14.3.9
Computer Models Application . 14-6
14.3.10 Environmental Considerations .... 14-6

14.3.11 Economic Feasibility . 14-6
14.4 PIPE DRAINAGE DESIGN . 14-7
14.4.1 Layout ................................... 14-7
14.4.1.1 Parallel System .14-7
14.4.1.2 Herringbone System . 14-7
14.4.1.3 Random System .. 14-7
14.4.1.4 Combination System . 14-8
14.4.2 Drainage Coefficient ..... 14-9
14.4.3 Allowable Drain Depth .. 14-10
14.4.4 Drain Spacing ...... 14-11
14.4.4.1 Hooghoudts Formula 14-11
14.4.4.2 Ellipse Formula. 14-13
14.4.5 Drain Gradient ............... 14-14
14.4.6 Flow Rate for Laterals .. 14-14
14.4.7 Field or Lateral Drain Size ..................... 14-14
14.4.7.1 Uniform Flow. 14-15
14.4.7.2 Varied Flow. 14-15
14.4.8 Drain Length ............................... 14-15
14.4.9 Maximum Drain Length ... 14-15
14.4.10 Size of the Collector .. 14-16
14.4.11 Submains and Main Drains . 14-16
March 2009
14-i
14.4.12 Outlet Design .... 14-16

14.4.13 Drain Envelope Design .. 14-17
14.4.13.1
Exit Gradients in Soil Near Drains .. 14-17
14.4.13.2
Hydraulic Failure Gradient . 14-17
14.4.13.3
Sand Gravel Filter Envelope . 14-17
14.4.14 Pump Outlet Design ..... 14-18

14.4.14.1
Pump Location .... 14-18
14.4.14.2
Pump Capacity and Sump .. 14-18
14.4.14.3
Total Dynamic Head . 14-19
14.4.14.4
Power Requirements ... 14-19
14.4.14.5
Pump Types ..... 14-20
14.4.15 Appurtenances ............. 14-21

14.4.15.1 Surface Inlets . 14-21
14.4.15.2 Junction Boxes .. 14-23
14.4.15.3 Vents and Relief Wells .. 14-24
14.4.15.4 Drain Crossings . 14-24
14.4.15.5 Outlet Protection .. 14-25
14.5.16 Margin of Safety ... 14-26
14.5 DEEP DITCH DRAINAGE DESIGN . 14-26
14.5.1 Determination of Drainage and Sub-drainage Areas .. 14-27
14.5.2 Drain Alignment .. 14-27
14.5.3 Layout of Ditches .............. 14-27
14.5.4 Gradeline Establishment .... 14-27
14.5.5 Design Elements of the Ditches .. 14-27
14.5.5.1 Spacing between Ditches .. 14-28
14.5.5.2 Ditch Side Slopes ........................ 14-28
14.5.5.3 Ditch Bottom Width . 14-28
14.5.5.4 Permissible Ditch Flow Velocity .. 14-28
14.5.5.5 Ditch Capacity . 14-28
14.5.5.6 Ditch Berms .. 14-29
14.5.5.7 Ditch Junctions 14-29
14.5.6 Submains and Main ................ 14-29
14.5.7 Drainage Outlets and Other Components ............... 14-29
14.6 TUBEWELL DRAINAGE DESIGN ..... 14-29
14.6.1 Feasibility Condition ............. 14-30
14.6.2 Basic Information Required .. 14-30
14.6.3 Design Considerations .... 14-30
14.6.4 Well Field Design . 14-31
14.6.4.1 Well-Distance Calculation .. 14-31
14.6.4.2 Well Field Configuration . 14-31
14.6.4.3 Well Design .. 14-32
14.6.4.4 Design Optimization . 14-32
14.7 CONTROLLED DRAINAGE AND SUBIRRIGATION DESIGN 14-32
14.7.1 Watertable Control and Management . 14-33
14.7.2 Planning and Design Considerations ... 14-34
14-ii
March 2009
14.7.2.1 Topographic Requirements .. 14-34

14.7.2.2 Soil Requirements . 14-34
14.7.2.3 Water Supply Requirements 14-34
14.7.2.4 Site Conditions 14-35
14.7.2.5 Watertable Location . 14-35
14.7.2.6 Barrier or Impermeable Layer 14-35
14.7.2.7 Hydraulic Conductivity 14-35
14.7.3 Design Procedures . 14-35
14.7.3.1 Farm Planning and System Layout .. 14-35
14.7.3.2 Root Zone Depth .. 14-36
14.7.3.3 Watertable Depth . 14-36
14.7.3.4 Allowable Sag during Subirrigation .. 14-38
14.7.3.5 Drain Spacing .. 14-38
14.7.3.6 Water Requirements 14-39
14.7.3.7 Design Flowrate . 14-39
14.7.3.8 Pipe Size . 14-40
14.7.3.9 Grade 14-42
14.7.3.10 Placement of Drains and Filter Requirements . 14-42
14.7.3.11 Seepage Losses .. 14-42
14.7.3.12 Fine Tuning the Design using DRAINMOD ..... 14-43
14.7.4 Control Structure Setting ... 14-43
14.8 INTERCEPTION DRAINAGE DESIGN . 14-45
14.8.1 Layout .. 14-45
14.8.2 Spacing and Depth 14-46
14.8.3 Drawdown Upslope .. 14-47
14.8.4 Drawdown Downslope . 14-47
14.8.5 Amount of Flow Integrated .. 14-48
14.8.6 Drain Envelops and Filters Design 14-48
14.8.6.1 Geotextile Filters 14-48
14.8.6.2 Gravel and Sand Filters .. 14-48
14.8.6.3 Gravel Envelops . 14-51
14.9
BIODRAINAGE DESIGN ................... 14-51

14.9.1
Important Features of Biodrainage 14-52

14.9.1.1 Water Balance . 14-52
14.9.1.2 Salt Balance . 14-52
14.9.1.3 Water Requirements for Plantation . 14-53
14.9.1.4 Groundwater Quality ... 14-53
14.9.2
Plantation Area ..14-53
14.9.3
Watertable Drawdown by Plantations .. 14-54
14.9.4
Root Depth and Density .. 14-54
14.10 COMBINED DRAINAGE SYSTEM DESIGN .. 14-55

14.11 OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE .. 14-55
14.11.1 Classification of Maintenance ... 14-55
14.11.2 Routine Checks . 14-56
14.11.3 Operation of Subsurface Drainage Systems . 14-56
March 2009
14-iii
14.11.4 Pipe Drainage System .. 14-56

14.11.4.1 Maintenance Process 14-56
14.11.4.2 Frequency of Maintenance . 14-57
14.11.5 Open Drains 14-57
14.11.6 Controlled Drainage and Subirrigation . 14-57
14.11.6.1
Raising and Lowering the Control Structure .. 14-57
14.11.6.2
Weir Height .. 14-57
14.11.6.3
Adding Water/Irrigating . 14-57
14.11.6.4
Monitoring . 14-57
14.11.6.5
Potential Problems of Subirrigation . 14-58
REFERENCES ...... 14-59

APPENDIX 14.A Nomograph for the Solution of the Hooghoudt Drain Spacing Formula .. 14A-1
APPENDIX 14.B Graphical Solution of Ellipse Equation I .... 14A-2
APPENDIX 14.C Graphical Solution of Ellipse Equation II .. 14A-3
APPENDIX 14.D Subsurface Drain Discharge ... 14A-4
APPENDIX 14.E Pipe Diameter Nomograph 14A-5
APPENDIX 14.F Determining Pipe Diameter .. 14A-6
APPENDIX 14.G Determining Size of Clay or Concrete Drain Tile (n = 0.013) 14A-8
APPENDIX 14.H Curves to Determine Discharge (Qr) for Main Drain .. 14A-9
APPENDIX 14.I Relation between D and de . 14A-10
APPENDIX 14.J Worked Examples . 14A-13
14J-1 Design of Pipe Drainage System . 14A-13
14J-2 Calculation Procedures for the Maximum Length and Drain Pipe Diameters
in the Drainage Network .. 14A-15
14J-3 Pump Design for Subsurface Drainage System 14A-16
14J-4 Computation Procedure of Designing Tubewells Subsurface Drainage System 14A-17
14-iv
March 2009
List of Tables
Table
Description
Page
14.1
Variability of Drainable Porosity with Soil Texture and Structure
14-5
14.2
Hydraulic Conductivity of Various Soil Types
14-5
14.3
Pipe Drain Gradients
14-6
14.4
Drainage Coefficient for Different Water Depths and Crop Tolerances (mm/day)
14-9
14.5
Drainage Coefficient for 24 hrs Water Removal
14-9
14.6
Values of Manning's n for Subsurface Drains and Conduits
14-16
14.7
The Need for Drain Filters or Envelopes
14-17
14.8
Pumping Rates for Different Drainage Coefficient
14-18
14.9
Recommended Side Slopes
14-28
14.10
Value of Manning's n for Drainage Ditch Design
14-29
14.11
Value of Minimum Berm Width
14-29
14.12
Minimum Recommended Grade for Drains
14-42
14.13
Drain Filter and Envelop Recommendation
14-48
14.14
Filter Recommendations
14-49
14.15
Requirements for Well Graded Filter Material
14-51
List of Figures
Figure
Description
Page
14.1
Subsurface Drainage for Crop Root Development
14-1
14.2
Components of subsurface Drainage System
14-2
14.3
Drainable Water with Soil Water Concepts
14-4
14.4
Drainable Porosity during Watertable Lowering
14-4
14.5
14-7
14.6
Basic Patterns for Subsurface Drainage Systems
14-8
14.7
Alignments of Field Laterals with Contours
14-8
14.8
Drainage and the Soil Water Balance
14-10
14.9
Definitions of Parameters for Hooghoudts Formula
14-12
14.10
Definitions of Parameters for Ellipse Equation
14-14
14.11
Submersible Drainage Pump
14-20
14.12
Propeller Type Drainage Pump
14-21
14.13
Surface Water Inlet
14-21
14.14
Prefabricated Polyethylene Riser Inlet
14-22
14.15
Catch Basin Inlet
14-22
14.16
Blind Surface Inlet
14-23
14.17
Junction Box and Silt Trap
14-23
14.18
Vents and Relief Wells
14-24
14.19
Drainage Crossed Under Roads or Waterway
14-24
14.20
Pipe Outlets
14-25
March 2009
14-v
14.21
Outlet Pipe Protections
14-25
14.22
Vertical Spillway Used to Protect Subsurface Drainage Entering Channel
14-26
14.23
Open Ditches Subsurface Drainage System
14-27
14.24
14-30
14.25
Triangular Configurations with the Required Layout of Field Drains and Main Drains
14-31
14.26
Rectangular Configurations with the Required Layout of Main Drains
14-32
14.27
14-33
14.28
Watertable Management Options
14-34
14.29
Percent Moisture Extraction from the Soil of a Plants Root Zone
14-36
14.30
Watertable Design Depth
14-36
14.31
Upward Flux versus Watertable Depth for Different Soils
14-37
14.32
Allowable Watertable Sag and Elevation during Subirrigation
14-38
14.33
Subirrigation Spacing Variables
14-39
14.34
Pipe Sizing
14-41
14.35
Head Losses for Corrugated Polyethylene Pipe
14-41
14.36
Placements of Tubing or Ditches within the Soil Profile
14-42
14.37
Control Drainage Structures
14-43
14.38
Flashboard Type Control Structure
14-44
14.39
Float Type Control Structure
14-44
14.40
Interception Drain in Valley Areas
14-45
14.41
Interception Drains at Outcrop of Aquifer
14-46
14.42
Interception Drains for Barrier Conditions
14-46
14.43
Spacing for Interception Drains
14-47
14.44
Diameters of Soil Particles
14-50
14.45
Biodrainage with Eucalytus Plantation
14-51
14.46
Schematic Presentation of Water Balance with Biodrainage
14-52
14.47
Flow towards Depressed Ground Watertable under Plantations
14-54
14-vi
March 2009
14 SUBSURFACE DRAINAGE SYSTEMS

14.1
INTRODUCTION
Subsurface drainage is the removal of excess water from root zone depth of the crops (Figure 14.1).
The principal function is lowering the watertable to a level and salinity control where plant growth
and development will not be hampered. The minimum depth at which the water level should be
maintained varies on the crop requirement and soil. Subsurface drainage is applicable to wet soils
having sufficient hydraulic conductivity for drainage where a suitable outlet is available or an outlet
can be obtained by pumping.
Water Table
Soil Surface
Extra water
is supplied
Soil Surface
Collector
drain
(a) Without Drainage
(b) With Drainage
Salts are removed

by the water
Drain pipe
(c) Salinity Control with Drainage
Figure 14.1 Subsurface Drainage for Crop Root Development

Subsurface drainage systems are usually applied when there are problems with high watertable
and/or secondary salinisation. The primary goal of agricultural drainage is to lower the water content
of the root zone to provide adequate aeration following excessive rainfall or irrigation. When the total
quantity of water from the various sources exceeds the maximum water holding capacity of the soil,
the watertable will rise. It is then necessary to install artificial drains to remove the surplus water to
maintain the watertable at desired level which will not harmful to crops.
This Chapter presents a detail planning and design procedures of environment-friendly subsurface
drainage systems for engineers, professionals and crop growers towards the sustainable agricultural
drainage practices. A more comprehensive drainage can be achieved by the combination of surface
and subsurface drainage practices. Surface drainage systems have been discussed in Chapter 13.
This Chapter highlights a step-by-step design approach for subsurface drainage systems that
includes:
Layout and arrangement of the drainage lines

Spacing, size, depth and grade of drainage lines
Selection of good quality materials
Design of special features such as
- Outlets
- Surface inlets
- Watertable control devices
Where regional or natural drainage systems do not provide an adequate outlet then on-farm ditches,
dykes and pumps may be required in conjunction with the subsurface drainage system to prevent
flooding and the resulting soil and crop damage.
March 2009
14-1
14.2
TYPES AND COMPONENTS
14.2.1
Types of Subsurface Drainage Systems
Subsurface groundwater from the soil of the crops land is collected by deep ditches, permeable
buried pipes or wells. Then the drainage water is removed into a disposal system through
conveyance channels or pipes. The commonly used systems are:
Pipe drains
Deep ditches
Tubewell drainage
Control drainage and subirrigation
Interception drainage
Biodrainage
14.2.2
Components of Subsurface Drainage Systems
A subsurface drainage system consists of a surface or subsurface outlet and subsurface main drains
and laterals. Water is carried into the outlet by main drains, which receive water from the laterals as
illustrated in Figure 14.2.
14.2.2.1
Field Drains
Field drains control the watertable by collecting the excess water in the soil or from the groundwater
and convey this drainage effluent towards the collector drain.
14.2.2.2
Collector Drains
Collector drains can be either open or piped. Open drains convey rain and groundwater towards the
main drainage system and piped collectors only convey the drainage water from the field drains
towards the main drainage system.
Collector
open
or piped
Discharge site
drainage effluent
P
Field drain
Collector drain
Sub main drain
Main drain
P
Alternative place for pumping
Figure 14.2 Components of Subsurface Drainage System

14.2.2.3
Submains and Main Drains
The main drainage system consists of several submains and a main drain, conveys the drainage
water from the collectors towards the discharge site. Main drains are normally open drains. Although
theoretically these main drains can be pipes, the required diameters are generally very large and
therefore prohibitively expensive.
14-2
March 2009
14.2.2.4
Discharge Site
The discharge site or outlet is the terminal point of the entire drainage system from where the
drainage water is discharged into a river, lake or sea. The outlet can be a gravity outlet structure or
a pumping station.
14.3
The most important parts of planning subsurface drainage is to compile and analyze the field data
collected through various surveys, investigations and studies. Investigations for subsurface drainage
are difficult because subsoil and groundwater conditions are not evident through visual inspection of
wet areas. Various methods and techniques have been developed to characterize the conditions.
The planning and design of a good subsurface drainage system requires information on
groundwater, soils, crops, climate and topographical field data. This information includes:
Hydrogeological characteristics
Lot numbers and location of field
Soil types and distribution
Outlet location and depth
Location, size, depth, spacing and slope of all open ditches and subsurface drains
Location of all obstructions
Upland and surface runoff conditions (Discussed in Chapter 13)
The investigations should be aimed to provide answer as follows:
Is there excess groundwater now or in future?

What is the source of the excess groundwater?
How excess groundwater will be drained from soil?
What type of the drainage system will be the best?
Is there adequate outlet available for removal of excess groundwater?
Could the soils be drained economically?
Planning and design of an effective drainage system takes time and requires consideration of several
factors. They are briefly described of subsurface here:
14.3.1
Local, State, and Federal Regulations
Draining of water from one parcel of land to or through another may create conflicts with adjoining
landowners. The legal concerns have been discussed in Chapter 2.
14.3.2
Adequacy of Drainage Outlet
The starting point in planning a subsurface drainage system is the location of the well defined
drainage outlet. The system will function well as its outlet. When planning a subsurface drainage
system, make sure that a suitable surface or subsurface outlet is available or can be constructed. If
no suitable outlet is available and it is not practical to improve an existing ditch, it might consider
pump outlets. A pumping station will be needed in areas where the required water levels in the
drainage system are lower than the water level of the receiving waters; river, lake or sea.
14.3.3
Soil Water Concepts
Knowledge of the forms of soil water is essential to understand how drainage influences the water
balance in the soil. The soil bulk volume consists of both solids and pore space (Figure 14.3a). The
proportion of the soil volume that is pore space depends on soil texture and structure, but typically
varies between 35 to 55 percent. When a soil is sufficiently wet, its capillary forces can hold no more
water and the soil is at "field capacity." The actual soil moisture content at field capacity varies with
soil texture, typically ranging from 15 to 45 percent by volume. Plants can easily extract water from
March 2009
14-3
a soil at or near field capacity. Soil moisture content at wilting point typically ranges from 5 to 25
percent by volume. Water in the soil between field capacity and wilting point is the "plant available
water," and is illustrated in Figure 14.3b. For example, 1 hectares of soil that holds 1 cm of plant
available water is: 1 hectares x 1 cm = 1 hectare-cm (1000 m3) of plant available water.
SOLIDS
45 65%
mineral, organic
fractions
Dry
(a) Soil Bulk Volume
Water Film
Wilting Point
Soil Moisture
Content
35 55%
air, water
Drainable Water
Plant Available Water
PORE
SPACE
Field Capacity
Wet
(b) Plant Available Water and Drainable Water
Figure 14.3 Drainable Water with Soil Water Concepts

The drainable water is held by the weakest forces, at moisture contents between field capacity and
complete saturation of the soil, as shown in Figure 14.4. The amount of drainable water in the soil
depends on the amount of "drainable pore space" or "drainable porosity," Pd, of a soil. The drainable
porosity is the quantity of water drained for a given drop in the watertable, "h" (Figure 14.4), and
described by the following relationship:
D
Pd (%) = w 100
h
(14.1)
D w = Pd h 100
(14.2)
where,
= the drainable water (mm)
Dw
= the percentage of soil porosity and
Pd
h
= the head of watertable above the saturation level (mm)
Soil Surface
Volume of empty
pores before drainage
Volume of
pores drained
Height Above Water Table
2
Water Table
Water Table
25
30
35
Pore Volume
(% of soil volume)
40
Saturated
Figure 14.4 Drainable Porosity during Watertable Lowering

14-4
March 2009
Drainable porosity is influenced by soil texture and structure, as shown in Table 14.1. Sands or
coarser-textured soils have large drainable porosities, whereas clays or fine-textured soils have
smaller drainable porosities. This means that for an equal amount of water drained, a sandier soil will
show a smaller watertable drop than a soil with higher clay content. For example, Pd of 10 percent
means that draining 1 cm of water lowers the watertable 10 cm.
Table 14.1 Variability of Drainable Porosity with Soil Texture and Structure (Gary and Jerry, 2001)
Field Capacity
(% by volume)
Wilting Point
(% by volume)
Drainable Porosity
(Pd)
(% by volume)
30-50%
15-24%
3-11%
Well structured loams
20-30%
8-17%
10-15%
Sandy
10-30%
3-10%
18-35%
Soil Texture
Clays,
clays
Clay
loams,
Silty
Soil Texture and Structure: Fine-textured soils have a large percentage of clay and silt particles.
These soils generally hold water well but drain poorly. Coarse-textured soils have a large percentage
of sand or gravel particles. These soils drain well, but have poor water holding ability. On the other
hand, granular structured-soils help to promote the movement of water through a soil, but a
structure that is massive (lacking any distinct arrangement of soil particles) usually decreases the
movement of water.
Hydraulic Conductivity (K): The hydraulic conductivity is a measure of the water transmitting capacity
of soils. There are big differences between the K-values of soil types, mainly depending on their
texture (Table 14.2). The other factors are soil structure, human activities, and so on.
14.3.4
Topography
The goal of drainage system layout and design is to provide adequate and uniform drainage from
fields. Field topography and outlet location are typically the major factors considered in planning
drainage system layout. Topography greatly influences the possible alternatives layouts. It is better
to create a topography map of the field showing the elevations of the potential or existing outlet(s).
A number of methods may be used to create the map, including standard topography surveys, GPS,
laser system or a suitable modern GIS or hydrologic software using DEM data as covered in Chapter
7.
Table 14.2 Hydraulic Conductivity of Various Soil Types (Gary and Jerry, 2001)
Soil Type (Texture)
Dense clay (no cracks, pores)
Clay loam, clay (Poorly structured)
Loam, clay loam, clay (Well-structured)
Sandy loam, fine sand
Hydraulic Conductivity (m/day)

< 0.002
0.002 0.2
0.5 -2.0
1-3
Medium sand
1-5
Coarse sand
10 - 50
Gravel
14.3.5
100 - 1000
Depth of Watertable
Roots of the crops generally do not penetrate deeper than approximately 0.30 - 0.35 m above the
watertable. Therefore, the depth of watertable should be approximately 0.30 - 0.35 m more than the
depth of the root penetration. The watertable must be deep enough to prevent capillary flow from
bringing dissolved salts up into the root zone where salts are present in the water. The lowering of
the watertable up to 0.50 m is usually considered for the field crops.
March 2009
14-5
14.3.6
Watertable Contour Map
The planning and design of a system requires knowledge of the depth of the watertable throughout
the project area, the source of the watertable, the hydraulic conductivity of the soil, and the crops to
be grown. The elevation of the watertable at a particular time at selected points should be plotted on
the base map of the project area. These are usually plotted on a rectangular grid pattern on which
ground elevations are noted, or on a contour map. By interpolation, lines of equal watertable
elevation can be drawn on the map. These lines are referred to as groundwater contours and the
completed map is referred to as a groundwater contour map. To be most useful tool in planning
subsurface drainage, groundwater contour maps should be superimposed on topographic maps to
know the relationship between surface configuration and watertable configuration. At any specific
point on the map, the depth of watertable can be determined which is the difference in elevation
between the surface contour and the groundwater contour.
14.3.7
Slopes of Field Drains
The maximum slope of field drains is dictated by the maximum permissible flow velocity. Drop
structures should be built into the drains for steep slopes. The minimum velocity is 0.6 m/s (USDA,
1997). The maximum permissible velocity value ranges from 0.6 to 1.8 m/s depending on soil types.
Minimum recommended slopes are given in Table 14.3.
Table 14.3 Pipe Drain Gradients (USDA, 1997)
Pipe Diameter
(mm)
14.3.8
Gradients (%)
Desirable
minimum
Minimum
80
0.4
100
150
Maximum
Sandy Loam
Silt Loam
Silty Clay
0.20
4.7
5.0
8.3
0.3
0.10
1.7
3.3
6.7
0.2
0.05
1.0
2.0
4.0
Present and Future Cropping Patterns
Crops have different tolerances for excess water, both as to amount and time. The local drainage
criteria are required for various crop-soil combinations. Further information and guidance can be
obtained from reports of continuing research on effects of flooding, watertable depths, soil and
crops.
14.3.9
Computer Models Application
Computer simulation software helps to simulate water flow through subsurface drainage systems and
to evaluate differences in soil hydraulic properties for the different drainage area plots and the
impact of varying levels of site-specific soil hydraulic property information. Models are also useful for
estimating the outflow from existing systems, designing drainage-system modifications, and
predicting the impact of the modifications as well as for the best management practices for drained
fields. DRAINMOD, MODFLOW-SURFACT Flow etc are typical models applicable refer to Chapter 7.
14.3.10
Environmental Considerations
The environmental values of an area must be fully considered when planning to develop a new
drainage system or improve an existing system.
14.3.11
Economic Feasibility
Some soils can be drained satisfactorily, but the installation cost of drainage structures is too high
that the derived benefits do not justify the expense. On the other hand, some soil can be drained
14-6
March 2009
satisfactorily, but inherent productivity is low that do not justify the expense. Suitable outlets and
disposal for drainage effluent may be beyond of acceptable cost. The long-range economic benefits
must exceed the cost of the system. To make this analysis, the cost of the drainage system and the
potential crop yields must be estimated over time.
14.4
PIPE DRAINAGE DESIGN
A pipe drain is a buried pipe (regardless of material, size or shape) that conveys excess groundwater
to control the watertable at a desired depth (Figure 14.5). Pipe drainage systems are installed in the
soil below the plough layer (normally > 0.70 m depth). It has the advantage of not interfering with
the farm operations. Maintenance requirements are minimal if the systems are properly constructed.
If overland drainage flows occur, shallow open drains are additionally required. Subsurface pipe
drainage systems can be divided into: (i) singular and (ii) composite systems. In a singular pipe
drainage system, the field drains are buried perforated pipes that discharge into open collector
drains. In a composite pipe drainage system, the collector drains also consist of closed or perforated
pipes that in turn discharge into an open main drain either by gravity or by pumping. The collector
system itself may be composed of sub-collectors and a main collector.
Watertable without
drainage system
Watertable with
drainage
Pipe drain
Pipe drain
Saturated
soil
Flow
Flow
Figure 14.5 Pipe Drainage System

14.4.1
Layout
A drainage system layout is determined mainly by topographic and soil features. The layout should
be tailored to meet local requirements. There may be many possible layout alternatives for a given
field (Figure 14.6). Specific drainage goals should be evaluated to find the best layout. These goals
include removing the water from an isolated problem area, improving drainage in an entire field,
intercepting a hillside seep, and so on. Basic patterns of subsurface drainage systems are:
14.4.1.1
Parallel System
The parallel field drainage system (14.6a) consists of laterals that are perpendicular to the main
drain. They are usually spaced at regular intervals. This system is most commonly used and is
suitable when the topography is relatively flat.
14.4.1.2
Herringbone System
The herringbone field drainage system (Figure 14.6b) consists of one main line and series of laterals
which enter the main collector drain at angle, generally from both sides. This system is mostly suited
to drainage of relatively narrow and slopping depressions or valleys where the collector is placed in
the lowest areas.
14.4.1.3
Random System
A random field drainage system (Figure 14.6c) is used where the topography is undulating or rolling
and has isolated wet areas. Drains are laid out in a manner to connect relatively small, isolated,
poorly drained areas in the most economic and effective way.
March 2009
14-7
14.4.1.4
Combination System
Parallel, herringbone or random are used in combination to provide an optional design. When
selecting a layout pattern for a particular field or topography, lateral drains or field laterals should be
oriented with the field's contours as much as possible. This way, laterals can intercept water as it
flows down-slope. On the other hand, mains and submains can be positioned on steeper grades, or
in swales, to facilitate the placement of laterals (Figure 14.7).
Collector
22
21
Lat
l
era
21
Collector
Outlet
(a) Parallel
20
Outlet
Lateral
urs
nto
Co 20
(b) Herringbone
Wet
Areas
La
ter
al
Wet
Areas
Co
Drain Line
r
cto
lle
Submain
Stream
Stream
(c) Random
(d) Combination
Figure 14.6 Basic Patterns for Subsurface Drainage Systems

Contours
Lateral
Lateral
Contours
22
21
22
21
20
20
19
19
(a) Desirable: Laterals Aligned

with Contours
(b) Undesirable: Laterals Cross

Contours at Right Angle
Figure 14.7 Alignments of Field Laterals with Contours

14-8
March 2009
14.4.2
Drainage Coefficient
It is not economically feasible to design and install subsurface drainage systems that will provide
100% protection from rainfall events. To minimize soil structural damage and crop losses, drainage
systems should be designed to lower the watertable to approximately 0.3 to 0.5 m below the soil
surface, 24 hours after the cessation of a rainfall event.
Drainage coefficient is the depth of water to be removed from entire area in 24 hours. Its units are
mm/day or cm/day. The drainage coefficient should be based on:
Crop tolerance to saturated soils
Optimal depth of the watertable for various crops
Rate at which the watertable should be lowered
To establish the required drainage coefficient:
Estimate the number of days that the crop can grow well and tolerate water logged soil.
Determine the allowable watertable depth that the crop and/soil management can tolerate for
the number of days. Chieng (1982) gave research results shown in Table 14.4. Often
trafficability requirements dictate an allowable minimum watertable depth of 0.5 m. This may
use as guideline to select drainage coefficient.
Determine the cultivation season of the crop for the specific area.
Determine the appropriate drainage coefficient with information from the above
requirements.
Table 14.4 Drainage Coefficient for Different Water Depths and Crop Tolerances (mm/day)
Crop Tolerance (no
of successive days
of water logged
soil)
High ( 4 days)
Medium ( 3 days)
Low (1 2 days)
Watertable Depth (SCS, 1979)
Watertable Depth
(Chieng, 1982)
30 cm
50 cm
30 cm
50 cm
16.0
18.5
22.0
19.0
21.0
22.5
9.5
11.0
13.0
11.5
12.5
13.5
Some high value crops require a more rapid rate of removal of runoff to prevent crop damage. For
these crops, 6 to 12 hour removal interval may be necessary during the growing season. Where
drainage is uniform over an area through a systematic pattern of drains and surface water is
removed by field ditches or watercourses, the coefficient should be within the range as shown in
Table 14.5. A higher coefficient than those given in Table 14.5 is sometimes necessary to keep crop
damage minimum.
Table 14.5 Drainage Coefficient for 24 hrs Water Removal (SCS, 1979)
Soil
Field Crops
Vegetable Crops
Drainage Water to be Removed in 24 hours (cm)
Mineral
1.0 1.3
1.30 2.0
Organic
1.3 2.0
2.0 4.0
Design Drainage Rate Determination: The design discharge rate would be the one which caters for
the most vulnerable situation in protecting the adverse effect to the crops. The design drainage rate
or drainage coefficient can be considered as Tables 14.4 and 14.5 or can be determined using water
balance technique. A general water balance diagram for an agricultural land is given in Figure 14.8.
A general water balance on a soil profile with good natural drainage is shown in Figure 14.8a. In the
typical case, rainfall (P) and irrigation are the major water input to the crop/soil system, affecting
surface runoff water (R), crop evapotranspiration (ET), deep percolation (DP), and changes in soil
water storage (S).
March 2009
14-9

Evapotranspiration
Evapotranspiration
Rainfall
Rainfall
Runoff
Runoff
Soil Water
Storage
Soil Water
Storage
Infiltration
Watertable
Infiltration
Deep Percolation
Watertable
Drainage
Deep Percolation
Restrictive Layer
(a) With Good Natural Drainage
Restrictive Layer
(b) With Artificial Drainage
Figure 14.8 Drainage and the Soil Water Balance

In Figure 14.8b, if it is assumed that no water enters the soil from adjacent areas by horizontal flow
then, the water balance can be written mathematically as:
P = R + ET + DP + S
Where,
P
=
R
=
ET
=
DP
=
S
=
(14.3)
rainfall (mm)
runoff (mm)
evapotranspiration (mm)
deep percolation (mm)
soil water storage (mm)
When the watertable is relatively deep (>1 m) as shown in Figure 14.8a, deep percolation recharges
it. If deep percolation continues, there is an opportunity for the watertable to rise. The water balance
demonstrates that the amount of deep percolation depends on the extent to which the rainfall input
to the soil is reduced by R, ET, and S. The same water balance relationship holds true in an
artificially drained soil profile, as depicted in Figure 14.8b. However, drainage flow (D) becomes a
major component of the water leaving the system.
The amount of drainage is dependent on how much rainfall is lost to R, ET, and S. Simply, the
quantity of drainage flow can be driven by rainfall and the relative proportion of the other
components of the water balance. This means that the drainage will vary on time to time and from
region to region. The drainage flow (D) from the water balance equation can now be written as:
D = P (R + ET + DP + S)
14.4.3
(14.4)
Allowable Drain Depth
Drain depths in the 0.9 to 1.5 m range are recommended. A general depth of 1.2 m is often used as
a design depth. This may be reduced to 0.75 m under favourable conditions. Subsurface drains
should not be placed under an impermeable layer, and they should be located within the most
permeable layer. The depth of the drain is determined by:
14-10
the required root depth of the planned crop;

the presence and depth of an impermeable layer;
the available discharge point.
March 2009
In mineral soils the minimum cover over the drain should be 0.61 m (2 ft) and in organic soils 0.76
m (2.5 ft). The drain trench depth usually varies from 0.75 to 1.5 m (30 to 60 inches).
In organic soils (known as peat soil contains 30% or more organic material), shallow organic soils
(0.6 m or less) generally do not require special treatment. In cases where the organic material depth
is 0.6 m to 1 m, watertable management should be attempted. Deep organic soils in which the
organic materials exceed 1 m in depth require watertable control. They may also need special
materials such as rigid plastic drains, which cannot shift or become misaligned due to uneven
settling. A minimum depth of 1.2 m must be used to offset land settling. Shallow drains quickly lose
their effectiveness as land settlement may subject drains to damage from field operations.
The three types of drainage can be introduced in irrigated areas (Sharma, 2004):
Type I: Area with watertable between 0 to 1.5 m. Drain is required 2.5 to 3.0 m deep which is
subsurface drainage system. Natural drainage may be deepened so that 0.5 to 0.6 m depth of drain
is in pervious strata.
Type II: Area with watertable between 1.5 to 3.0 m and is likely to rise. Drain is required along the
canal to the limit of 1.25 to 1.75 m or up to the pervious strata whichever is less.
Type III: Watertable is below 3 m. Artificial drainage is not required. The natural drainage may be
trained to the depth of 1.5 to 1.75 m or up to the pervious strata.
14.4.4
Drain Spacing
The spacing between laterals should be based on soil type, crop to be grown, trafficability and
drainage coefficient chosen. The two basic formulas are generally used to determine spacing of
drains. They are the steady state and the non-steady state. Generally, the narrower the spacing is
the better the control of the watertable. However, selection of the most economic system calls for
determination of the optimum drain spacing for the selected crops to be grown. On the other hand,
the greater the depth of a field drain, the wider the spacing can be between drains.
Many assumptions are considered to simplify calculations in steady state formulas. Assumptions are:
Steady, constant flow through the soil to the drains
Discharge is equal to recharge
Pressure head is constant
Computer drainage models use for the calculations of non-steady state formulas. This method is
more precise because of their large data collection requirements and elaborate calculations.
14.4.4.1
Hooghoudts Formula
Hooghoudts equation based on steady state condition is widely used to compute drainage spacing
between lateral drains. This equation is applicable both to pipe drains and ditches. Figure 14.9
provides description of the variables. The relation between de and D is illustrated in Appendix 14.I
(1-3). The equation can be expressed as:
For homogeneous soil,
S2 =
March 2009
4K 2dh h 2
q
4K 2d e h h 2
q
(14.5)
14-11
For two layered soils with different hydraulic conductivity,

8 K 2 d h + 4 K 1 h2
S2 =
q
Where,
S
=
K
=
h
=
b
=
d
=
=
de
q
=
DWD =
K1, K2 =
(14.6)
spacing of drains (m)

hydraulic conductivity (m/s)
watertable height above the drains at mid-spacing (m)
depth from the drawdown curve to barrier stratum at midpoint between the drains (m)
depth from drains to the impermeable layer (m)
equivalent depth of impermeable layer below drain centre (m)
drainage coefficient (cm/hr)
depth of watertable (m)
hydraulic conductivities of soil layers above and below the drain, respectively (m/day)
Soil Surface
DWD
Water
Table
K1
d
Flow
Patterns
de
b
D
K2
Impermeable Layer
Figure 14.9 Definitions of Parameters for Hooghoudts Formula

The final step, drain spacing using the solution of the Hooghoudt formula may done by trial and
error, by graphical or by computer.
(i)
Determining Drain Spacing using Hooghoudts Formula
The procedure for the determination of the drain spacing with the Hooghoudts formula involves the
following steps:
Step 1: Formulation of the basic design criteria q and h
Step 2: Establishment of the field drainage base d and the available head (d DWD)
Step 3: Establishment of the soil parameters K (or K1 and K2)
Step 4: selection of drain type (pipe or ditch) and determine of u. For trenches of 20 25 cm width,
typically u = 0.3 0.4 m. For drain spacing calculations, it is generally assumed that the pipes run
half full although the actual water depths in the pipe may vary full to nearly empty.
Step 5: Determine the drain spacing (S) by solving the Hooghoudts formula.
(ii)
14-12
Trial and Error Solution
March 2009
Step 1: Assume a value for S and determine d using the following Eqs. 14.7 or 14.8
For D < S,
d=
D
8D D
ln + 1
S u
(14.7)
For D > S,
d=
8 ln
(14.8)
S
+1
u
Step 2: Solve the Hooghoudt formula for S and compare this value with the assumed value
Step 3: Modify the value of S and repeat until the calculated and assumed values are equal. Using
worksheet or computer code, this can be simply determined.
(iii)
Graphical Solution
Nomograph for the graphical solution of the Hooghoudt formula is shown in Appendix 14.A. The
procedure for the determination of the drain spacing with the Hooghoudt formula based on Figure
14.10 as follows:
Step 1: Calculate value of
8K 2 h
4 K 1 h2
and
q
q
Step 2: Connect the value of
8K 2 h
4 K 1 h2
(right side) with the value of
(left side)
q
q
Step 3: Where the connecting line intersects with D, read the drain spacing S
14.4.4.2
Ellipse Formula
Drain spacing can be determined by permeability of the soil; depth of drainage system; depth of
impermeable layer underneath the drainage pipe. The Ellipse equation is also used to determine
drain spacing for the steady state condition as follows:
4K b 2 a 2
S=
(14.9)
Where,
S = spacing of drains (m)
K = hydraulic conductivity (m/s)
b = depth from the drawdown curve to barrier stratum at midpoint between the drains (m)
a = depth from drains to the barrier (m)
q = drainage coefficient (cm/hr)
Charts for the graphical solution of the ellipse equation are shown in Appendices 14.B and 14.C. The
procedure for the determination of the drain spacing with the ellipse equation based on Figure 14.10
as follows:
Step 1: Select a (i.e. a = 5) from Appendix 14.B on the bottom scale and project this point vertically
to intersect the curve line b (i.e. b = 8). From this point, follow horizontally to intersect radial line for
March 2009
14-13
K (i.e. K = 1.2). From this point go vertically to intersect the top scale. Read the index number of
380.
Step 2: Find index number (i.e. 380) on the bottom scale. Project this point vertically to intersect the
curve line for q (i.e. q = 0.0156). From this point, follow horizontally to the right vertical scale and
read the spacing of (S =109 ft).
Ground surface
S/2
Drawdown curve
Drain
a
Barrier
Figure 14.10 Definitions of Parameters for Ellipse Equation

14.4.5
Drain Gradient
The minimum gradient of pipe drains is controlled by the need to avoid silt deposition. Pipe drains
are conventionally laid under a slope of about 10 cm/100 m. The topography of the land dictates the
range of grades available. Where siltation is a problem and the velocity is less than 0.45 m/s (1.5
ft/s), the siltation could be prevented by providing filter and silt traps. The minimum grade should be
1:1000; however, steeper grade is more desirable but maximum gradient is limited.
14.4.6
Flow Rate for Laterals
The Eq. 14.10 or Appendix 14.D can be used to determine the flow rate of the laterals. The drain
spacing is designed for maximum drainage coefficient. In the case of parallel drains, the area served
by the drain is equal to the spacing times the length of the drain plus one-half the spacing. The
discharge can be expressed by the following formula:
S
q S L +
2
Qr =
K
Where,
=
Qr
q
=
S
=
L
=
K
=
14.4.7
(14.10)
Relief drain discharge, m3/s (ft3/s)

Drainage coefficient, mm/hr (in/hr)
Drain spacing, m (ft)
Drain length, m (ft)
conversion factor (4.17 x 108 for SI Unit and 43200 for Imperial Unit)
Field or Lateral Drain Size
The size of drains depends upon the required flow and the hydraulic on which they are laid. The
contributing drainage area for a complete drainage system is about the same as the total length of
14-14
March 2009
all contributing lines multiplied by the spacing between such lines. To compute the size of a lateral,
the required discharge for the lateral is determined first. When the discharge is determined, pipe
diameter Nomograph shown in Appendix 14.E can be used to determine the lateral drain size.
14.4.7.1
Uniform Flow
The formulae for uniform flow are derived in the case of smooth pipes from Darcy-Weisbach
equation and corrugated pipes from Manning equation:
For smooth pipes:
Q = 50 d 2.71 i 0.57
(14.11)
For corrugated pipes:

Q = 22 d 2.67 i 0.50
(14.12)
Where
Q
= the discharge along the pipe (m3/s)
d
= the pipes internal diameter (m)
i
= the hydraulic gradient (m/m)
14.4.7.2
Varied Flow
The formulae for varied flow are derived in the case of smooth pipes from Darcy-Weisbach equation
and corrugated pipes from Manning equation:
For smooth pipes:
Q = 89 d 2.71 i 0.57
(14.13)
For corrugated pipes:

Q = 38 d 2.67 i
0.50
(14.14)
Changing the direction of drains can be done by several ways. Curve the trench gradually on a radius
of curvature that the trenching machine can dig while still maintaining grade. Use manufactured
bends or fittings, or use junction boxes where drain lines make an abrupt change in direction or
where two or more large drains join.
14.4.8
Drain Length
The maximum length of a drain line is determined by its water conveyance capacity. Once the drain
is flowing full, the diameter should be increased to the next available size to handle extra capacity
required. Laterals should not exceed a maximum length of 600 m to reduce the negative impact by
sedimentation or blockage.
14.4.9
Maximum Drain Length
It is much more practical to think of required drain size as the maximum length of drain pipe until
the pipe flows full and the next larger size is required. The Eq. 14.15 is used to determine the
maximum drain length (L) of the pipe for a given size. All parameters have denoted before. The
equation is:
L=
2.693 10 7 d 2.67 i 0.5

qSn
March 2009
(14.15)
14-15
Where,
L
d
i
= the maximum drain length (m)

= the pipes internal diameter (m)
= the hydraulic gradient (m/m)
14.4.10
Size of the Collector
Collectors receive water at different rates from laterals. These are typically perforated or slotted
pipes that collect water from the drainage layer and convey it to the outlet. The following criteria are
recommended for design and installation:
Minimum slope recommended is 0.5% and should never be less than 0.2%;
Minimum size for under drains is 15 cm; for lengths greater than 150 m, consider increasing
size to 20 cm to minimize effects of sedimentation;
Perforations and slots should be small enough to ensure that drainage layer material will not
enter the pipe. The maximum pipe opening should be greater than the D85 of the drainage
layer material.
14.4.11
Submains and Main Drains
The required flow is determined from the drainage coefficient and the area plus any allowance for
concentrated flow entering from the surface or other sources. Where surface water is admitted
directly into a drain by surface inlets, the entire watershed contributing to the inlet should be
included. Main and submains drains must be deep enough to provide the specified depth for outlets
of lateral drains. The required discharge can be determined using Appendix 14.H for a given
drainage coefficient and area to be drained. The required size of the corrugated plastic drainage
tubing can be determined directly from Appendix 14.F. After grade, coefficient and drainage area
have been determined, the size of clay or concrete drain tile required can be determined directly
from the tile drainage chart in Appendix 14.G. The charts can be used while the required flow and
the grade of the drains are known. The size required for all types of drains can be calculated using
Manning's equation with the appropriate roughness coefficients as shown in Table 14.6.
14.4.12
Outlet Design
Outlets for subsurface pipe drains must be provided to convey collected water to the surface
drainage system. Pipe used for this purpose is non-perforated and backfilled with low permeability
soil. The location of outlets is often dictated by the topography and configuration of surface drainage
features. Design and analysis must take this into consideration. This has been discussed detailed in
Chapter 13. The following criteria are recommended in subsurface drain outlet design:
Outlet pipe size must always be greater than or equal to the collector pipe size
Outlets ditches and storm drains should be at elevations greater than the 10-year flood level
Table 14.6: Values of Manning's n for Subsurface Drains and Conduits (USDA, 1997)
Description of Pipe
Corrugated plastic tubing
75 to 200 mm diameter
> 200 to 300 mm diameter
> 300 mm diameter
Smooth plastic, unperforated
Smooth plastic, perforated
Annular corrugated metal
Helical corrugated
Concrete
Verified sewer pipe
Clay drainage tile
14-16
Values of n
0.015
0.017
0.020
0.010 0.012
0.010 0.012
0.021 0.025
0.015 0.020
0.017 0.017
0.013 0.015
0.012 0.013
March 2009
14.4.13
Drain Envelope Design
14.4.13.1 Exit Gradients in Soil Near Drains

The flow velocity increases as a result of flow convergence in water approaches as subsurface drain.
The increased velocity is related to an increase in hydraulic gradient. The hydraulic gradient close to
the drain may exceed resulting in soil instability. A major reason for using a filter envelope is to
reduce the hydraulic gradient at the soil and envelope interface to stabilize the soil in the proximity
of the drain system.
14.4.13.2 Hydraulic Failure Gradient
The hydraulic failure gradient is the change in hydraulic head per unit distance that results in soil
instability generally a gradient exceeding. To reduce the hydraulic gradients in the soil near drains:
Increase the effective diameter of the drain by using a hydraulic envelope (i.e., gravel).
Increase the perforation area of the drain
Reduce the drain depth and spacing to decrease the possible magnitude of the gradient
Geotextile having inner flow characteristics to make the full surface of the corrugated drain
pipe permeable. If geotextile does not have inner flow characteristics, perforations in every
corrugation should be required (Willardson and Walker, 1979; Salem and Willardson, 1992)
14.4.13.3 Sand Gravel Filter Envelop

The general procedure for designing sand-gravel filter envelope for a given soil is:
Carry out mechanical analyses of both the soil and the proposed filter envelope material.
Compare the two particle size distribution curves.
Use criteria to determine whether the filter envelope material is satisfactory (Table 14.7).
The criteria include:
D15 of the filter material should be at least 4 times the diameter of the d15 of the base
material
D15 of filter material should not be more than 4 times larger than the d85 of the base
material.
The following gradation limits are recommended:
Upper limit of D100 is 38 mm (1.5 inches)

Upper limit of D15 is the larger of 7 times d85 or 0.6 mm
Lower limit of D15 is the larger of 4 times d15 or 0.2 mm
Lower limit of D5 is 0.075 mm (number 200 sieve)
D100 represents the particle size in the filter material for which 100 percent by weight of the soil
particles are finer (similarly for D15 and D5). The d85 and d15 represent the particle size in the base
material for which 85 percent and 15 percent by weight of the soil particles are finer. Well graded
materials are more successful than uniform sized materials. The well graded gravel sand is an
excellent filter for filter envelope for very uniform silt or fine uniform sand. Uniformity Coefficient (CU
= D60/D10) must be greater than 4 for gravels and greater than 6 for sands.
Table 14.7 The Need for Drain Filters or Envelopes (USDA, 1997)
March 2009
Uniformity Coefficient
Silting Tendency
Plasticity Index
> 15
5 - 15
5
nil
limited
high
nil
limited
high
14-17
14.4.14
Pump Outlet Design
On farm drainage pumps are usually required when the regional drainage system may not provide an
adequate gravity outlet for the proposed or newly designed system. The pump station must be
designed to pump enough water to meet the drainage system requirements against the maximum
total head created. If surface inlets are connected to the subsurface drainage system the additional
volume should be added to the capacity. This volume should be increased by 10% when designing
pump capacity to allow surface inlets. The right volume is estimated using the runoff volume
(Discussed in Chapter 13). The topographic data is used to evaluate the most economical and
practical pump arrangement. The following items must be taken into considerations when designing
a drainage pump station.
Pump location
Pump capacity
Total dynamic head
Pump type and power unit
Water storage to limit pump cycling
14.4.14.1 Pump Location

The main considerations for the location of a pump station are the proximity to the outlet and the
location of electric power. The pump station foundations require stable soils. The location has to be
ensured the suitable soil strength before deciding a site. The cost of pumping is related to discharge
volume, total dynamic head, pump efficiency and operating time.
14.4.14.2 Pump Capacity and Sump
The drainage water can be collected in a sump and then pumped into gravity disposal system. The
pump capacity is based on the drainage coefficient for subsurface drainage. The Table 14.8 can also
be used as guideline to estimate pumping rates based on drainage coefficient. The required capacity
of pumping plants can be determined from drainage coefficient applied to the area served.
Hydrologic procedures should always be used to determine pump capacity from the drainage
coefficient using the following equation:
Q=
q A
864
(14.16)
Where,
Q
= pump capacity (m3/s)
q
= drainage coefficient (mm/day)
A
= area of the watershed (ha)
Table 14.8 Pumping Rates for Different Drainage Coefficient (SCS, 1973)
Drainage Coefficient
(mm/day)
1.0
1.6
3.2
6.4
8.5
9.5
12.7
15.9
19.1
22.2
25.4
14-18
l/s
(per hectare)
0.116
0.185
0.370
0.741
0.984
1.100
1.470
1.840
2.211
2.570
2.940
m3/day
(per hectare)
10
16
32
64
85
95
127
159
191
222
254
March 2009
Water storage must be provided between the start and stop pumping elevations to prevent the
motor from the starting and stopping too frequently. The volume of required storage depends upon
the pumping rate and the maximum acceptable rate of cycling of the pump. The on and off levels for
pump are generally 60 to 100 cm above the base sump and not more than half diameter above the
pipe outlet respectively. The pumping time is set based on the storage in the sump. 5 cycles per
hour are considered satisfactory for pumping continuously. Cycles of operation should be limited to
about 10 per hour. Then, the pump capacity is given by:
P=
Where,
P
=
V
=
t
=
=
Qi
V + Qi
t
(14.17)
pumping rate at maximum inflow rate (m3/s)

sump storage between two levels (m3)
operating time (sec)
inflow rate (m3/s)
The sump or bay should be designed after the pump has been selected. Be sure to provide proper
clearance and submergence in the pump bay for the pump you select (most manufacturers make
recommendations for these dimensions), and protect the pump and motor from flooding at all times.
14.4.14.3 Total Dynamic Head
Drainage pumps usually lift water from a lower elevation to a higher elevation. This vertical distance
is often called lift or static head (Hs). The pump also has to compensate for friction losses. The total
dynamic head (TDH) can be expressed as:
TDH = HS + HF + H V
(14.18)
Friction head loss (Hf) can be determined using friction head loss equation. The velocity head (Hv) is
the kinetic energy released when water is discharged at the end of the outlet, hence, it is
proportional to flow and cross sectional area of the outlet pipe. Velocity head is then calculated using
Eq. 14.19.
H v = 82550
Q2
D4
(14.19)
Where,
= velocity head (m)
Hv
Q
= pump capacity (L/s)
D
= discharge pipe diameter (mm)
14.4.14.4 Power Requirements
Most agricultural drainage pumping system requires low total dynamic head and high volume. Axial
flow or propeller pumps are essentially well suited for these parameters. In situations where head
requirements are greater than 3 m, a radial or mixed flow pump may be suitable. When the pump
only services a subsurface drainage system, an off the shelf submersible pump will be often suitable.
The power requirements can be estimated by the Eq. 14.20.
P = 9.8
Q TDH
Ep
(14.20)
Where,
P
= power requirement (kW)
Q
= pump capacity (m3/s)
TDH = total dynamic head (m)
March 2009
14-19
Ep
= total pump efficiency as decimal fraction. A well design pump should have a total efficiency
of 70%. Pumping efficiency generally range from as low as 20% to as high as 75%.
14.4.14.5 Pump Types

A pump station can be selected and installed after determining the pumping requirements. The
pump station will depend on the pump type, storage volume requirement and proximity to the outlet.
The two most common types of axial pumps suitable are submersible and propeller. The pump
selection should be done with manufacturers recommendation and consultation. The information
required is total dynamic head and flow rate required. Manufacturer also should give information on
power requirement, pump efficiency and number of cycles per hour. Submersible pumps shown in
Figure 14.11 typically require no pump house as the pump is placed directly in the sump pit.
Propeller pumps (Figure 14.12) with overhead vertical shaft connected electrical motors are well
suited for higher discharge rates. This type is better suited for the large farmlands and where surface
drainage inlets are connected with subsurface main drainage collector. If open ditches are used to
collect and transfer water to the pump, a trash rack must be used to prevent entry of floating debris
into the sump where damage to the pump might occur. The velocity of flow through trash rack
should not exceed 0.6 m/s.
Power
Lockable
Cover
Union
Surface
Outlet
Power Cables
Chain for
Lifting Pump
Sump
Float Level
Control
Drain
Collector
Storage
Minimum Submersion
Level to Suit Pump
Specifications
Corrugated
Metal or
HDPE Pipe
High Water
Level
(Start)
Low Water
Level
(Stop)
Concrete
Length Depends on
Storage Volume
Requirements
Figure 14.11 Submersible Drainage Pump (BCDF, 1998)
14-20
March 2009
1m+
Motor
Axial Flow
(Propeller)
Tyre Pump
Flapgate
Trash Rack
Start Level
Inlet Ditch
Stop Level
Minimum
Submersion Level
to Suit Pump
Specifications
Flapgate
Corrugated
Metal Pipe
Concrete
Clearance to
Suit Pump
Specifications
Figure 14.12 Propeller Type Drainage Pump (BCDF, 1998)

14.4.15
Appurtenances
14.4.15.1 Surface Inlets

Surface inlets should be used in areas where surface drainage is produced (Figures 14.13 to 14.15).
Otherwise it is not required. There are three principal types are: surface water inlet, riser inlet and
catch basin. They must be properly constructed to prevent washouts and silting of the line. Surface
inlets should be avoided wherever possible. If silt is a hazard, place a silt trap at a convenient
location immediately downstream from the inlet or use a blind inlet (Figure 14.16). Blind inlets allow
entry of surface water from small ponded areas into the drain. The sand-gravel material for the
porous medium must be appropriately designed to keep out sediment and prevent piping of base soil
material, yet provide free water movement into the drain.
Maintain a Sod
Area of 2m
Radius
Beehive or
Concrete Grate to
Fit Riser
Nursery
Stock
Sediment
Trap
Concrete Collar
Rigid Pipe
Main
Line
Rigid Pipe
2.5m Minimum
Figure 14.13 Surface Water Inlet (BCDF, 1998)

March 2009
14-21
1m
Riser
Sediment
Trap
Minimum
Maintain a Sod Area of

2m Radius around Inlet
Well Graded
Gravel
Orifice
Plate
1.5m Minimum
Subsurface
Drain Line
Non-Perforated Pipe
Each Side of Inlet
Figure 14.14 Prefabricated Polyethylene Riser Inlet (BCDF, 1998)

Iron Grating
60mm Openings
Maximum
IN
1m
750mm
Minimum
IN
Sod
Concrete, P.E. or
Corrugated Steel
OUT
600mm
Silt
150mm
Minimum
Figure 14.15 Catch Basin Inlet (BCDF, 1998)

The designing of surface inlets is to estimate the volume of water to be collected by the inlet. This
can be estimated runoff produced from the catchment area which is the peak runoff volume. It has
been described in Chapter 13. The next step is to add this extra volume to the drain capacity by
adjusting the drain diameter. Usually it is uneconomical if unrestricted surface runoff enters the
subsurface drainage system. Such cases, flows should be controlled by adding an orifice plate at the
bottom of he riser. The following equation is used to design the orifice opening for optimum design:
Q = C d A 2gh
14-22
(14.21)
March 2009
Where,
Q
=
=
Cd
A
=
h
=
g
=
discharge (m3/s)
discharge coefficient (0.62)
orifice area (m2)
head on orifice (m)
gravitational force (9.81 m/s2)
TopSoil
Soil or
Top
or
Well
Graded Gravel
Well
Graded
Gravel
0.3m
Geotextile
Well Graded Gravel
Drain
0.5m Min.
3m Min.
Figure 14.16 Blind Surface Inlet

14.4.15.2 Junction Boxes
Junction boxes should be used where two or more main or submain drains join or where several
laterals join at different elevations. The junction box can also be designed to function as a sediment
trap (Figure 14.17). It should be located in non-cultivated areas if practical. If the junction is in a
cultivated field, the box should be constructed so that the top is at least 0.5 m below the surface of
the ground. The box should be designed to withstand crushing loads of agricultural machinery. It can
be capped and covered in the field (Figure 14.17).
Cover
750mm
Minimum
IN
IN
Corrugated
Polyethylene
Steel or
Concrete
OUT
Silt
450mm
Min.
Concrete Base
150 mm
Minimum
Figure 14.17 Junction Box and Silt Trap
March 2009
14-23
14.4.15.3 Vents and Relief Wells

Vents, or breathers, are used to alleviate vacuum or negative pressure in the line. Breathers should
be used where the line changes abruptly from a flat section to a steep section. Permanent fence
crossings are good locations for installation. Relief wells relieve pressure in the line. They should be
installed where steep sections change to flat sections unless the flatter section has about 25 percent
greater capacity than the steeper section. They should be used on lines that have surface inlets,
particularly when such inlets are large (Figure 14.18).
Breather
Air
Relief Well
Water
Perforated
Crop
Slope
> 5%
0.3m
Drain Line
Figure 14.18 Vents and Relief Wells

14.5.15.4 Drain Crossings
Where subsurface drains cross under waterways or other ditches, the conduits should be watertight
and strong enough to withstand the loads put on them. Design conduits that pass under roadways to
withstand the expected loads and meet the requirements of the appropriate railroad or highway
authority (Figure 14.19).
Road
Ditch
Roadway
Tile of CPT
Road
Ditch
Tile of CPT
a) Under Road
Waterway or ditch
Tile of CPT
Tile of CPT
b) Under Waterway
Figure 14.19 Drainage Crossed Under Roads or Waterway
14-24
March 2009
14.4.15.5 Outlet Protection

Where drains outlet into an open ditch, the end of the drainage line should be protected. If surface
water enters the outlet at the same location as the drain, some type of structure, such as a headwall
is needed over the outlet. Where there is no surface water, the most practical and economical outlet
is a section of rigid pipe. The pipe should conform to the requirements shown in Figure 14.20. Three
drawings show methods for protecting drain outlets where there is not enough soil cover less than
60 cm. In drawing A, fill is placed over the drain to provide the minimum soil cover; in B, metal pipe
is extended through the section where soil cover is over the drain is less than 60 cm; and in C, a
ditch is excavated back to where the cover over the drain is more than 60 cm.
(a)
Outlet
Channel
Tile of CPT
a) Fill Provided over the Drain
Minimum 0.6 m
(b)
Outlet
Channel
Tile of CPT
(c)
b) Soil Cover Provided over the Drain

Minimum 0.6 m
Outlet
Channel
Tile of CPT
c) Excavated Ditch with Covered Drain

Figure 14.20 Pipe Outlets
Where surface water does enter the ditch at the drain outlet, some type of structure should be
installed to lower the surface flow safely to the ditch (Figure 14.21). If there is no spoil bank, a
straight-drop spillway is generally the best type of structure. But if there is a spoil bank and enough
temporary storage for surface water, it is usually more economical to install a pipe drop-inlet.
Figure 14.21 Outlet Pipe Protections

March 2009
14-25
Where burning to control weeds may occur, the pipe should be fireproof. A swing gate or some type
of grating or coarse screen should be used on all outlets to exclude rodents and other small animals
(Figure 14.22). The screen mesh should not be less than 25 mm. Swing gates, rather than fixed
screens or grates, should be used where surface water enters a system directly.
Main Drain
Spillway Crest
Outlet
Figure 14.22 Vertical Spillway Used to Protect Subsurface Drainage Entering Channel
14.4.16
Margin of Safety
Margin of safety are normally included in the design of various elements of the drainage system.
Sometimes oversized by 25 to 40% to allow for a reduction in drain flow capacity due to
sedimentation and in the greater thickness of granular envelops to account for uneven distribution of
materials. Collector drainage is sometimes oversized by 25%. Difference in computed drain spacing
can be as great as plus or minus 10 20%.
14.5
DEEP DITCH DRAINAGE DESIGN
Subsurface deep ditch drainage system is used for removal and/or control of watertable and removal
and/or control of salts by means of water. The degree of drainage required depends upon the
maximum allowable height of the watertable, the minimum rate at which the watertable must be
lowered, or the maximum allowable duration and frequency of ponding and various crop
requirements of the site. Deep ditches have the advantage that they can receive overland flow
directly, but the disadvantages often outweigh the advantages. The main disadvantages are the loss
of land, interference with the irrigation system, the splitting-up of the land into small parcels, which
hampers mechanized farming operations, and maintenance.
Open ditches may be used to provide subsurface drainage and are often considered for use in flat
fields where lack of grade, depth of outlet, soil characteristics or economics where do not favour
buried drains. Figure 14.23 illustrates the change in configuration of the watertable before and after
the installation of open ditch drain for subsurface drainage. Relief ditches and drains are located
approximately parallel to the direction of groundwater flow or where the watertable is relatively flat
and will develop similar drawdown curves on side of the ditch or drain. The basic procedure for
drainage ditch design includes the following:
Check all basic field information

Establish control points and set hydraulic gradeline for design
Determine drainage areas and sub-drainage areas or polder
Compute design discharge for the lower end of each reach
Select and record appropriate design criteria including values of "n", side slopes, minimum
bottom width, and minimum depth below hydraulic gradeline
Design ditch section below the established hydraulic gradeline
14-26
March 2009
Watertable without drainage system

Open drain
Open drain
Saturated soil
Flow
Flow
Figure 14.23 Open Ditches Subsurface Drainage System

14.5.1
Determination of Drainage and Sub-drainage Areas
Topographic data or DEM is required to determine the sub-drainage and drainage areas or polders.
Modern computer software facilitates to delineate drainage boundaries and outlet of the site.
14.5.2
Drain Alignment
The natural topography and aesthetics should be considered in determining drain alignment. Where
it is necessary to change direction of the drain or field ditch, a simple curve should be used. Curves
that have a radius greater than 600 feet are desirable.
14.5.3
Layout of Ditches
Ditch systems provide outlets for farm ditches, buried drains, interception ditches and irrigation
return flows. The most common drainage system constructed by drainage enterprises in flatland
areas consists of a network of laterals or sublaterals spaced at intervals which will provide each farm.
Where farm units are small, it may not be feasible for a drainage enterprise to provide a lateral to
reach each farm and small groups of farmers may need to construct a group lateral as an outlet.
14.5.4
Gradeline Establishment
The hydraulic gradient is the slope of the hydraulic gradeline and is important in determining flow
velocity. The hydraulic gradeline is established after determining land use, the elevation of control
points along the ditch, and plotting the control points on the ditch profile. The ditch bottom grade
will have the same slope as the hydraulic gradeline if uniform flow in the ditch is assumed. The
required depth of the ditch is determined and measured at points below the hydraulic gradeline.
These points are then connected to find the bottom grade of the ditch. This method of locating the
ditch bottom is generally satisfactory in designing a new ditch. The elevation of the hydraulic
gradeline for the lowest reach needs to be at the controlling elevation of the outlet.
14.5.5
Design Elements of the Ditches
The ditches must be deep enough to provide for the escape of ground water found in permeable
strata or in water-bearing sediments. Requirements for side slopes, bed widths and maximum
velocities of drainage ditches are based primarily on watertable elevations, soil conditions and
maintenance requirements.
March 2009
14-27
14.5.5.1
Spacing between Ditches
Spacing of the ditches varies with soil permeability and crop requirements. Ditches usually will have
adequate capacity to carry both surface and subsurface water. Hooghoudt equation can be used to
calculate drain spacing. For large areas, the optimum spacing can be determined using DRAINMOD
software.
14.5.5.2
Ditch Side Slopes
The side slopes of ditches are determined primarily by the stability of the material through which the
ditch is dug and by the methods of maintenance to be practiced. Recommended side slopes may be
found in many local drainage guides. Maintenance requirements may necessitate modification. Side
slope of 1:1 is generally adopted for cutting. The considered side slopes are:
Table 14.9 Recommended Side Slopes (USDA, 1997)
Soil Type
Loose rock and hard soil
Alluvial soil
Sand soil
Very sand soil
14.5.5.3
Slope
0.5:1
1:1
2:1
3:1
Ditch Bottom Width
The machinery used for construction of the ditch should be considered in the selection of ditch
bottom width. A bulldozer or blade equipment is used to construct V-shaped ditches. Flat bottom
ditches frequently are designed if scrapers, hydraulic hoes, or draglines are to be used to construct
the ditch. Depths of ditch and soil conditions affect the type of equipment used. Specified minimum
bottom widths are often based on the available equipment.
14.5.5.4
Permissible Ditch Flow Velocity
Manning's equation is used in determining the average velocity in a ditch section.

2
1
1
V = R 3 S 2
n
Where,
V
=
n
=
R
=
S
=
A
=
P
=
(14.22)
velocity (m/s)
roughness coefficient
hydraulic radius (m) = A/P
slope (m/m)
cross-sectional area below hydraulic gradeline (m2)
wetted perimeter (m)
The value of n is a factor in Manning's formula for computing velocity. The value of n is used to
indicate the net effect of all factors causing retardation of flow. The selection requires judgment in
evaluating the material in which the channel is constructed, the irregularity of surfaces of the ditch
sides and bottom, the variations in the shape and size of cross sections, and the obstructions,
vegetation, and meandering of the ditch. Table 14.10 gives the recommended values of n.
14.5.5.5
Ditch Capacity
The volume (Q) of water passing a ditch cross section is calculated in cubic meters per second (m3/s)
and is the product of the flow area cross section (A) in square meter (m2) and the average velocity in
the cross section (V) expressed in meter per second (m/s). The formula is:
Q = AV
14-28
(14.23)
March 2009
Table 14.10 Value of Manning's n for Drainage Ditch Design (USDA, 1997)
Hydraulic Radius (m)
Less than 2.5
2.5 to 4.0
4.0 to 5.0
More than 5.0
14.5.5.6
n
0.040
0.035
0.030
0.025
0.045
0.040
0.035
0.030
Ditch Berms
Berm is defined as the space initially left at the FS level between the upper edge of water section
and the inner toe of bank along the ditch. Berms should be designed to:
provide roadways for maintenance equipment

provide work areas
facilitate spoil-bank spreading
prevent excavated material from washing back into ditches; and
prevent sloughing of ditch banks caused by heavy loads too near the edge of the ditch
The recommended minimum berm widths are recommended as Table 14.11.

Table 14.11 Value of Minimum Berm Width (USDA, 1997)
14.5.5.7
Ditch Depth (m)
Minimum Berm Width (m)
0.6 1.80
2.50
1.80 2.40
3.0
> 2.40
4.50
Ditch Junctions
The bottom grades of ditches having about the same depth and capacity should be designed to meet
at or near the same elevation.
14.5.6
Submains and Main
The design procedure is same as for the surface drainage system which has been described detail in
Chapter 13.
14.5.7
Drainage Outlets and Other Components
The design procedure has been described detail in Chapter 13 and Section 14.5.
14.6
TUBEWELL DRAINAGE DESIGN
Well drainage means drainage of agricultural lands by wells. A tubewell drainage system consists of
a network of tubewells to lower the watertable, including provisions for running the pumps, and
surface drains to dispose of the excess water. Tubewell drainage is used in areas with a high soil
permeability and preferably fresh groundwater that can be reused for irrigation (Figure 14.24).
The success of tubewell drainage depends on many factors, including the hydrological conditions of
the area, the physical properties of the aquifer to be pumped and those of the overlying finetextured layers. The system is operation and maintenance intensive and requires a continuous diesel
or electrical power supply. Planning and design procedures involve detailed investigation and survey
of site conditions.
March 2009
14-29

Pumping
Pumping
Initial Water Table

Controlled Water Table
Aquifer
Well
Impermeable Layer
Figure 14.24 Tubewell Drainage System

14.6.1
Feasibility Condition
Subsurface drainage of agricultural land is often used by pipe drainage systems, but when the
aquifer is deep, drainage by wells (vertical drainage) may be a feasible and alternative because the
well spacing can be quite wide achieving the same effect on the lowering of the watertable. The
success of tubewell drainage depends on many factors, including the hydrological conditions of the
area, the physical properties of the aquifer to be pumped and those of the overlying fine textured
layers.
14.6.2
Basic Information Required
The design of a tubewell drainage system depends on a number of physical, technical, practical, and
economic parameters. The following elements can be distinguished: design considerations (Location
of pump, pumping capacity, maximum, minimum and average static head), well-field design, well
design, and design optimization. These elements are described in the following sub-sections.
14.6.3
Important design considerations are the design discharge of the tubewells, the tubewells operating
factor, the annual drainable surplus and the peak drainage requirement. Capacity should be
sufficient to lower the watertable after irrigation, heavy rainfall and other influent seepage to avoid
crop damage.The maximum tubewell capacity will influence the distance between the wells or the
maximum spacing in the well field. Hence, for a given operating factor, the drainable surplus would
be the determining factor for the discharge rate of the well.
The tubewell operating factor is the number of actual operating hours of the well per 24 hours,
expressed as a fraction.
The annual drainable surplus of an area is the annual discharge required to maintain the design
water-level criteria. It is an important design factor in well drainage. It depends on many factors.
One such factor is the depth at which the watertable is to be controlled. This design watertable
depth depends on:
the quality of the groundwater

the capillary-rise potential of the soil
the type of cultivation
The peak drainage requirement is the maximum discharge, in mm/d, required for a specified
drainage area. To maintain a stabilized watertable in tubewell drainage, the system ought to be
based on the maximum expected recharge. The recharge to the aquifer in an irrigation area will vary
throughout the year, depending on the water supplies to the area. In areas with tubewell drainage,
the resulting differences in recharge cause the actual watertable depth to vary through the year.
Peak recharge on short duration should be considered.
14-30
March 2009
14.6.4
Well Field Design
14.6.4.1
Well-Distance Calculation
In a tubewell field, the spacing between the wells and the well-field configuration depend on various
differing design considerations. The operating factor and the discharge rate determine how much
water will be pumped by one tubewell. In combination with the drainable surplus, they determine
the drainage area per tubewell and thus also the number of tubewells required for the total drainage
area. This can be expressed by the following equation:
Aw =
0.1 Q t w
q
(14.24)
Where,
= drainage area per well (ha)
Aw
Q
= discharge rate of the well (m3/day)
q
= drainable surplus (mm/d)
= tubewell operating factor which is the number of actual operating hours of the well per 24
tw
hours, expressed as a fraction.
The total number of wells (Nw) required can be found by dividing the total drainage area (At) by the
drainage area per tubewell.
Nw =
14.6.4.2
At
Aw
(14.25)
Well Field Configuration
Two types of well configurations are usually chosen for a selected discharge rate (Figures 14.25 and
14.26). Distance between the wells is determined as follows:
Field Drain
re
Secondary Drain
Figure 14.25 Triangular Configurations with the Required Layout of Field Drains and Main Drains
For triangular well field,
L = 100
3A w
(14.26)
For rectangular well field,

A
L = 10000 w
B
March 2009
(14.27)
14-31
Where,
L
= distance between wells (m)
B
= distance between lines of wells (m)
L
Secondary Drain
Tubewell
B
a) Plan
R
h
H
Aquifer
Aquiclude
H : Watertable depth
P : Depth to well screen
h : Drawdown
R : Aquifer recharge
b) Section
Figure 14.26 Rectangular Configurations with the Required Layout of Main Drains
14.6.4.3
Well Design
Hydrologic information required for a proper design includes: Stratigraphic information concerning
the aquifer and overlaying sediments, aquifer test analysis of physical properties of the aquifer,
water balance analysis, grain size analysis of aquifer materials and groundwater quality. The detailed
well design procedure is discussed in Chapter 8.
14.6.4.4
Design Optimization
The optimization procedure involves examining the different well configurations that satisfy the
design criteria, and, for each of these, calculating the investment costs and annual costs of operation
and maintenance. The design with the lowest costs per m3 drainage water is selected. The number
of calculations required to reach at a final result is large and complex and can be the best handled
by an optimum well-field-design computer program such as MODFLOW as given in Chapter 7.
14.7
CONTROLLED DRAINAGE AND SUBIRRIGATION DESIGN
Subsurface drainage is designed solely for the purpose of removing excess water from the soil root
zone. Where controlled drainage or subirrigation uses control structures are installed to control the
watertable level. The system helps to improve crop production, reduce erosion and protect water
quality.
14-32
March 2009
The technique of controlled drainage combined with subirrigation helps to improve yields while
protecting water quality illustrated in Figure 14.27. Controlled drainage occurs when a control
structure is used to conserve water by reducing outflow. No additional water is added into the
system. Without rainfall or a high groundwater table a controlled drainage system would not store
enough water in the soil to grow a crop over a long period of time. However, controlled drainage is
able to store water in the soil to reduce short term stress. This type system is best for locations that
have frequent rains.
Subirrigation is the irrigation back through the subsurface drain tiles or ditches. In subirrigation
water is pumped behind the controlled outlet or diverted from the irrigation canal where it moves
back into the drain pipes/ditches raising the water level in the field.
Due to seasonal variations and pattern of rainfall in Malaysia, some crops and soils could be
benefited from controlled drainage and subirrigation. In addition controlled drainage and
subirrigation can provide considerable environmental benefits. However, it is usually uneconomical to
use subirrigation if only irrigation is required and there is no need for drainage.
Soil
Water
Controlled
Surface
Ditch
Soil
Surface
Stable
Table
Impermeable Layer
(a) Controlled Drainage Technique
Soil
Pump
Surface
Weir
Subirrigation
Impemeable Layer
(b) Subirrigation Technique

Figure 14.27 Controlled Drainage and Subirrigation
14.7.1
Watertable Control and Management
The various aspects of a watertable control and drainage system illustrated in Figure 14.28. In
watertable management, the watertable is either adequately lowered below the root zone during wet
periods (drainage), maintained (controlled drainage), or raised during dry periods (subirrigation) to
sustain the watertable between allowable or desired upper and lower bounds.
March 2009
14-33
Soil surface
Water table
Flow
Crop
Subsurface drainage
Soil surface
Weir
crest
Water
level
Watertable
Subirrigation Controlled Drainage

Watertable
Watertable
Watertable
Outlet Ditch
No flow
Controlled drainage
Subsurface
Drains
Soil surface
Watertable
Water Supply
Water Supply
Land Surface
Outlet
Drainage Water Level
Subirrigation
Water Level
Flow
Water
supply
Subirrigation
(a) Various Watertable Management Alternatives
(b) Watertable Management
Figure 14.28 Watertable Management Options

14.7.2
Planning and design considerations include:
Type and layout of the surface and subsurface drainage system

Need for land smoothing or precision leveling
Alignment of system to best fit topography, spacing, and location of structures. Structures
should be located to maintain the watertable within an acceptable level below the root zone
so that good drainage is provide when needed and water is furnished by capillary movement
from the watertable throughout the growing season
14.7.2.1
Topographic Requirements
The field should be level or have a constant slope that is less than 0.5%. The field surface should be
uniform, where the difference in elevation between small depressions and bumps is no greater than
30 cm. The natural watertable (before drainage) should be close to or above the drain depth. Not all
field and soil characteristics are suitable for controlled drainage or subirrigation. Hilly, steep, or
rolling terrain is generally not suited.
14.7.2.2
Soil Requirements
The soil profile should be uniform and relatively deep with a good hydraulic conductivity. An
impermeable layer that is parallel to the surface of the soil is required. Ideally this surface should be
no more than 3 m from the soil surface to limit percolation losses.
14.7.2.3
Water Supply Requirements
The location, quantity and quality of the water source are key factors. Only water of reasonable
quality should be used for subirrigation. The quality of the water must be evaluated to determine
suitability for the crop and soil before subirrigation is installed. The water supply should have
adequate capacity to meet plant requirements use at peak water use and compensate for the water
loss due to seepage.
14-34
March 2009
14.7.2.4
(a)
Site Conditions
Drainage Outlets
Drainage is a primary consideration when evaluating the potential of any site for watertable control.
A drainage outlet must be available that has adequate capacity to remove surface and subsurface
water within the required time. An outlet may be established by pumping or may be a gravity flow
system. It must be available before installation of watertable control components.
(b)
Existing Drainage Systems
Most areas considered for watertable control generally have existing surface and subsurface water
removal systems operated as uncontrolled drainage. When establishing a watertable control system,
the existing drainage system must be evaluated in terms of how well it will function under a different
management system.
(c)
Slope Considerations
The maximum slope is site specific and careful consideration is needed. Soils capable of supporting
watertable control seldom have surface slopes of more than 2 percent.
(d)
Land Grading and Smoothing Considerations
The amount of land grading or smoothing required to assure adequate surface drainage and to
establish a uniform slope is normally sufficient for watertable control.
14.7.2.5
Watertable Location
The location of the natural seasonal high watertable in the soil profile is critical. A seasonal high
watertable indicates that the soil can maintain the watertable required for subirrigation during dry
periods. If the seasonal high watertable is more than 75 cm (30 inches) below the surface (with
natural drainage), the soil is considered to be well drained. The depth to the seasonal watertable
during periods of a crops peak demand for water must be evaluated.
14.7.2.6
Barrier or Impermeable Layer
A barrier on which to build the artificial high watertable during the growing season must occur at a
reasonable depth. An impermeable layer or a permanent watertable must be reasonably assured. In
the field, the depth to the impermeable layer is usually determined by boring holes and observing
the textural changes that occur between horizons.
14.7.2.7
Hydraulic Conductivity
Hydraulic conductivity is the most important soil property affecting the design of a watertable
management system. The final design must be based on actual field measured conductivity. A soil
hydraulic conductivity of 20 mm/hr should be used as a benchmark for planning.
14.7.3
Design Procedures
It is essential to determine the site is suitable before designing the system. To do this obtain or
produce a topographic map with elevations, locations of valleys and ridges, field slopes, high points
and low points. Divide the field into zones of uniform surface elevation. This will allow the watertable
to be kept at a constant depth below the soil surface.
14.7.3.1
Farm Planning and System Layout
The entire farm must be considered and the drainage outlet should be delineated. A survey of the
affected area is needed to determine the topographic limitations, locate the position of structures,
March 2009
14-35
orient underground conduits and/or ditches with respect to the slope, determine the need for land
smoothing or grading, and separate the farm, or field, into zones that can be managed individually.
14.7.3.2
Root Zone Depth
The root zone depth of all crops to be grown must be known. The depth of the root zone influences
how the watertable control is designed and managed. Normally, 70 percent of moisture extraction is
from the upper half of the root zone of most plants (Figure 14.29). This usually is effective for
shallow rooted crops (USDA 1997). Assuming an unrestricted root zone, the upper half of the root
zone should be used as the effective root zone for design and management of watertable control.
40%
Root
zone
30%
20%
10%
Figure 14.29 Percent Moisture Extraction from the Soil by a Plants Root Zone
14.7.3.3
Watertable Depth
A schematic view of the systems involved in conveying water for subirrigation is shown in Figure
14.30. The watertable depth is the most difficult part of designing an effective subirrigation system.
Fortunately the watertable depths can be adjusted after the system is built.
Evapotranspiration
Effective Rooting
Depth
Upward
Flux
Capillary
Zone
Watertable
(Stable)
Saturated Soil
Water
Figure 14:30 Watertable Design Depth (BCDF, 1998)

14-36
March 2009
The design depth of the watertable for subirrigation is a balance between the effective rooting
depth, the capillary zone thickness and the upward flux. The rate that water can be transmitted
depends on the potential evapotranspiration (PET) and the depth of the watertable. Some
experienced designers have suggested watertable design depth of 0.6 m for clay based soils and
0.45 m for lighter soils. The plant takes up 70% of its water and nutrients in the first half of its total
rooting depth. This is the effective rooting depth. It is imperative that the moisture provided by
subirrigation should reach this zone.
The control depth may fluctuate several cm from day to day in response to rainfall, drainage, or
other conditions. Optimum yields may be obtained for many crops through a wide range of
watertable depths 30 to 150 mm depending on soil type, profile layers and their hydraulic properties,
weather conditions, the crop being grown, crop development, and rooting depth. Most crops can
tolerate a fluctuation in the watertable of 15 cm without any adverse effects. Also, yield reductions
do not occur on most soils from short-term fluctuation (durations of up to 24 hours) in the
watertable if the watertable depth is not less than 30 cm during wet periods or more than 1 m
during dry periods.
(a)
Upward Flux
The rate that water can be transmitted upward from the watertable through the capillary zone to the
plant effective root zone is called the upward flux. Figure 14.31 indicates the general relationship
between upward flux and watertable depth. The rate of upward flux is dependent on the potential
evapotranspiration and the depth of the watertable. The upward flux decreases as the watertable
drops. This graph should be used with caution and is for reference purposes only.
0
1
3
0.5
5
6
1.0
8
Depth
Depth below
BellowRoot
Root Zone
Zone (m)
(m)
1.5
2.0
2.5
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Heavy clay
Loamy sand
Clay
Peat
Clay
Loamy sand with
humus
7. Sandy loam
8. Fine sandy loam
9. Very fine sandy
loam
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
Upward
UpwardFlux
Flux(mm/day)
(mm/day)
Figure 14.31 Upward Flux versus Watertable Depth for Different Soils (BCDF, 1998)
March 2009
14-37
(b)
Capillary Zone Thickness
During subirrigation water is transmitted from the watertable through the capillary zone to the
plant's root system. The thickness of the capillary zone can be estimated using the following
equation:
Hc = 0.3/d
(14.28)
Where,
Hc = capillary rise (cm)
d = average size of soil particle (cm)
14.7.3.4
Allowable Sag during Subirrigation
The amount of sag depends on the soil's ability to transmit water from the watertable to the
effective root zone, the type of crop and its maturity, and the potential rate of ET. The maximum
amount of sag that can be tolerated during subirrigation is determined by the maximum allowable
elevation at the ditch, or immediately over the drains, versus the maximum depth tolerable midway
between the drain or ditch (Figure 14.32). The maximum allowable sag between the drains or
ditches can be estimated using the relationship between upward moisture movements versus
watertable depth.
Evapotransporation
B - Allowable sag in the
watertable
A - Watertable elevation
above drains
Watertable
Drains
Figure 14.32 Allowable Watertable Sag and Elevation during Subirrigation

14.7.3.5
Drain Spacing
Drain spacing should be determined for both drainage and subirrigation mode. The spacing required
for subirrigation generally is closer than the spacing needed for drainage only. The Hooghoudt
equation can be used to determine the spacing of relief type drains for drainage.
Normally a parallel lateral system only should be used for subirrigation. The spacing between laterals
should be based on soil characteristics, drain depths, crop rooting depth, the plant's tolerance to
water stress and upward flux. The limiting factor is the time required to raise the watertable to the
desired level at mid spacing. Larger drain spacing means the system will be slower to respond and
the system will need more intensive management.
Generally, the narrower drain spacing is the better the control of the watertable. Selection of the
most cost effective system calls for determination of the optimum drain spacing for the selected
crops to be grown. A rough estimate for drain spacing required for effective subirrigation is
approximately 65% of the spacing required for adequate drainage.
Spacing for subirrigation mode can be calculated using a steady state condition using variables in
Figure 14.33. DRAINMOD software has been widely used for the design of large subirrigation
14-38
March 2009
systems. In this case, spacing is usually calculated using a variation of Hooghoudts equation that
combines peak evapotranspiration rates.
h M
4K 2 h o o
S2 =
ET
Where,
S
=
K
=
=
ho
=
yo
=
de
M
=
ET
=
(14.29)
spacing between drain lateral (m)

effective horizontal hydraulic conductivity (m/day)
(Yo+de) distance from water level over the drain to the equivalent impermeable layer (m)
depth from the watertable level over the drain to the centre of the drain (m)
equivalent depth of the impermeable layer below the drain centre (m)
difference in water level as measured over the drain and midway between the drain (m)
peak evapotranspiration rate (m/day)
14.7.3.6
Water Requirements
Subirrigation is infeasible without a proper water supply. The most important design component of a
subirrigation system is the water supply. The system must have adequate capacity to meet required
plant use and compensate for the water loss due to seepage. Water requirement can be roughly
considered 0.6 to 0.9 L/s per hectare.
Soil Surface
Water
Table
M
yo
yo
Drain
ho
ho
de
d
Z
S
Impermeable Layer
Figure 14.33 Subirrigation Spacing Variables (BCDF, 1998)

14.7.3.7
Design Flowrate
The design flowrate for the system is related to the drainage coefficient used to compute the drain
spacing. It is expressed as:
Q=qA
March 2009
(14.30)
14-39
Where,
Q
= design flowrate (m3/day)
q
= drainage coefficient (m/day)
A
= drained area (m2)
14.7.3.8
Pipe Size
The manning equation can be used to determine the drain diameter since the flow is not pressurized.
After substitution in the Manning equation and arranging, the drain diameter can be computed as:
d = 51.7 (q A n)
0.375
Where,
d
=
q
=
A
=
n
=
s
=
s -0.1875
(14.31)
pipe diameter (mm)

drainage coefficient (mm/day)
drained area (ha)
manning coefficient
drain slope (m/m)
A nomograph is provided in Appendix 14F-1 that relates drain discharge and grade for selecting an
appropriate diameter of the drain. To use the chart, locate the design discharge and grade on the
vertical and horizontal axes, respectively. Horizontal and vertical lines are drawn from these points to
a point of intersection in the chart. The diameter indicated in the space between diagonal solid lines
is the required pipe diameter. The diagonal solid lines represent a full pipe flow condition for that
drain diameter and grade. The dashed diagonal lines indicate the velocity of flow in the pipe.
The actual size necessary to carry the minimum design capacity is a function of both spacing and
length. The minimum capacity should be equal to a drainage coefficient of 1.2 cm/day. If a higher
drainage coefficient is needed, the tubing should be sized accordingly. Usually, the length of each
line of tubing is the limiting factor that must be adjusted if the drainage coefficient is exceeded
because it is not practical to adjust the spacing.
Using this drain spacing and having the longest line 300 m in length assures that more than 1.3
cm/day could be removed, based on the tubing capacity. If the computed drainage coefficient does
not equal or exceed 1.3 cm/day, the length of line should be shortened using Appendix 14.F or 14.G.
The drainage coefficient can be determined as follows:
q =K
Where,
q
=
Q
=
L
=
S
=
K
=
Q
LS
(14.32)
drainage coefficient (cm/day)

design flowrate (m3/s)
length (m)
spacing (m) [Eq. 14.29]
constant (8.6 x 106)
The hydraulic grade and the size of pipe, especially collectors, must be determined for both irrigation
and drainage modes. The largest pipe size determined must be selected for each reach (Figure
14.34). In drainage mode the pipe diameter increases in size toward the outlet. For subirrigation the
diameter of mains, collectors and laterals may be uniform or larger at the upstream end. The size of
the pipes must be adequate to raise the watertable to the desired elevation during subirrigation. If
the watertable needs to be raised during the growing season the water supply may have to be 1.5
times the daily design evapotranspiration rate.
14-40
March 2009
Inlet B
Inlet A
Soil Surface
Control
Structurs
Water Table
Subirigation
Outlet
Laterals
200 mm
150 mm
100 mm
Drainage
100 mm
150 mm
200 mm
200 mm
Combined
150 mm
200 mm
Figure 14.34 Pipe Sizing (BCDF, 1998)

100
10
Head Loss, m/100 m of Pipe
75
mm
0
10
mm
5
17
0.1
mm
0
20
0
30
0.01
0.001
mm
10
50
20
Flow Rate, L/s
mm
100
200
500
1,000
Figure 14.35 Head Losses for Corrugated Polyethylene Pipe
March 2009
14-41
14.7.3.9
Grade
Subirrigation systems are operated under pressure however the water elevation is always less than
the soil surface and water velocity in this instance is low. Drains should have sufficient capacity to
remove excess water from minor surface depressions and from the major part of the root zone
within 24 to 48 hours after rain ceases. For nearly level areas, the drain should be as steep as
possible while maintaining adequate depth at all locations to reduce the size of mains and submains.
As a general grade, the desirable minimum working grade is 0.1 percent. The grade may be reduced
to the values provided in Table 14.12.
Table 14.12 Minimum Recommended Grade for Drains (ASAE, 1998)
Inside Diameter of Pipe
(mm)
Pipes Not Subjected to Fine

Sand or Silt
Concrete
Corrugated
0.08
0.10
0.05
0.07
0.04
0.05
0.03
0.04
75
100
125
150
Pipes Subjected to Fine Sand

or Silt
Concrete
Corrugated
0.06
0.81
0.41
0.55
0.30
0.41
0.24
0.32
14.7.3.10 Placement of Drains and Filter Requirements

Careful consideration should be given to the placement of tubing and the depth of ditches when
sand lenses and other highly conductive layers exist at a depth of 1 m or more (Skaggs 1980). When
possible, the tubing should be placed at the interface or in the top of the highly conductive layer
(Figure 14.36). This decreases the hydraulic head loss caused by the convergence near the tubing.
As the required spacings for the tubing decreases, a larger percentage of the total head loss occurs
near the drain. The same effect can be obtained when ditches are used, but the magnitude is less
because ditches incur a smaller hydraulic head loss. When ditches are installed, they should
penetrate the highly conductive layer if possible.
0
0
Loam
0.5m
0.6m
0
Loam
Muck
0.75m
Clay loam
Fine sand
Clay loam
1.0m
1.30m
Fine sand
a) Tubing in LoamFine sand
b) Tubing in
Multilayered soil
Fine sand
c) Tubing with
Multilayered soil
Figure 14.36 Placements of Tubing or Ditches within the Soil Profile (USDA, 1997)
14.7.3.11 Seepage Losses
The calculation of the water lost by seepage is an important consideration when determining the
feasibility of a subirrigation or controlled drainage system. DRAINMOD software is recommended to
compute the seepage losses. When the watertable is raised during subirrigation, the hydraulic head
in the field is higher than that in surrounding areas and water is lost from the system to lateral
seepage. The rate of deep seepage or vertical water movement from the soil profile may also be
increased. The magnitude of seepage losses depends on the hydraulic conductivity of the soil and
depth to restricting layers. It also depends on boundary conditions, such as the elevation of the
controlled watertable in relation to surrounding watertable depths and the distance to drains or
canals that are not controlled.
14-42
March 2009
14.7.3.12 Fine Tuning the Design using DRAINMOD

Once the spacing has been estimated using one of the short cut methods, the final system design
may be determined using DRAINMOD. The use of DRAINMOD requires a number of specific climate
and soils data.
14.7.4
Control Structure Setting
Watertable control structures are devices used in conjunction with a drainage system for maintaining
the watertable to enhance crop production. The control structure must have a capacity equal to the
maximum drainage discharge and have a mechanism to adjust the water level. There are two main
types of control structure: flashboard and a float type. The number of control structures will depend
on the number of zones required to keep the watertable within 30 cm of the desired level. The
following recommendations should be followed during installation:
For new drainage systems, the collector pipes should be two lateral spacings away from a
ditch or water course that is deeper than the design watertable level.
If a large dynamic head is expected or the distance from a deep ditch is less than two lateral
spacings, a non-perforated collector pipe should be used.
All pipes should be non-perforated and joints sealed around the control structure.
Backfill material around the control structure should be stone free and well compacted.
The control structure should always have a cover and be locked.
Many types of structures used to control water levels. Flashboard structures, one of the most popular
water control structures, for open ditch systems. To maintain a uniform watertable, open stands with
flashboards are installed in the line to control water elevations where the drop in the outlet exceeds
a half foot. Flashboard risers have proven to be a desirable structure for controlling water levels to
prevent seepage losses. Structures for water control normally use spillways fitted with stoplogs or
gates to control the water level. Control structures in conjunction with wells may be placed in the
subsurface drain system. They generally are a type of manhole fitted with stoplogs or adjustable
metal slides that control the flow of water in subsurface drain systems (Figure 14.37).
(a) Circular Flap Gate
(b) Rectangular Flap Gate
Figure 14.37 Control Drainage Structures

(a)
Flashboards
Small weirs or culverts can easily be modified to accept flashboards (Figure 14.38). This is an
inexpensive system that can be homemade. However, the system is not automated and may require
daily attention to operate at peak efficiency. All stop logs are removed for normal drainage mode.
(b)
Float
The float type system is usually a prefabricated unit (Figure 14.39). In this system an adjustable
float regulates the water level by raising a rubber control flap. When the watertable recedes below
the level of the float the valve closes. This system is more suitable for automation. The control flap
apparatus can be removed for normal drainage mode.
March 2009
14-43

Cover
50mm
Channel
Iron
Stop Logs from

38mm x 138mm
T. & G. Planking
Watertable
Steel or P.E.
750mm Dia. Min.
m
Watertable
To Outlet
300mm
Min.
Concrete
Figure 14.38 Flashboard Type Control Structure (BCDF, 1998)
Cap
Indicator
Post
Float
Cord
OUT
Watertable
IN
Rigid Pipe
Control
Flap
Non-Perforated
Corrugated Pipe
Figure 14.39 Float Type Control Structure (BCDF, 1998)
14-44
March 2009
14.8
INTERCEPTION DRAINAGE DESIGN
Interceptor drains are installed to collect lateral or horizontal flow coming from some known source
upslope, thus preventing it from reaching the area to be protected. They are used to cut off lateral
ground-water movement from benches and springs or to intercept flow to levee-protected low lands.
They are useful to check the lateral movement of groundwater flow from higher elevation to irrigated
areas. They are also used to entrain seepage from canals, reservoirs and other man-made sources.
The location and depth of interceptor drains are critical to their effectiveness.
The three main situations where interceptor drains are required are:
Drain in valley area
Outcrop aquifer
Barrier conditions
14.8.1
Layout
A schematic representation of conditions in a valley area with abrupt changes in topography is

shown in Figure 14.40. This kind of situation is often seen in large valleys where the lowlands are
often subject to seepage from the uplands or at the base of hills, benches and terraces. The proper
location for an interceptor drain is the base of the topography change or at the start of the high
watertable area. More than one drain line may be required. The spacing for interception drains is
different from ordinary subsurface drainage systems.
Figure 14.41 is a schematic representation of conditions often found when a highly permeable layer
between two less permeable layers outcrops and seeps. This situation is common in landscapes of
alluvial deposits and undulating topography. The drain line should be upslope of the area as shown
in Figure 14.41.
Hill Side
Valley
Gr
ou
nd
High Water Table Area

Surface Water,
Poor Growth
W
at
er
Flo
w
Water Table
Before Drainage
River
Interception Drain
Follows Contour of
Foot of Hillside
Water Table
After Drainage
Figure 14.40 Interception Drain in Valley Areas (SCS, 1973)
March 2009
14-45
Water Table
Before Drainage
Surface
Wet
Seep
Area
Low Permeability
(Springs)
Ground Water Flow
Water Table
After Drainage
Gravel or
Sand Layer
Drain
Low Permeability
Figure 14.41 Interception Drains at Outcrop of Aquifer (SCS, 1973)

A schematic representation of conditions often found when barrier conditions are present shown in
Figure 14.42. This situation is common in undulating landscapes and topography. More than one
parallel drain may be required to eliminate the drainage problem. Spacing equation is used to
determine where should be placed if multiple drain lines are required.
Water Table
After Drainage
Water Table
Before Drainage
Seep
Area
(Springs)
Ground Water Flow
Interception
Drain
Impermeable Layer
Figure 14.42 Interception Drains for Barrier Conditions (SCS, 1973)

14.8.2
Spacing and Depth
The downslope effect of interceptor drains will have to be determined to decide if one or more drains
are required. The number of drains required and spacing can be solved by progressing construction
or by using empirical equation. The watertable should be constant slope between 0.01 to 0.03 m/m.
For lower slopes, Hooghoudts equation can be used. The assumption is that the drain intercepts all
flow upslope from it and to the depth of the drain.
Le =
14-46
K iw
(d e DWD + W2 )
q
(14.33)
March 2009
Where,
= the distance downslope from the drain to the point where the watertable is at the desired
Le
depth after drainage (m)
K
= the average hydraulic conductivity of the subsurface profile to the depth of the drain
(m/day)
q
= drainage coefficient (m/day)
= the hydraulic gradient of the watertable at undisturbed state before drainage (m/m)
iw
= the effective depth of the drain (m)
de
DWD = the desired minimum depth to watertable after drainage based on agronomic
recommendations (m)
= the distance from the ground surface to the watertable at the drain (m)
W1
= the distance from the ground surface to the watertable before drainage at the distance (Le)
W2
downslope from the drain (m)
Figure 14.43 illustrates the different variables and their relationships to one another. Since Le and W2
are independent variables the equation is the best solved using a trial and error approach. But when
the gradient is uniform throughout the area, W1 can be assumed to be equal to W2 and the equation
can be solved directly. Figure 14.43 shows that either a subsurface drain or open ditch can be used
as an interceptor. Interceptor drains should be placed as deep as it is practical to install. The
interceptor drain is usually installed to protect the land on the downslope side and for this purpose
the choice between an open drain and a tube drain depends on the slope of the flow. On gentle
slopes and on slopes as steep as 1 m drop in 30 m, the efficiency of the two devices is about equal.
On steeper slopes, closed drain type is not recommended. If the trench of drain line is cut into the
impervious strata, there is danger that a significant amount of water moving laterally will bridge over
the line and continue on downslope.
Interception Ditch
Interception
Ditch
or Drain
or Drain
Water
Table
Water Table
Before Drainage
Before
Drainage
Ground
Surface
W1
d
de
iw
W2
DWD
Water Table
After Drainage
Le
Distance of Drain
Effectiveness
Figure 14.43 Spacing for Interception Drains (SCS, 1973)

14.8.3
Drawdown Upslope
Childs (1982) indicated that on the uphill side of the drain the influence or drawdown extends for a
distance which is greater the more gradual the slope. He recommended that if the slope is 1 m drop
in 10 m, the influence upslope would be a distance of 10 m; if the slope is 1 to 50 m, the influence
would be 50 m, 1 to 100 m, would be 100 m etc.
14.8.4
Drawdown Downslope
The drawdown on the downslope side is governed by the height of the water level in the drain.
Obviously, any foreign water escaping below the interceptor drain will continue on downslope.
March 2009
14-47
14.8.5
Amount of Flow Integrated
The quantity of flow intercepted by a drain is dependent on the type of drain used and the relative
position of the device in the permeable strata. In designing interceptor drains, the engineer should
first estimate how much water is flowing past the point of interception. Then the probable quantity
of water to be drained can be estimated by positioning the drain device in the profile. Roughly, the
quantity varies directly with the depth of flow intercepted.
14.8.6
Drain Envelops and Filters Design
Drain envelops and filters are two different techniques used to solve different problems. Drain
envelops are permeable materials such as gravel placed around the drains for the improving of flow
conditions in the area immediately surrounding the drain and/or for improving bedding conditions.
Filters for drains are permeable materials such as geotextiles placed around the drains for preventing
fine-grained materials in the surrounding soil from being carried into the drain. Table 14.13 can be
used as initial guideline to estimate the requirements for further investigation on envelops and filters.
14.8.6.1
Geotextile Filters
Wide varieties of geotextile drain filters are available in the market. A properly designed filter
stabilizes the soil around the drain and allows free entry of water. The first step in designing
drainage systems that may require geotextile filters is to perform a particle size analysis of samples
of the base material at drain depth in the field. The number of samples required depends on the
uniformity of the soil. Usually soils with more than 30% clay do not require a filter. The following
equation can be used as a general guideline for designing geotextile filters.
O 95 Fabric
2.5
D 85 Soil
(14.34)
Where,
O95 = the apparent opening size (AOS) of the geotextile filter
D85 = the size of which 85% of the particles are finer
Table 14.13 Drain Filter and Envelop Recommendation (SCS, 1979)
Soil Texture
Gravel
Gravely Coarse Sand
Very Coarse Sand
Gravely Fine Sand
Medium Sand
Fine Sand
Loamy Sand
Sandy Loam
Loam
Silt
Silty Clay Loam
Sandy Clay
Silty Clay
Clay
Peat
14.8.6.2
Envelop or Filter
Recommendations
None
None
None
Filter
Filter
Filter
Filter
Filter
Filter
Filter
None
None
Envelop
Envelop
None
Degree of Urgency
Moderate
High
Very High
High
Moderate
Low
Moderate
Moderate
Moderate
-
Gravel and Sand Filters
Filter materials should be fairly well-graded. For practical and economic reasons these filters are
usually confined to one gradation of material which is selected from a local source. If more than one
14-48
March 2009
gradation is used, the layers should be from coarsest to finest material, starting at the pipe. The
design criteria presented in Table 14.14 are based on research by the US Bureau of Reclamation and
US Corps of Engineers.
Table 14.14 Filter Recommendations (SCS, 1979)
Clay (%)
Less than 30%
D85 of Soil
D85 400 m
400 D85 120 m
400 D85 120 m
More than 30%
Recommended Filter
- Any type in which AOS 800m
- Pin hole pipe (Opening 800m)
-
Woven or non-woven 25 AOS 350 m

Minimum thickness 1.9 mm
Pile or velour surface (density 140 g/m2)
25 AOS 200 m
Non woven when AOS 3 times D85 of the soil
No filter needed (may need envelop)
A layer 65 mm of well graded material is enough to achieve satisfactory results. Unfortunately

uniform placement of such a small layer of gravel is difficult to achieve. Foe this reason a minimum
thickness of 100 mm is recommended for each layer of the filter.
The first step in designing a proper sand and gravel filter is to perform a particle size analysis of the
base material soil at drain depth in the field. The number of samples required depends on the
uniformity of the soil. Limits for the filter material should be established using the following
equations.
D 50 Filter
= 12 to 58
D 50 Soil
(14.35)
D15 Filter
=12 to 40
D15 Soil
(14.36)
From these Equations, D50 of the base material times 12 and 85 will yield the lower limit and upper
limit for D5o filter, provided the filter has no more than 5% finer than 0.074 mm and is relatively well
graded. The chosen filter material should be checked against the following equation for stability.
D15 Filter
5
D 85 Soil
(14.37)
The D85 size of the filter material with respect to the opening pf the drain pipe should be verified
using the following equation:
D 85 Filter
2
Maximum drain pipe opening
(14.38)
Finally the distribution curve of the filter material should be roughly parallel to that of the base
material. Figure 14.44 shows the lower and upper limits of a filter material derived from Eqs. 14.33
to 14.36.
It is also crucial for filters that the material should be well graded. A filter material is considered well
graded when all particle sizes from the largest to the smallest are present in a balanced way. Once
particle size tests are completed it is simple to verify how well graded the material is. The coefficient
of uniformity can be calculated using the following equation:
March 2009
14-49
Cu =
D 60 Filter
D10 Filter
(14.39)
Where, Cu is the coefficient of uniformity
Clay
100
Silt
Sand
Gravel
D 85
er L
imit
Upp
60
Low
er L
imit
Bas
eM
ater
ial
Percent Passing
80
50
40
20
0
0.0001
0.001
0.01
0.1
10
15
100
Diameter of Particles (mm)

Figure 14.44 Diameters of Soil Particles (BCDF, 1998)
It is also crucial for filters that the material should be well graded. A filter material is considered well
graded when all particle sizes from the largest to the smallest are present in a balanced way. Once
particle size tests are completed it is simple to verify how well graded the material is. The coefficient
of uniformity can be calculated using the following equation:
Cu =
D 60 Filter
D10 Filter
(14.39)
Where, Cu is the coefficient of uniformity

The coefficient of curvature is calculated using:
Cc =
( D 30 )2
( D10 )( D 60 )
(14.40)
Where, Cc is the coefficient of curvature.

Equations 14.37 and 14.38 in conjunction with Table 14.15 should be used to verify whether the
material is well graded. All requirements of Table 14.14 need to be met for material to be defined as
well graded.
14-50
March 2009
Table 14.15 Requirements for Well Graded Filter Material (SCS, 1979)
14.8.6.3
Maximum Size of Aggregates
38 mm
D90
D10
19 mm
0.25 mm
Cu
Sand Cu > 4
Gravel Cu > 6
Cc
1 Cc 3
Gravel Envelops
The basic functions of a drain envelop is to improve permeability in the zone surrounding the drain
by increasing the effective hydraulic radius. For this reason, the envelop material should have
hydraulic conductivity 7 times higher than the base material. Since envelops are not designed for
their filtration capacity, they do not need to be well graded.
The other function of envelops is to improve bedding conditions for the drain. The thickness should
be the same as sand and gravel filter as 100 mm around the pipe. All the envelop material should be
smaller than 38 mm, D90 19 mm and D90 0.250 mm.
When interception drains are installed on steep grades, there will sometimes be bridging over of
ground water flow above the drain. To prevent this, it may be desirable to provide more envelop
material above the drain to prevent this. Blind inlets can also be used to avoid this condition.
14.9
BIODRAINAGE DESIGN
Biodrainage is the vertical drainage of soil water through evapotranspiration by vegetation for
controlling water logging and salinity. In groundwater context, biodrainage is said to be operative
when the root system of trees draws water directly from the water table generally at depths greater
than 2 m. Biodrainage is envisaged as a benign and cost effective technology to lower the rising
watertable so as to take it well below (>1.5 m) the root zone of crop plants. Biodrainage is cost
effective compared with conventional surface and subsurface drainage techniques due to periodic
maintenance and have the problem of effluent management. Eucalyptus has emerged as the tree of
choice for the biodrainage (Figure 14.45). Biodrainage can effectively contribute to strongly reducing
the problems as experienced from water logging in irrigated agriculture and non-irrigated agriculture.
The problems associated with a rise in salinity in the root zone can be effectively delayed using
biodrainage systems in semi-arid and arid areas. It is not very effective in removing salt.
Figure 14.45 Biodrainage with Eucalyptus Plantation

March 2009
14-51
14.9.1
Important Features of Biodrainage
The aim of biodrainage is to remove excess groundwater through the process of transpiration by
vegetation. This is achieved by enhancing the transpiration capacity of the landscape by introducing
high-water use vegetation types in large enough areas to balance recharge/discharge processes to
maintain groundwater balances below the root zone of the agriculture crops. The following
requirements are to be met for biodrainage to be effectively adaptable:
Water balance the quantity of water removed from the groundwater annually should equal
the quantity of recharge
Salt balance the quantity of minerals removed annually should be nearly equal to the
quantity of mineral import
Area under plantation this should not be so large so affect agriculture
Water for plantation the demand on irrigation water should be minimal
Groundwater quality should not be too saline, say, not more than 12 ds/m
Watertable depression impact should extend to the whole area threatened by water
logging
14.9.1.1
Water Balance
The water balance with Biodrainage is depicted in Figure 14.46. The plantation area can be along
canals, roads, farm boundaries and in blocks of land suitably scattered and distributed within the
boundary of the irrigated area.
For a stable water balance, the annual withdrawal by plantations should be equal the net recharge
due to irrigation that is:
Wb = R c + R p
(14.41)
Where,
Wb = the annual withdrawal of water by plantation (mm)
= the net annual recharge from the water conveyance system (mm)
Rc
= the net annual recharge from the field during water application (mm)
Rp
Irrigated crop land (C)
Road
Afforestation (P)
Canal
Evapotranspiration = P x Apan
IR (including canal
conveyance losses)
Recharge from irrigation (RP)

Ground water table (GWT)
Recharge from seepage (RC)
Figure 14.46 Schematic Presentation of Water Balance with Biodrainage

14.9.1.2
Salt Balance
With proper planning of irrigation water use, irrigation intensity, crop selection, water management
and biodrainage plantations, it can be possible to The quantity of minerals imported annually with
irrigation water is estimated using the following equation:
Q m = 1 10 6 m w V
(14.42)
Where,
Qm = the quantity of mineral imported with irrigation water per year (kg/yr)
14-52
March 2009
mw
V
= the amount of dissolved minerals in irrigation water (mg/L)

= the volume of water used for irrigation (mm)
The quantity of minerals removed by agricultural crops in a year can be estimated using the
following equation:
Q mc = m c A
(14.43)
Where,
Qmc = the quantity of mineral removed by crops per year (kg/yr)
mw = the amount of dissolved minerals in irrigation water (mg/L)
V
= the volume of water used for irrigation (mm)
The quantity of minerals removed by tree plantation in a year can be estimated using the following
equation:
Q mp = m p b p
Where,
Qmc
mp
b
p
=
=
=
=
14.9.1.3
Water Requirements for Plantation
(14.44)
the quantity of mineral removed by crops per year (kg/yr)

the percentage mineral content is suitable biomass produce (%)
biomass produce (tons/ha/yr)
plantation area (ha)
The water required for plantations of biodrainage is proposed to draw from the shallow ground
watertable. Fresh canal water may be needed in initial stages and for nurseries.
14.9.1.4
Groundwater Quality
Poor quality of groundwater may reduce the effective water use capability by plantations but would
not be threat to practicing biodrainage. Appropriate tree water use values corresponding to the
prevailing groundwater salinity levels should be used in planning the plantation area.
14.9.2
Plantation Area
The requirement of water balance and area needed for plantation (P/C) can be estimated by the
following equation. Parameters are illustrated in Figure 14.46.
P = R F A F IR
C
A pan
(14.45)
Annual recharge of groundwater and recharge factor can be estimated using the following equations.
RF =
R c R p
IR
R g = R F C A F IR
Where,
P/C =
P
=
C
=
AF
=
=
IR
(14.46)
(14.47)
represents the fraction of the culturable area that must be under afforestation
plantation area (ha)
total culturable command area (ha)
annual intensity of irrigated agriculture
gross irrigation supply (mm)
March 2009
14-53
RF
Apan
= recharge factor which is the ratio of the net recharge to the total irrigation supply
= tree water use assumed equal to surface evaporation from a standard span (mm)
As an example, if RF = 0.25, AF = 1.0, IR = 500 mm and Apan = 1200 mm then P/C= 0.10. This
illustrates that 10% of the culturable area under plantation can provide needed biodrainage.
The width and spacing between land strips for afforestation can be decided on the basis of the
percentage of area that is to be brought under plantations.
14.9.3
Watertable Drawdown by Plantations
The watertable rises when discharge (evapotranspiration, surface runoff and groundwater outflow)
exceeds recharge (infiltration and groundwater inflow) and stabilizes when they are equal. A
depressed water table beneath a tree plantation induces groundwater flow from the surrounding
areas (where the watertable is higher) towards the plantation area, thus providing watertable
control. If tree plantations are planted in parallel strips, the water table profile would be similar to
the profile found between parallel, open drainage ditches (14.47).
Transpiration
Recharge
Natural ground surface
L
Y0
Ground water
surface
H
Impervious layer
Plantation
Depressed ground water

table surface underneath
plantations
Figure 14.47 Flow towards Depressed Ground Watertable under Plantations

The relationship between depression of the watertable, rate of recharge, hydraulic conductivity,
depth to barrier layer and distance between plantations can be described using equations developed
by Hooghoudt (1940), and later applied by Donnan (1946) as follows:
L2 =
Where,
L
=
R
=
Y0
=
K
=
h
=
8 K Yo h 4 K h 2
+
R
R
(14.48)
distance between parallel plantation strips (m)

rate of recharge (m/day)
height of water table above barrier layer under the tree plantations (m)
hydraulic conductivity of substrata (mm/day)
head difference (m)
Biodrainage plantations can be planned in blocks or strips and spaced so apart that groundwater
table at the furthest point from the plantation does not rise above 2 m from the ground surface to
eliminate the threat of water logging.
14.9.4
Root Depth and Density
The lateral extent of the impact of the watertable depression beneath plantations on the surrounding
land obviously depends on the vertical and lateral size of the trees root system. Root systems have a
remarkable ability to expand to access water and nutrients. The selection of appropriate species is
important in the design of efficient biodrainage plantations.
14-54
March 2009
14.10
COMBINED DRAINAGE SYSTEM DESIGN
Combined drainage is used to intercept surface and subsurface water. The investigation, planning,
and construction of surface interception drains follow the requirements and procedures given for
surface drainage. In the planning and establishment of interceptor drains for both surface and
subsurface water, the location of the outlet is of utmost importance. Cross drains should be laid out
to use the best natural outlet available as possible. Surface water should not be connected directly
to a subsurface drainage system, unless it is designed for it. The excessive volume and velocity of
water from a surface drain system tied directly to a drain may actually leach out of the perforated
pipe defeating its function as a ground water collection device. It is possible to join nonperforated
pipe conveying water from surface drainage systems and subsurface drainage systems when the
junction is at an elevation lower than any perforated pipe. The most cost-efficient system in terms of
life-cycle costs may include completely separate systems, one to collect and convey surface water
and one to collect and convey subsurface water.
14.11
OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE
Maintenance and operation although essentially a technical activity, requires good planning and
administration. The operation of subsurface drainage systems is mostly limited to the operation of
pumps if pumping is done. In some cases, where controlled drainage is practiced, the operations can
also involve opening and closing of gates. Maintenance of subsurface drainage systems consists
mainly of removing sediment from the pipes and manholes, repairing and if necessary replacing
these pipes, manholes and outlets. Maintenance of the open (main) drains is chiefly confined to
removing sediment and weeds. Maintenance of the pipe (subsurface) drainage system is not entirely
separate from maintenance of the downstream open (main) drains and/or outlets. If the downstream
open drainage system is not properly maintained, it will influence the functioning and maintenance of
the pipe drainage systems. Generally the objective of the maintenance of an open drainage system is
to keep the water level below the outlet level of the pipe drainage system(s) at all times.
Drainage should include physical components for monitoring and management allowing an
integrated water management program that includes the irrigation system design and management.
Subsurface drain outlets should be inspected frequently and after unusual precipitation events.
Outlets should be protected with rodent screens to prevent small animals from entering the system.
Outlets should be provided with headwalls that protect against damage from maintenance activities,
animals and traffic. Outlet markers must be provided at subsurface drain outlets to assist in location
for maintenance and inspection.
14.11.1
(a)
Classification of Maintenance
Annual/Minor Maintenance
Maintenance measures should be needed at least once per year (weed clearance, debris clearance,
greasing and lubrication of moving parts of weirs etc.)
(b)
Periodic/Major Maintenance
Preventive maintenance should be undertaken at pre-determined intervals or on the basis of

maintenance needs established during periodic inspections (desilting and reshaping of canals,
flushing of pipe drains, painting, repair and/or replacement of worn parts of structures.
(c)
Emergency Maintenance
Replacement or repair after break-down of system components due to accidents or unforeseen

structural failure. Foreseen repairs or replacement should be covered by the periodic maintenance.
(d)
Deferred Maintenance
Neglecting some minor maintenance can be allowed but gross deferment of maintenance is almost
bad policy as it leads unreliable function of the system.
March 2009
14-55
14.11.2
Routine Checks
Routine checks are simple operation-and-maintenance inspections to verify whether the system is
functioning properly, and to see whether there is any need for repairs or cleaning. Simple routine
inspections can be done according to a locally suitable checklist. Important points to include in such
a list are:
Check the drainage base, which means checking whether the pipe and open drains have free
outflow, especially in a period when drainage is most needed. A good drainage base is the
first and foremost condition for a drainage system to function satisfactorily. If the drainage
base is found to be unsatisfactory, the main drainage system should be improved.
Check that drains are discharging during and shortly after rain or irrigation.
Monitor water levels in field and collector drains. High water levels indicate an obstruction in
the drain. When high water levels are found, the water levels along a drain should be
compared, which may give a clue as to where the problem lies.
Check whether sediments or pollutants have accumulated in the drain, structures, or outlets.
Look at the land surface for wet spots, as signs of water logging, a few days after rain or
irrigation.
Check the depth of the watertable, especially where wet conditions are found. The
watertable can be measured in an auger hole or observation well.
Look for any damage to pipe outlets and structures which restrict drain functions
14.11.3
Operation of Subsurface Drainage Systems
Operation of a watertable management system can be automated. However, the timing and selected
stages for the structure settings that give the desired results, frequent observations, manual
structure setting, and pump operation should be used. Monitoring wells in the field can provide for
direct reading of watertable levels that are correlated to stage settings of the control structures. The
watertable should be maintained close enough to the root zone. If the watertable is too far below
the root zone, sufficient water may need to be provided at the source or moved through the soil
profile rapidly enough to reestablish the desired watertable level. Adequate drainage is needed at all
crop stages.
The operation of drainage systems is primarily confined to the operating of the pumps or pumping
stations if the systems require pumping. The total operational cost of pumping is a sum of the cost
of energy (electricity or diesel fuel), oil, grease and staff costs. Modern small electric pumps are
often equipped with automatic switches that switch on and off automatically at predetermined water
levels. The manufacturers of the pumps prescribe regular maintenance. These instructions have to
be followed and should be given adequate attention the maintenance planning.
14.11.4
14.11.4.1 Maintenance Process
The maintenance process consists of the following activities:
Regular checking of the functioning of the different elements of the system

Regular routine minor cleaning/maintenance
Periodic integral check of the functionality of the system
Periodic general cleaning (flushing) of the system
Repairing broken or obstructed parts of the system, when needed
Carrying out preventive maintenance and repairs of pumps if relevant
Maintenance should be based on accurate as-built drawings of the drainage system that have been
checked and approved by both the implementing authority and the beneficiaries. Records of the
construction process also need to be handed over to the maintenance units. This will facilitate the
maintenance activities, especially when obstructions in the drains have to be located.
14-56
March 2009
14.11.4.2 Frequency of Maintenance
If soils consist of unstable aggregates, the systems tend to sediment relatively quickly and will thus
require fairly frequent cleaning. A well planned subsurface pipe drainage system installation will
require considerably less maintenance than a system installed with less care and less suitable
materials. The extra cost of high quality installation will be recuperated in the form of less
maintenance costs and better functionality of the drainage system.
14.11.5
Open Drains
Major problems in maintaining open drains may be due to erosion, settlement, silting, vegetation and
seepage. Before the drainage season, drains should be cleaned; all vegetation should be removed,
and side slopes and banks should be repaired when necessary. Siltation should be monitored and
removed when required. The frequency depends on the local situation and no hard and fast rules
can be given.
14.11.6
A well managed watertable ensures the crop will receive the full benefit of a controlled drainage or
subirrigation system. It is necessary to operate the system for both irrigation and drainage during
the growing season. Watertable is difficult to manage optimally due to the unpredictability of the
distribution, quantity and timing of rainfall. Management decisions include:
when to raise and lower the control structure,

what height to maintain the weir in the control structure,
when to add water
14.11.6.1 Raising and Lowering the Control Structure
The depth of the watertable should be maintained low enough so prolonged saturation of the root
zone does not occur and root development is not hindered. A float type control structure will open
the flap automatically when the watertable is above the desired level and close the drain system
once the desired watertable level is reached.
14.11.6.2 Weir Height
The watertable level should be higher for shallow rooted crops or for sandy soils. Keeping accurate
records over several years of system operation may be needed to determine the best settings for the
control structure. The records should include information on the control levels, wet and dry stress to
plants and weather data.
14.11.6.3 Adding Water/Irrigating
The soil should not dry out too much before starting subirrigation. The soil hydraulic conductivity
decreases as the soil dries and the volume of water per unit rise of watertable is increased. Pumps
should be shut off during rainfall events. Maintaining a constant watertable is usually the preferred
option, as it requires less time to manage. The watertable should not fluctuate more than 3 cm
through out the season. The greatest challenge is finding the optimum depth. The best way to
achieve the goal of a constant watertable is to use a float switch attached to a pump. The float
switch will automatically turn the pump on if the water level drops too low. Management methods
require the watertable to be monitored. This may be accomplished manually, but is time consuming.
Automated systems with floats or water level control switches on pumps reduce the time required to
operate the system.
14.11.6.4 Monitoring
Watertable observation wells and soil tensiometers should be installed and monitored to determine
the relationship between watertable depth and available soil moisture for a particular site. The
March 2009
14-57
information can be used to determine the response time of the watertable. Wells should be installed
vertically to a depth of at least 30 cm below the desired watertable elevation in the growing season.
14.11.6.5 Potential Problems of Subirrigation
Sudden heavy rains during the irrigation mode may flood the root zone, especially if the weir setting
(watertable) is high. This problem may be solved by careful on-site management.
14-58
March 2009
REFERENCES
ASAE (1998). Design of subsurface drains in humid areas. EP480 MAR98. American Society of
Agricultural Engineering.
BCDF (1998). Controlled Drainage and Subirrigation, British Colombia Drainage Factsheet, Ministry of
Agriculture and Food, Order No. 564.000-1.
BCDF (1998). Subsurface drainage plan, British Colombia Drainage Factsheet, Ministry of Agriculture
and Food, Order No. 532.000-1.
Chieng S.T. (1982). Drainage Design Criteria Determination for Subsurface Drainage Systems. ASAE
Paper 82-2563. St. Joseph, Michigan.
Donnan, W.W. (1946). Model tests of a tile-spring formula. Soil Science Society of America
Proceedings, 11: 131-136.
Gary S and Jerry W (2001). Planning an Agricultural Subsurface Drainage System. Publication Series
BU-07685, University of Minnesota, USA.
Hooghoudt S.B. (1940). Bijdragon tot de Kennis van Eenige Natuurkundige Groothen van den Grond.
Cited from Modern Land Drainage by Smedema et al. 2004. Verslagen van Landbouwkundige
Onederzoekingen 46(7), 515707, the Hage, The Netherlands.
Willardson L.S., and Walker R.E. (1979). Synthetic drain envelope soil interactions. Proc. Irrig. And
Drain. Div. Vol. 105, No. IR4, Amer. Soc. Civil Eng., pp. 367-373.
Salem H.E. and Willardson L.S. (1992). Evaluation of nonstandard synthetic envelope materials. Vol.
I, Proc. 5th Intl. Drain. Symp., Lahore, Pakistan.
SCS (1979). Engineering field manual for conservation practices, Soil Conservation Service
Engineering Division, Soil Conservation Service, US Department of Agriculture, Washington, DC.
SCS (1973). Drainage of Agricultural Land, A practical handbook for the planning, Design,
Construction and Maintenance of Agricultural Draiange Systems. Soil Conservation Service, US
Department of Agriculture, Washington, DC.
Skaggs R.W. (1980). Water movement factors important to the design and operation of subirrigation
systems. In: Transactions of the American Society of Agricultural Engineers, Vol. 24. No. 6., ASAE,
St. Joshep, Michigan. Pp 1553-1561.
Childs (1982). Soil survey of Marion and Monongalia Counties, West Virginia. USDA-SCS. U.S. Govt.
Print. Office. Washington, DC.
Van Beers W.F.J. (1965). The Auger Hole Method. Bulletin No. 1. International Institute for Land
Reclamation and Improvement, Wageningen, Netherlands.
Withers B. and Vipond S. (1974). Irrigation: Design and Practice. B T Batsford Limited. 306pp
ILRI (1971). Drainage principles and applications. Volume IV, Publication 16, International Institute
for Land Reclamation and Improvement, Wageningen, The Netherlands, 476 pp.
USDA (1997). National Engineering Handbook. US Department of Agriculture, Part 624 Drainage.
USDA (2001). Irrigation Guide. National Engineering Handbook. US Department of Agriculture.
March 2009
14-59
14-60
March 2009
APPENDIX 14.A Nomograph for the Solution of the Hooghoudt Drain Spacing Formula
(Van Beers, 1965)
Graph A (S = 5 25 m)
Graph
B (S
= 10 100 m)
m)
Graph
B (S=10-100
Graph A (S=5-25 m)
8k2h
O=0.5
q
400
4k1h
8k2h
q
400
0.75
360
S=
25
L=25
O=D
8
380
2000
4k1h2
S
S=
10090 80 70
q
60
50
1900
10 5 4 3 2 1.5 1 0.75 0.5

45
340
1600
20
300
300
1500
1.5
280
260
1500
40
1200
3
4
8
220
16
200
1000
35
180
14
60
40
20
0
March 2009
1000
30
800
700
12
100
100
80
1100
900
140
120
1400
1300
18
240
160
1800
1700
320
200
2000
500
25
10
20
8
6
5
0
600
500
400
300
15
200
10
100
0
14A-1
APPENDIX 14.B Graphical Solution of Ellipse Equation I (USDA, 2001)
14A-2
March 2009
APPENDIX 14.C Graphical Solution of Ellipse Equation II(USDA, 2001)
March 2009
14A-3
APPENDIX 14.D Subsurface Drain Discharge (USDA, 2001)
Area Drained
Note: Use acres with ft3/s and hectares with m3/s
14A-4
March 2009
APPENDIX 14.E: Pipe Diameter Nomograph (ILRI, 1971)
200
30
0
20
0
15
0
150
300
400
0.20
0.10
500
40
0
100
50
0
70
40
0.50
Hydraulic gradient (%)
70
40
1.00
10
0
Smooth pipes
(clay, concrete,
plastics)
0.05
0.02
50
20
100
200
500
1000 2000
5000 10000 20000
Discharge (m /d)
100
300
30
0
20
0
15
0
200
400
64
mm
150
40
0
70
40
0.50
0.20
Corrugated pipes
(plastics)
500
50
0
Hydraulic gradient (%)
70
40
1.00
10
0
0.10
0.05
0.02
20
50
100
200
500
1000 2000
5000 10000 20000
Discharge (m /d)
Uniform flow
Varied flow
March 2009
14A-5
Appendix 14.F Determining Pipe Diameter

14F-1 Nomograph for Determining the Size of Pipe Drains (ASAE, 1998)
14A-6
March 2009
14F-2 Corrugated Plastic Pipe (n = 0.013) (USDA, 2001)
Source: ASAE Standard EP260.4
March 2009
14A-7
APPENDIX 14.G: Determining Size of Clay or Concrete Drain Tile (n = 0.013) (USDA, 2001)
Source: ASAE Standard EP260.4.
14A-8
March 2009
APPENDIX 14.H Curves to Determine Discharge (Qr) for Main Drain (USDA, 2001)
Conversion Factors:
1 ft = 0.3048 m
1 ft3/s = 0.0283 m3/s
March 2009
1 m = 3.281 ft
1 m3/s = 35.31 ft3/s
14A-9
APPENDIX 14I Relation between D and de

14I-1 For 80 mm Drain
DRAIN DIAMETER = 80 mm
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
Equivalent
Depth
Equaivalent
depth, de (m)
50
*S=75m
5
100
6
*S = spacing between drains
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
Depth of Impermeable Layer, D (m)
14A-10
March 2009
APPENDIX 14I Relation between D and de (contd)

0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
Equivalent Depth
Equaivalent depth, de (m)
45
50
*S = 75 m
5
100
8
0
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
March 2009
14A-11
APPENDIX 14I Relation between D and de (contd)

0
5
10
15
20
2
25
30
35
Equivalent
Depth
Equaivalent
depth, de (m)
40
45
50
*S = 75 m
6
100
7
8
0
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
14A-12
March 2009
APPENDIX 14-J Worked Examples

Example 14J-1: Design of Pipe Drainage System
A group of farmers in IADA North Selangor has a 20 ha vegetable crops farm. The farm area is
having a loam soil and requires drainage to get more opportunity days. From the DOA field
investigation, the drainage coefficient was obtained to be 15 mm/day. The watertable depth is 1.5 m
with an impermeable layer located at 4.5 m. The average hydraulic conductivity of the soil is 0.30
m/day.
Design Procedures:
Step 1: Drain Spacing
From Section 14.3.5:
The minimum watertable depth is 0.50 m
Using Figure 14.10:
DWD = 0.5 m
Section 14.5.3:
Allowable depth of the pipe drain 1.2m is selected. Hence, d = 1.2 m
Using Figure 14.9:
h = d DWD = 1.2 0.5 = 0.70 m
Using Figure 14.9:
D = 4.5 1.2 = 3.3 m (The depth of impermeable layer below the drain)
Evaluating with D = 3.3, an initial de (Figure 14.9) of 1 m is selected.

From soil investigation, K = 0.30 m/day
Since the soil is homogeneous condition, the drain spacing can be calculated using the Eq. 14.5,
S2 =
Where,
S2 =
4K 2de h h 2
q
K = 0.30 m/day
h = 0.70 m
de = 1.0 m
q = 15 mm/day = 0.015 m/day
4 (0.3) 2 (1.0)(0.7) (0.7) 2

= 151.20 m2
0.015
S = 12.30 m
Now, we select 80 mm pipe drain size.
From Appendix 14I-1,
for S = 12.30 and D = 3.3 m

Equivalent depth, de = 1.11 m
Now, we need to recalculate S to verify de = 1.11 m
S2 =
March 2009
4 (0.3) 2 (1.11)(0.7 ) (0.7) 2

0.015
) = 12.74 m
14A-13
From Appendix 14I-2,
for S = 12.74 and D = 3.3 m
Equivalent depth, de = 0.85 m which is not close to previous de= 1.1 m

Therefore, a drain spacing 12 m is selected as de = 1.1 is close to the assumed de. Now, drainage
spacing should check with the drain spacing calculated with the approximate drain spacing range for
DOA recommendation if available. If it falls within the range, accept the calculated drain spacing.
Otherwise, it will be over or under designed.
Step 2: Drain Size
The 80 mm pipe is selected.
Step 3: Drain Gradient
Using Table 14.3: For 80 mm pipe diameter, drainage gradient 0.20% is considered.
Step 4: Drain Length
Maximum drain length should not be exceeded 600 m (Section 14.4.8)
Step 5: Drain Capacity
For smooth pipe using Eq. 14.11,
Q = 50 d int 2.71 i 0.57
= 50 (0.080)2.71 (0.002)0.57
= 1.54 x 10-03 m3/s
= 1.5 L/s
Now, using Appendix 14.E Pipe Diameter Nomograph:
For 133 m3/day (1.5 L/s) and 0.2% gradient
The size of the drain pipe is 75 mm

Step 6: Maximum Drain Length
The maximum drain length is determined using the Eq. 14.15
L=
2.693 10 7 d 2.67 i 0.5

q S n
2.693 107 (0.075)2.67 (0.002)0.5

15 12 0.011
= 603 m which is feasible with respect to the maximum drain length 600 m..
= 600 m
If the length of the drain is more than 600 m then pipe diameter has to be increased.
14A-14
March 2009
Example 14J-2: Calculation Procedures for the Maximum Length and Drain Pipe
Diameters in the Drainage Network.
Given:
Slope 0.5%
Drain Spacing = 15 m
Drainage Coefficient = 12.5 mm/day
Design Procedures:
Using Eq. 14.15,
The maximum drainage length for 100 mm pipe
L=
2.693 107 (0.1)2.67 (0.002)0.5

2.693 10 7 d2.67 i0.5
=
= 1357 m
12.5 15 0.016
q S n
From the drain network, Tabulating from the top, we have 265 m (150 + 100 + 15) to point A. We
continue down the main line until we reach the nearest value of 1357 m. Point B is length of 1325 m.
Therefore, the collector must be increased just before the next laterals empty into it.
The maximum drainage length for 150 mm pipe
L=
2.693 107 (0.15)2.67 (0.002)0.5

2.693 10 7 d2.67 i0.5
=
= 2533 m
12.5 15 0.016
q S n
The pipe diameter has to be increased again at Point C where the total pipe length 2460 m is nearest
of the maximum length of 2533 m.
March 2009
14A-15
Example 14J-3: Pump Design for Subsurface Drainage System
A group of farmer needs a drainage pump because of the outlet of the drainage system is
submerged during most of the peak drainage period. There are 20 ha of land that has subsurface
drainage. Someone has also 10 ha that drains through a surface inlet into this subsurface system.
Design a pumping system for this farmer group.
Design Procedure:
Step 1: Capacity of a pump system for subsurface drainage systems is based on the design or
required drainage coefficient. Assume that, the design drainage coefficient is 15 mm/day.
From Table 14.8:
For a drainage coefficient of 15.0 mm/day = 1.73 L/s per ha

For 20 ha, (1.73 x 20) = 34.70 L/s
Add 10% safety due to variability in performance of the system

= 34.70 + (34.70 x 0.10) = 38.20 L/s
Step 2: Consider pump capacity for surface drainage for the same area may be twice of the surface
drainage pump capacity per hectare. This is required to estimate properly. This is beyond of the
scope of this chapter.
So, the required pump capacity = 1.10 (2 x 1.73 x 5) = 19.03 L/s
Step 3: Total volume to be pumped
38.20 + 19.03 = 57.20 L/s
Step 4: Calculate the total dynamic head
Static Head, Hs = Vertical distance between bottom of sump and outlet
Assume, Hs = 2.0 m
Friction Head for 57 L/s, considering the nominal pipe size 150. So, the friction head can be obtained
from a worldwide used friction loss chart which 4.80 m per 100 m.
So, HF = 0.10 m
Velocity Head using Eq. 14.19,
H V = 82550
Q2
D4
= 82550
57.202
150 4
= 0.53 m
Total Dynamic Head (TDH) = 2.0 + 0.10 + 0.53 = 2.63 m

Step 5: Calculate Power Requirement
Using Eq. 14.20:
P = 9.8
0.05720 2.63
Q TDH
= 9.8
= 2.1 KW
EP
0.70
Step 6: Water Storage (Sump) Required

After selecting the pump, sump should be designed with possible clearance and submergence in the
pump bay for the pump (Referred Chapter 8 for Detailed).
14A-16
March 2009
Example 14J-4: Computation Procedure of Designing Tubewells Subsurface Drainage

System
An irrigated area of 2000 ha has an annual drainage requirement of 480 mm. The drainable surplus
is thus 1.5 mm/d. The maximum running hours of the pump per day are taken to be 15 hours, thus
the tubewell operating factor, tw equals 0.63. Suppose that, given the availability of pumps and spare
parts, and a policy of reducing the number of different pump sizes, it has been decided to use three
different pump capacities: 100, 150, 200, 250 and 300 m3/h.
Design Procedures:
According to Equation 14.24, the area drained per well for a discharge rate of 200 m3/hr is then
Aw =
0.1 Q t w
0.1 200 24 0.63
=
q
1.5
= 201.6 ha 200 ha
Substituting this value of Aw into Equation 14.26 gives the spacing of tubewells in a triangular wellfield configuration.
3Aw
L = 100
= 100
3 200
= 1388 m
Substituting the value of Aw into Equation 14.27 gives the spacing of tubewells in a rectangular wellfield configuration (Assume the spacing between the main drains to be 5000 m).
L = 10000
Aw
201.6
= 10000
5000
B
= 403.2 m
The number of well required for each pumping capacity is computed using Eq. 14.25
Nw =
At
2000
=
200
Aw
= 10
Table 14-J4 Well Spacings for Different Pump Capacities and Well-Field Configurations
Pump Capacities
(m3/hr)
Area per Well

(ha)
Number of Well
100
100
20
977
200 x 5000
150
155
13
1216
310 x 5000
200
200
10
1382
400 x 5000
250
260
1575
520 x 5000
300
300
1693
600 x 5000
March 2009
Well Spacing (m)

Triangular
Rectangular
14A-17
14A-18
March 2009

Chapter 15 - Drainage Water Control and Treatment
Chapter 15 - DRAINAGE WATER CONTROL AND TREATMENT
Table of Contents
List of Tables .................................................................................................................... 15-v
List of Figures ................................................................................................................... 15-v
15.1
INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................... 15-1

15.1.1 Irrigation Excess Water and Agricultural Runoff ............................................ 15-2
15.1.2 Treatment Best Management Practices (BMPs) ............................................. 15-2
15.1.3 Dry-weather Flow ...................................................................................... 15-3
15.1.4 Wet-weather Flow...................................................................................... 15-4
15.2
WATER QUANTITY CONTROL FACILITIES................................................................ 15-4

15.2.1 Pond Features ............................................................................................. 15-4
15.2.1.1
Primary Outlets........................................................................ 15-4
15.2.1.2
Secondary Outlets.................................................................... 15-5
15.2.1.3
Bypass Flows........................................................................... 15-5
15.2.1.4
Bottom Grades ........................................................................ 15-5
15.2.1.5
Maximum Pond Depth .............................................................. 15-6
15.2.1.6
Freeboard ............................................................................... 15-6
15.2.2 Pond Design .............................................................................................. 15-6

15.2.2.1
Critical Storm .......................................................................... 15-7
15.2.2.2
Inflow Hydrographs ................................................................. 15-7
15.2.2.3
Stage-Storage Relationship ....................................................... 15-7
15.2.2.4
Stage-Discharge Relationship.................................................... 15-7
15.2.3 Design of Outlet Channel ............................................................................ 15-8

15.2.4 Design of Embankments ............................................................................. 15-9
15.2.4.1
Top Widths ............................................................................. 15-9
15.2.4.2
Side Slopes ............................................................................. 15-10
15.2.4.3
Fill Material ............................................................................. 15-10
15.2.5 Steps for Detention Pond Design ................................................................. 15-10

15.3
WATER QUALITY HYDROLOGY ............................................................................... 15-16

15.3.1 Pollution Process and Impacts ..................................................................... 15-16
15.3.1.1
Solids ..................................................................................... 15-16
15.3.1.2
Nutrients................................................................................. 15-16
15.3.1.3
Livestock Grazing..................................................................... 15-17
15.3.1.4
Pesticides................................................................................ 15-17
15.3.1.5
Irrigation Practices................................................................... 15-17
15.3.2 Pollution Terminologies............................................................................... 15-17

15.3.3 Pollutant Load Estimation............................................................................ 15-18
March 2009
15-i
15.3.3.1
Alternative Expressions for Pollutant Load.................................. 15-18
15.3.3.2
Event Mean Concentration Method ............................................ 15-18
15.3.3.3
Pollutant Export Rates Method .................................................. 15-19
15.3.3.4
Unit Load Method .................................................................... 15-19
15.3.3.5
Modified Universal Soil Loss Equation Method ............................ 15-19
15.3.3.6
Debris Load Estimation............................................................. 15-22
15.3.3.7
Pollutants in Rainfall ................................................................ 15-22
15.3.3.8
Pollutants in Dry-weather Flow ................................................. 15-23
15.3.4 Non-structural Control Measures.................................................................. 15-23

15.3.5 Structural Control Measures ........................................................................ 15-23
15.4
15.3.5.1
Selection Criteria ..................................................................... 15-23
15.3.5.2
Hydrologic Considerations ........................................................ 15-23
TEMPORARY TREATMENT FACILITIES ..................................................................... 15-25

15.4.1 Mulching ................................................................................................... 15-25
15.4.1.1
Suitable Applications ................................................................ 15-25
15.4.1.2
Design Criteria......................................................................... 15-25
15.4.1.3
Maintenance Requirements....................................................... 15-26
15.4.1.4
Limitations .............................................................................. 15-26
15.4.2 Sediment Fence ......................................................................................... 15-26

15.4.2.1
15.4.2.2
Design Criteria......................................................................... 15-26
15.4.2.3
15.4.2.4
Limitations .............................................................................. 15-27
15.4.3 Check Dam................................................................................................ 15-28

15.4.3.1
15.4.3.2
Design Criteria......................................................................... 15-28
15.4.3.3
15.4.3.4
Limitations .............................................................................. 15-28
15.4.4 Sediment Trap ........................................................................................... 15-29

15.4.4.1
15.4.4.2
Design Criteria......................................................................... 15-29
15.4.4.3
15.4.5.4
Limitations .............................................................................. 15-29
15.4.5 Sediment Basin .......................................................................................... 15-30
15-ii
15.4.5.1
15.4.5.2
Design Criteria......................................................................... 15-30
15.4.5.3
Sizing of Wet Sediment Basin ................................................... 15-30
15.4.5.4
15.4.5.5
Limitations .............................................................................. 15-33
March 2009
15. 5
PERMANENT TREATMENT FACILITIES ..................................................................... 15-33

15.5.1 Vegetated Buffer Strips............................................................................... 15-33
15.5.1.1
15.5.1.2
Design Criteria......................................................................... 15-34
15.5.1.3
15.5.1.4
Limitations .............................................................................. 15-34
15.5.2 Swale ........................................................................................................ 15-34

15.5.2.1
15.5.2.2
Design Criteria......................................................................... 15-35
15.5.2.3
15.5.2.4
Limitations .............................................................................. 15-36
15.5.3 Wet Ponds and Wetlands Planning ............................................................... 15-36

15.5.3.1
Location of the Ponds and Wetlands .......................................... 15-36
15.5.3.2
Data Requirements .................................................................. 15-37
15.5.3.3
Zoning of Ponds and Wetlands.................................................. 15-37
15.5.3.4
Pollutant Treatment Process ..................................................... 15-38
15.5.3.5
Process Modelling .................................................................... 15-38
15.5.3.6
Health and Safety .................................................................... 15-39
15.5.3.7
Maintenance............................................................................ 15-40
15.5.4 Wet Ponds Design ...................................................................................... 15-41

15.5.4.1
Pollutant Retention in Pond....................................................... 15-41
15.5.4.2
Remobilisation of Pollutants ...................................................... 15-42
15.5.4.3
Pond Shape and Design Features .............................................. 15-43
15.5.4.4
Pond Outlets ........................................................................... 15-43
15.5.4.5
Slopes .................................................................................... 15-43
15.5.4.6
Water Balance ......................................................................... 15-44
15.5.4.7
Erosion and Sediment Control ................................................... 15-44
15.5.4.8
Landscaping and Planting ......................................................... 15-44
15.5.5 Wetlands Design ........................................................................................ 15-44

15.5.5.1
Features of Wetlands ............................................................... 15-45
15.5.5.2
Pollutant Retention .................................................................. 15-45
15.5.5.3
Hydrologic Regime................................................................... 15-47
15.5.5.4
Wetland Outlet Design ............................................................. 15-47
15.5.5.5
Flow Distribution...................................................................... 15-47
15.5.5.6
Velocity Control ....................................................................... 15-48
15.5.5.7
Planting .................................................................................. 15-48
15.5.5.8
Coastal Wetlands ..................................................................... 15-48
15.6
GUIDELINES FOR MULTIPLE FACILITIES ................................................................. 15-49
15.7
DRAINAGE WATER REUSE ...................................................................................... 15-49
March 2009
15-iii
15.7.1 Quantity Issues.......................................................................................... 15-49

15.7.2 Quality Issues ............................................................................................ 15-49
15.8
TREATMENT FOR REUSE ........................................................................................ 15-50

15.8.1 Sand Filter................................................................................................. 15-50
15.8.2 Design Criteria ........................................................................................... 15-50
15.8.3 Construction Requirements ......................................................................... 15-53
15.8.4 Maintenance Requirements ......................................................................... 15-54
REFERENCES .................................................................................................................... 15-55

APPENDIX 15.A
Design Example for Pond......................................................................... 15A-1
APPENDIX 15.B
Design Example for Sand Filter ................................................................ 15A-12
15-iv
March 2009
List of Tables
Table
Description
Page
15.1
Recommended BMPs for Agricultural Drainage Water Control
15-3
15.2
Flood Tolerance Period for Common Crops in Malaysia
15-6
15.3
Minimum Recommended Top Width for Earthen Embankments
15-9
15.4
Typical Event Mean Concentration (EMC) Values in mg/L
15-19
15.5
Typical Storm Runoff Pollutant Export Equations
15-20
15.6
Storm Event Pollutant Exports for Australia
15-22
15.7
Typical Volumetric Runoff Coefficient Values
15-24
15.8
Sediment Basin Types and Design Considerations
15-31
15.9
15-31
15.10
Wet Sediment Basin Sizing Guidelines
15-32
15.11
Pollutant Reduction in Ponds
15-42
15.12
Coefficients for Free Water Surface Wetlands for Kadlec and Knights
Method (1996)
15-47
15.13
Clogging Hazard of Irrigation Water in Drip Irrigation Systems
15-50
15.14
Typical Water Quality for Irrigation Purpose
15-51
List of Figures
Figure
Description
Page
15.1
Schematic of a Typical Agricultural Return Water Process
15-1
15.2
Simplified Pathways of the Common Pollutants in Agricultural Schemes
15-2
15.3
Typical Impact of Irrigation Excess Water and Agricultural Runoff
15-2
15.4
Effect of Agricultural Runoff Control on the Drainage Peak Discharge
15-4
15.5
Common Features of a Pond
15-5
15.6
Typical Stage-storage Relation Required for Ponds Design
15-8
15.7
Example of Composite Stage-Discharge Curve
15-8
15.8
Typical Detention Pond Primary Outlets
15-9
15.9
Detention Pond Sizing Procedure for Pond and Primary Outlets
15-11
15.10
Detention Pond Sizing Procedure for Secondary Outlet and Downstream
15-12
Protection
15.11
Preliminary Estimate of Required Storage
15-13
15.12
Typical Pollution Process from an Agricultural Field
15-16
15.13
Example of NPS Unit Pollution Loading Data for Various Landuses
15-20
15.14
Mulching as Temporary Control Measure
15-25
15.15
Application of Sediment Fence
15-27
15.16
Check Dam for Sediment Trapping
15-28
15.17
Sediment Trap
15-29
15.18
Sediment Basin for Agricultural Fields
15-30
March 2009
15-v
15-vi
Figure
Description
Page
15.19
Components of Vegetated Buffer Strips
15-33
15.20
Swale for Pollutant Removal
15-35
15.21
Common Alternatives of Treatment Train Arrangements
15-36
15.22
Combination of Pond and Wetland Layouts
15-38
15.23
Water Quality Processes in Wet Ponds and Wetlands
15-39
15.24
Major Components of Pond and Wetland Process Models
15-39
15.25
Typical Pollutant Reduction in a Wet Detention Pond
15-42
15.26
Types of Constructed Wetlands
15-44
15.27
Typical Pollutant Retention in Constructed Wetlands
15-45
15.28
Typical Riser Pipe Wetland Outlet
15-48
15.29
Sand Filtration for Solids Removal
15-52
March 2009
15
15.1
DRAINAGE WATER CONTROL AND TREATMENT
INTRODUCTION
The most significant impact of agricultural return water is the pollution of water bodies. On the other
hand, contribution to flood is subjective depending on the occurrence of storms and the planting or
field soil condition. If the plots are just ploughed and the soil is loose, overland runoff might not be
significant. Most of the rainfall will be infiltrated into the ground. However, contribution of pollutants
from the same plot to the surface or groundwater can be significant if the excess irrigated water
(Figure 15.1) and runoff from the farmlands are allowed to be discharged untreated. Therefore, for
the agricultural plots, runoff quality control is more important compared to runoff quantity control.
The disposal of nutrient rich drainage water, exceeding the natural assimilation capacities of the
receiving waters may lead to large scale eutrophication of rivers, lakes and estuaries. Drainage
induced disposal of pesticides and herbicides may also lead to the toxification of the receiving waters
but this is only likely to occur when the toxic elements can become concentrated.
Ditch
Farm
Ditch
Ditch
Excess Water
Recharge
Water Table
Figure 15.1
Schematic of a Typical Agricultural Return Water Flow Process (Novotny, 2003)
It should be recognised that most of the irrigation induced pollution is primarily due to the increased
use of agrochemicals and disposal of manure from livestock production (Figure 15.2). Proper
drainage system reduces the disposal of pollutants, especially when the runoff is intercepted by
vegetated strips and further treated through ponds and wetlands. Improved subsurface drainage
may indeed enhance the nitrogen disposal although the increased rates in most cases are only
slightly. Therefore, best management practices (BMPs) should be followed to recycle and treatment
of the excess water and runoff from the agricultural lands, before releasing into receiving waters.
This Chapter is intended to provide guidelines pertaining to the excess water quantity control from
the farms, to reuse the water for irrigation purposes and to design and construct treatment systems
for the appropriate disposal of drainage water from the farmlands to the receiving water bodies.
March 2009
15-1
N - Nitrogen
P - Phosphorus
Evapotranspiration (N) K - Pottasium
Deposition from air (N)

Animal manure
Chemical fertiliser (N.P.K)
Denitrification (N)
Plant uptake (N.P.K)
Runoff
Field level
Subsurface drain
discharge
Accumulation P and K
Watertable
Nitrification
Seepage (N.P.K)
Sediment
Leaching NO 3 and K
Figure 15.2
15.1.1
Simplified Pathways of the Common Pollutants in Agricultural Schemes
Irrigation Excess Water and Agricultural Runoff
Dry-weather (non-rainy, excess water) and wet-weather (rainy, runoff) return flow from agricultural
plots may not be significantly high compared to those of urban areas but contain various kinds of
dissolved and suspended pollutants. The most common problems associated with irrigation excess
water and agricultural runoff are eutrophication and sedimentation, respectively (Figure 15.3). The
return water can be recycled for irrigation without any treatment. Regulations and restrictions often
involve limitations on the quality of water released from the agricultural land. The amount of
fertiliser, nutrient and pesticide-laden water that leaves a farm should be of concern to the grower,
since it may be possible to reuse that water to the farmers benefit. Either gravity flow or pumps can
be used to send runoff to the sink such as ponds and wetlands. Water quality should be considered
as an extremely important factor for such sinks, which can be potential source of water in the future.
(a) Eutrophication
Figure 15.3
15.1.2
(b) Sedimentation
Typical Impact of Irrigation Excess Water and Agricultural Runoff
Treatment Best Management Practices (BMPs)
Return flows, runoff and leachate from irrigated lands may increase flow, transport sediment,
organic solids, nutrients, pesticides, salts, metals, bacteria and viruses to surface or ground water
systems. However, the main concern is the increase in runoff during the monsoon seasons.The
15-2
March 2009
manner in which irrigation and drainage water is managed may determine whether these pollutants
actually reach receiving waters or not. Various structural and non-structural best management
practices (BMPs) can be applied for the proper management of irrigation practices and treatment of
agricultural drainage water. A list of BMPs suitable for the management of agricultural drainage
water for control, reuse, treatment and safe disposal to the environment is given in Table 15.1.
Table 15.1
Issue
Drainage
Water
Quantity
Recommended BMPs for Agricultural Drainage Water Control
Non-structural
Structural
Drainage
Water
Quality
Best Management Practices (BMPs)
Category
Non-structural
Applicable for
Existing
Proposed
efficient irrigation practices
(y)
modern irrigation systems
(y)
detention basins
(y)
flood storage in ponds
(y)
rainwater harvesting
community education
water-sensitive agricultural development
standard operation practices and
(y)
(y)
(y)
(y)
(y)
(y)
(y)
(y)
(y)
(y)
community education
planning controls (land capability

assessment)
inspections
Structural
erosion and sediment control during
plantation and land conversion for

agriculture
vegetated buffer strip
sediment fence
grass swale
check dam
gross pollutant trap
sediment pond/basin
wet ponds
wetlands
sand filters
water recycling facilities
Note: y Highly Recommended; (y) Recommended if Possible and n Not Recommended

15.1.3
Dry-weather Flow
Dry-weather flow from an agricultural area consists of irrigation return (excess) water and channel
for the same area it does not vary significantly and usually contains dissolved minerals and nutrients
as pollutant. Therefore, the dry weather flow can by pass the gross pollutant trap (GPT) and
sediment pond of a treatment train.
March 2009
15-3
15.1.4
Wet-weather Flow
This is a combination irrigation return water (if any) and runoff due to rain. The amount of wet
weather flow from agricultural lands in Malaysia can be significant for quantity and quality control.
High rainfall can cause flood in the downstream areas and erode soils resulting in high solids in the
runoff. Therefore, both quantity and quality control should be considered for an agricultural plot of
significant size. Ideally, the post-development runoff peak should not be higher than the predevelopment runoff peak which is practised for the urban drainage system in Malaysia (DID, 2000).
15.2
WATER QUANTITY CONTROL FACILITIES
Agricultural runoff quantity control can be achieved either through detention and/or retention
facilities. The detention is most often employed to limit the peak outflow rate for a specific range of
flood frequencies by the temporary storage and gradual release of runoff by way of an outlet control
structure. On the other hand, a retention facility reduces runoff volume, and possibly peak discharge,
by the temporary storage of agricultural runoff, which is subsequently released via evaporation and
infiltration. However, the designer should choose the system train to meet the target of peak control,
as shown in Figure 15.4, in order to reduce the frequency and extent of downstream flooding.
Uncontrolled Runoff
Discharge
Controlled Runoff
Time
Figure 15.4
Effect of Agricultural Runoff Control on the Drainage Peak Discharge
15.2.1 Pond Features

A pond can vary in sizes depending on the total catchment area due to the farmland and adjoining
land areas. The facilities can be either dry or wet pond. However, wet ponds are highly
recommended as it would also treat the nutrient and sediment rich runoff to some extent. The
common features of pond layout and sections are shown in Figure 15.5.
15.2.1.1
Primary Outlets
Primary outlets for detention ponds should be designed to cater for minor and major storms. This
would require a two-staged outlet configuration (excluding the emergency spillway). This
requirement can readily be achieved for new agricultural areas as sufficient land can be set aside in
the planning stages of the development to accommodate the necessary storage requirements. On
the other hand, reducing the high ARI flow to the pre-development flow rate may not be practical for
the existing farms due to limited availability of suitable sites. In such cases, detention facilities should
be sized to attenuate the low ARI as well as the largest ARI flow that is possible given the maximum
storage available.
15-4
March 2009

Energy dissipator
structures
BASIN STORAGE
Drop outlet
structure
Surcharge inlet
structure
Receiving waterway
Inlet Drain
Embankment
Secondary Outlet
(Emergency Spillway)
Low flow bypass

Primary outlet
PLAN
Plan
Design Flood level
Design Flood level
Wet level
Maximum pond
(a) DRY BASIN
(a) Section Dry Type
Figure 15.5
15.2.1.2
(b) WET
(b) Section
WetBASIN
Type
Common Features of a Pond (DID, 2000)
Secondary Outlets
Secondary outlets (Emergency Spillways) for all detention ponds shall be provided and designed to
safely pass a minimum design storm of 100 year ARI through the pond. The secondary spillways also
provide additional safety against unpredictable failure of the primary outlets during the low ARI
storms.
15.2.1.3
Bypass Flows
Provision should be made in a dry detention pond to bypass low flows through or around the pond.
This is necessary to ensure that the pond floor, particularly if it is grassed, is not inundated by small
storms or continually wetted by dry weather baseflow. The minimum amount of bypass should be
1 month ARI flow.
Flows may be bypassed by a variety of methods depending on the inflow system into the pond. The
most commonly used methods for open waterway systems are low flow pipes passing around or
under the pond, or low flow inverts connected to the primary outlet structure. Low flows in pipe
inlet systems are normally bypassed by providing a smaller pipe connected between a surcharge
structure at the pond inlet and the primary outlet.
15.2.1.4
Bottom Grades
The floor of the pond shall be designed with a minimum grade of 1% to provide positive drainage
and minimise the likelihood of ponding. Adequate drainage of the pond floor between storms is
March 2009
15-5
essential if the facility is to be used for recreation. Where high groundwater occurs, subsoil drains
may be required to prevent soggy ground conditions.
15.2.1.5
Maximum Pond Depth
The maximum water depth within the pond near the bank should not exceed 3 m under normal
operating conditions. However, if necessary, water depth in the middle portion of the pond might be
increased up to 6 m to increase the efficiency of the pond in treating pollutants.
15.2.1.6
Freeboard
The elevation of the top of the settled embankment shall be a minimum of 0.3 m above the water
surface in the detention pond when the emergency spillway is operating at maximum design flow.
15.2.2
Pond Design
In designing a community or regional pond facility to meet the flow control objectives set for the
catchment, it is necessary to consider the behaviour of the storage by examining:
the degree of reduction of flows from the catchment
the depths of ponding in the basin (for safety reasons)
the frequency at which the overflow spillway comes into operation, or the embankment overtops
the duration of ponding (for interruption to other uses and empty of the pond before the next
storm)
As well as considering the required levels of operation, it may be necessary to examine low ARIs
(e.g. 6 months) to assess maintenance requirements and to design underdrains beneath storages.
The embankment of the facilities should not be high (preferably not more than 6 m) to make sure
that risk of breach of the dam would not cause disaster at the downstream areas. A complex
drainage network with larger detention ponds, design should be carried out as a series of analyses to
determine the critical condition for the system. Sizing of the ponds should be such that backwater
effect does not persist longer than the tolerance time period of the crop as shown in Table 15.2.
Table 15.2
Flood Tolerance Period for Common Crops in Malaysia
Type of Crop
Flood Tolerance Period (hr)
Coconut, Rubber, Oil Palm

and Orchards
72
Paddy
72 (partial submergence)
48 (total submergence)
Banana, Cocoa, Coffee

and Papaya.
48
Maize, Sorghum and

Pineapple
24
Tobacco and Vegetables
Very low tolerance and should not be

planted in flood-prone areas.
Design and analysis involve the following processes:
hydrological calculations to determine the flowrate to be handled by the storage
hydraulic calculations to route the flows through the storage, determining the reduction in
flowrates
15-6
March 2009
geotechnical, structural, and other design processes
preparation of drawings, specifications, and contract documents before moving on to

construction
Various public domain and commercial softwares are available in the market to design the detention
facilities. Wherever possible it is recommended to use the most suitable software, especially for the
irrigation excess water and agricultural runoff quality control. Where water quality and water
conservation objectives are to be met, additional inputs are required from environmental scientist,
biologists and landscape architects.
15.2.2.1
Critical Storm
Design storm duration and temporal pattern is very important for a drainage system with or without
any detention facility. Depending on the catchment size, short duration rainfall (peak flow is critical)
may be important for a drainage outfall without any pond. However, for a storage facility longer
duration storms (runoff volume is critical) are important to determine size of the facility. Therefore,
repeated calculation or computer simulations should be conducted to determine the critical storm
duration and temporal patterns for a drainage system with or without flow control facilities.
15.2.2.2
Inflow Hydrographs
Inflow hydrograph is one of the most important consideration for the safe design of a storage
facility. Inflow hydrographs of various durations should be calculated, either by manual calculation or
by computer software. The Rational Method is not suitable for estimating inflow hydrographs for
sizing community or regional detention facilities and must not be used under any circumstances.
Recorded storm events or a continuous rainfall record over an extended period may be used to
analyse the behaviour of the pond and to determine the type and size of the pond and the optimum
outlet configuration.
15.2.2.3
Stage-Storage Relationship
A stage-storage relationship defines the relationship between the depth of water and storage volume
in the pond. The volume of storage can be calculated by using simple geometric formulas expressed
as a function of storage depth. The storage volume for natural ponds in irregular terrain may be
developed using a topographic map and the double-end area formula (see Figure 15.6a):
A1 + A 2
V1,2 =
d
2
(15.1)
where,
V1,2 = storage volume between elevations 1 and 2 (m3)
A 1 = surface area at elevation 1 (m2)
A 2 = surface area at elevation 2 (m2)
d = change in elevations between points 1 and 2 (m)
This relationship between storage volume and depth defines the stage-storage curve. An example of
a simple stage-storage curve is illustrated in Figure 15.6b.
15.2.2.4
Stage-Discharge Relationship
A stage-discharge (rating) curve defines the relationship between the storage water depth and the
discharge or outflow from a storage facility. A stage-discharge curve should be developed for each
design storm outlet arrangement. Development of a stage-discharge curve for a particular outlet
control structure will depend on the interaction of the individual ratings for each component of the
control structure. Figure 15.7 illustrates the construction of a stage-discharge curve for an outlet
control device, consisting of a low flow orifice and a riser pipe connected to an pipe outlet culvert
and an emergency spillway.
March 2009
15-7

2.5
EL. 103 m
EL. 102 m
EL. 101 m
2.0
Stage (m)
EL. 100 m
Area at 103 m
A3
A2
1.0
0.5
Area at 102 m
d
1.5
Area at 101 m
A1
Zero Area at 100 m
5000
10000
15000
20000
25000
Storage (m )
(a) Double-end Area Method

Figure 15.6
(b) Stage-Storage Curve
Typical Stage-storage Relation Required for Pond Design (DID, 2000)
103.0
Elevation (m, LSD)
102.5
102.0
101.5
Spillway
Riser
Culvert
Total Outflow
101.0
100.5
100.0
0
10
15
20
25
30
Discharge (cumec)
Figure 15.7
15.2.3
Example of Composite Stage-Discharge Curves (DID, 2000)
Design of Outlet Channel
Gated outlet channels are highly recommended such that the pond could be made empty if needed.
The outlet may be a single stage conduit or several conduits. For a single outlet channel, the facility
is typically designed as a simple culvert. For multi-stage control structures, the inlet control structure
is designed considering a range of design flows. A stage-discharge curve is developed for the full
range of flows that the structure would experience. The outlets are typically housed in a riser
structure connected to a single outlet conduit that passes through the pond embankment and
discharges to the downstream conveyance system. Orifices and weirs can be designed using the
equations provided in Chapter 16 of this manual. The outlet conduit must be designed to carry all
flows considered in the design of the riser structure.
The outlet hydraulics for multi-outlet riser systems may be complicated and difficult to analyse. Care
must be taken to ensure that the stage-discharge relationship adequately reflects the range of
different flow regimes that the structure will operate under. In some cases, particularly if the
consequences of failure of the structure are high, the stage-discharge characteristics may need to be
verified by physical modelling. Figure 15.8 shows some typical primary outlets without gate.
15-8
March 2009
(a) Pipe or Box Culvert
(d) Weir Overflow Spillway
(b) Riser Structure

(single and multi-level outlets)
Cross-section
View from Downstream

(c) Drop Inlet Pit
(surcharge pit or culvert outlet)
Figure 15.8
15.2.4
(e) Slotted Outlet
Typical Detention Pond Primary Outlets
Design of Embankments
Dry detention ponds are intermittent water-retaining structures and their embankments do not need
to be designed rigorously as dams unless they are high, or special soil problems exist. An
embankment that raises the water level a specified amount as defined by the appropriate dam safety
group (generally 1.5 m to 3 m or more above the usual mean low water height), is classified as a
dam. Such embankments must be designed, constructed, and maintained in accordance with the
Federal Government or relevant State Government dam safety standards.
Water quality control ponds, regardless of whether or not they incorporate active storage for flood
control, should be designed fully as dams (refer Chapter 35 of MSMA). All other detention ponds with
embankments that are not classified as dams should be designed in accordance with the following
criteria, which are not intended as a substitute for a thorough, site-specific engineering evaluation.
15.2.4.1
Top Widths
Top widths of an embankment depends on the geotechnical requirements of the embankment, its
construction material and usage of the embankment for vehicles. However, the minimum
recommended embankment top widths are provided in Table 15.3.
Table 15.3
March 2009
Minimum Recommended Top Width for Earthen Embankments (USDA, 1982)

Height of Embankment
(m)
Top Width
(m)
Under 3
2.4
3 to 4.5
3.0
4.5 to 6
3.6
6 to 7.5
4.2
15-9
15.2.4.2
Side Slopes
Depending on the soil conditions, the minimum slope of an embankment can be 2(H):1(V) for
embankments less than or equal to 3 m, which must be analysed and confirmed by a geotechnical
expert. Embankments with such steep side slopes must be protected against erosion and maintained
regularly. For ease of maintenance, the side slopes of a grassed earthen embankment and pond
storage area should not be steeper than 4(H):1(V). However, to increase public safety and facilitate
ease of mowing, side slopes of 6(H):1(V) (or flatter) are recommended.
15.2.4.3
Fill Material
All fill material in earthen embankments should be free from brush, roots and other organic material
subject to decomposition. The fill material should be compacted to at least 95% of the Modified
Proctor method (ASTM D698). Special attention is needed for spillways, where the required
compaction should be specified, and to pipe outlets through embankments to prevent piping failures.
15.2.5
Steps for Detention Pond Design
Detailed descriptions on the design of ponds are available in MSMA (DID, 2000). A general procedure
for sizing a detention pond, adopted from MSMA and shown diagrammatically in Figures 15.9 and
15.10, is described as follows:
Step 1: Determine design storm criteria for the pond
Select the minor and major design storm ARI for the pond appropriate for the type of development
in the pond catchment.
Select the secondary outlet design storm ARI in accordance with the Authority requirement. Select
the amount of bypass flow that will not be routed through the pond.
Any physical constraints at the pond site should be identified including maximum permissible depths
of ponding, acceptable depths of flooding in downstream conveyance systems.
Step 2: Determine the pond outflow limits
For each design storm ARI, the pond outflow limits are set as the maximum pre-development flow
less any non-routed post-development bypass flow. Peak flows for the pre-development design
storms and non-routed post-development bypass may be determined by a hydrograph estimation
technique or by the Rational Method.
Step 3: Compute the pond inflow hydrographs
For each design storm ARI, inflow hydrographs for a range of storm durations will need to be routed
through the pond to determine the critical duration that produces the greatest storage and water
level within the pond for a particular pond grading and outlet configuration. The pond inflow
hydrographs are obtained by subtracting the non-routed bypass flow from the total inflow
hydrographs.
Step 4: Make a preliminary estimate of the required pond volume
When initially sizing a detention facility, the required storage volume to accomplish the necessary
peak reduction is unknown and a preliminary storage volume must be estimated. Estimating the
required storage volume is an important task since an accurate first estimate will reduce the number
of trials involved in the sizing procedure. A preliminary estimate may be obtained based on the postdevelopment pond inflow hydrographs for the major system design ARI and the required outflow
rate as shown in Figure 15.11.
15-10
March 2009
select primary outlet design storm ARIs
select level of non-routed bypass flow
Determine design storm

criteria for basin site
Determine basin ouflow limits
set pre-development peak flow for each design

storm ARI as basin outflow limit
Compute inflow hydrographs
hydrographs will be required for each design
storm ARI for durations ranging from

approximately tc to 3tc for the basin catchment
Estimate required basin volume
use the procedure outlined using the

hydrographs for the major design storm ARI
grading of basin must be in accordance with the
requirements for basin floor slope, embankment

side slopes, and maximum permissible ponding
depths
Develop basin grading plan
Compute stage-storage relationship
Select primary outlet structure(s)
determine outlet stages
calculate and sum ratings for all outlets
under consideration
Compute stage-discharge
relationship
use a computer model or the routing
procedure using spreadsheet

the critical duration hydrograph is that
which results in the maximum depth and

volume of ponded water in the basin
Route inflow hydrographs

through the basin
Adjust basin
grading and/or
size of primary
outlet(s)
No
a multi-staged outlet configuration

will be required
For the design storm under consideration:

is the maximum basin outflow acceptable?
is the maximum water depth acceptable?
Results for
design storm ARI
acceptable?
Yes
Have all design

storm ARIs been
analysed ?
No
Select next
design
storm ARI
minor and major system design
storm ARIs must both be analysed

and result in satisfactory basin
performance
Yes
Size secondary outlet
Figure 15.9
March 2009
design storm for the emergency outlet
must be routed through the basin to size

the emergency spillway
Detention Pond Sizing Procedure for Pond and Primary Outlets
15-11
Select design storm

for emergency spillway
select design storm based on downstream hazard

rating
Compute inflow hydrographs
hydrographs will be required for a sufficient range

of durations to determine maximum outlet flow
Select secondary outlet structure(s)
Compute stage-discharge
relationship
Adjust
embankment
height and/or
outlet
arrangement
No
a single outlet structure such as a broad crested

weir spillway will generally be sufficient for urban
drainage
sum individual ratings for all primary and
secondary outlets
Route inflow hydrographs

through the basin
a computer
model
or or
thethe
flood
routing
use
a computer
model
flood
routing
use
the
critical
duration
hydrograph
is
that
which
the
critical
duration
hydrograph
is
that
which
results
in in
thethe
largest
emergency
outlet
flow
results
largest
emergency
outlet
flow
Results for
design storm ARI
acceptable ?
effects
of of
combined
flow
from
check
effects
combined
flow
from
check
secondary
and
primary
outlet(s)
onon
thethe
secondary
and
primary
outlet(s)
conveyance
system
downstream
of of
thethe
basin
conveyance
system
downstream
basin
effect
of of
basin
pond
level
and
backwater
check
effect
basin
pond
level
and
backwater
check
onon
upstream
and
adjacent
development
upstream
and
adjacent
development
Yes
Have all design

storm ARIs been
analysed ?
No
Select next
design
storm ARI
may need to check the basin

performance in storms larger than
the spillway design storm, or if the
primary outlet(s) become fully
blocked
Yes
Size downstream erosion
protection measures
estimate the flow exit velocities from each outlet

structure and select appropriate energy dissipation
and waterway erosion protection measures
Prepare detailed design plans

and specifications
Figure 15.10
15-12
Detention Pond Sizing Procedure for Secondary Outlet and Downstream Protection
March 2009
The outflow hydrograph can be approximated by drawing a straight line from the beginning of
substantial runoff on the inflow hydrograph to the point on the receding limb corresponding to the
maximum allowable peak outflow rate. The amount of storage required is equal to the representative
volume (shaded area) between the inflow and outflow hydrographs. To determine the necessary
storage, the shaded area can be planimetered or computed mathematically.
Basin inflow
Hydrograph
Qi
Flow
Storage (Vs )
Estimated Outflow
Hydrograph
Maximum
Release Rate
Qo
tp
Figure 15.11
tp
Time
ti
Preliminary Estimate of Required Storage (DID, 2000)
Inflow hydrographs for the major system design ARI over a range of durations should be examined
and the largest estimated volume selected. Alternatively, a preliminary estimate of the storage
volume required may be obtained using the following regression equation (FHWA, 1996) for each
estimated inflow hydrograph and selecting the largest value:
Q
Vs = 1.291 Vi 1 o
Qi
0.753
ti

tp

0.411
(15.2)
Where,
Vs = estimated storage volume (m3)
Vi = inflow hydrograph runoff volume (m3)
Qi = inflow hydrograph peak flow rate (m3/s)
Qo = allowable peak outflow rate (m3/s)
ti
= time base of the inflow hydrograph (minutes)
tp = time to peak of the inflow hydrograph (minutes)

In some locations, the available storage volume may be limited due to site or other constraints. If a
storage volume is known, a preliminary estimate of the maximum possible peak outflow may be
obtained by using the following regression equation (FHWA, 1996) for each estimated inflow
hydrograph and selecting the largest value:
Q o = Qi 1 0.712
Vs
V
i
1.328
ti

tp

0.546
(15.3)
Step 5: Develop a pond grading plan

A grading plan to accommodate the storage volume estimated in Step 4 should be prepared keeping
in mind any site constraints that may have been identified in Step 1 and the slope criteria for
embankments and pond floors.
March 2009
15-13
Step 6: Compute the stage-storage relationship

The stage-storage relationship can be defined from the pond geometry using the double-end area
method. The maximum stage selected should extend above the top of the pond embankment to
ensure that it is not exceeded in the routing calculations.
Step 7: Size the minor storm primary outlet
Since the flow performance criteria requires control over both the minor and major system ARI,
multiple outlet control consisting of an arrangement of devices placed at appropriate stages (levels)
within the pond will need to be provided. Matching this flow performance criterion will require
careful selection of the type and arrangement of outlets to be used. Arriving at the best multiple
outlet arrangement to achieve the level of control required will normally involve a trial and error
process and gradual refinement until a satisfactory design is found.
(i)
Select trial outlet arrangement
Select a trial outlet arrangement with an invert at or below the lowest level in the floor of a dry
pond, or at water level in a detention pond, to ensure the storage completely empties after each
storm event.
(ii)
Compute the stage-discharge relationship
Compute the stage-discharge relationship by summing the individual discharge ratings for each
outlet adopted.
The maximum stage selected must be greater than the expected maximum water level in the pond
so that it will not be exceeded in the routing calculations in the following step.
(iii)
Route the inflow hydrographs through the pond
Route the inflow hydrographs through the pond, using a suitable computer model or other
acceptable procedures presented, to determine the maximum pond outflow and water level. The
routing time step adopted should be a uniform integer value and should be small enough so that the
change in inflow and outflow between time steps is relatively linear. A value of 2ti / 300 may be
used as a rough guide. However, for manual calculations, a minimum value of one minute is
recommended.
(iv)
Check if results are acceptable
If the maximum pond outflow is greater than or excessively smaller than the limit determined in
Step 2, or the pond water depth exceeds that permissible, return to Step 5 or 7 and modify the
geometry of the pond and/or the outlet arrangement or configuration as necessary.
Step 8: Size the major storm primary outlet
(i)
Select a trial outlet arrangement and set the lowest level for the major system outlet(s) at or slightly
above the maximum pond water level estimated for the minor design storm.
(ii)
Compute the stage-discharge relationship by summing the individual discharge ratings for each
outlet adopted including the minor design storm outlets.
15-14
March 2009
(iii)
Route the inflow hydrographs through the pond, using a suitable computer model or acceptable
procedures, to determine the maximum pond outflow and water level.
iv)
If the maximum pond outflow is greater than or excessively smaller than the limit determined in
Step 2, or the pond water depth exceeds that permissible, return to step 5 or 8 and modify the
geometry of the pond and/or the outlet arrangement or configuration as necessary.
Note: if the pond geometry is altered, the minor design storm routing in Step 7 will need to be
redone to check if the minor system outlet performance is still satisfactory and to establish the
revised maximum pond water level for setting the major outlet invert level.
Step 9: Size the secondary outlet arrangement
Once a pond configuration meets the selected flow control performance criterion, the emergency
outlet will need to be sized to contain the selected secondary outlet design ARI.
(i)
Select a trial secondary outlet arrangement. Set the minimum outlet level at the maximum pond
water level estimated for the major design storm plus a freeboard of at least 300 mm.
(ii)
Compute the stage-discharge relationship by summing the individual discharge ratings for all the
pond outlets (i.e. the secondary outlet plus the minor and major system outlets)
(iii)
Route the inflow hydrographs through the pond, using a suitable computer model or acceptable
procedures, to determine the maximum pond outflow and water level.
(iv)
A flow control criterion for the 100 year ARI design storm has not been specified. However, the
water depth in the pond will determine the maximum height of the embankment. The outlet
arrangement may need to be refined until a satisfactory balance in terms of cost or public safety is
found between the height of the embankment and the size of the secondary outlet.
Step 10: Check behaviour under extreme conditions
The ponds behaviour under extreme conditions may also need to be checked. These conditions may
be larger floods than the design flood, possibly up to the PMF, and/or conditions under which partial
or total blockage of the pond primary outlet(s) occurs.
Step 11: Size downstream erosion protection measures
Calculate the exit flow velocities from the pond outlets under the range of design storms. If these
velocities will cause erosion in the downstream waterway, select and size energy dissipation and
waterway erosion protection measures.
Step 12: Prepare design drawings and specifications
When the pond performance is deemed acceptable for all operating conditions, including its
behaviour under extreme flood events, detailed design drawings and specifications should be
prepared. These should include grading plans, embankment design details, landscape plans,
March 2009
15-15
structural details of all primary and secondary outlets, and written details of maintenance procedures
and schedules.
15.3
WATER QUALITY HYDROLOGY
Quality control of excess irrigation water and agricultural drainage also can be done with the help of
structural and non-structural measures. Various BMPs suitable for the control and treatment of
agricultural pollution are described in the following sections.
15.3.1
Pollution Process and Impacts
The following sections briefly discusses about the ways the pollutants are generated from the
agricultural activities and their impacts on the environment. A schematic of agricultural pollution
process is shown in Figure 15.12.
15.3.1.1
Solids
The most prevalent source of agricultural water pollution is solids (soil particle and remains of plants)
that are washed off fields. Rain water carries soil particles (sediment) and dumps them into nearby
lakes or streams. Too much sediment can cloud the water, reducing the amount of sunlight that
reaches aquatic plants. It can also clog the gills of fish or smother fish larvae.
In addition, other pollutants like fertilizers, pesticides, and heavy metals are often attached to the
soil particles and wash into the water bodies, causing algal blooms and depleted oxygen, which is
deadly to most aquatic life. Farmers can reduce erosion and sedimentation by 20 to 90 percent by
applying management practices that control the volume and flow rate of runoff water, keep the soil
in place, and reduce soil transport.
AGR. CHEMICALS
FERTILIZERS
ATM. FALLOUT (SOLUBLE)
RAIN
DISSOLVED
(AVAILABLE) P
AOSORPTION
RELEASE
EROSION
PLANT
P
HARVEST
Figure 15.12
15.3.1.2
ORGANIC P
(BACTERIAL)
GROUNDWATER
RUNOFF
INTERFLOW
SURFACE
RUNOFF
RECEIVING WATERS
ADSORBED
P
CONVECTION
DISPERSION
VOLATILIZATION
ATM. FALLOUT (PARTICULATE)
DECAY OR
TRANSFORMATION
Typical Pollution Process from an Agricultural Field (Novotny, 2003)
Nutrients
Farmers apply nutrients such as phosphorus, nitrogen, and potassium in the form of chemical
fertilizers, manure, and in certain cases treated sludge. They may also grow crops and leave plant
residues to enhance production in the nest cycle. When these sources exceed plant needs, or are
applied just before it rains, nutrients can wash into aquatic ecosystems (as irrigation excess water
and runoff). They can cause algae blooms, which can ruin swimming and boating opportunities,
create foul taste and odour in drinking water, and kill fish by removing oxygen from the water. High
concentrations of nitrate in drinking water can cause methemoglobinemia, a potentially fatal disease
in infants, also known as blue baby syndrome. To combat nutrient losses, farmers can implement
nutrient management plans that help maintain high yields and save money on fertilizers.
15-16
March 2009
15.3.1.3
Livestock Grazing
Overgrazing exposes soils, increases erosion, encourages invasion by undesirable plants, destroys
fish habitat, and may destroy streambanks and floodplain vegetation necessary for habitat and water
quality filtration. To reduce the impacts of grazing on water quality, farmers and ranchers can adjust
grazing intensity, keep livestock out of sensitive areas, provide alternative sources of water and
shade, and promote revegetation of ranges, pastures, and riparian zones.
15.3.1.4
Pesticides
Insecticides, herbicides, and fungicides are used to kill agricultural pests. These chemicals can enter
and contaminate water through direct application, runoff, and atmospheric deposition. They can
poison fish and wildlife, contaminate food sources, and destroy the habitat that animals use for
protective cover. To reduce contamination from pesticides, farmers should use Integrated Pest
Management (IPM) techniques based on the specific soils, climate, pest history, and crop conditions
for a particular field. IPM encourages natural barriers and limits pesticide use and manages
necessary applications to minimize pesticide movement from the field.
15.3.1.5
Irrigation Practices
Irrigation water is applied to supplement natural precipitation or to protect crops against freezing or
wilting. Inefficient irrigation can cause water quality problems. In arid areas, for example, where
rainwater does not carry minerals deep into the soil, evaporation of irrigation water can concentrate
salts. Excessive irrigation can affect water quality by causing erosion, transporting nutrients,
pesticides, and heavy metals, or decreasing the amount of water that flows naturally in streams and
rivers. It can also cause a buildup of selenium, a toxic metal that can harm waterfowl reproduction.
Farmers can reduce NPS pollution from irrigation by improving water use efficiency. They can
measure actual crop needs and apply only the amount of water required. Farmers may also choose
to convert irrigation systems to higher efficiency equipment.
15.3.2
Pollution Terminologies
Flow rate, pollutant concentration and pollutant loading are important elements of quality control for
drained water (dry and wet weather flow) from agricultural land. The basic terms related to the
drainage water quality control can be obtained from MSMA (DID, 2000). However, elements related
to agricultural pollution are briefly discussed in the following sections.
Although many different constituents can be found in agricultural runoff, it helps to focus primarily
on certain pollutants that can be used as representative indicators of others. The following
constituents are recommended as standard pollutants characterising irrigation return water and
agricultural runoff for Malaysia.
Total suspended solids (TSS)
Total dissolved solids (TDS)
Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD)
Chemical oxygen demand (COD)
Total phosphorus (TP)
Total nitrogen (TN)
Ammoniacal Nitrogen (AN)
Pesticide
Herbicide
Fungicide
Salinity
Faecal Streptococci
March 2009
15-17
15.3.3
Pollutant Load Estimation
One of the important steps in designing treatment BMP for agricultural runoff control is to estimate
the pollutant loads. Pollutant loads can vary as a result of a large number of factors, including:
rainfall,
soils,
vegetation type,
agricultural practices, and
drainage practices.
All published studies confirm that pollutant loads are highly variable in both space and time, even in
similar catchments. Because of their variability, pollutant loads are normally analysed using statistical
methods. Any estimates of pollutant load that are not based on measured data are just that,
estimates, and will be subject to a wide band of uncertainty. Nevertheless it is useful to be able to
estimate pollutant loads for comparative studies, such as assessing the impact of urbanisation of a
catchment, and for predicting the performance of treatment measures.
There is very little (if any) measured data available on pollutant loads from agricultural lands in
Malaysia. Detailed long-term studies are required in order to derive reliable estimates of pollutant
exports. Published data from other countries, climatic zones, and landuses may vary greatly from
local conditions. In the absence of any local data on pollutant loads, published statistical data from
references may be used for preliminary studies only.
15.3.3.1
Alternative Expressions for Pollutant Load
A number of empirical approaches have been proposed as a basis for calculating pollutant loads.
The best-known and widely applicable approaches for agricultural runoff are:
Event Mean Concentration (EMC) Method;
Pollutant Export Rate Method;
Unit Load Method; and
USLE Method (only for sediments).
It is the responsibility of the user to select a suitable method for each application. Unit Load and
EMC method is recommended due to its simplicity, easy data acquisition and reasonable accuracy. It
should supersede USLE for sediment load estimation.
15.3.3.2
Event Mean Concentration Method
Although the definition of EMC relates to a single rainfall event, the assumption is often made that
the EMC is the same for all events. Therefore in this method the load is approximated by the simple
equation:
L = 10 4 C . VR . A
(15.4)
where,
L = Annual load of pollutant (kg)
C
= EMC of pollutant (mg/L)
VR = Annual runoff depth (mm)

A = Catchment area (ha)
The EMC method is recommended for general application in Malaysia, unless sufficient local data is
available to justify use of an alternative method.
15-18
March 2009
Table 15.4 gives suggested guideline values of EMCs for typical selected pollutants in rural runoff.
There is generally insufficient data to give guideline values for other pollutants in Malaysia.
Table 15.4
Typical Event Mean Concentration (EMC) Values in mg/L
Pollutant
Suspended solids
Total Nitrogen
Total Phosphorus
Ammonia
Sources: * Willing & Partners (1999)

15.3.3.3
Native
Vegetation/Forest
Rural Grazing
30
0.2
0.8
0.03
0.09
0.01 to 0.03
0.01 to 0.26
# EPA, NSW (1996)
Pollutant Export Rates Method
An alternative to the use of the simple EMC is to represent event pollutant loads as a function of
runoff. The form of the function should be derived by regression analysis of real data. If locallycollected data is to be used, the statistical effects of a small sample size and sampling errors should
be taken into account.
The general form of the pollutant export equation is (Willing & Partners, 1999):
L = a .Re
(15.5)
where,
L = event load (kg/km2/event),
R = event stormwater runoff (mm/event),
a = an empirical coefficient, and
e = an empirical exponent.
15.3.3.4
Unit Load Method
Another simple way of estimating diffuse pollution loading from an agricultural plot is the unit load
method, which uses a simple value or function expressing pollutant generation per unit area and unit
time for each type of agricultural landuse or averaged over a catchment with same crop pattern. The
most common units used in this method are mass/area-time. Annual or seasonal loads can either be
estimated directly from graphical data (Table 15. 5 and Figure 15.15) or by multiplication of unit
loads by the contributing area of uniform landuse.
It should be remembered that such loading is highly site-specific and dependednt on various factors
such as, irrigation practice, hydrologic conditions, crop patterns and other farm management
practices. Unit loads of NPS (diffuse) pollutants from agricultural landuses, even for the same crop
practices, may vary by several orders of magnitude, as shown in Figure 15.15 (Novotny and Chester,
1981) which represents data of the Great Lakes Region in the North America. Novotny (2003)
reported that the Nitrogen and Phosphorus loading rate in agricultural return water can be 5 30
kg/ha.yr and 1 4 kg/ha.yr, respectively. However, local data on various agricultural crops should be
collected for an efficient design of a treatment facility.
15.3.3.5
Modified Universal Soil Loss Equation Method
Sediment load from agricultural plots typically does not follow a build-up/washoff process. Rather, it
is more likely to be influenced by erosion processes in the catchment area. Sediment load on
exposed areas, such as after ploughing, is also largely dominated by erosion.
March 2009
15-19
Table 15.5
Typical Storm Runoff Pollutant Export Equations (Novotny, 2003)
Land Use
Nitrogen Export Coefficient (kg/ha/yr)
Phosphorus Export Coefficient (kg/ha/yr)
Forest
Corn
Cotton
Soybeans
Small Grain
Pasture
Feedlot or Dairy
1.8
11.1
10
12.5
5.3
3.1
2,900
0.11
2
4.3
4.6
1.5
0.1
220
Suspended Sediment
10000
Not Measured
100
Unit Area Load (kg/ha-yr)
1000
Total Phosphorus
10
10
0.1
0.01
0.001
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
8 9 10 11 12
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Landuse
10
100
10
0.1
Lead
0.1
Not Measured
Landuse
Total Nitrogen
1000
0.01
1 2 3 4 5
6 7
8 9 10 11 12
0.001
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Landuse
1
2
3
4
Figure 15.13
15-20
General Agriculture
Cropland
Improved Pasture
Forested/Wooded
8 9 10 11 12
8 9 10 11 12
Landuse
5
6
7
8
: Legends :
Idle/Perennial
Sewage Sludge
Spray Irrigation
General Urban
9 Residential
10 Commercial
11 Industrial
12 Developing Urban
Example of NPS Unit Pollution Loading Data for Various Landuses (Novotny, 2003)
March 2009
In the search for a model for planning erosion measures at the agricultural sites, the Universal Soil
Loss Equation (USLE) developed by Wischmeier et al. (1965) stands out as the most widely used
predictive method.
The USLE method has been modified by FRIM for Malaysian conditions (Wischmeier, 1971). In this
form, the Modified Universal Soil Loss Equation (MUSLE) is written as:
q c = R . K. LS . VM
(15.6)
It expresses the annual rate of soil erosion (qc), from a site as the product of factors for rainfall
erosivity (R), soil erodibility (K), length-slope factor (LS) , and vegetation management factor (VM).
Detailed guidance on the use of the MUSLE in forest areas is given in FRIM (1999). With suitable
adaptations, the MUSLE can also be used for other types of landuse. qc is expressed in tonnes of
soil loss per hectare per year.
The rainfall factor (R), is a measure of the erosive energy of the rainfall. It is expressed in units of
cumulative value of storm rainfall erosivity index (EI), for a fixed period of time. The following
relationships between R, EI and annual rainfall are given in FRIM (1999):
R = (E I 30 ) / 170.2
(15.7a)
E = 9.28 P 8838.15
(15.7b)
where,
I30 = the maximum 30-minute rainfall intensity (mm/hr) for the storm of required ARI,
E = annual erosivity (units of J/m2)
P = annual rainfall (mm)
The soil-erodibility factor, K, is a measure of the intrinsic susceptibility of a given soil to detachment
and transport by rainfall and runoff, on the basis of five soil parameters: percent silt, percent sand,
organic matter content, soil structure and permeability of the soil profile. K is defined by
Equation 15.8. The K values can also be estimated from the nomograph in FRIM (1999) developed
by Warrington et al (1980)
K = 2.1x106 (12 OM)M1.14 + 0.0325(S 2) + 0.025(P 3)
(15.8)
Definitions of OM, M, S and P are given in FRIM (1999).

The length-steepness factor (LS) , combines the effects of slope and length of eroding surface. It is
the ratio of soil loss per unit area from a slope land to that from a standardised measured plot.
Wischmeier (1975) gives the following equation for LS:
LS = ( / 22.13) m (0.065 + 0.046S + 0.0065S 2 )
(15.9)
where is the slope length (m) and S is the slope in percent. The exponent m has values of 0.2 for
S <1, 0.3 for 1<S <3, 0.4 for 3<S <5, 0.5 for 5<S <12 and 0.6 for S>12%. Alternatively, the
nomograph in FRIM (1999) can be used.
The vegetation management factor (VM), is defined as the ratio of soil loss from a field subject to a
system of control measures to that from the same site without any control provision. It combines
two factors C and P used in the original USLE. The expression for VM given in FRIM (1999) is
intended mainly for forest cover. It incorporates three sub-factors for forest canopy cover, mulch or
ground vegetation cover, and bare ground with fine roots. A VM factor of unity can be assigned to a
recently stripped surface at a construction site since the condition essentially resembles a continuous
fallow condition.
March 2009
15-21
In urban stormwater practice, the factor C accounts for the effect of various control practices
related to surface stabilising treatment, runoff-reduction measures, sediment-trapping, scheduling in
time and space of exposed areas, and other conventional or unconventional control practices. By
definition, the overall VM factor of a system of control practices can be evaluated as the product of
the control factors associated with each of the individual control measures. At present there is
insufficient data to give detailed guidance on suitable values of VM or C for Malaysia. This should be
adjusted for the amount of exposed land surface in the urban area, assuming that impervious areas
would not produce any sediment. It is recommended that Equation 15.10 be adopted for all urban
drainage calculations.
(15.10)
VM = C (1 IA)
where IA is the fraction of impervious area in the catchment, and C ranges from 1.0 for bare soil, to
0.45 for established grass cover (Goldman et al., 1986).
15.3.3.6
Debris Load Estimation
There is no particular method that can estimate these large floating objects in runoff as they are
highly variable and are influenced by local practices. Estimates of load can best be made from
operational experience. Load calculations are not necessary for design as direct trapping is the most
effective means of treatment. The usual practice is to clear the debris after the storms or when the
screens of the traps are blocked. Gross pollutant trap (GPT) can be installed to trap the weeds and
other debris generated from the agricultural lands.
15.3.3.7
Pollutants in Rainfall
Although concentrations of typical pollutants in agricultural runoff are significantly higher than those
of atmospheric rainfall, certain pollutants (heavy metals, acidic ions) can be high in the rainfall.
However, the small but significant concentrations of pollutants in rainfall are more common near the
industrial and urban areas. Some at least of these pollutants probably originate from urban
activities, e.g. lead from motor vehicle exhausts. When rain falls to the ground, these pollutants
form part of the total pollutant load.
Obviously, measurements of pollutant concentrations or loads include the contribution from rainfall.
Therefore, it is not normally necessary to consider the contribution of pollutant loads due to rainfall,
although it might not be significant compared to the total load generated from the land and
vegetated surfaces. Typical pollutant concentration for selected pollutants in Serdang (Selangor)
Malaysia is given in Table 15.6 (Yaziz et al., 1989).
Table 15.6
Source
Rain
Storm Event Pollutant Exports for Australia
TDS
BOD
DO
TSS
COD
TKN
AN
Turbidity
OP
(mg/L)
(mg/L)
(mg/L)
(mg/L)
(mg/L)
(mg/L)
(mg/L)
NTU
(mg/L)
8.9
1.1
5.4
4.5
0.62
0.35
2.6
0.02
The recommended method of pollutant load estimation is to use continuous simulation with a simple
computer model or spreadsheet. This approach uses a recorded rainfall time series, preferably for
12 months or more. It takes into account the various size of storms, and the sequence of storms as
reflected in the recorded data. It is not necessary to generate runoff hydrographs. The volumetric
Rational Method (Eq. 15.17) should be used to estimate runoff. Available pollutant load formula
could be used, although the EMC is recommended for most purposes. This approach also allows the
behaviour of detention storages, ponds and wetlands to be investigated.
15-22
March 2009
15.3.3.8
Pollutants in Dry-weather Flow
The agricultural drainage system may receive and convey access or leached irrigation water from the
fields during the non-rainy (dry) days. Such return or access water also contaminated by nutrients,
fertilisers, pesticides, herbicides, salts and other minerals. The amount of pollutant in the irrigation
access water may vary spatially and temporally. The best way to estimate the pollution loading
during dry-weather flow is to determine the flow pattern and measure the concentrations of the
pollutants. No local data is available on the characteristics of the dry weather flow from various types
of agricultural fields. Therefore, it is necessary to build-up such database for the design purposes,
although most of the cases the wet-weather flow will control the size of the treatment facilities.
15.3.4
Non-structural Control Measures
Non-structural ways of controlling agricultural pollution is the most sustainable method. However, it
requires high level of awareness among the farmers to realise the importance and effectiveness of
non-structural methods of minimising agricultural pollution.
15.3.5
Structural Control Measures
Depending on the land conversion, preparation, bedding and crop stages the structural measures
can be divided into temporary and permanent facilities. However, both types of facilities require
sound engineering solutions and good operation and maintenance of the facilities. A single solution
might not suit all agricultural plots and, therefore, the following criteria might help selecting the
appropriate types of structural facility for pollution control and water treatment purposes.
15.3.5.1
Selection Criteria
The main criteria which should be considered when selecting BMPs to improve irrigation excess
water and runoff quality are the type of pollutant(s) being generated and the category of pollution
generating activity. However, the following factors must also be considered:
hydrologic characteristics;
physical characteristics of the site;
cost-effectiveness;
landowner acceptance;
public interest and support; and
legal requirements.
Hydrologic characteristics of the catchment and site are important for the selection of a structural
BMP. Therefore, this factor is discussed further in the following sections.
15.3.5.2
a)
Hydrologic Considerations
Design Storm
Like most decisions on design standards, the selection of a suitable design standard for water quality
control works involves considerations of economics. It requires a trade-off between the benefits of
providing a higher level of protection, performance and the size and cost of works needed to provide
that protection.
b)
Runoff Estimation
It is necessary to estimate runoff volumes before any assessment can be made of pollutant loads.
The hydrograph methods (DID, 2000) can be used although they are more suitable for event
analysis rather than pollutant load calculations. For preliminary calculations, the Volumetric Rational
Method discussed below can be used.
March 2009
15-23
c)
Volumetric Rational Formula
A formula similar to the 'Rational Formula' can be used for preliminary volume calculations. There is
no restriction on urban catchment size for the application of Volumetric Rational Formula. The
equation for the Volumetric Rational Method is:
(15.11)
R = D.Cv
where,
R = average annual runoff depth (mm)
D = average annual rainfall depth (mm), and
Cv = weighted average annual runoff coefficient
d)
Volumetric Runoff Coefficient
In general, the average annual runoff coefficient Cv. will be less than the Rational Method runoff
coefficient C for events of large ARI (say >2 years), and Cv will be greater than C for events of
small ARI. The most reliable method to determine the average volumetric runoff coefficient Cv is
from long-term flow gauging data. Flow gauging data should always be used where available. If
computer modelling is being used, the model should be calibrated against the flow gauging data.
There is relatively little published data on values of Cv . CRCFE (1998) gives the values in Table 15.7
for Australian conditions.
Table 15.7
Typical Volumetric Runoff Coefficient Values

Landuse
e)
Cv
Forest
0.1 0.3
Pasture
0.2 0.6
Runoff Estimation Procedure
If there is no gauging data available, an approximate method can be used to estimate runoff. The
resulting runoff volume-frequency relationship then provides a basis for estimating catchment
pollutant loads. The estimation method uses the Rational Method runoff coefficient C to predict
runoff depth from individual events. Event runoff Rn can be estimated from Equation 15.12:
(15.12)
R n = Dn . C
where,
Rn = runoff depth (mm) in event with ARI 'n'
Dn = rainfall depth (mm) in event with ARI 'n'
C = the Rational Method runoff coefficient
The Rational Method runoff coefficient C for each event is a function of the rainfall intensity.
Recommended values of C are given in the Design Charts in Chapter 14 of MSMA (DID, 2000). An
estimate of the weighted average annual volumetric runoff coefficient Cv can then be derived using
Equation 15.12.
Cv =
(R
(D
Pn )
n=1
(15.13)
Pn )
n=1
15-24
March 2009
where,
Rn = runoff depth in event with ARI 'n'
Pn = probability of event with ARI 'n'
= 1/n
Dn = rainfall depth in event with ARI 'n' and the suffix n represents the range of ARI of storm
events.
Depending on the site conditions and nature of agricultural practices, treatment of agricultural runoff
may require vegetated buffer strips, gross pollutant traps (GPTs), sediment pond (bay), ponds and
wetlands. Each treatment facility has individual function. Therefore, a series of treatment train is
recommended to treat the polluted agricultural runoff before discharging into receiving water body.
15.4
TEMPORARY TREATMENT FACILITIES
The following structural facilities can be used to control agricultural pollution during the new land
conversion, replanting of new crops or other field activities. The measures vary according to control
functions namely for erosion control, water velocity control, sediment control, etc.
15.4.1
Mulching
Mulching (Figure 15.17) is a temporary ground covering that protects the soil from rainfall impacts,
increases infiltration, conserves moisture around trees, shrubs, and seedings, prevents compaction
and cracking of soil, and aids the growth of seedings and plantings by holding the seeds, fertilisers,
and topsoil in place until growth occurs.
Mulching can be used either to temporarily or permanently stabilise cleared or freshly seeded areas.
Types of mulches include organic materials, straw, wood chips, bark or other wood fibres,
decomposed granite, and gravel. A variety of mats of organic or inorganic materials and chemical
stabilisation may be used with mulches.
15.4.1.1
Suitable Applications
Temporary stabilisation of freshly seeded and planted areas.
Temporary stabilisation during periods unsuitable for growing vegetation.
Temporary stabilisation of areas that cannot be seeded or planted (e.g. steep slopes).
Mulches such as gravel and decomposed soils may be used as permanent BMPs.
Raindrop
Mulching
Disturbed Soil
Figure 15.14 Mulching as Temporary Control Measure

15.4.1.2
Design Criteria
Mulch prevents erosion by protecting the soil surface and fostering growth of new seedings that do
not stabilise by themselves.
March 2009
15-25
Organic mulch materials such as straw, wood chips, bark, and wood fibre, are most effective where
re-vegetation will be provided by reseeding. The choice of mulch should be based on the size of the
area, site slopes, surface conditions (such as hardness and moisture), weed growth, and availability
of mulch materials.
May be used with netting to supplement soil stabilisation.
Apply to planting areas where slopes are 2(H):1(V) or greater.
Binders may be required for steep areas, or if wind and runoff is a problem.
Type of mulch, binders, and application rates should be recommended by manufacturer or

contractor.
15.4.1.3
Maintenance Requirements
Must be inspected weekly and after rain for damage or deterioration. Mulching materials should be
added if a significant amount is lost due to heavy storm.
15.4.1.4
Limitations
Organic mulches are not permanent erosion control measures.
Mulches tend to lower the soil surface temperature, and may delay germination of some seeds.
15.4.2
Sediment Fence
A sediment fence (Figure 15.18) is a temporary sediment barrier consisting of filter fabric stretched
across and attached to supporting posts, entrenched, and, depending upon the strength of the fabric
used, backed by a wire fence for support. Sediment fences trap sediment by:
intercepting and detaining small amounts of sediment from disturbed areas during construction
operations in order to promote sedimentation behind the fence
decreasing the velocity of low flows (up to 15 L/s) in swales and small diversion channels.
Sediment fences are generally effective in locations where the flow is concentrated and are only
applicable for sheet or overland flows.
15.4.2.1
Along the perimeter of the site.
Below the toe of a cleared slope.
Along streams and channels.
Around temporary stockpiles.
Across swales with catchments less than 0.4 hectares.
Below other small cleared areas.
15.4.2.2 Design Criteria
Use principally in areas where sheet flow occurs.
No more than 0.4 hectares or 50 l/s of concentrated flow (for a 1 year ARI) should drain to any
point along the sediment fence.
Use the Rational Method to estimate flows draining to a sediment fence.
Turn the ends of the fence uphill at not more than 30 m intervals to limit the amount of
concentrated runoff at any one point along the fence and to prevent runoff from flowing around
the fence.
Install along a level contour, so water does not pond more than 600 mm deep at any point along
the sediment fence.
15-26
March 2009
Provide an area behind the fence for runoff to pond and sediment to settle (approximately
280 m2 per hectare draining to the sediment fence).
The maximum ground slope perpendicular to the fence should be 1(H):1(V)
Leave an undisturbed or stabilised area immediately downslope of the fence.
Select filter fabric which retains 85% of the soil, by weight, based on sieve analysis, but is not
finer than an equivalent opening size of 70.
Sediment fences should remain in place until the disturbed area is permanently stabilised.
Max. Length 30m

Max. Length
a) Plan
Self-supporting
Geotextile
1.5 m Star Pickets

at Max. 3 m Centres
Direction
of Flow
600 mm Min.
500 to 600 mm
On Soil, 150 x 100 mm Trench

with Compacted Backfill and
on Rock, Set into Surface
Concrete
b) Section
Figure 15.15 Application of Sediment Fence
15.4.2.3
Inspect weekly and after each rainfall.
Repair wherever fence is damaged.
Remove sediment when it reaches one-third of the height of the fence.
15.4.2.4
Limitations
Do not use where 85% of the soil, by weight, passes through a No. 200 sieve as the filter fabric
will clog.
Do not place the fence on a slope, or across any contour line.
Do not use in streams, channels, or anywhere the flow is concentrated.
Do not use in locations where ponded water may cause flooding.
March 2009
15-27
15.4.3
Check Dam
A check dam is a small rock-filled dam constructed across a channel or swale. Check dams
(Figure 15.19) reduce the velocity of concentrated runoff, thereby reducing erosion of the diversion
channel or swale and promoting sedimentation behind the dam.
150 mm
Min.
Spillway
150 mm Min.
Check Dam
Rock Trenched 200 mm into Ground
a) Long-section
Figure 15.16
15.4.3.1
b) Cross-section
Check Dam for Sediment Trapping
Primarily used in small channels in steep terrain where velocities exceed 0.6 m/s.
Used to prevent erosion by reducing the velocity of channel flow in small intermittent channels
and temporary swales.
May also promote sedimentation behind the dam, but should not be considered to be a primary
sediment trapping device because subsequent storms will scour and resuspend much of the
trapped sediment.
15.4.3.2
Design Criteria
Check dams should be of sufficient height and spacing to allow small pools to form between
each one.
Backwater from a downstream check dam should reach the toe of the upstream check dam.
Flows of 2 year ARI or larger should safely flow over the check dam without an increase in
upstream flooding or destruction of the check dam.
Use in steep terrain to reduce flow velocities
A deep sump may be provided immediately upstream of the check dam to capture excessive
sediment.
Check dams may be built of rocks or logs, which are secured against damage during significant
floods.
15.4.3.3
Inspect for sediment buildup and signs of erosion around the check dam after each rainfall.
Remove accumulated sediment whenever it reaches one-third of the height of the dam, or onehalf of the sump depth if a sump is provided.
15.4.3.4
Limitations
Use only in small open channels, which drain an area of 4 hectares or less.
Not to be used in streams, or in lined or vegetated channels.
15-28
March 2009
15.4.4
Sediment Trap
A sediment trap is a small temporary ponding area, usually with a gravel outlet, formed by
excavation and/or construction of an earthen embankment. Its purpose is to collect and store
sediment from sites cleared and/or graded during construction. It is intended for use on small
catchment areas with no unusual drainage features, where construction will be completed in a
reasonably short period of time. It should help in removing coarse sediment from runoff. The trap
(Figure 15.20) is a temporary measure with a design life of approximately six months, and is to be
maintained until the site area is permanently protected against erosion by vegetation and/or
structures.
Sediment Trap
Inflow
Spillway
Outflow
Figure 15.17
15.4.4.1
Sediment Trap
Any disturbed area less than 2 hectares. Sediment Basins must be used for drainage areas
greater than 2 hectares.
Along the perimeter of the site at locations where sediment-laden runoff is discharged off-site.
Around and/or upstream of drainage inlet protection measures.
At any point within the site where sediment-laden runoff can enter stabilised or natural areas or
waterways.
15.4.4.2
Design Criteria
Construct the trap outside the area to be graded before clearing, grubbing, and grading begin.
The length to width ratio should be greater than 2:1.
The outlet of the trap must be stabilised with rock, vegetation, or another suitable material.
The area under the embankment must be cleared, grubbed, and stripped of any vegetation and
root mat. The pool area should be cleared.
The fill material for the embankment must be free of roots and other woody vegetation as well
as oversized stones, rocks, organic material, or other objectionable matter.
A stable emergency spillway must be installed to safely convey flows up to and including
10 year ARI.
15.4.4.3
Remove sediment when the sediment storage zone is no more than 300 mm from being full.
15.4.4.4
Limitations
Only used for drainage areas up to 2 hectares. Refer to Sediment Basins for larger areas.
Only removes coarse sediment (medium silt size and larger).
March 2009
15-29
15.4.5
Sediment Basin
Sediment Basin/pond/bay (Figure 15.23) is a structure formed by excavation and/or construction of

an embankment across an agricultural drain or at other suitable location. Its main purpose is to trap
sediment from agricultural runoff. It is intended to trap sediment from the runoff before it falls into
the receiving water body. The basin can act as a pre-treatment component before a wetpond or
wetland. The sediment basin can be dry or wet. However, wet basins are preferred over dry basins,
as the later would provide additional water quality improvement compared to a dry basin.
(a) Lined Sediment Basin Upstream of Canal

Figure 15.18
15.4.5.1
(b) Deposited Sediments
Sediment Basin for Agricultural Fields
Before the permanent detention basins or water quality control structures.
Should be used in association with earth banks, diversion channels pipes, and other measures
used to divert disturbed areas into the basin and divert undisturbed areas around the basin.
15.4.5.2
Design Criteria
Sediment basins must be installed entirely within the limits of the site.
Construct before clearing and grading work begins.
All basins should be located where failure of the embankment would not result in loss of life,
damage to homes or buildings, or interruption of use or service of public roads or utilities.
Local ordinances regarding health and safety must be adhered to.
Sediment traps are attractive to children and can be very dangerous. Adequate safety
precautions must be provided by restricting access to the site or access to the basin with suitable
fencing.
Securely anchor and install an anti-seep collar on the outlet pipe/riser.
A stable emergency spillway must be installed to safely convey flows up to and including
10 year ARI. The flood volume for this flow must be large enough to contain the flow without
causing upstream damage and/or overtopping of the embankment.
The basin length to settling depth ratio should be less than 200:1.
The basin length to width ratio should be greater than 2:1. If not, baffles should be provided to
prevent short-circuiting.
Side slopes should not be steeper than 2(H):1(V) to prevent sloughing.
15.4.5.3
Sizing of Wet Sediment Basin
The effective design and operation of sediment basins depends primarily on the nature of the soil
materials likely to be eroded and washed into the basin. The design approach allows for differences
in the settling behaviour of different size particles in water. Clearly, coarse-grained sediment will
15-30
March 2009
settle quicker than fine-grained sediment, and some types of clay particles never settle at all
unaided.
Table 15.8 lists the three different soil types discussed in this section, and the design considerations
which apply to sediment basin design and operation for each soil type.
Table 15.8

Soil
Type
Basin
Type
Coarse-grained sand, sandy loam:

less than 33% <0.02mm
Dry
Settling velocity, sediment

storage
Fine-grained loam, clay: more

than 33% < 0.02mm
Wet
Runoff impoundment, sediment

storage
Dispersible fine-grained clays as

per type F, more than 10% of
dispersible material
Wet
Runoff impoundment, sediment

storage, assisted flocculation
Soil Description
The design capacity of a sediment basin is the sum of two components:
a settling zone at least 0.6 m deep to contain runoff and allow suspended sediment to settle,
and
a sediment storage zone at least 0.3 m deep to store settled sediment until the basin is cleaned
out. In some cases, basins may be sized to trap sediment for the whole year.
Where soils of more than one type are present on a site, sediment basins shall be designed to meet
the most stringent criterion applicable. Usually, because type F or D soils are more difficult to
settle, they will govern the design if present on any significant portion of the basin catchment.
The sizing guidelines were derived assuming particle distribution and settling velocities given in Table
15.9.
Table 15.9
Diameter
(mm)
Percentage
Settling velocity
(m/sec)
0.02
30%
0.00029
0.05
55%
0.0019
0.10
15%
0.007
Wet sediment basins should be used on Type F or Type D soils. Recommendations for wet sediment
basins are based on the observation that traditional approaches to settling fine sediments,
particularly dispersible clays, have been ineffective. The approach adopted is therefore one of storm
containment, fully impounding runoff from a nominated design event.
The design event is selected using a risk-based approach. The rainfall and predicted runoff from
that design event is then used to size the 'settling' zone of the basin.
March 2009
15-31
The duration of the design event should be 5 days. This is a reasonable estimate of the time
necessary to achieve effective flocculation, settling, and pump out of the runoff; allowing for
weekends and other days when the site may not be attended.
For most construction situations, the 75th percentile 5-day rainfall event should be used as the
design event. This is the rainfall that is not exceeded in 75% of rainfall events. The figure can
be derived by analysis of daily rainfalls. A worked example for deriving 75th percentile 5-day
rainfalls is given in Appendix 13.C of MSMA (DID, 2000).
The Volumetric Rational Method is used to estimate the runoff volume. The appropriate
volumetric runoff coefficient is to be selected to suit the soil runoff potential.
Sizing guidelines for wet sediment basins for normal situations are given in Table 15.10. The volume
of the sediment storage component for wet sediment basins should be 50% of the settling zone
volume. However, in areas of high soil erodibility, the sediment storage volume should be adjusted
in a manner similar to that for Type C soils (Table 15.10).
Table 15.10
Wet Sediment Basin Sizing Guidelines

Volume (m3/ha of Catchment)
Parameter
Settling Zone
Volume
Total Volume
Site Runoff
Potential
Magnitude of Design Storm Event in mm

20
30
40
50
60
Moderate to high
70
127
200
290
380
Very high
100
167
260
340
440
Moderate to high
105
190
300
435
570
Very high
150
250
390
510
660
Notes: 1. Interpolate intermediate values.

2. Design storm event is either the 5-day 75th percentile or 5-day 80th percentile.
3. Total volume = one-third as sediment storage volume and two-thirds as settling zone
volume. In highly erodible soils, adjust sediment storage volume to equal the 2-month
soil loss from the catchment (use MUSLE).
15.4.5.4
The management and operation of sediment basins also depends primarily on the nature of the soil
materials likely to be eroded and washed into the basin.
The captured stormwater in the settling zone should be drained or pumped out within the five
day period following rainfall, provided that an acceptable water quality has been achieved.
The target water quality should be specified by the Local Authority in terms of the Interim
National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia (INWQS). Typically, Class II standards will be
required (e.g. TSS < 50 mg/L). If this quality is not achieved by settling, a flocculating agent
(e.g. gypsum, enzymes) should be added to the stored water.
A peg or other mark should be placed in the basin to indicate the top of the sediment storage
zone. A floating inlet should be used on the pump to ensure that settled sediment is not picked
up during the dewatering process.
Remove sediment when the sediment storage zone becomes full.
15-32
March 2009
15.4.5.5
Limitations
The basin should have shallow side slopes (maximum 4(H):1(V)) or be fenced to prevent
drowning.
Sites with fine silt and clay may require longer detention times for effective sediment removal.
Basins in excess of certain depth and storage volume criteria must meet State and/or Federal
dam safety criteria.
Standing water may cause mosquitoes or other pests to breed.
15.5
PERMANENT TREATMENT FACILITIES
The permanent structural facilities are constructed for long-term usage. The common permanent
water quality control structures are discussed in the following sections. The main functions of the
facilities are to trap sediments, uptake nutrients, reduce fertilisers, pesticides, herbicides, etc.
15.5.1
Vegetated Buffer Strips
Vegetated buffer strips (VBS) can control the sediments and other nutrients from entering the
receiving water bodies. The US Department of Agriculture has developed a general vegetated buffer
system specification for controlling non-point source pollution from agriculture and improving general
water quality. The specification calls for a three-zone buffer system (Figure 15.19) with each zone
having specific purposes but also interacting with the adjacent zones to provide the overall function.
Subsu
rface
Flow
Groundw
ater
CROPLAND
ZONE 3
ZONE 2
ZONE 1
STREAMBOTTOM
ZONE 1
ZONE 2
ZONE 3
PASTURE
Figure 15.19 Components of Vegetated Buffer Strips

Zone 1 of the VBS is an area of permanent vegetation immediately adjacent to the stream channel
and encompassing at least the entire stream channel system. Zone 2 is an area of managed forest
upslope from Zone 1, that is managed for control of pollutants in subsurface flow and surface runoff
through transformations, storage in woody vegetation, infiltration, and sediment deposition. Zone 3
is a grass or other herbaceous filter strip upslope from Zone 2 that is managed to spread
concentrated flow into sheet flow and to remove sediment and associated pollutants.
VBSs can provide four important functions. The first is control of sediment and sediment-borne
pollutants carried in surface runoff. Conversion to sheet flow and deposition of coarse sediment,
which could damage young vegetation, are the primary functions of Zone 3, the grass vegetated
filter strip. The second function of an VBS is to control nitrate in shallow groundwater moving toward
March 2009
15-33
streams. When groundwater moves in short, shallow paths through the VBS, 90% of the nitrate
input may be removed. The third function of an VBS is control of dissolved phosphorus (P) in surface
runoff or shallow groundwater. Control of sediment-borne P is generally effective. In certain
situations, dissolved P can contribute a substantial amount of total P load. The final function of VBSs
is to provide control of the stream environment: modifying stream temperature and controlling light
quantity and quality, enhancing habitat diversity, modifying channel morphology, and enhancing
food webs and species richness.
15.5.1.1
Areas within the site where no construction activity occurs, or occurs at a later date.
Sensitive areas where natural vegetation exists and should be preserved, such as steep slopes,
watercourses, and building sites in wooded areas.
Areas where Local, State, and Federal government requires preservation, such as: vernal pools,
wetlands, marshes, and certain native trees, etc.
15.5.1.2
Design Criteria
Clearly mark, flag, or fence vegetation areas where vegetation should be preserved.
Prepare landscaping plans, which include as much existing vegetation as possible and state
proper care of this vegetation both during and after construction.
Define and protect with berms, fencing, signs, etc, a setback area from vegetation to be
preserved. The size of the Setback area should be based on the location, species, size, age, and
potential impact of adjacent construction activities or permanent improvements.
Landscaping plans should not include plant species that compete with the existing vegetation.
Construction traffic routes, spoil stockpiles, etc, must not be located where significant adverse
impacts on vegetation may occur.
15.5.1.3
Inspection and maintenance requirements for protection of vegetation are low.
During construction, the limits of grading or disturbance should be carefully marked at all times.
Irrigation or maintenance of mature trees or vegetation should conform to specifications on the

Landscape Plan.
15.5.1.4
Limitations
Requires forward planning by the owner/developer, contractor, and design staff.
For sites with diverse topography, it may be difficult and expensive to save existing trees while
grading the site satisfactorily for the planned development.
15.5.2
Swale
A swale (Figure 15.20) can be used to partially treat conventional pollutants as well as nutrients from
an agricultural field. When used as a primary treatment, it should be located off-line from the
conveyance system in order to enhance effectiveness and can be used to protect a water quality
infiltration or a sand media filtration. In cases where a biofiltration swale is located on-line it must
be sized as both a treatment facility and as a conveyance system to pass the peak hydraulic flows of
the design storms. To be effective, the depth of the water must not exceed the height of the grass
for a long time.
15.5.2.1
Appropriate for trapping sediments and filtering nutrients.
Intercept overland flow from the crop lands and pastures.
15-34
March 2009
15.5.2.2
Design Criteria
The interim criteria have been selected to ensure that the velocity of water does not exceed 0.5 m/s
along a swale of 60 m in length during the water quality design storm (3 month ARI). An additional
requirement for swales designed to convey larger storms (up to the 100 year) is that the peak
velocity for the maximum design storm is kept below erosive levels. Additional criteria are given
below:
For biofiltration swale, it is important to maximise water contact with vegetation and the soil
surface. Gravely and coarse sandy soils will not provide water quality treatment unless the
bottom of the swale is lined to prevent infiltration.
Select vegetation on the basis of pollution control objectives and according to what will best
establish and survive in the site conditions. For general purposes, select fine, close-growing and
flow resistant grasses. Alternatively, where some period of soil saturation is expected, where
particular pollutant uptake characteristics are desired, or both, select emergent wetland plant
species.
Select a grass height of 150 mm or more and a flow depth of less than 150 mm for water quality
design storm. Grasses over that height tend to flatten down when water is flowing over them,
which prevents sedimentation. To attain this height requires regular maintenance.
The channel slope should normally be between 2 and 4%. A slope of less than 2% can be used
if underdrains are placed beneath the channel to prevent ponding. For a slope of greater than
4%, use drop structures in the channel to reduce the longitudinal slope.
Figure 15.20 Swale for Pollutant Removal

15.5.2.3
Swale should not be accessible to the grazing animals.
Grasses may need to be fertilised, watered and mowed.
March 2009
15-35
15.5.2.4
Limitations
Vegetation may require irrigation in dry periods.
Fertiliser requirements may have the potential to create runoff pollution if improperly applied.
15.5.3
Wet Ponds and Wetlands Planning
The major water quality improvement facilities are wet ponds and wetlands. These can be natural or
constructed. However, that natural ponds and wetlands may need some sorts of retrofication works
to control the outflow effectively.
15.5.3.1
Location of the Ponds and Wetlands
Ponds and wetlands can be either on-line, meaning that they are located on a main watercourse or
flow path, or off-line. Some of the common alternatives are shown in Figure 15.21; other
arrangements are also possible.
On-line sediment basin

and wet pond
On-line
sediment basin
and wetland
On-line sediment
basin, wet pond and
wetland
On-line sediment
basin, wet pond and
off-line wetland
Off-line sediment
basin and wet
pond/wetland
LEGEND
Sediment
Basin
Figure 15.21
Pond
Wetland
Common Alternatives of Treatment Train Arrangements (DID, 2000)
The choice of an on-line or off-line pond design is usually governed by site characteristics. On-line
ponds are generally used for small catchments up to 5 to 10 km2 in area as they will tend to be more
15-36
March 2009
economical. However, an off-line design can also be used for small catchments to suit the site. An
example is where an open space reserve or playing field is located beside a drain.
For large catchments, the size of the necessary outlet structure and spillway generally makes an online design very costly. For this reason an off-line design is preferred. However there are also
exceptions, such as where it is desired to build a pond in a river valley to make use of the natural
topography. In this case the outlet will normally be in the form of a small dam. Where there is a risk
of occasional high-discharge events, constructed wetlands should be located off-line.
15.5.3.2
Data Requirements
Design of water quality control ponds (wet ponds) requires data on:
Catchment area;
Hydrology of inflows;
Survey details, including depths, of existing ponds;
Hydraulic conditions at the pond outlet, which may create tailwater;
Soil type;
Estimates of sediment loads and other pollutant loads from the catchment; and
Chemical analysis of the existing pond water and sediment, if there is a risk of chemical
contamination. This task is essential when an ex-mining pond is proposed to be used.
15.5.3.3
Zoning of Ponds and Wetlands
Ponds should be designed with a combination of deep and shallow water. The design concept
involves three main zones in which different assimilation processes dominate, and different design
conditions apply. Typical arrangements of these zones are shown in Figure 15.22.
a)
Inlet Zone
The function of the inlet zone is to remove larger particles, including sediment, and to distribute flow
across the pond. The installation of sediment traps and sediment basin (bay) helps in the function of
this zone.
b)
Macrophyte Zone
Macrophytes are large aquatic plants. Beds of macrophytes filter out finer particles, and directly take
up contaminants enhancing the phytoremediation of nutrients, excess fertilisers and pesticides.
They enhance sedimentation and the absorption of pollutants onto sediments. The macrophyte zone
should be provided around the pond edges downstream of the main inlets to filter out sediment,
nutrients and toxicants, to disperse the inflowing waters and to reduce its velocity. Macrophyte
zones should be from 25-50% of the total pond area. Plantings should be on the perimeter,
arranged so that there is opportunity for water in the open pond zone to circulate through the
macrophyte zone.
c)
Open Water Zone
An open water zone is a deeper area that allows time for fine particles to flocculate to the bed, and
allows sunlight to kill bacteria. Decomposition and grazing of organic matter will occur in this zone.
Periodic algal growth may occur here and this will also trap dissolved nutrients and allow them to
enter the food chain or to settle to the bed of the pond. A certain portion of the open water zone can
be used to grow floating plants (duckweed, water lettuce, water hyacinth, etc.) to enhance the
phytoremediation process of the wetland. A minimum depth of 2.4 m is recommended for open
water zones. The open water zone has the potential for some recreational activity, especially in the
larger ponds and urban lakes. Water quality however will generally be unsuitable for body contact
recreation.
March 2009
15-37
Deep
Pond Contours
Shallow
Pond
Macrophyte Zones
Wetland
Islands
Emergent Macrophytes
Submerged Macrophytes
Figure 15.22
15.5.3.4
Combination of Pond and Wetland Layouts (DID, 2000)
Pollutant Treatment Process
The pollutant retention efficiency of a wet pond and wetland systems appears to be related to
factors such as the nature of the inflows (particularly the sediment grading and geochemistry), the
ionic composition of the wetland waters, and the geometry and macrophyte planting scheme of the
wetland (NSW EPA, 1997).
A complex variety of treatment processes occur in a typical wet pond and wetland, as shown in
Figure 15.23. Scientific understanding of these processes is increasing, but is still limited.
15.5.3.5
Process Modelling
As a result of ongoing research it is now possible to describe and model the dominant pollutant
interception and retention processes in the ponds and wetlands. These models have the potential to
supplement and to some extent replace the empirical sizing guidelines. However it must be pointed
out that the models require specialist expertise which may not be readily available among local
authorities and designers.
CRCFE (1998) provides a range of background material and diagnostic tools, which can be used to
assess the performance of existing ponds. The Guidelines will enable the designer to pinpoint the
primary factors contributing to under-performance, and the modification options relevant to reducing
or removing these factors (Lawrence, 1999). A number of pond and wetland process models are
available which can be used for more detailed design studies. Among them MUSIC, PDMOD and
WMOD are developed in Australia.
In the CRCFE models Figure 15.24, the transfers and transformations of pollutants are described by
physical, chemical, biological and microbial equilibria and rates. Because of the interdependence of
these factors all pond compartments have to be analysed concurrently.
15-38
March 2009
Light
Wind
Mixing N2 , H2S, CO2
Oxygen
Outflow
Inflow
Abiotic Pool
Biofilm
O2 Pool
Biotic Pool
Grazers
Dissolved Pool
Sedim
ent
Groundwater
Figure 15.23
Water Quality Processes in Wet Ponds and Wetlands (CRCFE, 1998)
A Continuously-Stirred Tank Reactor approach is used. The model also computes losses and gains
over time, with a daily computational step. Transfers between the water column and sediment, algal
and atmospheric compartments are all included.
POND
WETLAND
Catchment runoff and

pollutant discharge
Combined
discharge and
pond pollutant
mass
Catchment runoff and

pollutant discharge
Pond volume
and pollutant
mass
Suspended solids
adsorption of
pollutants and
sedimentation
Pollutant
remobilisation
Sediment
Figure 15.24
15.5.3.6
Outflow of
mixed preevent pond and
event inflow
pollutants
Combined
discharge and
wetland
pollutant mass
Wetland volume
and pollutant
mass
Adsorption of colloids
on biofilm and transfer
to sediments
Outflow of
mixed preevent wetland
and event
inflow
pollutants
Epiphyte uptake of
dissolved nutrients
Sediment
Major Components of Pond and Wetland Process Models (CRCFE,1998)
Health and Safety
The owner of the ponds and wetlands is responsible for ensuring that it does not cause a risk to
public health or safety. Mosquito-borne diseases are a serious concern in tropical areas. The ponds
and wetlands design should minimise the risk that mosquitoes will breed there. Mosquito control
strategies include:
March 2009
15-39
Interception of water-borne rubbish which creates a mosquito breeding environment;
Selection of plants, which provide a breeding ground for predator insects, such as dragonflies
that feed on mosquitoes;
Encouragement of fish breeding;
Shaping of ponds to avoid stagnant areas with poor circulation;
Shaping of pond edges to avoid the trapping of water in depressions as the pond water level
changes;
Providing a mechanism to regulate pond levels in order to disturb any breeding larvae; and
Selection and control of aquatic plants to avoid the creation of habitats favoured for mosquito
breeding.
The ponds are good attraction to small children and can present a hazard. The designer should
concentrate on avoiding serious safety hazards such as:
Sudden drops into deep water;
Sudden changes in flow velocities or water levels; and
Unprotected raised structures that children can fall off.
Inlet and outlet structures can be particularly dangerous because of the high flow velocities that
occur there. It may be desirable to fence off the inlet and outlet structures. Such fencing should be
designed so that it does not interfere with the hydraulics of the flow structure.
15.5.3.7
Maintenance
As with any constructed facility, ponds require regular ongoing operation and maintenance. General
maintenance including lawn mowing, rubbish removal, and inspection should be carried out at
regular intervals not exceeding once every two weeks.
Associated structures such as embankments, inlets, outlets, spillways and culverts must be routinely
inspected for serviceability, safety, and cleaning and removal of trapped rubbish and sediment.
Safety measures such as fences, booms and warning notices must be routinely inspected to ensure
that they are in working order.
a)
Aquatic Vegetation
Maintenance during the plant establishment phase is critical because it is during this phase that
plants are most vulnerable to damage. Low water level, weed invasion, and damage by animals are
possible causes of problems. Plants should be inspected at least weekly during the initial phase in
order to detect any damage and allow corrective action.
Aquatic plants should be inspected periodically to control pest species and to promote the desired
mix of plants for conservation and landscape purposes. Occasional replanting may be necessary to
maintain the desired mix of species.
The consensus of scientific opinion, mainly from temperate climates, is that it is not appropriate to
regularly harvest macrophytes (see CRCFE, 1998). The disturbance created by the harvesting
process introduces the risk of remobilising sediments and nutrients, and introducing weed species.
The validity of this conclusion in tropical countries such as Malaysia needs to be established by
further research.
b)
Eutrophication and Other Problems
Under certain climatic conditions, nutrient enrichment of pond water can cause abundant plant and
algal growth. The resulting algal blooms are unsightly and damaging to public health and can cause
fish kills and episodes of poor water quality.
The following conditions are most likely to encourage eutrophication:
15-40
March 2009
excessive nutrient loadings in inflows,
high average temperatures and abundant sunshine,
still water, and
clear water (low turbidity).
Pond designers should try to avoid these conditions. For example, it may be inappropriate to locate
a pond downstream of an oxidation pond discharge, which is rich in nutrients. In many parts of
Malaysia the high turbidity of surface waters helps to prevent eutrophication by preventing sunlight
penetration.
However, high turbidity promotes another problem, which is water column stratification. Heated
surface waters become lighter than the bottom waters, effectively preventing any mixing. The
resulting physical barrier prevents oxygen transfer to the bottom layers, which typically become
deoxygenated. Deep mining ponds may be prone to stratification.
There is a rapidly increasing body of scientific knowledge of both of these problems and there are
methods, such as mechanical mixing, to overcome them. If any ponds are found to be subject to
these problems specialised technical advice should be sought.
15.5.4
Wet Ponds Design
Wet ponds can have both water quantity and quality control functions. It is economically
advantageous to combine both functions in a single pond. Slotted or v-notched weirs and multistaged outlets are common practice in overseas countries. These types of devices provide a smooth
transition from the case where attenuation is only provided for the water quality design storm, to
also providing a measure of flood control in frequent events. This transition is required in order to
protect the downstream ecosystem from the increased peak flows in frequent events (small ARIs).
If maintained properly, wet ponds are attractive and socially acceptable. They are likely to enhance
the appeal of surrounding properties and to serve as a focus for recreation. Wet ponds can provide
a habitat for birds and fish. A permanent pond cannot be maintained with very permeable soils (e.g.
sandy soils) unless a liner is used. Wet ponds can have multiple uses. They provide:
Flood management temporary flood storage to reduce downstream flow peaks;
Water quality improvement by sedimentation and natural biological processes;
Landscape and recreational value;
Irrigation ponded water may be suitable for irrigation and other purposes; and
Conservation restoration or provision of habitats for flora and fauna.
15.5.4.1
Pollutant Retention in Pond
Several process-based models use pond retention curves. These curves are empirical, compiled from
observed pond and wetland performance.
Insufficient data is available at present to derive retention curves for Malaysian conditions. Until
more data are available, Figure 15.25 should be used to define pollutant retention for SS, TP, FC and
TN. The pollutant retention data for suspended solids and total phosphorus were adopted from
Willing & Partners (1995).
The pollutant retention data for faecal coliform and total nitrogen were adopted from the Clean
Waterway Programme of Sydney Water Corporation, Australia. Reduction of pollutants in a wet pond
is a complex process and the removal rate depends on various factors. However, a general guideline
is given in Table 15.11.
March 2009
15-41
15.5.4.2
Remobilisation of Pollutants
When calculating the pond size, the designer should check for release of deposited material back into
the pond (or wetland) as a result of reducing conditions (CRCFE, 1998). Reducing conditions may
occur as a result of the decomposition of organic sedimented material.
100
TSS
Long-term average % reduction

in urban pollutant loads
90
LEAD
80
TOTAL P
70
60
TOTAL Cu, Zn
BOD, COD, TKN
50
Great Lakes Rainfall

40
Basin depth 1.5 m
30
Coeff. of Runoff Volume, R = 0.2

v
Removals due to sedimentation
20
No scour or biological action

10
0
0.01
0.1
Basin area as % of contributing catchment area
Figure 15.25
Typical Pollutant Reduction in a Wet Detention Pond (Novotny, 2003)

Table 15.11
Pollutant
Pollutant Reduction in Ponds

Expected Range of Reduction (%)
Dry Pond
Dry Pond (ED)
Wet Pond
Total suspended solids
20 - 60
30 - 80
50 - 90
Total phosphorus
10 - 30
15 - 40
30 - 80
Total Nitrogen
10 - 20
10 - 40
30 - 60
COD
20 - 40
20 - 50
30 - 70
Total Lead
20 - 60
20 - 70
30 - 90
Total Zinc
10 - 50
10 - 60
30 - 90
Total Copper
10 - 40
10 - 50
20 - 80
Bacteria
20 - 40
20 - 60
20 - 80
Benthic microbes normally feed on decomposing organic material at the bottom of the pond or
wetland. Their growth depletes dissolved oxygen levels and if organic material remains after the
15-42
March 2009
oxygen has all been used up, further microbial growth leads the transformation of a number of
trapped pollutants (such as nitrate, ferric iron, sulphate) and their release back into the water or
atmosphere in such forms as ammonium ions, nitrogen, phosphate, or hydrogen sulphide. This
action is most likely to occur if ponds are too small and hence overloaded, or if the BOD load is
excessive or not well distributed across the pond. Stratification (the formation of layers of different
density and/or temperature) increases the probability that reducing conditions will occur.
15.5.4.3
Pond Shape and Design Features
The complexity and requirements for detailed data makes circulation modelling impractical for most
small ponds. However, the use of lake and pond circulation models should be considered for the
design of large, important lake features.
Ponds should be long relative to their width in order to provide optimum circulation. Length to width
ratios should be in the range of 3 to 5 (CRCFE, 1998). Islands or baffles can be incorporated to
prevent short-circuiting. Islands can provide valuable aesthetic and environmental benefits (for
example, wildlife habitat). For safety the tops of islands should be located above design flood level.
From an aesthetic point of view, it is important to select plantings that enhance the visual quality of
the facilities. The designer should consider the alignment and treatment of edges to create variety
and interest by, for example, using small embayments in preference to straight edges. Deep
embayments should be avoided unless they will have their own stormwater inlets, as they may
create zones of poor mixing and lead to poor water quality. An embayment with its own inlet should
be subjected to the same criteria as a separate pond.
15.5.4.4
Pond Outlets
A normal outlet is provided in order to regulate flows from the pond, and to control water levels. In
many cases it is also necessary to maintain a regular baseflow downstream. The designer should
investigate whether there are any downstream water users, and the amount of baseflow they
require. In environmentally sensitive areas, consideration should be given to providing an
environmental baseflow to meet the needs of fish, plants and wildlife. The outlet should be arranged
to drain the design flood event within 24 hours. This should ensure that the active flood storage is
empty before the next storm event.
Outlet pipe arrangements commonly comprise a small diameter pipe through an abutment or
spillway, or a fixed weir. If a fixed weir is used, a pipe with a cap or valve should be provided for
trickle flows. The outlet works should be designed to allow the pond water level to be controlled and
adjusted to facilitate the establishment and growth of macrophytes. If feasible, provision should be
made to allow the pond to be completely drained by gravity for maintenance. For existing mining
ponds it is not practicable to make this provision. If a gravity draining provision is made the control
valve must be secured in a locked enclosure. Some other possible outlet arrangements are also
possible to meet site conditions and other requirements.
15.5.4.5
Slopes
For safety, stability and to promote the growth of macrophytes, slopes within the pond shoreline
area should be in the range of 1 in 6 to 1 in 8. After reaching a depth of 1 metre, the slope can be
increased. The maximum slope is set by the angle of repose of the saturated soil.
Side slopes above water level should also be gentle, both for safety reasons and to limit the potential
for erosion. However, the slope should not be so flat that it creates ponding areas. A minimum side
slope of 1 in 10 to 1 in 20 is recommended for a distance of 5 metres from the pond edge, to allow
maintenance access.
Ponds that are also intended for flood control will be subject to variable water levels. This creates
problems around the water edge due to alternate wetting and drying of soil, making it difficult to
establish or maintain grass. In this situation grass is not suitable and a hard edge, lined with rock
March 2009
15-43
gabions or a low concrete wall, is preferable where visibility and public access are provided. For
those parts of the pond, which are inaccessible, emergent plants such as reeds, which will tolerate
water level changes, can be used.
15.5.4.6
Water Balance
The designer should check that the permanent pond will not dry out during extended dry periods.
This can be done by means of a continuous water balance calculation, allowing for evaporation and
infiltration over a period of least 12 months. If excessive infiltration is likely it may be necessary to
specify an impermeable lining, either with clay or a synthetic liner. In the humid tropical climate of
Malaysia the risk of a pond drying out is less likely than in drier climates.
15.5.4.7
Erosion and Sediment Control
Erosion and sediment controls should be provided during construction. Erosion of the surroundings
and deposition of sediment into the pond will drastically reduce its effectiveness.
The pond should be planned to minimise the area of earthworks required. This will reduce
well as help to minimise sediment movement. Areas of existing vegetation should be
wherever possible. For example, an existing high point with established vegetation could be
as an island within the ponding area. If excavation or construction is carried out close to a
an in-line pond, the flow must be diverted around the site.
15.5.4.8
costs as
retained
retained
river for
Landscaping and Planting
Wet ponds and wetlands represent important open space and recreation facilities in urban areas, and
are greatly valued by local communities. If the ponds or wetlands are provided primarily for the
management of irrigation excess water and agricultural runoff, recreation will normally be limited to
secondary uses such as fishing and boating, and passive recreation. The designer will need to
accommodate water quality and habitat requirements for fish and other freshwater species such as
turtles, as well as aesthetic values (freedom from rubbish, odour and scum).
The pond surroundings should be planted with suitable selected species as quickly as possible, to
reduce erosion and provide shade. Local advice should be obtained on suitable species.
15.5.5
Wetlands Design
Wetlands can be natural and constructed. This Manual focuses on constructed wetlands, which can
be categorized as either Free Water Surface (FWS) or Sub-surface Flow System (SFS) systems. In
FWS systems, the flow of water is above the ground, and plants are rooted in the sediment layer at
the base of water column (Figure 15.29a). In SFS systems, water flows though a porous media such
as gravels or aggregates, in which the plants are rooted (Figure 15.29b).
a) Free Water Surface

Figure 15.26
15-44
b) Subsurface Flow System

Types of Constructed Wetlands
March 2009
15.5.5.1
Features of Wetlands
Wetlands are designed such tht there are only small changes in pond elevation, to drive flow over
the outlet structures. Wet ponds therefore provide minimal flow attenuation. Issues to consider
when choosing constructed wetlands include the following:
Wetlands have a mostly limited depth, ranging from zero at the shore to 1.0 m in the deepest
areas. The average depth of the emergent vegetation zone is typically 0.5 m.
The change in water level is usually kept small (less than 0.6 m) as most wetland plants are not
tolerant of greater changes. These figures are for the water quality design storm. Wetlands
which are associated with ponds that are also used for flood control can tolerate submergence to
depths between 1 m and 2 m, provided that velocities are low enough to avoid flattening and
that the duration of submergence is not more than a few hours.
Wetlands differ from ponds in having greater biological uptake. Well designed perennial
wetlands intercept dissolved and colloidal forms of pollutants. The benthic biofilm adsorbs
pollutants and transfers them to the sediments, while dissolved nutrients are primarily taken up
by benthic and epiphytic algae. Adhesion of fine particles onto vegetative surfaces may also play
a part in pollutant interception.
Although the water level changes are usually small, the large areas provide some volume for
attenuation of small storm flows. In general, wetlands should not be used for extreme flood
attenuation due to the potential damage to the wetland plants.
Wetland areas provide educational benefits and some passive recreation (e.g. walking track)
benefits. They can have a high visual appeal, and add to the natural landscape. Wetlands
provide a good habitat for birds and fish. In all ponds, and in wetlands in particular, mosquitoes
are likely to be a concern of the public health which should be given adequate attention.
Wetland planting, establishment and maintenance is usually necessary and can be costly.
15.5.5.2
Pollutant Retention
Pollutants retention in a typical wetland depends mainly depends on the hydraulic detention time.
Other factors influence pollutatnt removal are age and types of microphytes and macrophytes,
nature of pollutant, inflow quantity and quality, wetland configuration, climatic condition, etc. Typical
removal rate is shown in Figure 15.30, which can be used to determine the size of the wetland and
predict effluent concentration from the wetland.
100
90
80
% Retained
70
60
50
40
30
20
SS
10
TP
FC
TN
0
0
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
Time (days)
Figure 15.27
March 2009
Typical Pollutant Retention in Constructed Wetlands

15-45
a)
Steady or Attenuated Flows
This condition applies when upstream flows are constant or only slightly varying, due perhaps to the
wetland being off-line or downstream of a detention storage or wet pond.
In this case, size is simply determined on the basis of Equation 15.20:
A = 100 Q Cin
R
(rb t r )
(15.14)
where,
A
Q
Cin
R
rb
tr
= wetland area (ha)

= volume of event discharge (ML)
= inflow concentration of the target pollutant (mg/L)
= level of reduction (interception) required (%)
= daily adsorption rate of the target pollutant by biofilm
= retention time or average time between storm events (days)
b)
Ephemeral Wetlands
Ephemeral wetlands are the opposite to case (a), in that they are designed to collect runoff only
infrequently and then dry out. In ephemeral wetlands the pollutants are intercepted mainly by
adhesion to vegetation surfaces, sedimentation, and retention (infiltration and evaporation). The
wetting and drying cycle are central to the pollutant removal processes in ephemeral wetlands.
There is little published research on which to base a model for determining the size of an ephemeral
wetland. Size is related to the volume of the storm event to be captured and, in general, should be
such as to fully capture the chosen design storm.
c)
Kadlec and Knights Method
On the other hand, Kadlec and Knight (1996) presume a first-order decay, plug flow model for all
pollutants, including BOD, TSS, total phosphorous (TP), total nitrogen (TN), organic nitrogen (OrgN),
ammonia nitrogen (NH4-N), oxidised nitrogen (NOx-N), and faecal coliform (FC). Their model is based
on areal rate constants, which are independent of temperature. The Kadlec and Knight model may
be less sensitive to different climatic conditions:
C C*
ln e
C C*
i
q=
k
=
(15.15)
365Q
As
As =
365Q C e C *
ln
C C*
k
i
(15.16)
A sk
C e = C * + (C i C * ) exp
365Q
(15.17)
(15.18)
Where As = treatment area of the wetland (m2), Ce = target effluent concentration (mg/L), Ci =
target influent concentration (mg/L), C* = background pollutant concentration (mg/L), k = first
order aerial rate constant (m/yr), q = hydraulic loading rate (m/yr), and Q = average flow rate
through the wetland (m3/day).
15-46
March 2009
Kadlec and Knight (1996) advocate the use of the global parameters they determined from plug
flow analysis of performance data available to date on the North American Data Base (NADB) in
other systems. They suggest that specific parameters should be locally determined prior to
investment in a full-scale system, in order to ensure suitability of design. The global parameters to
be used for this design are shown in Table 15.12.
Table 15.12
Parameter
k (m/yr)
20
Q
C* (mg/L)
a
Org-N
NH -N
No -N
TN
TP
FC
1000
17
18
35
22
12
75
1.00
1.05
1.04
1.09
1.05
1.00
1.00
1.50
0.00
0.00
1.50
0.02
300
BOD
TSS
34
1.00
3.5+0.053C
5.1+0.16C
for non forested wetlands.
b
c
Coefficients for Free Water Surface Wetlands for Kadlec and Knights Method (1996)
rough unsubstantiated estimate, settling rate determination preferred (Kadlec and Knight, 1996).
central tendency of widely variable values.
15.5.5.3
Hydrologic Regime
The principal function of the storage in a constructed wetland is to provide a variable wetting-drying
cycle, which encourages growth and diversity of macrophytes. A depth range of 0.5 m to 1.0 m and
a hydraulic residence time of less than 3-5 days for a design storm may be suitable (EPA NSW,
1997). This depth range is tolerated by most emergent macrophyte vegetation.
An important aspect of the hydrologic regime of the wetland is the frequency of inundation at
different depths. This is a function of the outlet design as well as of local climatic conditions. Water
depth is a fundamental factor controlling the growth of plants. Different species will have
preferences for different depth and inundation regimes. The designer should evaluate the hydrologic
regime by means such as a continuous-simulation computer model.
15.5.5.4
Wetland Outlet Design
The use of a riser-type outlet is generally more suitable for controlling the water level regime in a
wetland than a weir because it gives more control over the stage-discharge relationship. However
there is scope for the design of innovative outlet arrangements such as proportional weirs to suit
Malaysian conditions.
Figure 15.28 shows a schematic view of a typical riser pipe outlet design for a constructed wetland.
In this example the riser pipe has a hood and screen to prevent blockage by the floating material
which is commonly found in wetlands. Anti-seepage collars should be installed along outlet conduits
passing through or under the dam embankment.
It is desirable to provide an adjustable outlet so that the water depth can be adjusted if necessary.
This is particularly so during the early stage of plant establishment. Some examples of adjustable
outlets can be wooden weirs, which can be mounted at different levels and removed when not
required; or piped low-flow outlets, which can capped off when not required. An emergency spillway
must be provided to protect the embankment surrounding the wetland.
15.5.5.5
Flow Distribution
Wetlands must be designed to provide an even flow distribution and avoid short-circuiting (direct
flow from inlet to outlet). A long, narrow shape is recommended for this reason. Urbonas and
Stahre and Urbonas (1990) proposed that the ideal shape is an extended oval, with inlet and outlet
March 2009
15-47
at opposite ends. Inlet structures should be designed to spread the flow as much as possible. This
may involve providing flow baffles or a weir.
Overflow with
protective hood
Flood Attenuation
Storage
Multiple Orifices
Extended Detention
Storage
Anti-seepage collar
Permanent Pool
Discharge
Note: Screen around riser

pipe not shown
Figure 15.28
15.5.5.6
Typical Riser Pipe Wetland Outlet
Velocity Control
The shape and size of a wetland is important for maximum trapping of fine sediments and other
pollutants. It should be designed to handle both dry weather steady inflows and high flows due to
agricultural runoff. Under high flow conditions, the large volume of water with high velocity and
reduced light will place at risk the fragile epiphytes and biofilm systems that are fundamental to
treatment of colloids and dissolved pollutants.
The designer must be guided by the frequency of storm events and by their peak discharge rates
resulting in high velocity. The volume and cross-section area of the wetland should be determined
such that velocities do not exceed 0.05 to 0.1 m/s more than once per year. The design of a
combined facility (to handle low and high inflow) will involve a series of compromises, but may be
the only viable option where land availability is limited.
15.5.5.7
Planting
The following criteria should be used when selecting plants for a particular pond site:
the proposed plant must be able to establish and grow at the site.
the plant should be unlikely to spread outside or downstream of the pond.
the maximum height of plants must be consistent with the desired visual featuress of the pond.
plants must not grow to a density that provides habitats for mosquito or other pest breeding.
15.5.5.8
Coastal Wetlands
It is also possible to construct saline wetlands in tidal areas of the coast. Such wetlands mimic the
natural tidal wetlands, which occur in some estuarine and coastal areas. As these ecosystems are
often under threat from development, the re-establishment of saline wetlands or the construction of
new saline wetlands can have significant environmental value.
There is little data available on the water quality improvement benefits of saline wetlands (for a
discussion, see for example, Willing & Partners 1997). However, it is assumed that they would have
worthwhile benefits. Coupled with their environmental value and potential as fish breeding areas, a
significant case can be made for constructing such wetlands. The design of a saline wetland involves
15-48
March 2009
specialised biological and other considerations, including assessment of tide levels and water
circulation.
15.6
GUIDELINES FOR MULTIPLE FACILITIES
Use of multiple facilities (GPTs, trash racks, sediment bays, dry ponds, wet ponds, wetlands, etc.)
enhances the agricultural drainage water quantity and quality control. Depending on the site
conditions, it is generally advantageous to have several ponds and wetlands in series to maximise
performance of the treatment train. The designer should optimise the outlets of the facilities
proposed in series to improve their flood peak reduction and water quality improvement abilities.
This optimisation should be done at the planning and design stage of the agricultural project.
In general a deep pond should be located upstream of an on-line wetland. This helps to reduce the
peak flood flows and velocities, which would otherwise damage the biological processes.
Alternatively, a shallow wetland can be located off-line with only limited inflow (restricted by an inlet
pipe) or even arranged to recirculate flow back into a pond. Multiple ponds and other facilities should
be planned and designed such that no short circuiting can take place. Short circuiting usually makes
the outflow quality inferior to the expected designed quality of water.
Outflow quantity and quality from the preceding facility should be used to simulate or calculate the
performance of the following (at downstream) facility. Usually, the pollutant retention and flood peak
reduction of the first facility is higher than that of the subsequent facilities (having similar sizes and
shapes). Water level profiles along the axis of the treatment train should be plotted to ensure that
there would be no backflow to the upstream elements. Adequate bypass systems should be
considered (if necessary) to ensure that maintenance of a cell/element would not cause total
breakdown of the treatment train.
15.7
DRAINAGE WATER REUSE
Modern irrigation encourages recycling and reuse of agricultural drainage water. Use of reclaimed
treated wastewater in the landscaping and agricultural areas near the townships is becoming
common these days. However, the following factors should be evaluated before deciding reuse of
agricultural return flow for irrigation of crops and vegetables, which may require pumps and other
facilities to recycle the water to the fields.
15.7.1
Quantity Issues
Planning and design of reuse and recycling of water and treated wastewater must be preceded by
affirmation of adequate amount of water available for the irrigation. Availability of adequate water
for recycling during monsoon and less demand period would not be a good option to justify recycling
of excess water from the agricultural drainage. However, recycling of inadequate amount of water
might be beneficial if the protection of the environment from polluted excess irrigation water and
runoff (nutrient enriched) is concern.
15.7.2
Quality Issues
Most of the common problems related to recycling of irrigation excess water and agricultural runoff is
the presence of high solids and salts contents. If the recycled water is to be used in mechanised
irrigation systems (drip, sprinkler, etc.), the water should be filtered to achieve the least quality
mentioned in Table 15.13.
Clogging of drip emitters and sprinkler openings is the main problem associated with mechanised
irrigation. Drip emitters usually have very small openings (0.5-1 mm), and they are vulnerable to
clogging by physical materials, such as solids, biological matters (roots, algae, and bacteria) and
chemical precipitates. Table 15.13 (Hanson, 1997) provides typical guidelines for assessing irrigation
water quality, mainly for drip irrigation system, which is also suitable for sprinkler systems. According
to Hanson (1997), irrigation water was divided into three classes in terms of clogging potential:
March 2009
15-49
minor, moderate, and severe. Irrigation water should be analyzed for the constituents in Table 15.13
to determine if the water is suitable for drip irrigation or to determine what treatment might be
required before it can be used for drip irrigation.
Table 15.13
Clogging Hazard of Irrigation Water in Drip Irrigation Systems (Hanson, 1997)

Water characteristic
Minor
Moderate
Severe
Suspended solids (mg/L)
<50
50-100
>100
pH
<7.0
7.0-8.0
>8.0
Total dissolved solids (mg/L)
<500
500-2000
>2000
Manganese (mg/L)
<0.1
0.1-1.5
>1.5
Iron (mg/L)
<0.2
0.2-1.5
>1.5
Hydrogen sulfide (mg/L)
<0.2
0.2-2.0
>2.0
<10,000
10,000-50,000
>50,000
Bacteria population (per ml)
Irrigation return water for irrigation also should posses certain quality (Table 15.14) such that the
expected crop yield can be met and the salinity and other contaminants in the land will not be
increased. Additional guidelines might be required for specific ion toxicity for certain sensitive crops.
15.8
TREATMENT FOR REUSE
If the irrigation excess water or runoff is intended to be reused for mechanised irrigation, removal of
solids through sand filter might be necessary. Only sand filtration might not be enough to remove
dissolved salts and metals (if any) to meet the quality stated in Table 15.14. For certain quality of
water specific treatment process might be required, which must be referred to the local guidelines
(e.g. JBA guidelines). However, no treatment might be required for open irrigation, if the excess
water does not contain high salts and electric conductivity.
15.8.1
Sand Filter
Sand filtration basins are open impoundments, which filter runoff through a layer of sand into an
underdrain system. Sand filtration provides runoff treatment, but not quantity control and these
basins are to be located off-line from the primary conveyance/detention system. While effective at
treating conventional pollutants, sand filtration is not effective at removing nutrients.
The sand bed filtration system consists of an inlet structure, sand bed, underdrain piping and basin
liner. The basin liner will only be required if the treated runoff is not to be allowed to percolate into
the soil underlying the filtration basin. A liner would be necessary if the filtered runoff required
additional treatment, such as in a wet pond for further nutrient removal, or in cases where additional
ground water protection was mandated. Figure 15.32 illustrates sand filtration basin systems.
To improve the effectiveness of sand filtration basins and to protect the media from clogging, these
basins are to be located off-line from the primary conveyance/detention system and must be
preceded by a pretreatment BMP. Disturbed areas that are sediment sources in the contributing
drainage should be identified and stabilised to the maximum extent practicable. Because of the
potential for clogging, sand filtration BMPs must never be used as sediment basins during
construction.
15.8.2
Design Criteria
Sand filtration BMPs are to be designed according to the procedure described in Chapter 6, using the
Darcys Law approach. Important design considerations are discussed below.
15-50
March 2009
a)
Infiltration Rate
A conservative value for the filtration rate (f) should be used. Design filtration rates of about 50
mm/hr are recommended, which are much lower than published values for sand but reflect actual
field permeability rates. The lower rates reflect the effects of suspended solids and sediment on the
sands permeability.
Table 15.14
Potential Irrigation Problem
Typical Water Quality for Irrigation Purpose

Degree
Units
None
Slight to moderate
Severe
Salinity (affects crop water availability)

ECw
dS/m or mmho/cm
<0.7
0.7-3.0
>3.0
TDS
mg/L
<450
450-2000
>2000
and Ecw0.7
0.7-0.2
<0.2
3-6
1.2
1.2-0.3
<0.3
6-12
1.9
1.9-0.5
<0.5
12-20
2.9
2.9-1.3
<1.3
20-40
5.0
5.0-2.9
<2.9
Permeability (Evaluate using ECw and SAR or adj Rna together)

adj Rna =0-3
Specific ion toxicity (affects sensitive crops):

Sodium (Na)
Surface irrigation
SAR
<3
3-9
>9
mg/L
<70
>70
<140
140-350
>350
Chloride (Cl)
Surface irrigation
mg/L
mg/L
Boron (B)
mg/L
<100
>100
<0.7
0.7-3.0
>3.0
Miscellaneous effects (affects susceptible crops):

Nitrogen (total-N)
mg/L
<5
5-30
>30
Bicarbonate (HCO3) (over

head sprinkling only)
mg/L
<90
90-5000
>500
pH
unit
Residual chlorine (overhead

sprinkling only)
mg/L
March 2009
Normal range of 6.5 - 8.4

<1.0
1.0-5.0
>5.0
15-51

Filtration Basin
Energy Dissipators
Presetting
Basin
Filtered Outflow
Stone
Rip Rap
Inlet
Channel
Weir to Achive
Uniform Discharge
Sand Bed
(a) Plan
Drop Inlet
Sand Bed
Channel Sloped to
Facilitate Sediment
Transport into
Presettling Basin
Perforated Riser
with Trash Rack
Underdrain Piping System
(b) Long-section (Section A-A)

Sand Bed
(Top of Bed be Horizontal)
500 mm Min
50 mm Graved Layer
Geotextile Fabric
Perorated PVC Pipes

Impermeable Layer
(If Necessary)
(c) Detail of Filter Bed

Figure 15.29
15-52
Sand Filtration for Solids Removal
March 2009
b)
Sizing
Sizing is to be based on Darcys Law, described in Chapter 6. The required surface area of the filter
bed is computed from the following equation:
A df =
Vw d f
f (h f + d f ) Tf
(15.19)
where Vw (m3) is design volume of water that enters the filtration device, df is the filter bed depth
(m), f is the infiltration rate of the filter media (m/hr), hf is average height of water above the filter
bed (m) and Tf is the design filter bed drain time (hr). Water depth above the filter should not
exceed 2m.
c)
Inlet Structure
The inlet structure should spread the flow uniformly across the surface of the filter media. Flow
spreaders, weirs or multiple orifice opening are recommended. Stone riprap or other dissipation
devices should be installed to prevent gouging of the sand media and to promote uniform flow.
d)
Sand Bed
A minimum sand bed depth of 500 mm is recommended. This is the final bed depth, which includes
consolidation of the sand during construction.
Two sand bed configurations can be selected from; one with a gravel layer and the other a trench
design which utilises drainage matting as a substitute for the gravel layer. The top surface layer
should be level so that equal distribution of runoff will be achieved in the basin.
Top layer of the filter is to be minimum of 500 mm of 0.5 1.0 mm diameter sand (smaller sand size
is acceptable). Under the sand shall be a layer of 12 mm to 50 mm diameter gravel, which provides
a minimum of 50 mm of cover over the top of the underdrain lateral pipes. No gravel is required
under the lateral pipes. The sand and gravel must be separated by a layer of geotextile fabric.
e)
Underdrain Piping
The underdrain piping consists of the main collector pipe (and perforated lateral branch pipes). The
piping should be reinforced to withstand the weight of the overburden. Internal diameters of lateral
branch pipes should be 100 mm or greater and perforation should be 12 mm. The maximum
spacing between laterals should be 3 m. Lesser spacings are acceptable. The maximum spacing
between rows of perforations should not exceed 150 mm.
The minimum grade of piping shall be 0.5% slope. Access for cleaning all underdrain piping is
needed; this can be provided by installing cleanout ports, which tee into the underdrain system and
surface above the top of the sand filtration media.
15.8.3
Construction Requirements
The following factors should be considered in the construction of sand filter for the removal of solids
from the irrigation excess water and agricultural runoff:
The erosion and sediment control plan must be configured to permit construction of the pond
while maintaining erosion and sediment control. No runoff is to enter the sand filtration basin
prior to completion of construction and site revegetation. Construction runoff may be routed to
the sediment basin/chamber but outflow from this structure shall by-pass the sand filter basin.
The final sand bed thickness must be 500 mm; consolidation of sand will likely occur during
installation and this must be taken into account.
March 2009
15-53
Provisions must be made for access to the basin for maintenance purpose. A maintenance
vehicle access ramp is necessary. The slope of the ramp should not exceed 4:1.
The design should minimise susceptibility to vandalism by use of strong materials for exposed
piping and accessories.
Side slopes for earthen embankment should not exceed 4:1 to facilitate mowing.
Careful level placement of the sand is necessary to avoid formation of voids within the sand that
could lead to short-circuiting, (particularly around penetrations for underdrain cleanouts) and to
prevent damage to the underlying geomembranes and underdrain systems. Voids between the
trench walls and the geotextile fabric should also be avoided.
Over compaction should be avoided to ensure adequate filtration capacity. Sand is best placed
with a low ground pressure bulldozer (30 kN/m2 or less).
After the sand is placed water settling is recommended. Flood the sand with 1.3-2 m3 of water
per cubic metre of sand.
15.8.4
Removal of silt when accumulation exceeds 12 mm.
Removal of accumulated paper, trash and debris every three (3) months or as necessary.
Corrective maintenance is required when the water level over the filter drops at a rate less than
12 mm per hour.
Annual inspection and as necessary, repair of the structure.
Rapid drawdown in the filter (greater than 300 mm per hour) indicates short-circuiting of the
filter. Inspect the cleanouts on the underdrain pipes and along the base of the embankment for
leakage.
Experience has shown that this sediment can be readily scraped off during periods with steel
rakes or other devices. Once sediment is removed the design permeability of the filtration media
can typically be restored by then striating the surface layer of the media.
15-54
March 2009
REFERENCES
CRCFE (1998). Design Guidelines: Stormwater Pollution Control Ponds and Wetlands. CRC for
Freshwater Ecology, Canberra, July.
Environment Protection Authority NSW, NSW EPA (1996). Managing Urban Stormwater - Strategic
Framework. Draft Report, Prepared for the State Stormwater Coordinating Committee, November.
FHWA (1996). Evaluation and management of highway runoff water quality. Federal Hghway
Administration Publication No. FHWA-PD-96-032. Washington: US Department of Transportation,
1996:457.
FRIM (1999). A Guide for Estimating Surface Soil Loss Using the Modified Universal Soil Loss
Equation (MUSLE) on Forest Land. Forest Research Institute Malaysia, FRIM Technical Information
Handbook No. 25, Kuala Lumpur.
Goldman S.J., Jackson K. and Bursztynsky T.A. (1986). Erosion and Sediment Control Handbook.
McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York.
Hanson B. (1997). Assessing water quality. In Hanson et al. (Eds.) Drip Irrigation for Row crops.
Kadlec R.H. and Knight R.L. (1996). Treatment Wetland. CRC Press.
Lawrence A.I. (1999). Application of Pond & Wetland Design Guidelines. 8th International
Conference on Urban Stormwater Drainage, Sydney.
Novotny V. (2003). Water quality diffuse pollution and watershed management. Second edition,
John Wiley & Sons Inc., the USA.
Novotny V. and Chester G. (1981). Handbook of nonpoint pollution. Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Stahre P. and Urbonas B. (1990). Stormwater Detention for Drainage, Water Quality and CSO
Management. Prentice Hall, New Jersey, USA.
USDA (1982). Ponds: Planning, Design, Construction. Agriculture Handbook No. 590, USDA, SCS,
Orono, ME.
Warrington G.E., Knapp K.L., Klock G.O., Foster G.R. and Easley R.S. (1980). Surface Erosion. in
Mulkey L.A. An Approach to Water Resources Evaluation of Non-point Silvicultural Sources, A
Procedural Handbook, Forest Service United States Department of Agriculture, Washington DC.
Willing & Partners (1995). Stormwater Design Guidelines for Homebush Bay. Sydney NSW, Australia.
Willing & Partners (1997). Federal Park Artificial Wetland and Stormwater Purification Pond
Feasibility Study. For Leichhardt Municipal Council.
Willing & Partners (1999). Middle Harbour Stormwater Management Plan.
Wischmeier W.H. (1971). In A Guide for Estimating Surface Soil Loss Equation using the Modified
Universal Soil Loss Equation (MUSLE) on Forest Land. Forest Research Institute Malaysia (FRIM),
Technical Information Handbook No. 25.
Wischmeier W.H. (1975). Estimating the Soil Loss Equations Cover and Management Factor for
Undisturbed Areas. In Present and Prospective Technology for Predicting Sediment Yields and
Sources, Proceedings Sediment-Yields Workshop, U.S. Department.
March 2009
15-55
Wischmeier W.H. and Smith D.D. (1965). Predicting Rainfall-erosion Losses from Cropland East of
the Rocky Mountains: Guide for Selecting and Prcatices for Soil and Water Conservation. USDA
Agricultural Handbook.
Yaziz M.I., Gunting H., Sapari N. and Ghazali A.W. (1989). Variations in rainwater quality from roof
catchments. Wat. Res. Vol. 21, No.6, pp. 761-765.
15-56
March 2009
APPENDIX 15.A
Design Example for Pond
Problem:
A biotechnology company has decided to convert 90% of a 4000 ha forest catchment for Jathropha
plantation for bio-diesel production. In order to protect the downstream areas, runoff should be
passed through a pond (to control the peak flow) via a grassed floodway along the alignment of the
existing stream. The floodway should have a low flow pipe system with a maximum capacity of
3.8 m3/s, which will bypass the pond and combine with the pond outflow in the downstream
floodway. Design a dry detention pond to ensure that the post-development flows are not higher
than the pre-development flows.
Solution:
Step 1: Determine design storm criteria for the pond
The design storm ARIs for the pond are selected to be 5 and 50 years. However, the spillway should
be designed to make the pond safe against 100-yr ARI flood.
Step 2: Determine the pond outflow limits
The pre-development peak flow time of concentration (tc ) for the 5 year ARI and 50 year ARI has
been estimated to be 40 minutes. The pre-development flows for this duration will become the postdevelopment flow limits in the floodway immediately downstream of the pond, i.e. the outflow from
the pond plus the non-routed low flow bypass. The pond flow limits are therefore the downstream
floodway limits minus the non-routed bypass flow. The estimated pre-development total flow
hydrographs are provided in Table 15.A1 (only the 10-minute time increment flow values are
shown). The pond outflow limits for 5 and 50 year ARI are 7.6 m3/s and 12.0 m3/s respectively.
Table15.A1
Pre and Post-Development Total Flow Hydrographs
Predevelopment
Post-development
ARI (years)
Time
(min)
50
50
100
Storm duration (min)

40
30
45
60
75
30
45
60
75
30
45
60
75
0.0
4.3
10.4
18.9
24.6
19.2
14.4
10.7
7.9
5.6
3.3
1.8
0.8
0.3
0.0
0.0
1.3
6.3
10.8
17.4
20.7
16.0
12.4
10.0
7.8
6.2
4.8
3.9
2.6
1.7
0.9
0.0
0.0
5.6
16.1
35.8
20.5
11.0
5.9
3.3
1.4
0.0
0.0
6.6
15.3
28.7
37.1
24.0
14.8
10.1
7.0
4.6
2.5
1.0
0.0
0.0
4.6
11.0
20.0
26.1
20.4
15.3
11.3
8.4
5.9
3.5
1.9
0.8
0.3
0.0
0.0
1.4
6.7
11.4
18.4
21.9
17.0
13.1
10.6
8.3
6.6
5.1
4.1
2.8
1.8
1.0
0.0
Total Flow (m /s)

0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
140
150
160
0.0
1.1
3.4
8.2
11.4
10.1
8.3
6.8
5.4
4.1
2.8
1.8
1.0
0.5
0.0
March 2009
0.0
1.9
5.7
11.3
15.8
13.2
10.6
8.6
7.0
5.4
3.9
2.6
1.5
0.6
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
3.3
3.1
2.7
0.8
9.4
7.3
6.4
3.9
20.9 13.7 11.7 6.7
12.0 19.2 15.3 10.8
6.4 11.4 11.9 12.8
3.4
7.0
8.9
9.9
2.0
4.8
6.6
7.7
0.8
3.5
4.9
6.2
0.0
2.3
3.5
4.8
1.2
2.0
3.8
0.5
1.1
3.0
0.0
0.5
2.4
0.2
1.6
0.0
1.1
0.6
0.0
0.0
5.3
15.2
33.8
19.4
10.4
5.6
3.2
1.4
0.0
0.0
5.0
11.7
21.8
29.1
18.3
11.2
7.7
5.5
3.7
1.9
0.7
0.0
15A-1
Step 3: Compute the pond inflow hydrographs

The critical storm duration for maximum pond storage has to be determined by routing postdevelopment inflow hydrographs of different durations (longer than tc ) through the pond. The pond
inflow hydrographs shown in Table 15.A2 are obtained by subtracting the non-routed low flow
bypass of 3.8 m3/s from the post-development total flow hydrographs provided in Table 15.A2 (only
the 10 minute time increment flow values are shown).
Table 15.A2 Pond Inflow Hydrographs
ARI (years)
5
Time
(min)
50
100
Storm duration (min)

30
45
60
75
30
45
60
75
30
45
60
75
Pond Inflow (total flow less low flow bypass) (m /s)

0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
0.0
5.6
17.1
8.2
2.6
0.0
0.0
3.5
9.9
15.4
7.6
3.2
1.0
0.0
0.0
2.6
7.9
11.5
8.1
5.1
2.8
1.1
0.0
0.0
0.1
2.9
7.0
9.0
6.1
3.9
2.4
1.0
0.0
0.0
1.5
11.4
30.0
15.6
6.6
1.8
0.0
0.0
1.2
7.9
18.0
25.3
14.5
7.4
3.9
1.7
0.0
0.0
0.5
6.6
15.1
20.8
15.4
10.6
6.9
4.1
1.8
0.0
0.0
2.5
7.0
13.6
16.9
12.2
8.6
6.2
4.0
2.4
1.0
0.1
0.0
0.0
1.8
12.3
32.0
16.7
7.2
2.1
0.0
0.0
0.0
2.8
11.5
24.9
33.3
20.2
11.0
6.3
3.2
0.8
0.0
0.0
0.8
7.2
16.2
22.3
16.6
11.5
7.5
4.6
2.1
0.0
0.0
2.9
7.6
14.6
18.1
13.2
9.3
6.8
4.5
2.8
1.3
0.3
0.0
Step 4: Make a preliminary estimate of the required pond volume

A preliminary estimate of the required pond volume is obtained using Equation 15.2, for the largest
design storm ARI. The preliminary pond volume is estimated for each pond inflow hydrograph and
the largest value selected. The results are summarised in Figure 15.A1.
Vi (m )
Qi (m3/s)
Qo (m3/s)
ti (min)
tp (min)
Vs /Vi
Preliminary
Vs (m3)
Storm Duration (minutes)

30
45
60
75
40030
30.0
11.3
70
30
0.638
25556
48020
25.3
11.3
90
40
0.592
28450
48690
20.8
11.3
100
40
0.491
23908
45880
16.9
11.3
130
50
0.379
17409
Figure 15.A1
15A-2
29000
Estimated Pond Volume (m3)
Parameter
27000
25000
23000
21000
19000
17000
15000
30
45
60
Storm Duration (minutes)
75
Preliminary Determination of Critical Storm
March 2009
Step 5: Develop a pond grading plan

The location and grading of the pond embankment and storage area is selected by trial and error so
that at least the preliminary estimated volume of 28,450 m3 is available in the pond to cater for the
critical 50 year ARI design storm. The floor of the pond is graded at 1.4% toward the primary outlet
and the pond and floodway side slopes are 6(H):1(V). A preliminary grading plan for the pond is
shown in Figure 15.A2.
104.0
103.0
102.0
99.5
10
1.
0
.0
100
WA
OD
LO
101.0
103.0
102.0
101.0
3.0
10 .0
2
10
k
g cree
Existin
100.0
0
1.
10
.0
102 0
.
10 3
BASIN
100.0
101.0
0
2.
10
102.0
103.0
104.0
103.0
104.0
Figure 15.A2
Preliminary Grading Plan at the Detention Pond Site
Table 15.A3
Elevation
(m, LSD)
99.50
99.75
100.00
100.25
100.50
100.75
101.00
101.25
101.50
101.75
102.00
102.25
102.50
102.75
103.00
March 2009
Stage
(m)
0.00
0.25
0.50
0.75
1.00
1.25
1.50
1.75
2.00
2.25
2.50
2.75
3.00
3.25
3.50
Pond Stage-Storage Relationship

Area
(m2)
0
360
800
1230
1880
3950
6650
9670
12690
15140
16370
17100
17610
18670
21450
Storage
(m3)
0
45
145
254
389
729
1325
2040
2795
2176
3939
4184
4339
4535
5015
Total Storage
(m3)
0
45
190
444
833
1562
2887
4927
7722
11226
15165
19349
23688
28223
33238
15A-3
Step 6: Compute the stage-storage relationship

For the grading plan developed in Step 5, the water surface area was calculated at 0.25 m intervals
of pond depth (stage) from elevation 99.50 m, LSD. The segmental storage volume between
successive stages was calculated using Equation 15.1 and summed to obtain the total stage-storage
relationship as shown in Table 15.A3.
Step 7: Size the minor design storm primary outlet
The optimum size of the minor design storm primary outlet needs to be determined by trial and error
to produce a maximum pond outflow that is as close as practicable to the required flow limit of
7.6 m3/s. This involves selecting an initial outlet arrangement and size, determining the stagedischarge relationship, and routing the pond inflow hydrographs through the pond to determine the
maximum outflow and water level produced. The outlet arrangement and/or size is then refined, if
necessary, and the process repeated until an acceptable maximum outflow and water depth is
reached.
(i)
To provide flow reduction for the 5 year ARI post-development design storm, a single 2.4 m x 1.2 m
reinforced concrete box culvert was initially selected. The invert level of the upstream end of the
culvert was set at stage 0.00 in the pond, which is at elevation 99.50 m, LSD.
(ii)
The stage-discharge relationship may be estimated using the procedure outlined in Section 15.2.3.4
or using a suitable computer program. The culvert was determined to be inlet controlled.
(iii)
Using a routing time step of one minute, the 45 minute storm was found to be the critical duration
storm. After successive trials, the optimum culvert size was determined to be 2.4 m x 0.9 m. This
culvert produced a maximum discharge of 7.45 m3/s which is acceptable as it is close to but less
than the 5 year ARI pond outflow limit of 7.6 m3/s. The maximum water elevation in the pond is
101.55 m, LSD.
The stage-discharge relationship for the 2.4 m x 0.9 m culvert is shown in Figure 15.A3 and a
summary of the routing results for the critical storm is provided in Table 15.A4.
Discharge
(m3/s)
0
0.51
1.45
2.66
3.87
4.84
5.81
6.76
7.33
7.88
8.40
8.91
9.39
9.86
10.32
Figure15.A3
15A-4
3.5
3.0
2.5
Stage (m)
Stage
(m)
0.00
0.25
0.50
0.75
1.00
1.25
1.50
1.75
2.00
2.25
2.50
2.75
3.00
3.25
3.50
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0
10
12
Discharge (m /s)
3
5 Year ARI Stage-Discharge Relationship
March 2009
Table 15.A4
Routing Results for 5 year ARI, 45 minute Pond Inflow Hydrograph
Inflow, Ij +Ij+1 (2Sj /t ) - (2Sj+1/t ) - Outflow

(m3/s)
(m3/s)
I
Qj
Qj+1
3
3
3
(m /s)
(m /s)
(m /s)
Time, t
(mins)
Water
Level
(m,
LSD)
Stage Discharge, Storage, (2S /t )+Q

(m3/s)
Q
S
(m,
3
3
(m /s)
(m )
LSD)
12.0
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
99.50
0.00
0.00
0.00
13.0
0.21
0.21
0.10
0.21
0.05
99.53
0.25
0.51
45
2.01
(omitted)
0.50
1.45
190
7.78
0.75
2.66
444
17.46
1.00
3.87
833
31.64
48.0
8.88
18.45
271.09
285.96
7.43
101.55
1.25
4.84
1562
56.91
49.0
8.22
17.10
273.31
288.20
7.44
101.55
1.50
5.81
2887
102.04
50.0
7.60
15.82
274.25
289.14
7.45
101.55 1.75
6.76
4927
170.99
51.0
7.06
14.66
274.02
288.90
7.44
101.55
2.00
7.33
7722
264.73
52.0
6.54
13.60
272.74
287.61
7.44
101.55
2.25
7.88
11201
381.58
(omitted)
2.50
8.40
15140
514.49
2.75
8.91
19324
655.99
3.00
9.39
23663
802.95
93.0
0.00
0.00
0.03
0.06
0.02
99.51
3.25
9.86
28198
958.46
94.0
0.00
0.00
0.01
0.03
0.01
99.50
3.50
10.32
33213
1132.08
95.0
0.00
0.00
0.01
0.01
0.00
99.50
The above calculations have been done using a spreadsheet. The steps in the calculation procedure
are illustrated in Table 15.A5.
Starting with Dj = 0, the values in columns D to G for time step j +1 are calculated as follows:
1.
EJ +1 = DJ + CJ +1
2.
Fj +1 and Gj +1, are interpolated from the stage-discharge relationship columns H and
I on the left hand side of the routing table using the value of Ej +1 in column K. The
pond zero elevation of 99.50 is added to the interpolated stage value to obtain the
water level.
3.
Dj +1 = Ej +1 - 2 Fj +1
This process is repeated for each consecutive time step until the outflow reduces to zero.
Step 8: Size the major design storm primary outlet
The procedure for sizing the major design storm primary outlet is the same as the minor design
storm outlet.
(i)
To provide flow reduction for the 50 year ARI post-development design storm, an additional single
2.4 m x 1.2 m reinforced concrete box culvert was initially selected with an invert level at the
upstream end of 101.60 m, LSD that corresponds to a stage of 2.10 m. The assumed length of this
culvert was also approximately 30 m.
(ii)
The stage-discharge relationship is the summation of the 5 year ARI and the 50 year ARI culvert
capacities. The culvert capacity may be estimated using the procedure outlined in Chapter 27 or
using a suitable computer program. The culvert was also determined to be inlet controlled.
(iii)
March 2009
15A-5
Using a routing time step of one minute, the 45 minute storm was also found to be the critical
duration storm.
After successive trials, the optimum culvert size was determined to be
3.6 m x 0.9 m. This culvert, in conjunction with the lower level minor storm culvert, produced a
maximum discharge of 11.84 m3/s. This is acceptable as it is close to but less than the
50 year ARI pond outflow limit of 12.0 m3/s. The maximum water elevation in the pond is
102.25 m, LSD that corresponds to a maximum water depth of 2.75 m. This is also acceptable, as
it is less than the recommended maximum depth of 3.0 m. The stage-discharge relationship for the
optimum culvert arrangement is shown in Figure 15.A4 and a summary of the routing results for the
critical storm is provided in Table 15.A6.
Table 15.A5 Tabular Routing Procedure
Inflow, I
Ij + Ij +1
0.00
0.00
j +1
0.21
0.21
(2 S j /t )-Q j (2 S j +1/ t )-Q j +1 Outflow

0.00
1
0.00
0.11
99.50
0.00
0.00
0.21
0.05
99.53
99.61
0.57
0.78
0.43
0.88
2.4 m x 0.9 3.6 m x 0.9

m Box
m Box
Culvert
Culvert
(m3/s)
(m3/s)
0
0.51
1.45
2.66
3.87
4.84
5.81
6.76
7.33
7.56
0.00
7.88
0.33
8.40
1.42
8.91
2.95
9.39
4.79
9.86
6.12
10.32
7.45
Figure 15.A4
15A-6
Discharge, Q
Storage, S
(2 S / t )+ Q
0.00
j +2
0.00
0.25
0.50
0.75
1.00
1.25
1.50
1.75
2.00
2.10
2.25
2.50
2.75
3.00
3.25
3.50
Stage
2
0.22
Stage
(m)
Water Level
Total
Discharge
(m3/s)
3.5
0.00
0.51
1.45
2.66
3.87
4.84
5.81
6.76
7.33
7.56
8.21
9.82
11.86
14.18
15.98
17.77
2.5
0.25
0.51
45
2.01
3.0
Stage (m)
Time, t
2.1
2.0
1.5
1.0
2.4 m x 0.9 m Box Culvert

0.5
0
Combined Stage-Discharge
12
16
20
Discharge (m /s)
3
50 Year ARI Stage-Discharge Relationship
March 2009
Table 15.A6
Time, t
(mins)
Routing Results for 50 year ARI, 45 minute Pond Inflow Hydrograph
Inflow, Ij +Ij+1 (2Sj /t ) (2Sj+1/t ) Outflow Water Stage Discharge, Storage,

(m3/s)
(m3/s)
I
-Qj
-Qj+1
Q
S
Level
(m,
3
3
3
(m /s)
(m /s)
(m /s)
(m3/s)
(m3)
(m, LSD) LSD)
(2S /t )+Q
(m3/s)
9.0
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
99.50
0.00
0.00
0.00
10.0
1.20
1.20
0.59
1.20
0.30
99.65
0.25
0.51
45
2.01
(omitted)
0.50
1.45
190
7.78
0.75
2.66
444
17.46
1.00
3.87
833
31.64
51.0
13.62
28.12
626.87
650.43
11.78
102.24
1.25
4.84
1562
56.91
52.0
12.79
26.41
629.64
653.28
11.82
102.25
1.50
5.81
2887
102.04
53.0
11.99
24.78
630.74
654.42
11.84
102.25
1.75
6.76
4927
170.99
54.0
11.24
23.23
630.31
653.97
11.83
102.25
2.00
7.33
7722
264.73
55.0
10.52
21.75
628.46
652.07
11.80
102.24
2.10
7.56
9050
309.23
(omitted)
2.25
8.21
11201
381.58
2.50
9.82
15140
514.49
2.75
11.86
19324
655.99
120.0
0.00
0.00
0.02
0.05
0.01
99.51
3.00
14.18
23663
802.95
121.0
0.00
0.00
0.01
0.02
0.01
99.50
3.25
15.98
28198
958.46
122.0
0.00
0.00
0.01
0.01
0.00
99.50
3.50
17.77
33213
1132.08
Step 9: Size the secondary outlet arrangement

As there is no required limit for the 100 year ARI, the main criterion for selecting the secondary
outlet size is to minimise the overall height of the embankment without having an excessively large
secondary outlet.
(i)
A 12 m wide broad-crested weir spillway with 3(H):1(V) side slopes was initially selected as the pond
secondary outlet. The spillway was set at the side of the embankment at an elevation of 102.50 m,
LSD (50 year ARI maximum water level of 102.25 m plus 250 mm freeboard) which corresponds to a
stage of 3.00 m.
(ii)
The stage-discharge relationship as shown in Figure 15.A5 is the combined discharge for all the pond
outlets.
(iii)
Using a routing time step of one minute, the 45 minute storm was again found to be the critical
duration storm. The maximum water level in the pond is 102.70 m, LSD that corresponds to a
water depth of 3.2 m. Allowing a freeboard of 300 mm for wave action, the embankment crest
elevation is set at 103.00 m, LSD (height 3.5 m) which is considered acceptable.
The pond will provide a large reduction in the 100 year ARI flow, being reduced from 33.3 m3/s to
17.69 m3/s through the pond and from 37.1 m3/s to 21.49 m3/s in the downstream floodway.
A summary of the routing results for the critical storm is provided in Table 15.A7.
March 2009
15A-7
0.00
0.25
0.50
0.75
1.00
1.25
1.50
1.75
2.00
2.10
2.25
2.50
2.75
3.00
3.25
3.50
50 year ARI
Flow
(m3/s)
0.00
0.51
1.45
2.66
3.87
4.84
5.81
6.76
7.33
7.56
8.21
9.82
11.86
14.18
15.98
17.77
Figure 15.A5
Table 15.A7
Weir
Flow
(m3/s)
0.00
2.55
7.21
StageStorage
(m3/s)
0.00
0.51
1.45
2.66
3.87
4.84
5.81
6.76
7.33
7.56
8.21
9.82
11.86
14.18
18.53
24.98
3.5
3.0
2.5
Stage (m)
Stage
(m)
2.0
1.5
1.0
12 m Broad-crested Weir
50 Year ARI
0.5
0
Combined Stage-Discharge
10
Discharge
15
20
25
(m3/s)
100 Year ARI Stage-Discharge Relationship (Secondary Outlet)
Routing Results for 100 year ARI, 45 minute Inflow Hydrograph
Time, t Inflow, Ij +Ij+1 (2Sj /t ) - (2Sj+1/t ) - Outflow Water Stage Discharge, Storage, (2S /t )+Q
(m3/s)
(m3/s)
(mins)
(m3/s)
Level
(m,
I
Qj
Qj+1
Q
S
3
3
3
3
3
(m, LSD) LSD)
(m /s)
(m /s)
(m /s)
(m /s)
(m )
8.8
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
99.50
0.00
0.00
0.00
7.0
0.60
0.60
0.30
0.60
0.15
99.58
0.25
0.51
45
2.01
(omitted)
0.50
1.45
190
7.78
0.75
2.66
444
17.46
1.00
3.87
833
31.64
50.0
20.20
41.48
887.28
922.32
17.52
102.69
1.25
4.84
1562
56.91
51.0
19.07
39.27
891.27
926.55
17.64
102.70
1.50
5.81
2887
102.04
52.0
17.99
37.06
892.95
928.33
17.69
102.70
1.75
6.76
4927
170.99
53.0
16.96
34.95
892.55
927.90
17.68
102.70
2.00
7.33
7722
264.73
54.0
15.98
32.94
890.28
925.49
17.61
102.70
2.10
7.56
9050
309.23
(omitted)
2.25
8.21
11201
381.58
2.50
9.82
15140
514.49
2.75
11.86
19324
655.99
132.0
0.00
0.00
0.02
0.05
0.01
99.51
3.00
14.18
23663
802.95
133.0
0.00
0.00
0.01
0.02
0.01
99.50
3.25
15.98
28198
958.46
134.0
0.00
0.00
0.01
0.01
0.00
99.50
3.50
17.77
33213
1132.08
15A-8
March 2009
The pond inflow and outflow hydrographs for all critical 45 minute storms are shown in Figure 15.A6.
35
5 YEAR ARI
30
Inflow
Outflow
Flow (m3/s)
25
20
15
10
5
0
25
50
75
100
125
150
Time (minutes)
35
50 YEAR ARI
30
Inflow
Outflow
Flow (m3/s)
25
20
15
10
5
0
25
50
75
100
125
150
Time (minutes)
35
100 YEAR ARI
30
Inflow
Outflow
Flow (m3/s)
25
20
15
10
5
0
25
50
75
100
125
150
Time (minutes)
Figure 15.A6
March 2009
Pond 45 minute Inflow and Outflow Hydrographs
15A-9
Step 10: Check behaviour under extreme conditions

The behaviour of the pond under extreme storms or blocked outlets may need to be checked. This
analysis has not been included in the example but would involve determining an inflow hydrograph
or alteration to the stage-discharge relationship and routing this through the pond to see what effect
it would have on the pond embankment.
Step 11: Size downstream erosion protection measures
The sizing of erosion protection measures has also not been included in the example. The reader
should refer to Chapter 16 for information on designing erosion protection measures and energy
dissipating structures.
Step 12: Prepare design drawings and specifications
The main components of the detention pond are shown in Figure 15.A7. For construction purposes,
more detailed drawings and specifications need to be produced.
Secondary Outlet (100 year ARI)

12 m broad-crested weir
104.0
103.0
Grassed floodway
Primary Outlet (5 year ARI)

102.0
Primary Outlet (50 year ARI)

101.0
100.0
Low flow bypass

Drop
structure
100.0
BASIN STORAGE
AREA
Downstream
floodway
101.0
Energy Dissipator
102.0
Basin embankment
103.0
104.0
Figure 15.A7
15A-10
Detention Pond Schematic
March 2009
An alternative primary outlet arrangement could be a single box culvert with a rectangular baffled
inlet for the 5 year ARI flow and a circular riser to provide additional outlet capacity for the
50 year ARI flow as shown in Figure 15.A8.
The stage-discharge relationship for this type of arrangement can be difficult to estimate, as there
are a number of different flow regimes that the outlet will be subjected to in operation. For
example, the flow through the baffled inlet, as well as the riser, will change from weir flow to orifice
flow as the inlet becomes submerged. When the riser begins to operate, the relative head on the
baffled inlet will be reduced and the thus the outflow will be reduced. The outflow characteristics of
both outlets will also be dependent on the discharge capacity of the culvert. Depending on the size,
location, and downstream hazard rating for a particular pond, the stage-discharge relationship for
such an arrangement may need to be verified by physical model testing.
3.0 m diameter riser

(additional inlet for 50 year ARI )
Basin embankment
RL 101.75
2.1 m x 1.15 m opening
(5 year ARI)
RL 99.50
Figure 15.A8
RL 99.65
3.0 m x 1.5 m box culvert
Alternative Primary Outlet Arrangement
Note:
1. The design example on dry pond is suitable for drainage water quantity control. Such pond is
not recommended if the main objective is to treat the irrigation access water and reuse for
irrigation or other purposes.
2. Wet pond is suitable for both quantity and quality control. However, it may require more
area and excavation compared to a dry pond. If budget and site conditions allow a wet pond
would be a better choice to control and treat drainage water from an agricultural plot.
3. Design procedure of a wet pond is very similar to that of a dry pond, except the following
items:
a. In wet pond there is permanent water level (normal pool level) which must be
considered as initial water level for the calculation. In the case of a dry pond there
will be no initial water level. Therefore, pond invert level is same as the initial water
level for the design.
b. The lowest opening of the riser, in a wet pond, is same as that of the permanent
water level. Whereas the lowest opening of the riser, in a dry pond, is same as the
pond invert level.
c.
March 2009
No additional by-pass channel is required for a wet pond, which is necessary for a
dry pond to keep it dry during the non-rainy days. However, a wet pond should have
an extra gate (located at a level same as the invert of the pond) to empty the wet
pond for maintenance purpose.
15A-11
APPENDIX 15.B
Design Example for Sand Filter
Problem:
A sand filter is to be designed to treat agricultural return flow from a paddy field to remove solid
particles and subsequent use of the treated water for drip irrigation in the nearby orchard. The
volume of water to be treated by the filter is 200 m3. Determine the size of filtration facility required
for the system.
The following data are given
df = 500 mm, f = 50 mm/hr
hf = 0.6 m,
tf = 24 hr
Solution:
According to Equation 15.24,
A df =
Vw d f
f (h f + d f ) Tf
Using the Equation

Af = (200)(0.5)/[(0.05)(0.6+0.5)(24)]
= 75.8 m2
With length to width ratio of 2,
Width = 6.2 m
15A-12
Length = 12.4 m
March 2009
Part E Farm Infrastructure

Chapter 16 - Hydraulic Structures
Chapter 16 - HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES
Table of Contents
16.1
16.2
INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................... 16-1

16.1.1
Types of Structures .................................................................................. 16-1
16.1.2
General Design Steps ............................................................................... 16-2
SPILLWAYS ........................................................................................................... 16-2

16.2.1
Types of Spillways.................................................................................... 16-3
16.2.2
Design Procedure..................................................................................... 16-3

16.2.2.1
Overflow Spillway .................................................................... 16-3
16.2.2.2
Side Channel Spillway .............................................................. 16-4
16.3
HEAD REGULATORS ............................................................................................... 16-7
16.4
WEIRS .................................................................................................................. 16-7

16.4.1
Types of Weirs......................................................................................... 16-8
16.4.2
Design Procedure.................................................................................... 16-9
16.4.3
16.5
16.6
16.7
16.8
16.9
16.4.2.1
Sharp Crested Rectangular Weir................................................ 16-9
16.4.2.2
Broad Crested Rectangular Weir................................................ 16-11
16.4.2.3
Sharp Crested V-notch Weir...................................................... 16-11
Application of Weirs ................................................................................. 16-12

16.4.3.1
Side Weir ................................................................................ 16-13
16.4.3.2
Flow Divider ............................................................................ 16-15
FLUMES ................................................................................................................ 16-16

16.5.1
Types of Flumes....................................................................................... 16-16
16.5.2

16.5.2.1
Parshall Flume ......................................................................... 16-16
16.5.2.2
Cutthroat Flume....................................................................... 16-17
ORIFICES .............................................................................................................. 16-18

16.6.1
Types of Orifices ...................................................................................... 16-18
16.6.2
CULVERTS............................................................................................................. 16-20
16.7.1
Types of Culverts ..................................................................................... 16-20
16.7.2

16.7.2.1
Control at Inlet ........................................................................ 16-21
16.7.2.2
Control at Outlet ...................................................................... 16-22
16.7.2.3
Culvert End Treatment ............................................................. 16-29
SIPHONS............................................................................................................... 16-29
16.8.1
Types of Siphons ..................................................................................... 16-31
16.8.2

16.8.2.1
Single-Barrel Siphons ............................................................... 16-31
16.8.2.2
Multi-Barrel Siphons ................................................................. 16-32
AQUEDUCTS.......................................................................................................... 16-33
16.9.1
March 2009
Types of Aqueducts.................................................................................. 16-34
16-i
16.9.2
16.10
DROP STRUCTURES ............................................................................................... 16-35

16.10.1 Types of Drop Structures .......................................................................... 16-35
16.10.2 Design Procedure..................................................................................... 16-35
16.10.1.1 Straight Drop Structure ............................................................ 16-37
16.10.1.2 Box Drop Structure .................................................................. 16-37
16.11
ENERGY DISSIPATORS........................................................................................... 16-37

16.11.1 Types of Dissipators ................................................................................. 16-39
16.11.2.1 Riprap Basin............................................................................ 16-44
16.11.2.2 Headwall................................................................................. 16-45
16.12
GATES .................................................................................................................. 16-46

16.12.1 Types of Gates ........................................................................................ 16-47
16.13
OUTFALL STRUCTURES .......................................................................................... 16-47

16.13.1 Types of Outfalls...................................................................................... 16-48
REFERENCES .................................................................................................................... 16-52

Appendix 16.A Design of Sharp-Crested Weir ..................................................................... 16A-1
Appendix 16.B Design of Broad-Crested Weir Using Winflume ............................................. 16A-2
16-ii
March 2009
List of Tables
Table
Description
Page
16.1
Entrance Loss Coefficients for Various Culverts
16-24
16.2
Dissipator Criteria
16-40
List of Figures
Figure
Description
Page
16.1
Typical Irrigation and Drainage Structures
16-1
16.2
General Design Procedure for a Hydraulic Structure
16-2
16.3
Typical Spillways for Irrigation and Drainage Schemes
16-3
16.4
Discharge Coefficients for an Overflow Spillway
16-4
16.5
Discharge Coefficients for an Overflow Spillway
16-5
16.6
Adjustment of Discharge Coefficient
16-6
16.7
Cross Section of a Side Channel Spillway
16-7
16.8
Typical Head Regulators for Irrigation Canals
16-7
16.9
Classification of Weirs Based on Crest Thickness
16-8
16.10
Various Shapes of Weirs
16-8
16.11
Classification of Weirs According to Location
16-9
16.12
Details of Sharp-crested Weir Tops (Exaggerated)
16-9
16.13
Sharp-Crested Weirs
16-10
16.14
Coefficient of Broad-crested Weir for Various Widths and Head
16-11
16.15
V-Notch Weir
16-12
16.16
Variation of Coefficients for V-Notch Weir
16-12
16.17
Water Surface Profile of a Side-weir
16-13
16.18
Three Possible Conditions for a Side-weir
16-13
16.19
Examples of Flow Divider
16-15
16.20
Commonly used Flumes
16-16
16.21
Dimensions of a Parshall Flume
16-17
16.22
Dimensions of a Cutthroat Flume
16-18
16.23
Definition Sketch for Orifice Flow
16-19
16.24
Various Types of Concrete Culverts
16-20
16.25
Flow Profiles for Culvert under Inlet Control
16-21
16.26
Flow Profiles for Culvert under Outlet Control
16-22
16.27
Hydraulics of Culvert Flowing Full under Outlet Control
16-25
16.28
Inlet Control Nomograph Concrete Pipe Culvert
16-26
16.29
Critical Depth for Pipe Culvert
16-27
16.30
Determination of h0 for High Tailwater
16-28
16.31
Determination of h0 for Tailwater below Top of Opening
16-28
16.32
Flow Chart for Culvert Design and Analyses
16-30
16.33
Hydraulic Seal for Prevention of Air Entrainment in Siphon
16-31
16.34
Single Barrel Siphon
16-32
16.35
Multi-barrel Siphon
16-33
March 2009
16-iii
Figure
Description
Page
16.36
Examples of Aqueducts for Irrigation
16-34
16.37
Various Types of Aqueducts
16-34
16.38
Locations of the Drops
16-35
16.39
Typical Drop Structures for Open Channel
16-36
16.40
Typical Drop Spillway and Some Hydraulic Design Criteria
16-38
16.41
Box Drop Structure
16-39
16.42
Major Types of Hydraulic Energy Dissipator
16-40
16.43
Lengths and Types of Hydraulic Jumps in Horizontal Channels
16-41
16.44
Typical Dimensions of the USBR Basin II
16-42
16.45
Typical Dimensions of the USBR Basin IV
16-42
16.46
Typical Dimensions of the SAF Basin
16-43
16.47
Typical Riprap Basin
16-44
16.48
Standard Energy Dissipating Headwall Type I
16-45
16.49
Standard Energy Dissipating Headwall, Type II
16-45
16.50
Standard Energy Dissipating Headwall, Type III
16-46
16-51
Examples of Gates for Irrigation and Drainage Applications
16-47
16-52
Typical Pipe Outfall for a Drainage System
16-48
16-53
Apron Dimensions for Various Tailwater Conditions
16-50
16-54
Example of Scour Hole
16-50
16-iv
March 2009
16
16.1
HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES
INTRODUCTION
Hydraulic structures are integral components of irrigation and drainage and used to control water
distribution, velocity, directions, depths and the general configuration of a waterway including its
stability and maintenance purposes. Many of these structures (Figure 16.1) appear special and are
expensive, which require careful and thorough hydraulic engineering design and judgement. Proper
application of hydraulic structures can reduce initial and future maintenance costs by changing the
character of the flow to fit the needs of a particular project, and by reducing the size and cost of
related facilities. The hydraulic structures discussed in this Chapter are mostly used for surface
irrigation.
The shape, size, and other features of a hydraulic structure can vary widely for different projects,
depending upon the functions to be accomplished. Hydraulic design procedures govern the final
design of all structures. This may include model testing when a proposed design requires a
configuration that differs significantly from known documented guidelines.
spillway
Head
Head Regulator
regulator
Spillway
measuring flume
Measuring flume
water distribution
Water
distribution
structure
structure
drop structure
Drop structure
field
intake
Field
intake
structure
structure
check structure
Check structure
River
River
Figure 16.1
16.1.1
Typical Irrigation and Drainage Structures (FAO, 1996)
Types of Structures
The most common hydraulic structures used in irrigation and drainage purposes are for,
Inlet - Spillway, Weir, Orifice and Flume;
Flow Regulation/Diversion - Weir, Orifice and Flume;
Flow Measurement - Spillway, Weir, Orifice and Flume;
Conveyance - Culvert, Siphon and Aqueduct;
Energy Dissipation - Stilling basin, Riprap Basin and Drop structures;
Water Quality Improvement - Swale, Sediment Fence, Sediment Trap, Pond and Wetland; and
Outlet - Spillway, Weir, Orifice, Culvert, Gates, Stilling Basin and Pump Station.
March 2009
16-1
16.1.2
General Design Steps
The conventional procedures for the analyses and design of any hydraulic structure related to
irrigation and drainage work consists of direct methods and iterative methods. In many cases the
effectiveness of the general procedure (Figure 16.2) depends on the engineers intuition, experience,
skill and knowledge of hydraulic systems. The basic steps required for the analyses and design of a
typical hydraulic structure is given below:
Data collection to describe system
Estimate initial design of system
Analyze system design using

simulation
Check results of simulation

to check performance
Change design
No
Is design
satisfactory?
Yes
Compute cost or benefits
No
Are costs or
benefits ok?
Yes
Stop
Stop
Figure 16.2 General Design Procedure for a Hydraulic Structure (Mays and Tung, 1992)
16.2
SPILLWAYS
Spillway is generally an integral part of a dam structure. However, spillways in an irrigation and
drainage scheme can be used as inlet structure to control head at the intake, as a flow measuring
device and to control flow in the drainage system. Therefore, hydraulic design of the simple and
most commonly used spillways in agricultural schemes is briefly discussed in the following sections.
16-2
March 2009
16.2.1
Types of Spillways
The followings are typical types of spillways. Their sizes and shapes may vary depending on the
usage and site conditions. The commonly used are overflow (ogee) and side channel spillway, as
shown in Figure 16.3. Following spillways can also be seen at many irrigation and agricultural
projects.
Overfall spillway (Gated and Ungated);
Shaft (Morning Glory);
Chute (Labyrinth) spillway;
Siphon spillway; and
Orifice spillway.
(a) Overflow Type
(b) Side Channel Type
Figure 16.3 Typical Spillways for Irrigation and Drainage Schemes

16.2.2
Design Procedure
Design and analyses procedures of overflow and side-channel spillways are discussed in this section
due to their frequent use in the agricultural projects.
16.2.2.1
Overflow Spillway
Various shapes of overflow spillways can be designed and constructed. The flow through an overflow
spillway remains in contact with the spillway surface. Typical dimensions of an ogee spillway crest
are shown in Figure 16.4. Its design is based on the following procedures:
1. Calculate design head H0, which is usually about 75 to 80% of the maximum allowable head
(Hmax) in the reservoir.
2. Use the depth from the crest to ground surface P to find the basic discharge coefficient C0
from Figure 16.5a
3. Estimate discharge coefficient C for the full range of heads from Figure 16.5b.
4. Correct discharge coefficient C for the downstream apron from Figure 16.6a and tailwater
submergence from Figure 16.6b.
5. Calculate the discharge using Eq. 16.1.
Q = CLH 3e / 2
March 2009
(16.1)
16-3
q = CHo
ha =
q
p+ho
ho
Va =
Ho
(Design head)
ha
Water surface upstream from weir drawdown
Origin and opex of crest
2g(P+ho)
Xc
Yc
R1
y
y
=- k X
Ho
Ho
R2
Upstream face
Figure 16.4 Discharge Coefficients for an Overflow Spillway (USBR, 1987)

16.2.2.2
Side Channel Spillway
Side-channel spillways can be used to convey water from the reservoir or head source to the
irrigation canal. Side-channel spillway is generally ungated but can be gated if necessary. This type
of spillway is preferred where the abutment topography is not suitable for normal crest alignment. A
typical cross section of a side-channel spillway arrangement is shown in Figure 16.7. The following
procedure can be followed to design and analyses of a side-channel spillway.
1. The crest shape is based on the same criteria as the criteria for an overflow spillway.
2. The trough is sized by trial and error to prevent the maximum discharge water surface from
encroaching on the crest's free-discharge capacity.
3. The trough should be as nearly V-shaped as possible to promote efficient dissipation of
energy.
4. The chute crest is proportioned to produce subcritical flow in the trough for all discharges to
dissipate the overflow energy and produce uniform flow into the chute.
5. The trough geometry for the first trial is proportioned to produce an approximately uniform
reduction in trough velocity from downstream to upstream. This will usually minimize the
trough size.
6. The water surface profile in the trough is estimated by the following:
Y =
Q 2 ( V1 + V2 )
(Q 2 Q 1 )
( V2 V1 ) + V1
g(Q1 + Q 2 )
Q2
(16.2)
where Y= change in water level between two sections X apart, Q1 & V1, = discharge and velocity
at the upstream section, and Q2 & V2 = discharge and velocity at the downstream section.
16-4
March 2009
4.0
3.8
Values of Coefficient
Co
3.6
ha
Ho
3.4
P
3/2
Q = Co L Ho
3.2
3.0
0.5
1.5
1.0
2.0
2.5
3.0
P
Values of H
o
(a) For Design Head (H0)

1.1
Ratio of Cofficients
C
Co
1.0
ha
Ho
He
0.9
P
0.8
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
H
Ratio of
of Head
Head on
on Crest
Caestto
toDesign
DesignHead
Head==HHee/ Ho
Ratio
o
(b) For any Head (He) other than Design Head (H0)
Figure 16.5 Discharge Coefficients for an Overflow Spillway (USBR, 1987)
March 2009
16-5
Ratio of Modified Coefficient to

C1
Free Discharge Coefficient
C
1.00
ha
0.90
hd
Ho
ds
P
0.80
0.76
1.0
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.7
1.6
1.8
h
Position of Downstream Apron dh+d
c
(a) Unsubmerged Condition
1.0
Ratio of Modified Coefficient to

Free Discharge Coefficient C o
C
0.8
ha
0.6
hd
Ho
d
P
0.4
0.2
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
Degree of Submerged ha
ho
(b) Submerged Condition

Figure 16.6 Adjustment of Discharge Coefficient (USBR, 1987)
The computation begins with a known water level at the downstream end produced by critical depth
control at the chute crest, and proceeds upstream in increments of X by trial and error, calculating
16-6
March 2009
the water level along the length of the side channel. If the calculated water profile encroaches on
the side channel's capacity, the geometry of the trough or chute crest or both should be adjusted.
Reservoir Water Surface
Water Surface A'
Overflow Crest
Subcritical Flow
Water Surface B'

Supercritical Flow
Figure 16.7 Cross Section of a Side Channel Spillway (Mays, 1987)

16.3
HEAD REGULATORS
Headworks or head regulators (Figure 16.8) are located across the main conveyance system or at
the off-take to control the water level (head) in the channel. Usually various types of gates are used
to control the head in the channel. Moveable weir (Butcher weir), undershot gates, drop inlets, etc.
also can be used as long as they serve the purpose of controlling the water level.
(a) With Sluice Gates
(b) With Gates and Weir
Figure 16.8 Typical Head Regulators for Irrigation Canals

Gates for head regulators can be designed as orifice (when submerged) or as weir (with crest) or as
an open channel (when free flow with flat invert). Therefore, design procedure of the head
regulators are not discussed here.
16.4
WEIRS
Weirs are elevated structures in open channels that are used to measure flow and/or control outflow
elevations from basins and channels. Weirs also can be used for water distribution to the irrigation
canals and agricultural drains.
March 2009
16-7
16.4.1
Types of Weirs
The weirs can be classified according to their top width or crest thickness, structural shape and
locations. Based on the top width, it can be classified as follows:
Sharp-crested weir - top width less than or equal to 2 mm (Figure 16.9a); and
Broad-crested weir - top width larger than to 2 mm (Figure 16.9b).
(a) Sharp-crested Weir
(b) Broad-crested Weir
Figure 16.9 Classification of Weirs Based on Crest Thickness

Based on the shape, weir can be classified into four categories as given below:
Triangular weir (Figure 16.10a);
Rectangular weir (Figure 16.10b); and
Trapezoidal weir (Figure 16.10c).
(a) Triangular
(b) Rectangular
Figure 16.10
(c) Trapezoidal
Various Shapes of Weirs
The weirs can be classified into two categories based on their location in the system:
Cross weir when constructed across the channel (Figure 16.11a); and
Side weir - when constructed along the side of the channel (Figure 16.11b).
Weirs also can be classified as being contracted or suppressed depending on whether or not the
nappe is constrained by the edges of the channel. If the nappe is open to the atmosphere at the
edges, it is said to be contracted because the flow contracts as it passes through the flow section
and the width of the nappe is slightly less than the width of the weir crest.
16-8
March 2009
(a) Crossing Channel

Figure 16.11
(b) Side Channel
Classification of Weirs According to Location
16.4.2
Design Procedure
16.4.2.1
Sharp Crested Rectangular Weir
The weirs having crest width less than or equal to 2 mm is called sharp-crested or thin plate weir
(Figure 16.12). Generally the top consists of a plastic or metal plate that is set vertically across the
width of the channel. The main types of sharp-crested weirs are rectangular, triangular (V-notch)
and Trapezoidal (Cipolletti weir), as shown in Figure 16.13. The amount of discharge flowing
through the opening is non-linearly related to the width of the opening and the depth of the water
level in the approach section above the height of the weir crest.
Flow
Flow
1 to 2 mm
1 to 2 mm
90
90
45 min
sharp edge
sharp edge
(a) For Rectangular and Trapezoidal Weir
60 min
(b) For Trapezoidal Weir
Figure 16.12 Details of Sharp-crested Weir Tops (Exaggerated)

Equation 16.3 provides the discharge relationship for sharp-crested weirs with no end contractions
(illustrated in Figure 16.13a).
Q = C SCW B H 1.5
(16.3)
where,
Q = weir discharge (m3/s)
C SCW = 1.81 + 0.22 (H /Hc ), sharp-crested weir discharge coefficient
B = weir base width (m)
H = head above weir crest excluding velocity head (m).
March 2009
16-9
As indicated in Equation 16.3, the value of the coefficient CSCW is known to vary with the ratio H /Hc
(see Figure 16.13c for definition of terms). For values of the ratio H /Hc less than 0.3, a constant
CSCW of 1.84 may be used. Equation 16.4 provides the discharge equation for sharp-crested weirs
with end contractions (illustrated in Figure 16.13b). As noted above, a constant CSCW of 1.84 may be
used for values of the ratio H /Hc less than 0.3.
Q = C SCW ( B 0.1 n H) H 1.5
(16.4)
where,
n = number of end contractions
A type of contracted weir which is related to the rectangular sharp-crested weir is the Cipoletti weir
(Figure 16.13a) which has a trapezoidal cross-section with side slopes 1:4 (H:V). The advantage of
a Cipolletti weir is that corrections for end contractions are not necessary.
B
(a) No end contractions
(b) With end contractions
H1
Hc
Hc
(c) Section
Figure 16.13
H2
(d) Section
Sharp-crested Weirs (DID, 2000)
Sharp-crested weirs may be affected by submergence when the tailwater rises above the weir crest
elevation (Figure 16.13d) resulting in a reduced discharge. The discharge equation for a submerged
sharp-crested weir is:
H2
Q s = Q u 1
H1
1.5
0.385
(16.5)
where,
Q s = submerged weir discharge (m3/s)
Q u = unsubmerged weir discharge from Equation 16.26 or 0.4 (m3/s)
H 1 = upstream head above weir crest (m)
H 2 = downstream head above weir crest (m).
Flow over the top edge of a riser pipe is typically treated as flow over a sharp-crested weir with no
end contractions. Equation 16.5 should be used for this case.
16-10
March 2009
16.4.2.2
Broad Crested Rectangular Weir
The equation typically used for a broad-crested weir is:

Q = C BCW B H 1.5
(16.6)
where,
Q
= weir discharge (m3/s)
C BCW = broad-crested weir coefficient

B
= weir base width (m)
= effective head above weir crest (m)
If the upstream edge of a broad-crested weir is so rounded as to prevent contraction and, if the
slope of the crest is as great as the loss of head due to friction, flow will pass through critical depth
yc at the weir crest; a value of 1.70 may be used for C BCW . For sharp corners on the broad-crested
weir, a value of 1.44 may be used. Additional information on C BCW values as a function of weir base
width and head is provided in Figure 16.14. Broad-crested weirs can also be designed and analysed
with the help of WinFlume software (USBR, 1997). A brief description on how to use the software
together with an example is given in Appendix 16.B.
2.00
1.90
1.80
Hp
0.60
0.55
CBCW
0.50
1.70
0.45
0.40
1.60
0.35
0.30
1.50
1.40
0.25
1.30
2
Weir Crest Width (m)
Figure 16.14 Coefficient of Broad-crested Weir for Various Widths and Heads (DID, 2000)
16.4.2.3
Sharp Crested V-notch Weir
The discharge through a V-notch weir is shown in Figure 16.15 and can be calculated using:
Q = Ce
2.5
tan H e
15
2
(16.7)
where,
Q = weir discharge (m3/s)
= angle of V-notch (degrees)
He = effective head (H+Kh) on apex of V-notch (m).
March 2009
16-11
Figure 16.15 V-Notch Weir
Section A-A
(DID, 2000)
Value of Ce and Kh depend on the angle of the V-notch and can be estimated from Figure 16.16.
value of K h
in millimetres
3
20
40
60
80
100
120
value of notch angle 0 in degrees
(a) Value of Kh
value of C e
0.61
0.60
0.59
0.58
0.57
0.56
20
40
60
80
100
120
value of notch angle 0 in degrees
(b) Value of Ce
Figure 16.16 Variation of Coefficients for V-Notch Weir
16.4.3
Application of Weirs
Weirs can be applied for various purposes. Applications of weirs for water distribution in irrigation
canal are described in the following sections.
16-12
March 2009
16.4.3.1
Side Weir
The design of side-overflow weirs is based on empirical equations which quantify the relationship
between the discharge over the weir and geometric parameters at the weir, including the length of
the weir and head (Hager, 1987). A typical profile of a side weir from the main irrigation canal is
A
Energy Grade Line
a
2
Vn
Water
2g
Profile
L2
Ew
h 1 = rE w
yn
vn
E w= a
V2 + a d
2g
Weir
v1
Channel Invert
A
h2 =
h1
n2
LONGITUDINAL SECTION
B
h
yn
y
SECTION A-A
Figure 16.17 Water Surface Profile of a Side-weir (Metcalf & Eddy, 1972)
Three head or water surface profile conditions that can prevail at a side-overflow weir, as shown in
Figure 16.18 (DID, 2000).
P
Q1
d1
d2
Q2
(a ) C o n d itio n 1
P
Q1
d1
C > d
d2
Q2
c rit
(b ) C o n d itio n 2
Q
P
Q1
d1 = d c rit
P
d2
Q2
C > d c rit a n d L
(c ) C o n d itio n 3
Figure 16.18 Three Possible Conditions for a Side-weir (Metcalf & Eddy, 1972)
March 2009
16-13
(a) Condition 1 : The channel bed slopes steeply, producing supercritical flow. Under this condition,
the weir has no effect upstream and along the weir there is a gradual reduction in depth.
Downstream of the weir, the flow depth in the original channel increases, tending asymptotically to
the normal depth corresponding to the remaining discharge.
(b) Condition 2 : The channel bed slopes mildly. Under this condition, subcritical flow prevails and
the weir impact is noticed upstream of the weir only. The water surface profile downstream of the
weir corresponds to the normal depth of the remaining discharge. Along the weir there is a gradual
increase in depth and, upstream of the weir the flow depth tends asymptotically to the normal depth
for the initial discharge.
(c) Condition 3 : The channel bed slopes mildly, but the weir crest is below the critical depth
corresponding to the initial flow, and the flow at the weir is supercritical. Recent studies (Frazer
1957) indicate that conditions 1 and 3 may result in the development of a hydraulic jump at the weir.
The most common condition that a designer will encounter is Condition 3, where the weir elevation
is below the critical depth. When only a relatively small amount of the flow is diverted, a rising
water surface profile occurs. According to Metcalf and Eddy Inc. (1972), the falling profile results if
the ratio of the height of the weir, c, to the channel specific energy, Ew , referenced to the top of the
weir, is less than 0.6.
a) Falling water surface
The equations and procedures for computing weir length for the falling water surface profile were
developed by Ackers (Chow, 1959). These equations combine Bernoullis theorem with a weir
discharge formula. Metcalf and Eddy Inc. (1972) suggests using:
c
L = 2.03 B 5.28 2.63
Ew
(16.8)
where,
L
= length of weir (m)
B = channel width (m)

c
= height of weir (m)
E W = channel specific energy (m).

and,
Ew =
V2
+ (y n c )
2g
(16.9)
where,
= velocity coefficient
V = normal velocity in the approach channel (m/s)
g = acceleration due to gravity(9.81 m/s2)
= pressure-head correction
y n = normal depth of flow in approach channel (m)
c
= height of the weir above the channel bottom (m).
Values for and of 1.2 and 1.0 respectively can be used in the approach channel, while at the
lower end of the weir values of 1.4 and 0.95 can be used for and respectively.
16-14
March 2009
b) Rising water surface

The analysis for estimating the weir length for the rising water surface profile is based on the
theoretical equations developed by DeMarchi (Collinge 1957):
L=
y2
y1
(16.10)
where,
L
= length of weir (m)
= channel width (m)
= constant (0.35 for a free nappe)
y
= varied flow function
E
y 1, y 2 = depth in channel (m)

E
= specific energy (m).
Equation 16.10 is recommended for use only in the case of a rising water surface profile. Metcalf
and Eddy Inc. (1972) indicates that this equation works best when the Froude number is between
0.3 - 0.92.
16.4.3.2
Flow Divider
Various types flow dividers can be seen in modern irrigation. Simple proportional flow divider is
shown in Figure 16.19, which distributes water proportionately according to the needs and design.
Proportional dividers may split the flow into a single side channel (bifurcator) or to channels on both
sides of the parent conveyance (trifurcator). Such structures are used in India, Pakistan, Java and
other countries, which distributes water as equitably as possible. If there is any water shortage, all
farmers share the stress as equal as possible. The basic structure is a weir with a splitter wall or
vane which divides the water in a pre-set ratio.
(a) Single Bifurcation
(b) Double Trifurcation
Figure 16.19 Examples of Flow Divider

Many variations can be made for the proportional flow dividers according to the needs. In practice,
width of the off-taking throat should not be smaller than about 1/6th of the parent throat (Laycock,
2007); otherwise the overall width of the structure will become large and cause inaccuracy. They can
be combined with a drop, but if head is at premium then the rules of allowable weir submergence
govern. That is for the 1:3 crump profile shown in Figure 16.20, maximum 70% submergence would
be allowed at each split.
The design is based on a triangular (crump) weir with a splitter fixed parallel to the flow direction
with its leading edge in the supercritical flow region at the downstream of the crest. The splitter wall
March 2009
16-15
is positioned on the crest such that the ratio off-taking throat width to the remaining crest width is
identical to the ration of the off-taking flow to the continuing discharge downstream in the parent
conveyance. In order to operate most effectively, an elliptical transition is required at the inlet, to
ensure smooth approach conditions. However, critical dimensions are the throat width and crest
levels. Pre-casting is highly recommended to maintain accuracy during construction.
16.5
FLUMES
Flumes are most usually used in the irrigation system to divert and measure the amount of irrigated
water to the distribution systems and fields. They are simple, providing good accuracy and easy to
construct, operate and maintain.
16.5.1
Types of Flumes
There are a few types of flumes available, which are mostly used in open channel systems (Figure
16.20). Parshall, Palmer-Bowlus, H-Type, Ramp, Trapezoidal, Venturi and Cutthroat flumes are
common. Among them the Parshall flume is the most often used in agricultural projects. They appear
to be similar except some changes on the shape and dimensions. Each type of flume has advantages
and disadvantages and it is recommended that before selecting a flume you understand the
characteristics of the different flumes being considered.
16.5.2
Design Procedure
Design, sizing and installation of flumes vary, mainly depending on the type and expected flow
capacity. Commonly used flumes in the agricultural projects are described in the following sections.
16.5.2.1
Parshall Flume
The principal advantages of the Parshall flume are its capabilities for self-cleaning (particularly when
compared with weirs), its relatively low head loss, and its ability to function over a wide operating
range while requiring only a single head measurement. These characteristics of the Parshall flume
make it particularly suitable for flow measurement in irrigation canals and certain natural channels.
Parshall flumes have gone out of favour, compared to some new flumes, due to their construction
complexity and likelihood to trap sediment compared to newer flume designs. The cutthroat,
rectangular and trapezoidal flumes, for example, are simpler to construct, can be more easily fit into
an existing channel, and can trap less sediment than a Parshall flume. However, the methodology
relating discharge to measured head is more complex.
(a) Parshall Type
(b) Cutthroat Type
Figure 16.20 Commonly Used Flumes
16-16
March 2009
Since the discharge rating for Parshall flumes are based on extensive research, faithful adherence to
all dimensions is necessary to achieve accurate flow measurement. The flumes must be constructed
according to the certain dimensions recommended for each flume, because the flumes may not be
geometrically similar.
The general discharge (head vs. flow rate) equation of free flow through a Parshall flume takes the
following form.
Q = KH n
(16.11)
Where Q is the flow rate, H is the head measured at point Ha (Figure 16.21), K is a constant that
depends on throat width & units, and n is a constant power that depends on throat width.
Coefficients for the discharge equations for a Parshall flume depend on the ratio of the dimensions.
2/3 A
Ha
Hb
P
Flow
W
a) Plan
B
Water surface
Submerged flow
E
Level floor
Free flow
Slope 1/4
Station 1
N
b) Elevation
Y
X
Zero reference
level for H a
and H b
Figure 16.21 Dimensions of a Parshall Flume (ISCO, 1998)

16.5.2.2
Cutthroat Flume
Cutthroat flumes are so named because they resemble Parshall flumes with the throat totally cut out.
They are formed by directly connecting a 6:1 converging section to a similar diverging section. Thus,
they consist of a converging level inlet section with vertical sidewalls and a diverging level outlet
section also with vertical sidewalls. They do not have any parallel walls forming a straight throat and,
thus, belong to a class of throat-less flumes. The converging and diverging walls do not necessarily
match those of other flumes in either converging or diverging slope or length. The primary objective
of their development was construction simplicity compared to Parshall flumes.
March 2009
16-17
However, the prescribed head measuring location, which may be in a zone of separation, and
conditions of the upstream channel in which it is placed, along with variable conditions of the sharp
connection of the convergence and the divergence, have caused considerable variability in
calibrations. Because of these complexities in hydraulic behaviour, several authors do not
recommend their use.
A characteristic length, L, and a throat width, W, dimensionally define the rectangular cutthroat
flume, shown in Figure 16.22. As shown, all other flume dimensions can be derived from the two
dimensions.
Lb
La
Hb
Ha
Flow
1
6
L1
L2
L
a) Plan
Water surface
Submerged flow
L1
b) Elevation
B = W + 2L1/3 = W + L2/3
L b = 5L/9
L 2 = 2L/9
Figure 16.22 Dimensions of a Cutthroat Flume (ISCO, 1998)

16.6
ORIFICES
Orifice is an opening (hole) through the sides or bottom of a channel, gate or reservoir through
which water can flow. The condition for the hole to be orifice is that the water level at the upstream
of the opening must be submerged. If the water is less than the top level of the opening then weir
hydraulics will take place. Orifices are most commonly used in the riser of a pond outlet structure.
16.6.1
Types of Orifices
Orifice can be of any shape and size. Irrigation and agricultural drainage systems in Malaysia
commonly used constant head orifice (CHO). However, due to various types of operating problems
such orifice is not recommended. The following classification is more relevant for the irrigation and
drainage purposes:
16-18
March 2009
According to Shape Circular, Rectangular and Triangular;
According to Edge Sharp-edged and Bell-mouthed;
According to Operating Condition Constant Head Orifice (CHO); and
According to Downstream Condition Unsubmerged flow and Submerged flow.
16.6.2
Design Procedure
Although various shapes of orifices can be used, circular orifices are the most common for their easy
construction and better accuracy in flow measurement. Therefore, the design procedure of circular
orifice is discussed in this section.
For a single circular orifice, illustrated in Figure 16.23a, the orifice flow can be determined using
Equation 16.12. This equation also can be used to determine the sizes and numbers of orifices
required to control the flow through a multi-level riser outlet of a pond.
Q = C d A o 2g H o
(16.12)
where,
Q = the orifice flow rate (m3/s)
Cd = orifice discharge coefficient (0.40 - 0.62)
Ao = area of orifice (m2), Do2/4
Do = orifice diameter (m)
Ho = effective head on the orifice measured from the centre of the opening (m)
g
= acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m/s2)
H0
D0
(a) Free Fall

Headwater
H0 Tailwater
D0
b) Single
(b)
Single(Submerged)
(Submergd)
H1
D0
H2
H3
c)(c)
Multiple
Multple
Figure 16.23 Definition Sketch for Orifice Flow
March 2009
16-19
If the orifice discharges as a free outfall, the effective head is measured from the centreline of the
orifice to the upstream water surface elevation Figure 16.23a. If the orifice discharge is submerged,
the effective head is the difference between the upstream and downstream water surface levels.
This latter condition is shown in Figure 16.23b.
For square-edged uniform orifice entrance conditions, a discharge coefficient of 0.6 should be used
for Dd < 50 mm or 0.62 for Dd 50 mm. For ragged edged orifices, such as those resulting from
the use of an acetylene torch to cut orifice openings in corrugated pipe, a value of 0.4 should be
used. Pipe outlets smaller than 0.3 m diameter may be analysed as a submerged orifice as long as
Ho /Do is greater than 1.5. Pipes greater than 0.3 m diameter should be analysed as a discharge pipe
with headwater and tailwater effects taken into account, not just as an orifice.
Flow through multiple orifices (see Figure 16.23c) can be computed by summing the flow through
individual orifices. For multiple orifices of the same size and under the influence of the same
effective head, the total flow can be determined by multiplying the discharge for a single orifice by
the number of openings.
16.7
CULVERTS
Various sizes and shapes of culverts are commonly seen in an agricultural field. These structures are
mainly used as crossing facilities and outfall for the irrigation and drainage canals.
16.7.1
Types of Culverts
The culverts can be classified depending on shape (circular, rectangular, arch, etc.), material
(concrete, brick, steel, plastic, wood, etc.) and operating conditions (Inlet control and Outlet control).
Example of a few common shapes of concrete culverts are shown in Figure 16.24.
(a) Box
(b) Pipe
(c) Arch
Figure 16.24 Various Types of Concrete Culverts

16.7.2
Design Procedure
Design and analysis of culverts mostly depend on their inlet and outlet (tailwater) conditions. The
detailed design procedure of culverts for various conditions is available in MSMA (DID, 2000). The
most common features of culvert design for irrigation and drainage system is given in this section.
Following design factors need to be considered during the design and analyses of culverts. Details of
these factors are discussed in Chapter 27 of MSMA (DID, 2000).
Headwater;
Culvert Layout Orientation;
Vertical Profile;
Multiple Cells;
Culverts in Flat Terrain;
Site Investigation; and

Control Point (Inlet or Outlet).
16-20
March 2009
16.7.2.1
Control at Inlet
For culverts subject to inlet control, the important factors are entrance conditions, including the
entrance type, existence and angle of headwalls and wingwalls and the projection of the culvert into
the headwater pond.
Inlet control can occur with the inlet submerged and the outlet not submerged (Figure 16.25).
Sketches of inlet control flow for both unsubmerged and submerged projecting entrances are shown
on Figure 16.25a and 16.25b.
Figure 16.25c shows a mitred entrance flowing submerged with inlet control. Under inlet control, the
flow contracts to a supercritical jet immediately downstream from the inlet. When the tail water
depth exceeds critical depth hc and the culvert is laid on a steep grade, flow remains supercritical in
the cell and a hydraulic jump will form near the outlet. If the culvert is laid on a slope less than
critical, then a hydraulic jump will form within the culvert.
In inlet control the roughness and length of the culvert cell and the outlet conditions (including depth
of tail water) are not factors in determining culvert capacity. An increase in the slope of culvert
reduces headwater only to a small degree and can normally be neglected for conventional culverts
flowing under inlet control.
HWHW
W at er Su rf ac
e
A. Projecting
- UnsubmergedInlet
Inlet
a) Projecting
EndEnd
Unsubmerged
HW
B. Projecting End - Submerged Inlet
b) Projecting End Submerged Inlet
HW
C. Mitred End - Submerged Inlet

c) Mitred
End Submerged Inlet
Figure 16.25
March 2009
Flow Profiles for Culvert under Inlet Control (DID, 2000)
16-21
16.7.2.2
Control at Outlet
Culverts flowing with outlet control can flow with the culvert cell full or with the cell part full for all of
the culvert length. With outlet control and both inlet and outlet submerged (Figure 16.26a) the
culvert flows full under pressure. The culvert can also flow full over part of its length, then part-full
at the outlet, as shown in Figure 16.26. The point at which the water surface breaks away from the
culvert crown depends on the tailwater depth and culvert grade and can be determined by using
backwater calculations. If the culvert is laid on a flat grade, outlet control can occur with both inlet
and outlet not submerged and part full flow throughout the cell is subcritical. Minor variations of
these main types can occur, depending on the relative value of critical slope, normal depth, culvert
height and tailwater depth.
Water Surface
H
HW
W.S.
Culvert Flowing Full, Submerged Outlet

(a) (a)
Culvert
Flowing Full, Submerged Outlet
HW
W.S.
Culvert
FlowingFull,
Full, Unsubmerged
Unsubmerged Outlet
(b) (b)
Culvert
Flowing
Outlet
HW
Hy dra ulic Gra de Lin

e
H
W .S.
Culvert
FlowingFull,
Full, for
for Part
Part of
(c) (c)
Culvert
Flowing
ofLength
Length
HW
H
W .S.
CulvertNot
NotFlowing
Flowing Full
(d)(d)
Culvert
Full
Figure 16.26
(a)
Flow Profiles for Culvert under Outlet Control (DID, 2000)
Determination of Energy Head (H)
The head, H or energy required to pass a given flow through a culvert operating under outlet control
is made up of three major parts. These three parts are usually expressed in metres of water and
include a velocity head, Hv, an entrance loss, He and a friction loss, Hf . The energy head is expressed
in equation form as:
16-22
March 2009
H = H v + He + Hf
(16.13)
The velocity head, Hv is given by,
Hv =
V2
2g
(16.14)
where V is the mean velocity in the culvert cell and g is the acceleration due to gravity. The mean
velocity is the discharge, Q, divided by the cross-sectional area A of the cell.
The entrance loss is expressed as,
V2
2g
He = K e
(16.15)
The entrance loss coefficient, Ke , depends on the inlet geometry primarily through the effect it has
on contraction of the flow. Values of Ke determined from experiment, range from 0.2 for a well
rounded entrance, through 0.5 for a square edged inlet in a vertical headwall to 0.9 for a sharp pipe
(e.g. corrugated steel) projecting from an embankment. Ke coefficients are given Table 16.1.
Since most engineers are familiar with Mannings n, the following expression is used to calculate the
friction loss, Hf along the conduit:
Hf =
2gn2L
R1.33
V2
2g
(16.16)
where,
n
= Mannings friction factor
= length (m) of culvert cell
V = mean velocity (m/s) of flow in culvert cell

g
= acceleration due to gravity

= 9.80 m/s2
R = hydraulic radius (m) = A/Wp

A = area (m2) of flow for full cross-section
Wp = wetted perimeter (m)
Substituting in Equation 16.13 and simplifying, we get for full flow:
2gn 2 L V 2
H = 1 + K e + 1.33
R
2g
(16.17)
Figure 16.27 shows the terms of Equation 16.17, the energy line, the hydraulic grade line and the
headwater depth, HW. The energy line represents the total energy at any point along the culvert
cell. The hydraulic grade line is defined as the pressure line to which water would rise in small
vertical pipes attached to the culvert wall along its length. The difference in elevation between these
V2
two lines is the velocity head,
.
2g
By referring to Figure 16.27 and using the culvert invert at the outlet as datum, we get:
2
h1 +
V1
+ LS = h 2 + H v + H e + H f
2g
March 2009
(16.18)
16-23
Then,
2
h1 +
V1
+ LS h 2 = H v + H e + H f
2g
(16.19)
and,
2
H = h1 +
V1
+ LS h 2 = H v + H e + H f
2g
(16.20)
Table 16.1 Entrance Loss Coefficients for Various Culverts (DID, 2000)
Types of Culverts and Entrance Conditions
Loss Coefficients
Pipe, Concrete
Ke
Projecting from fill, headwall or headwall and wingwalls, socket end
0.2
Projecting from fill, headwall or headwall and wingwalls, square cut end
0.5
Headwall or headwall and wingwalls, Rounded (radius = 1/12 D)
0.2
Mitred to conform to fill slope
0.7
End-section conforming to fill slope (standard precast)
0.5
Bevelled edges, 33.7 or 45 bevels and Side-tapered or slope-tapered inlets
0.2
Pipe, or Pipe-Arch, Corrugated Steel

Projecting from fill
0.9
End-section conforming to fill slope (standard prefab)
0.5
Bevelled edges, 33.7 or 45 bevels
0.25
Side-tapered or slope-tapered inlets
0.2
Box, Reinforced Concrete

Headwall
Square-edged on 3 edges
0.5
Rounded on 3 edges to radius of 1/12 barrel dimension or bevelled edges

on 3 sides
0.2
Square-edged at crown
0.4
Crown edge rounded to radius of 1/12 barrel dimension or bevelled top edge
0.2
Wingwalls at 10 to 25 to barrel, Square-edged at crown
0.5
Wingwalls parallel (extension of sides), Square-edged at crown
0.7
Side-tapered or slope-tapered inlet
0.2
From the development of this energy equation and Figure 16.27, H is the difference between the
elevation of the hydraulic grade line at the outlet and the energy line at the inlet. Since the velocity
head in the entrance pool is usually small under ponded conditions, the water surface of the
headwater pool elevation can be assumed to equal the elevation of the energy line.
16-24
March 2009
Equation 16.17 can be readily solved for H by the use of the full flow nomographs for pipe culverts
as shown in Figure 16.28. Similar nomographs for box culvert and corrugated metal pipes are
available in Chapter 27 of MSMA (DID, 2000).
2
V1
Vg
V
Vg
W.S
V1
He
Energy Lin
e
Hidraulic G
rade Line
HW h 1
(b)
Hv
W.S
h2
L
LS
Figure 16.27
Hf
Hydraulics of Culvert Flowing Full under Outlet Control (DID, 2000)
Determination of Headwater Depth (HWo)
Headwater depth, HW0 can be determined from an equation for outlet control:
HW0 = H + h0 LS
(16.21)
where,
H = head (m) determined from Figure 16.28 or from Equation 16.20
h0 = greater of TW and (hc + D)/2, in which h D
hc = critical depth (m) from Figure 16.29
D = culvert height (m)
L
= length (m) of culvert
= slope (m/m) of cell
(c)
Determination of ho
The determination of h0 is an important factor in calculating both the headwater depth and the
hydraulic capacity a culvert flowing under outlet control.
Tailwater depth, TW is the depth from the culvert invert at the outlet to the water surface in the
outlet channel. Engineering judgement is required in evaluating possible tailwater depths. Tailwater
is often controlled by a downstream obstruction or by water levels in another stream. A field
inspection should be made to check on downstream conditions and flood levels. The Slope Area
Method can be used to calculate flow depths, if downstream conditions do not provide an obvious
control.
Fortunately, most natural streams are wide compared to the culvert and the depth of water in the
natural channel is considerably less than critical depth in the culvert section. In such cases the
natural tailwater does not govern.
Two tailwater conditions can occur with culverts operating under outlet control, (i) tailwater above
the top of the opening and (ii) tailwater at or below top of opening:
(i) Tailwater above the top of opening when the tailwater, TW in the outlet channel is above the
top of the culvert outlet, Figure 16.26a,
March 2009
16-25
h o = TW
(16.22)
The relationship of h0 to the other terms in Equation 16.21, for this situation, is illustrated in
Figure 16.30.
Q
(m3/s)
NB
D (m)
4.50
300
4.00
200
3.50
100
80
3.00
60
50
40
2.50
30
HW
D
(1)
Example
D = 0.80 m Q = 1.7 m3/s
N
HW(m)
(1)
(2)
(3)
2.60
2.18
2.20
2.08
1.74
1.76
am
Ex
6
5
4
1.50
3 /s
7
1.
HW
D
2.00
10
8
Inlet
20
(2)
4
3
(3)
6
5
4
3
ple
1.5
1.5
1.0
1.0
0.9
0.9
0.8
0.8
0.7
0.7
1.5
1.00
80
0.
0.90
0.80
0.70
0.60
2
1
0.8
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
Inlet Type
(1) Headwall with
Square Edge
(2) Headwall with
Socket End
(3) Projecting with
Socket End
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.15
0.50
0.40
0.1
0.09
0.08
0.07
0.06
0.05
0.04
0.03
0.30
0.6
0.6
0.5
0.5
0.6
0.5
0.02
D
Figure 16.28
16-26
Inlet Control Nomograph Concrete Pipe Culvert (DID, 2000)
March 2009
Critical Depth - hc (m)
1.0
0.5
0.80
0.60
0.40
0.30
0
0.0
1.00
0.5
1.20
1.0
D in mm
1.5
Q
Discharge
(m3/s)
N
2.0
2.5
3.0
20
25
30
2.4
2.0
1.5
D in mm
1.0
0.6
1.60
1.40
2.25
2.00
1.80
1.20
5
2.75
2.50
10
15
Q
Discharge
(m3 /s)
N
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.2
4.50
4.00
3.50
3.00
2.75
10
20
30
D in mm
40
50
60
70
Q
Discharge
(m3/s)
N
80
90
100
110
120
(h c >D)
Figure 16.29
March 2009
Critical Depth for Pipe Culvert (DID, 2000)
16-27
(ii) Tailwater at or below top of opening when the tailwater in the outlet channel is at or below the
top of the culvert outlet, as on Figure 16.26b, 16.26c and 16.26d, h0 is more difficult to
determine.
Full flow depth at the outlet, Figure 16.26b, will occur only when the flow rate is sufficient to give
critical depths equal or higher than the height of the culvert opening. For all such flows the
hydraulic grade line will pass through the top of the culvert at the outlet and the head, H can be
added to the level of the top of the culvert opening in calculating HW0.
H
HW
D
TW=h o
LS
Figure 16.30
Determination of h0 for High Tailwater
When critical depth is less than the height of the culvert opening, the water surface drops as shown
on Figures 16.26c and 16.26d, depending on the flow. For the condition shown on Figure 16.26c,
the culvert must flow full for of its length. Flow profile computations show that the hydraulic grade
line, if extended as a straight line from the point where the water breaks away from the top of the
culvert, will be at a height approximately halfway between critical depth and the top of the culvert,
at the culvert outlet. i.e.:
ho =
(hc + D)
(16.23)
This level should be used if it is greater than TW.

The head, H can be added to this level in calculating HW0. The relationship of h0 to the other terms
in Equation 16.23 for this situation is illustrated on Figure 16.31.
HW
D
S
hc
LS
TW
L
ho=Greater of hc+ D and TW
2
Figure 16.31
16-28
Determination of h0 for Tailwater below Top of Opening
March 2009
As the discharge decreases the situation approaches that of Figure 16.26d. For design purposes, this
method is satisfactory for calculated headwater depths above 0.75D. For smaller values of
headwater, more accurate result can be obtained by flow profile calculations or by the use of the
capacity charts from Hydraulic Engineering Circular No 10 (FHWA, 1972).
The design engineer should be familiar with all the equations in the previous Section before using
these procedures. Following the design method without an understanding of culvert hydraulics can
result in an inadequate, unsafe, or costly structure. The procedure does not address the effect of
storage. The design procedure is summarised on the Culvert Design Flowchart, Figure 16.32.
The design engineer should be familiar with all the equations in the previous Section before using
these procedures. Following the design method without an understanding of culvert hydraulics can
result in an inadequate, unsafe, or costly structure. The procedure does not address the effect of
storage. The design procedure is summarised on the Culvert Design Flowchart, Figure 16.32.
16.7.2.3
Culvert End Treatment
The term end treatment encompasses the shape of the culvert ends, end structures such as
wingwalls, cut-offs and anchorages and erosion control measures for the adjoining fill and channel.
Culvert end treatment may be required to perform one or more of the following functions:
To increase the hydraulic efficiency of the culvert;
To prevent fill from encroaching on the culvert opening;
To prevent undermining of culvert ends;
To inhibit the seepage and piping through the bedding and backfill;
To meet traffic safety requirements;
To improve the appearance of large culverts;
To resist hydraulic uplift forces on corrugated metal pipe culverts; and/or
To strengthen the ends of large flexible culverts, especially those with mitred or skewed ends.
Cut-offs in the form of a vertical wall, constructed below the end apron of a culvert, should always
be provided at culvert inlets to prevent undermining and piping. For corrugated metal pipe culverts,
the cut-off walls also act to counteract uplift at the culvert inlet. Typical end treatments are briefly
discussed below:
Headwalls and wingwalls are the most common end treatment in many countries. An apron is
generally incorporated between the wingwalls to limit scour of the stream bed. They are usually
constructed from reinforced concrete, but can be formed from masonry, or rock filled gabions and
mattresses, or concrete filled mattresses.
Mitred ends these are generally limited to corrugated metal pipe culverts, where the end of the
pipe is cut parallel to the slope of the embankment. The area of embankment around the ends of
the culverts is usually paved with concrete or rock.
Projecting ends where the ends of the culvert project from the face of the embankment. Although
they are the least costly end treatment, they are hydraulically inefficient, do not meet safety
requirements and are visually objectionable.
16.8
SIPHONS
Any conduit that drops in under an obstruction such as farm roads, irrigation canal and other utilities,
and regains elevation at the downstream side of the obstruction is referred to as an siphon. Gravity
control siphon has inverted bottom and, therefore, the siphon contains full water even when there is
no flow. A siphon may have gates or may be without any gate, which can be used to control the flow
and operating conditions.
March 2009
16-29
COLLECT DATA
COLLECT DATA
TRYTRY
CULVERT
CULVERT SIZE
SIZE D D
TRY CULVERT SIZE D
CALC. TW
TW
CALC. TW
CALC. HW
HWi i
CALC. HWi
Yes
IS TW>D
IS TW>D
No
CALC. hcc
CALC. hc
IS
IS hcc>D
IS hc>D
No
h +D
>TW
IS c
2
Yes
Yes
ho = hc + D
2
hc = D
hc = D
HWO=HO + H -SO L
HWO=HO + H -SO L
Yes
IS HWo>HWi
No
ho = TW
ho = TW
CALC. H FOR OUTLET

CALC.
H FOR OUTLET
CONTROL
CONTROL
HW=HWo
(OUTLET CONTROL)
No
HW=HWi
(INLET CONTROL)
IS HW
IS HW
ACCEPTABLE
ACCEPTABLE
?
?
No
INCREASE SIZE AND/OR NUMBER

AND/OR
NUMBER
OFINCREASE
CULVERT SIZE
CELLS;
REPEAT
OF CULVERT
DESIGN
STEPS CELLS; REPEAT
DESIGN STEPS
Yes
CHECK FOR
SMALLER D
CALC. OUTLET
CALC.
OUTLET
VELOCITY
VELOCITY
IS
OUTLETISVEL.
OUTLET VEL.
ACCEPTABLE
ACCEPTABLE
?
?
No
CONSIDER OPTIONS:
SCOUR PROTECTION
ENERGY
DISSIPATOR
IF CHANGE OF CULVERT SIZE,

REPEAT DESIGN STEPS
Yes
HWi HEADWATER FOR INLET CONTROL
CHECK FOR LARGER Q

CHECK FOR LARGER Q
HWo HEADWATER FOR OUTLET CONTROL
ADOPT DESIGN AND

ADOPT
DESIGN AND
RECORD
CALCULATIONS
RECORD CALCULATIONS
Figure 16.32
16-30
Flow Chart for Culvert Design and Analyses (DID, 2000)
March 2009
16.8.1
Types of Siphons
Siphons can be single or multi-barrel and consist of an entrance section, drop, depressed reach, rise,
and outlet structure. Siphons require hydraulic head to operate properly and the adequacy of
available head should be assessed early in the design process. Siphons can be simple or
sophisticated and the related design effort can be nominal or complex. The following examples
apply to large, sophisticated siphons with multiple appurtenances some or which may not always
be necessary.
16.8.2
Design Procedure
Specific design of a siphon varies depending on the arrangement of the piping systems, existence of
gates, etc. However, the following general steps can be followed for the design and analysis of
siphon, while the specific descriptions for single and double barrel siphons are given in Sections
16.7.2.1 and 16.7.2.2.
The design of siphon has many similarities to the design of culverts. However, the main differences
are that siphons are usually designed for full pipe flow and minimum head loss. The general design
considerations are:
According to the USBR, pipe velocities at design discharge should be between 1 and 3 m/s (3.5
and 10 fps). The most common design velocity being 2.5 m/s. Usually small velocities are
preferred for the small siphons.
Total head loss is the sum of inlet, outlet, pipe and minor losses. Divergence loss at the exit is
significantly higher than the convergence loss at the entrance. Most of the losses is due to the
pipe friction.
A hydraulic jump in the descending part of the siphon (upstream side) will greatly increase the
head loss and may cause problems of surging and "blow-back". Blow-back occurs when air is
entrained in the water due to a hydraulic jump in the pipeline or due to movement of a hydraulic
jump within the pipe; water and air periodically surge backwards through the inlet. Blow-back is
more problematic in siphons with relatively flat descending (upstream) slopes
The hydraulic seal is the minimum required upstream head, relative to the upper edge of the
siphon inlet, to prevent the entrainment of air into the siphon (Figure 16.33).
hydraulic
Hydraulicseal
seal
Siphon inlet siphon in
let
Figure 16.33 Hydraulic Seal for Prevention of Air Entrainment in Siphon

16.8.2.1
Single-Barrel Siphons
Single-barrel siphons can be used for conveying flows where there are periods of no flow during
which maintenance can be provided. Even though some agencies limit the slope of the rising leg of
the siphon to 15%, steeper slopes and even vertical drops and risers are acceptable, if maintenance
chambers with debris collection sumps at the bottom are provided at the drop and riser of the
siphon.
Sloping legs of siphons are designed without maintenance chambers; however, the chambers
provide maintenance flexibility with direct access to service the siphon (Figure 16.34). The steeper
March 2009
16-31
the legs of the siphon, the more difficult it is to clean the siphon from shallow manholes located near
the ground surface. Deep maintenance chambers reaching to barrel inverts may be required.
Rive
r
Flow
Where a vertical drop and riser are provided, they should serve as maintenance chambers and
include access down to the barrels and sumps. Sumps located at the bottom of the maintenance
chambers trap the debris that accumulates in the siphon.
Inlet Chamber
Outlet Chamber
Manhole Frame and Cover

Removable Precast Concrete Slabs
a) Plan
Outlet Chamber
Inlet Chamber
Water Level
Concrete Encasement
b) Profile
Figure 16.34 Single Barrel Siphon (Engineering News, 1916)
16.8.2.2
Multi-Barrel Siphons
In channels or sewers that convey a continuous flow, where one barrel does not have sufficient
capacity and the flow has to be divided or where redundancy is required by local agencies, the multibarrel siphon is used. Where redundancy is required for maintenance purposes, one additional equal
capacity barrel is sufficient. To fulfil its functions, the multi-barrel siphon requires equipment and
structure, including gates that close the barrel to be maintained while the other barrel is open
(Figure 16.35).
Special structure may also include a flow distribution chamber and a flow adapter chamber. These
chambers are used to contract and expand the flows. The distribution chamber serves to direct the
flow from one sewer to the two barrels of the siphon alternatively used, while the flow adapter
chamber serves to direct the flow from the two barrels siphon to one conduit.
One of the critical criteria for the design of siphons is the maintenance of self-cleansing velocities
under widely varying flow conditions (ASCE, 1969). Siphons used for conveying storm water are
usually designed for a velocity of 0.9 m/s for a 5-year return interval design flow. Siphons with
water containing abrasive suspended materials should be designed for a flow velocity of less than 3
m/s.
The head losses through each of the siphon components must be estimated for the purpose of
plotting the hydraulic grade line. Upstream surcharging should be avoided and therefore one of the
main design objectives should be to minimise the head losses through the siphon. The friction losses
can be estimated by using the combined Darcy-Weisbach - Manning equation as shown in Eq. 16.24
(in metric units).
16-32
March 2009
hl =
19 . 5 n 2 LV
r4
/3
(16.24)
2g
where,
hl = lead loss (m)
n = Mannings friction factor
L = length of conduit (m)
r = hydraulic radius (m)
V = velocity (m/s)
g = acceleration of gravity (m/s2)
1.5 m Circular Reinforced Concrete
(Storm) Pipes
1.4 m x 1.2 m Reinforced Concrete Overflow
400 mm Cl Bypass
Old 1.6 m x 1.2 m Sewer
Dam Oulet Chamber
Dam Intake Chamber
Cleanout Chamber
400 mm Cl (Dry Weather) Pipe
Cleanout Chamber
a) Plan
Cleanout Manhole
B
1.4 m x 1.2 m Reinforced Concrete Overflow
A
B
Subway Structure
Cleanout Manhole
A
1.5 m Circular
Storm Pipes
400 mm CI
New 600 mm Sewer
Two Circular Reinforced Concrete

400 mm Cl (Dry Weather) Pipe
400 mm Cl
Section A-A
Section B-B
b) Longitudinal Section
Figure 16.35 Multi - Barrel Siphon (Engineering News, 1916)
It should be noted that head losses in siphons can be significant, particularly in flat coastal areas,
where the low terrain does not allow for surcharge and the available project corridor is narrow. The
size of the barrel or conduit can be determined initially based on the minimum required flow velocity.
However, the barrel can be sized accurately only after the hydraulic losses are estimated. If the
head loss under the design flow condition is excessive, increases in the size of the conduit should be
considered.
16.9
AQUEDUCTS
An aqueduct is a cross-drainage structure, usually constructed where the drainage flood level is
below the irrigation canal invert level. Small drains may be taken under the irrigation canal and
banks by a culvert; whereas in the case of river crossing or wide depressed area, it may be
economical to use flume in the canal over the river using a trough (Figure 16.36). The aqueduct may
convey either the irrigation or drainage water to and from the field, respectively.
March 2009
16-33
16.9.1
Types of Aqueducts
The aqueducts can be classified in terms of the purpose (either to convey irrigation or drainage
water), flow condition (free flow or submerged) and according to the type of structure. Depending
on the sides of the structure, aqueduct is classified into three categories:
Type I Aqueduct with earthen bund with complete earthen slopes (Figure 16.37b)
Type II Aqueduct with earthen bund supported by concrete or masonry wall (Figure
16.37c)
Type III Full concrete or masonry (Figure 16.37d)
(a) Open
(b) Underground
Figure 16.36 Examples of Aqueducts for Irrigation
Road
Canal
F.S.L
Canal
Drain
Culvert
Length
Drain
Bank Connections
(a) Plan
Road
H.F.L
Length of
Aqueduct
Culvert Length
(b) Type I Full Earthen Sides

Road
F.S.L
Canal
F.S.L
Canal
H.E.L.
H.E.L
Culvert length
Culvert length
Drain
Drain
(c) Type II Earthen Canal with Concrete Support
(d) Type III Full Concrete or Masonry
Figure 16.37 Various Types of Aqueducts
16-34
March 2009
Selection of the type of aqueduct depends on several factors such as crossing length, flow velocity,
topography, flow condition, etc. In short, Type I is economical and suitable for small systems. Type
II is suitable for medium size conveyance system with non-eroding velocity and limited land. Type III
is mostly suitable for large systems and high velocity.
16.9.2
Design Procedure
The aqueducts can be designed for free surface flow and submerged (siphon) condition. The design
and analysis of an aqueduct should be hydraulically and structurally safe and sound. The following
steps can be followed for the design and analysis of aqueducts:
Determination of maximum water level based on the design flow and freeboard (using
Chezys or Mannings formula).
Determination of uplift pressure on the aqueduct floor due to the submerged flow condition
of the underpassing conveyance system.
Design of abutments for smooth conveyance and reduced energy loss.
16.10
DROP STRUCTURES
Vertical drop structures are for controlled transitions for energy dissipation in steep channels where
riprap or other energy dissipation structures are not cost effective. Drop structures in open channels
change the channel slope from steep to mild by combining a series of gentle slopes and vertical
drops (Figure 16.38). Flow velocities are reduced to non-erosive velocities, while the kinetic energy
or flow velocity gained by the water as it drops over the crest of each spillway is dissipated by an
apron or stilling basin.
terrain
Terrain level
yo
canal
top level
level
Canal bank
bank top
Aerated
Aerated
canal
bed
Canal
bed
canal
Canaldrop
drop
D=
B y1
yp
Ld
(a) Schematic Profile
q2 gh
D= 3
gh
C
h
q2
y2
(b) Section with Hydraulic Terms (Chow, 1959)

Figure 16.38 Locations of the Drops
16.10.1
Types of Drop Structures
The two most common vertical open channel drops are the straight drop structure and the box inlet
drop structure (Figure 16.39).
16.10.2
Design Procedure
Drop structures should be constructed of concrete because of the forces involved; however, riprap or
gabion stilling basins may be used where physical, economics and other conditions permit.
Open channel drop structures generally require aerated nappes and subcritical flow conditions at
both the upstream and downstream sections of the drop. The stilling basin can vary from a simple
March 2009
16-35
concrete apron to baffle blocks or sills as described previously. The flow geometry at such drops can
be described by the drop number, D N , which is defined (Chow, 1959) as:
DN =
q2
(16.25)
gh 3
where,
q
= discharge per unit width of crest overfall (m3/s/m)
= height of drop (m)
The drop functions are:

L
h
yp
h
= 4.30 D N
= 1.00 D N
0.27
(16.26a)
0.22
(16.26b)
y1
0.425
= 0.54 D N
h
(16.26c)
y2
0.425
= 1.66 D N
h
(16.26d)
where,
L d = drop length (m)
y p = pool depth under the nappe (m)
y 1 = the depth of the toe of nappe (m)

y 2 = tailwater depth sequent to y1 (m)
(a) Straight Drop Structure
(b) Box Drop Structure
Figure 16.39 Typical Drop Structures for Open Channel

For a given drop height, h , and discharge, q, the drop length, L d , and the sequent depth, y 2 , can be
estimated by Equations 16.26(a) and 16.26(d), respectively. The length of the jump can be
estimated by certain techniques. If the tailwater is less than y 2 , the hydraulic jump will recede
downstream. Conversely, if the tailwater is greater than y 2 , the jump will be submerged. If the
tailwater is equal to y 2, no supercritical flow exists on the apron and the distance L d is minimum.
16-36
March 2009
When the tailwater depth is less than y 2 , it is necessary (according to the US DOT, 1983) to provide
either (1) an apron at the bed level and a sill or baffles, or (2) an apron below the downstream bed
level and an end sill.
The choice of types and dimensions depend on the unit discharge, q, drop height, h , and tailwater
depth, TW . The design should take into consideration the geometry of the undisturbed flow. If the
spillway (overflow crest) length is less than the width of the approach channel, the approach channel
must be designed properly to reduce the effect of the end contractions to avoid scour. The two most
common vertical open channel drops are the straight drop structure and the box inlet drop structure.
16.10.1.1 Straight Drop Structure
McLaughlin Water Engineers (1983) provides specific criteria and reviews the design considerations
related to the hydraulic, geotechnical and structural design of drop structures. Figure 16.40 shows
the layout of a typical straight drop structure and hydraulic design criteria developed by US Soil
Conservation Service.
16.10.1.2 Box Drop Structure
The box drop structure is a rectangular box open at the top and downstream end as shown in
Figure 16.41. Water is directed to the crest of the box inlet by earth dikes and a headwall. The
width of the structure should not be greater than the downstream channel. Box inlet drop structures
are applicable to drops from 0.6 to 3.6 m.
Design data and criteria for these structures, based on US Soil Conservation Services and St.
Anthony Falls Hydraulics Laboratory, are available (US DOT, 1983; Blaisdell and Donnely, 1956).
The parameters to consider for the hydraulic design of the drop are:
section (length) of the crease of the box inlet
opening of the headwalls
discharge, discharge coefficients, and flow regime changes
box inlet length and depth
minimum length and width of stilling basin
16.11
ENERGY DISSIPATORS
Energy dissipation structures act as transitions, which reduce high flow velocities that may exist
under a range of flows. Energy dissipators localise hydraulic jumps and act as stilling basins. The
use of energy dissipators is very common downstream of hydraulic structures where common
channel protection cannot be used alone because of potential damage. If riprap or other protection
is used for energy dissipation, it should be confined in a basin and secured in place with grout or
mesh.
Energy dissipators are required in the immediate vicinity of hydraulic structures where high impact
loads, erosive forces and severe scour are expected. In other words, they are usually required
where the flow regime changes from supercritical to subcritical or where the flow is supercritical and
the tractive forces or flow velocities are higher than the maximum allowable values. The basic
hydraulic parameter that identifies the flow regime and is used in connection with energy dissipators
in general and with hydraulic jump dissipators in particular, is the Froude number.
The Froude number is a ratio of the flow velocity and wave celerity. In rectangular channels, the
equation may be rewritten in the following form:
F2 =
1 Q 2
B g dm 3
(16.27)
where,
March 2009
16-37
B = width of channel (m)

Q = discharge (m3/s)
g
d m = hydraulic mean depth (m)

M
1
2
h
Sidewall
Wing Wall
J
S + 300 mm
F+S
s=h/3
C (1200 mm Minimum)
h
4
(1200 mm Minimum) T
150 mm Fillets
a) Section on Centreline
150 mm
Headwall
Extension
h
Headwall
Wing Wall
45
g
de
Symmetrical
about CL
m
m
30
22 0 m
5 m
m
m
Transverse
Sill
Level Area
e
op
Sl
8
82
2.
0)
1.
s(J
100 mm
1
8:
82
2.
Fo
ot
in
g
9j
73
0.
Longitudinal
Sills
10
0
Apron
Footing
2:1 Slope
b) Downstream Elevation
c) Plan
E = Minimum length of headwall extension = [3h+0.61] or [1.5F] whichever is greater
J = Height of wing wall and sidewall at junction = [2h] or
whichever is greater
h
LB = Length of basin = F 2.28
+ 0. 52
F
M = [2 (F+ 1.3 h-J)]
[(
)]
[F+h+s- ( L
B+
0.13
2
)] or [t+1]
K = [(L B + 0.13)- M]
c) Criteria
Figure 16.40 Typical Drop Spillway and Some Hydraulic Design Criteria (SCS, 1954).
16-38
March 2009
Toe of Dike
60 > 0 > 45
W4
W1
W2
W3
Headwall
1
Z
(a) Plan
L1
L2
L3
Free Flow
yo
h3 =
ho
y
h4 = 3
6
1
1
h2
y3
3
y3
(b) Section on Centreline
Figure 16.41 Box Drop Structure (US DOT, 1983)

The primary difference between energy dissipators in general and drop structures is that the former
are used to reduce high velocities at critical locations by hydraulic jumps, while the latter are vertical
structures used for controlling velocities in channel reaches by reducing channel slopes. Because of
various appurtenances (such as sills, baffles and weirs) and due to variations in the geometry of
stilling basins, a wide variety of energy dissipators may be used.
16.11.1
Types of Dissipators
Energy dissipating structures can be classified into three main categories (Figure 16.42), which are
discussed in the following sections:
Stilling Basin
Riprap Basin
Head-walls
16.11.2
Design Procedure
Stilling basin is the most common type of energy dissipating hydraulic structure used for irrigation
and drainage facilities. Summarised design criteria for stilling basin dissipators are given in
Table 16.2, which may be used for preliminary identification of alternative types of energy
March 2009
16-39
dissipators. Because of the great variety and combination of types of energy dissipators and
appurtenances, the designer should review available references in sufficient detail to arrive at a
design that is suitable for specific field conditions.
(a) Stilling Basin
(b) Riprap Basin
(c) Head-wall
Figure 16.42 Major Types of Hydraulic Energy Dissipator

Table 16.2
Dissipator Type
Froude
Number
F
Dissipator Criteria (US DOT, 1983)

Allowable Debris
Silt and
Sand
Boulders
Floating
Tailwater
TW
Special
Considerations
Free Hydraulic
Jump
>1
Required
CSU Rigid
Boundary
< 3
Tumbling Flow
>1
4% < So < 25%
Increased
Resistance
Check Outlet
Control HW
USBR Type II
4 to 14
Required
USBR Type III
4.5 to 17
Required
UBSR Type IV
2.5 to 4.5
Required
SAF
1.7 to 17
Required
Contra Cost
<3
< 0.5 D
Hook
1.8 to 3
USBR Type VI
Desirable
Q < 11 m3/s,
V < 15 m/s
Forest Service
Desirable
y < 900 mm
Drop Structure
<1
Required
Drop < 5 m
Manifold
Desirable
Corps Stilling Well
Desirable
Riprap Basin
<3
Note: N = none, L = low, M = moderate, H = heavy

There are several considerations that should be included in designing hydraulic jumps and stilling
basins (Chow, 1959; US DOT, 1983):
16-40
March 2009
1. Jump Position : There are three positions or alternative patterns that allow a hydraulic jump to
form downstream of the transition in the channel. These positions are controlled by tailwater.
2. Tailwater Conditions : Tailwater fluctuations due to changes in discharge complicate the design
procedure. They should be taken into account by classification of tailwater conditions using
tailwater and hydraulic jump rating curves.
3. Jump Types : Various types of hydraulic jumps that may occur are summarised in Figure 16.43.
Oscillating jumps in a Froude number range of 2.5 to 4.5 are best avoided unless specially
designed wave suppressers are used to reduce wave impact.
The greater the Froude number, the higher is the effect of tailwater on the jump. Therefore, for a
Froude number as low as 8, the tailwater depth should be greater than the sequent depth
downstream of the jump so that the jump will stay on the apron. When the Froude number is
greater than 10, the common stilling basin dissipator may not be as cost-effective as a special bucket
type dissipator (see Peterka, 1958).
Jumps can be controlled by several types of appurtenances such as sills, chute blocks and baffle
piers. The purpose of a sill located at the end of a stilling basin is to induce jump formation and to
control its position under most probable operating conditions. Sharp crested or broad crested weirs
can be used to stabilise and control the jump.
Oscillating Jet
Roller
F1 = 1 - 1.7 Undular Jump
F1 = 2.5 - 4.5 Oscillating Jump

F1 > 9.0 Strong Jump
F1 = 4.5 - 9.0 Steady Jump
F1 = 1.7 - 2.5 Weak Jump
L 5
y2
3
0
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
F1 = V1 / gy1
Figure 16.43 Lengths and Types of Hydraulic Jumps in Horizontal Channels (Chow, 1959)
Chute blocks are used at the entrance to the stilling basin. Their function is to furrow the incoming
jet and lift a portion of it from the floor, producing a shorter length of jump than would occur
without them. Baffle piers are blocks placed in intermediate positions across the basin floor for
dissipating energy mostly by direct impact action. They are useful for small structures with low flow
velocities. High flow velocities may result in cavitation action on the piers and basin floor
downstream.
March 2009
16-41
The following three major categories of basins are used for a range of hydraulic conditions. Design
details can be found in the AASHTO Drainage Handbook (1987), Chow (1959) and US DOT (1983).
The UBSR Stilling Basin II: This basin (Figure 16.44) is recommended for use with jumps with
Froude numbers greater than 4.5 at large spillways and channels. This basin may reduce the
length of the jump by a third and is used for high-dam and earth-dam spillways. Appurtenances
used in this basin include chute blocks at the upstream end of the basin and a dentated still at
the downstream end. No baffle piers are used in this basin because of the cavitation potential.
The UBSR Stilling Basin IV: This basin, shown in Figure 16.45, is used where jumps are imperfect
or where oscillating waves occur with Froude numbers between 2.5 4.5. This design reduces
excessive waves by eliminating the wave at its source through deflection of directional jets using
chute blocks. When a horizontal stilling basin is constructed without appurtenances, the length of
the basin is made equal to the length of the jump.
Dentated Sill
0.02 D 2
Chute Blocks
D1 /2
S 1 = D1
w1= D 1
0
S 2 = 0.15 D 2
S 2 = 0.15 D 2
h 2 = 0.2 D 2
h1= D1
Slope = 2:1
Figure 16.44 Typical Dimensions of the USBR Basin II (Chow, 1959)
Fractional Space
2D1 Min
w = Maximum Tooth Width D1

Space = 2.5w
Top Surface on 5-deg slope
1
Sill Optional
Figure 16.45 Typical Dimensions of the USBR Basin IV (Chow, 1959)

The SAF (St. Anthony Falls Stilling Basin): This basin, shown in Figure 16.46, is recommended
for use on small structures such as spillways and outlet works where the Froude number varies
between 1.7 and 17. The appurtenances used for this dissipator can reduce the length of the
16-42
March 2009
0 to 90 deg
45 deg Preferred
B 3 =B 1 +2L B /D'
3y
8 1
B 2 =B 1 +2L B /3D'
B2
B1
n 2 at 0.75 y
n 1 at 0.75 y1 _
Aggregate
0.40 B < Block Width < 0.55 B
0.37 y 1 +
_
B1
3y
8 1
LB
L /3
'+
0.37 1y+ _
basin by approximately 80%. This design has great potential in irrigation and agricultural
drainage systems due to its applicability to small structures.
(a) Rectangular Stilling Basin Half-plan

Side Wall
z
y1
y 2'
Varies
Chute Blocks
y1
Floor Blocks
Z1
Varies
End Sill
Cut-off Wall
(b) Trapezoidal Stilling Basin Elevation
Side Wall
Wing Wall
Top Slope is 1:1
y'+Z
2
B 3 =B 1 +2L B /D'
Varies
Trapezoidal Stilling Basin Rectangular Stilling Basin

Downstream Section
(c) Centreline Section
Figure 16.46 Typical Dimensions of the SAF Basin (Chow, 1959)
March 2009
16-43
16.11.2.1
Riprap Basin
The most commonly used energy dissipators are riprap basins. Their advantages include simplicity,
low cost and wide application. The riprap placed in the basin must be inspected and repaired, if
necessary, after major storms. The median stone diameter can be estimated based on the exit
velocity of the pipe or culvert as shown in McLaughlin Water Engineers (1986) and the AASHTO
Drainage Handbook (1987). The length of the basin is estimated based on the width or diameter of
the conduit. The depth of the basin is based on the median stone diameter.
Apron
5hS or Wo Min
Note A
Dissipator Pool
10 D S or 3 Wo Min
300 mm Free
Board Minimum
Top of Berm
Top of Riprap
Top of Natural Channel
Note B
hs
y
T
Horizontal
2d 50 or
1.5d Max
3d 50 or 2d Max
1.5 Min
2d 50 or
1.5d Max
Thickened or sloping Toe optional Construct if downstream channel

degradation is anticipated
(a) Centreline Section

B
Wo
2
2:1
2:1
2:1
2:1
ate
roxim f
p
p
A
o
Edge r
e
t
a
W
1
3
Horizontal
2:1
No Rip
t S rap
ho
wn
Culvert
Note B
Berm rap
p
of Ri
Top
Apron
Symmetrical About
Centre Line
(b) Half-plan
Note B
hS
2d50 or 1.5d Max
Natural Channel
Sec C-C
Sec A-A
2d50 or 1.5dMax
Sec B-B
Excavate to this line

backfill with Riprap
Berm as required
to Support Riprap
Excavate to this Line

Backfill With Riprap
Wo
2
2d 50 or 1.5d Max
Berm as required
to Support Riprap
Sec D-D
Figure 16.47 Typical Riprap Basin: W 0 = diameter for pipe culvert, barrel width for box culvert or
span of pipe-arch culvert (US Federal Highway Administration, 1983)
16-44
March 2009
The following points should be considered for Figure 16.47:

If a maximum allowable exit velocity, Ve , from the basin is specified, extend the basin as required
to obtain sufficient cross-sectional area at section A-A (i.e. AA-A = Q/Ve ) for a specified velocity.
Warp the basin to conform to the natural stream channel. The top of the riprap in the basin floor
should be at the same elevation or lower than the natural channel bottom at section A-A.
16.11.2.2 Headwall
Another simple type of energy dissipator that can be used at culvert outlets is an energy dissipating
headwall. Three typical headwalls are shown in Figures 16.48 to 16.50.
Conduit
300 mm 300 mm 300 mm
300 mm 300 mm 300 mm

R8 Re-bar
100 mm
100 mm
600 mm
Headwall
100 mm
300 mm Square Solid Concrete Block Formed

and Poured in Place, Reinforced by
R8 Re-bars Dispersed Every 100 mm Throughout
750
600
600
(b) Side Elevation
(a) Plan
Figure 16.48 Standard Energy Dissipating Headwall Type I (DID, 2000)
NOTE:
Height of Energy Dissipators
should be 0.5 D
Headwall
600 mm
Pipe
300 mm
R8 at 300 mm
Centres
y
0 .5
m
600
300 mm Minimum
Figure
16.49
Headwall,Type
Type
II (ASCE, 1992)
Figure
16.49Standard
StandardEnergy
Energy Dissipating
Dissipating Headwall,
II (ASCE,
March 2009
16-45
0.5D
D
0.25D
R8 at 300 mm Centres
(a) Front Elevation
R8 200 mm Centres
Precast Concrete
150 mm
0.25D
450 mm
50 mm
200 mm
0.5D
0.67D
25 mm Minimum
(b) Side Elevation
Figure 16.50 Standard Energy Dissipating Headwall, Type III (ASCE, 1992)
Several aspects of outfall design must be given serious consideration. These include the flowline or
invert elevation of the proposed drain outlet, tailwater elevations, the need for energy dissipation
and the orientation of the outlet structure. Depending on the size and discharge capacity, most of
the outfalls can be protected by ripraps, stilling basins, headwalls, gates and pumps.
16.12
GATES
Gates and valves generally serve either to control the rate of flow or to start/stop flow. The gates
and valves can be subjected to low or high pressure depending on the conveyance system. The
gates are also used to control backwater effect due to high water level in the downstream side due
to tide or flood.
Gates are typically used in channels of in hydraulic structures to start, control and stop flow. Due to
the time required to operate the gates, they may not be convenient for controlling flow when rapid
response, frequent variations or delicate adjustments are needed.
Valves are used either to control (throttle) flow or start/stop flow through pipes and closed conduits.
The valves should be designed such that they present minimum resistance to flow when fully open
and usually intended for infrequent operation.
16-46
March 2009
16.12.1
Types of Gates
Various kinds of gates are available in the market with detail specification from the manufacturers
(Figure 16.51). However, the main expectations are water tightness, easy installation and operation,
free from failure, minimum hoist capacity, etc. The most commonly used gates can be classified
according the following categories:
Material steel, alloys, concrete, wood, rubber, nylon, HDPE and other synthetic materials;
Position crest gates, high head (submerged);
Function service, maintenance and emergency cases;
Mode of operation regulating and non-regulating;
Pressure transmission to piers or abutments, to the sill and combination of other parts of
the structure;
Motion rotary, translatory (vertical or horizontal), rolling, floating, along or across flow
direction; and
Operation manual, electrical, mechanical, hydraulic and water level.
(a) Vertical Gate
(b) Flap Gate
(C) Radial Gate
Figure 16.51 Examples of Gates for Irrigation and Drainage Applications

16.12.2
Design Procedure
Gates and valves usually designed and manufactured by the industries and their installation and
commission, including the rating for discharge are provided by the supplier. The design
considerations for individual type of gate or valve may vary significantly. Therefore, standard detail
design of such mechanical hydraulic devices is not practical and not provided in this Manual.
However, the basic design and selection criteria are briefly mentioned below.
Primary design considerations when using gates are the type of gate fabrication and the installation
and operating conditions. Most commonly used gates are designed to stop flow in a single direction.
They may use upstream water pressure (seating head) to assist in achieving a seal but it also must
be designed to resist static water pressure from the downstream site (unseating head). The seating
and unseating head is expressed as the pressure relative to the centre line of the gate.
16.13
OUTFALL STRUCTURES
The discharge point or outfall (outlet), from an agricultural field can be either filed drain (for
irrigation) or natural river or stream, an existing or proposed drain and a pond or wetland (for
drainage purpose). The procedure for calculating the hydraulic grade line through an irrigation
drainage system begins at the outfall. Therefore, consideration of the outfall conditions is an
important part of the drainage system. The main purpose of an outfall structure is the protection of
the receiving waterbody from scouring and erosion. A properly designed outlet structure should be
stable and can even prevent backwater effect on the irrigation and drainage system.
March 2009
16-47
16.13.1
Types of Outfalls
The most common outfalls are culverts (for open channel) and pipe (for subsurface drains).
However, it can be a weir or flume to measure the flow from the main irrigation canal to the fields.
Two different types of outlet arrangements are shown in Figure 16.52.
Berm
FILL
MATERIAL
Berm
Seal
Non-perforated
drain
Filter material
(a) Inclined
Anti-seepage collar
Filter material
Rock riprap or
equivalent
(b) Horizontal
Figure 16.52 Typical Pipe Outfall for a Drainage System

16.13.2
Design Procedure
The most important criteria of designing an outlet structure is its stability and protection from
erosion and scouring. The flow rate, velocity, apron size, side slopes of the receiving waterbody,
tailwater level, construction materials, etc. should be considered in the design and analysis of an
outlet structure. There may be instances in which an excessive tailwater causes flow to back up the
agricultural drainage system, creating unexpected and perhaps hazardous flooding conditions. The
potential for this to occur should be considered. Flap gates placed at the outlet can sometimes
alleviate this condition; otherwise, it may be necessary to isolate the drainage canal from the outfall
by use of a pump station, especially at low-lying areas.
The tailwater depth or elevation in the storm drain outfall must be considered carefully. Evaluation
of the hydraulic grade line for a storm drainage system begins at the system outfall with the
tailwater elevation. For most design applications, the tailwater will either be above the crown of the
outlet or can be considered to be between the crown and critical depth of the outlet. The tailwater
may also occur between the critical depth and the invert of the outlet; however, the starting point
for the hydraulic grade line determination should be either the design tailwater elevation, or (dc +
D)/2, whichever is higher.
An exception to the above rule would be for a very large outfall with low tailwater where a water
surface profile calculation would be required to determine the location where the water surface will
intersect the top of the barrel and full flow calculations can begin. In this case, the downstream
water surface elevation would be based on critical depth or the design tailwater elevation, whichever
was higher. If the outfall channel is a river or stream, it may be necessary to consider the joint or
coincidental probability of two hydrologic events occurring at the same time to adequately determine
the elevation of the tailwater in the receiving stream.
The orientation of the outfall is another important design consideration. Where practical, the outlet
of the irrigation canal or drain should be positioned in the outfall channel so that it is pointed in a
downstream direction. This will reduce turbulence and the potential for excessive erosion. If the
outfall structure cannot be oriented in a downstream direction, the potential for outlet scour must be
considered. For example, where a storm drain outfall discharges perpendicular to the direction of
flow of the receiving channel, care must be taken to avoid erosion on the opposite channel bank. If
erosion potential exists, a channel bank lining of riprap or other suitable material should be installed
on the bank. Alternatively, an energy dissipator structure could be used at the storm drain outlet.
16-48
March 2009
When the flow velocity at a conduit outlet exceeds the maximum permissible velocity for the local
soil or channel lining, channel protection is required. This protection usually consists of an erosion
resistant reach, such as riprap, between the outlet and the stable downstream channel to provide a
stable reach at the outlet in which the exit velocity is reduced to a velocity allowable in the
downstream channel. The design of such protection is normally based on a 20-year design runoff
event.
If protection is needed at the outlet, a horizontal (zero slope) apron must be provided.
a)
Apron Dimensions
The length of an apron (La) is determined using the following empirical relationships that were
developed for the US Environmental Protection Agency (1976):
La =
3.26Q
Do
3/2
+ 7D o
for TW < Do/2
(16.28)
for TW > Do/2
(16.29)
and
La =
5.44 Q
Do
3/2
+ 7D o
where:
Do =
maximum inside culvert diameter (m)
Q =
pipe discharge (cumec)
TW =
tailwater depth (m)
Where there is no well defined channel downstream of the apron, the width, W, of the outlet and of
the apron (as shown in Figure 16.53) should be as follows:W = 3Do + 0.4L a'
for TW Do/2
(16.30)
for TW < Do/2
(16.31)
and
W = 3D o + 4L a'
The width of the apron at the culvert outlet should be at least 3 times the culvert width.
b)
On the contrary, where there is a well-defined channel downstream of the apron, the bottom
width of the apron should be at least equal to the bottom width of the channel and the lining
should extend at least one foot above the tailwater elevation and at least two-thirds of the
vertical conduit dimension above the invert.
The side slopes should be 2:1 or flatter.
The bottom grade should be level.
There should be an overfall at the end of the apron or culvert.

Apron Materials
The median stone diameter, d50 is determined from the following equation:
d50 =
March 2009
0.066(Q) 4 / 3
TW(D o )
(16.32)
16-49
Do
Flow
Do
3Do
Flow
0.1
2
L
W = 3D o + 0.4L a
( Tailwater > 0.5Do )
3Do
La
W = 3D o + 0.4L a
( Tailwater < 0.5D o )
Figure 16.53 Apron Dimensions for Various Tailwater Conditions (USEPA, 1976)
Existing scour holes may be used where flat aprons are impractical. Figure 16.54 shows the general
design of a scour hole.
Figure 16.54 Example of Scour Hole (ASCE, 1975)

The stone diameter is determined using the following equations:
16-50
March 2009
d50 =
0.041(Q) 4 / 3
for Y = Do/2
TW(Do )
(16.33)
d50 =
0.027(Q) 4 / 3
for Y = Do
TW(Do )
(16.34)
also
where Y = depth of scour hole below culvert invert.
March 2009
16-51
REFERENCES
AASHTO (1987). Drainage Handbook. American Association of State Highway and Transportation
Officials, Washington DC.
American Society of Civil Engineers, ASCE (1992). Design and Construction of Urban Stormwater
Management Systems. Manual and Report of Engineering Practice, No. 77, New York.
ASCE (1969). Design and Construction of Sanitary and Storm Sewers. Manual and Reports on
Engineering Practice No. 37, American Society of Civil Engineers, New York.
ASCE (1975). Sedimentation Engineering, Manual and Reports on Engineering Practice No. 54.
American Society of Civil Engineers, New York.
Blaisdell F.W. and Donnelly C.A. (1956). The Box Inlet Drop Spillway and Its Outlet. Trans. American
Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), New York, 121, pp. 955-986.
Collinge V.D. (1957). The Discharge Capacity of Side Weirs. Proceedings, Institute of Civil Engineers,
London, England, 6 (2).
DID (2000). Urban Stormwater Management Manual for Malaysia (MSMA). Department of Irrigation
and Drainage, Ministry of Agriculture, Malaysia.
FAO (1996). Drainage of Irrigated Lands, Irrigation Water Management. Training Manual 9. Food and
Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations, Rome, Italy.
FHWA (1972). Hydraulic Design of Improved Inlets for Culverts. Hydraulic Engineering Circular No.
13, US Federal Highway Administration Washington DC.
Frazer W. (1957). The Behaviour of Side Weirs in Prismatic Rectangular Channels. Institute of Civil
Engineers, London, England, 6(2).
Hager W.H. (1987). Later Outflow over Side Weirs. Journal of Hydraulic Engineering, 113 (4).
ISCO (1998). ISCO Open Channel Flow Measurement Handbook 5th Edition.
Mays L.W. (2001). Water Resources Engineering. John Wiley & Sons Inc.
Metcalf & Eddy Inc. (1972). Wastewater Engineering. Collection, Treatment, Disposal, McGraw-Hill
Book Company, New York.
Peterka A.J. (1958). Hydraulic Design of Stilling Basins and Energy Dissipators. Engineering
Monograph No. 25, U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, Denver CO, Reclamation, Washington DC.
USBR (1987). The Design of Small Dam. 3rd Edition, U.S. Department of Interior, Bureau of
Reclamation Washington DC.
USBR (1997). The Water Measurement Manual. 3rd Edition, U.S. Department of Interior, Bureau of
Reclamation, Washington DC.
US DOT (1983). Hydraulic Design of Energy Dissipators for Culverts and Channels. Hydraulic
Engineering Circular No. 14, US Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration,
Washington DC.
USEPA (1976). Erosion and Sediment Control Surface Mining in the Eastern U.S. EPA-625/3-76-006.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington DC.
Wahl T.L. (2005). WinFlume - Software for design and calibration of long-throated flumes and broadcrested weirs. IRRISOFT software descriptions and reviews. http://www.irrisoft.org/
16-52
March 2009
APPENDIX 16.A Design of Sharp-crested Weir
Problem:
Determine the total flow capacity of the multi-stage sharp-crested weir shown in the Figure below:
1200
400
600
200
H1
H2
H3
150
50
Figure 16.A1 Schematic of the Multi-stage Sharp-crested Weir

Solution:
Step (1)
Analyse the composite section to determine equivalent segments of individual weir
Total discharge capacity of the multi-level weir can be determined assuming three hypothetical weirs
of height H1 (0.40 m) H2 (0.60 m) and H3 (0.65 m) having effective width of 0.60 m (B1), 0.45 m (B2)
and 0.15 m (B3), respectively.
Step (2)
Determine the discharge coefficient using the following equations
C SCW1 = 1.81 + 0.22(H1 / HC1 ) = 1.81 + 0.22(0.40 / 1.75) = 1.860

C SCW 2 = 1.81 + 0.22(H2 / HC 2 ) = 1.81 + 0.22(0.60 / 1.55) = 1.895
C SCW 3 = 1.81 + 0.22(H3 / HC 3 ) = 1.81 + 0.22(0.65 / 1.5) = 1.905
Step (3)
Determine discharge for individual hypothetical (imaginary) weir using Eq. 16.3
Q1 = CSCW1 B1 H1
1.5
Q 2 = C SCW 2 B 2 H 2
Q3 = CSCW1 B1 H1
Step (4)
= 1.860 x 0.60 x 0.401.5 = 0.282 m3/s
1.5
1.5
= 1.895 x 0.45 x 0.60 1.5 = 0.396 m3/s
= 1.905 x 0.15 x 0.651.5 = 0.150 m3/s
Calculate total discharge capacity
Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q3 = 0.282 + 0.396 + 0.150 = 0.828 m3/s

Therefore, the total discharge capacity of the multi-level sharp crested weir would be 0.828 m3/s.
March 2009
16A-1
APPENDIX 16.B Design of Broad-crested Weir using WinFlume

16.B1 Brief Description of WinFlume Software (Wahl, 2005)
WinFlume is a Windows-based computer programme providing the capability to design and calibrate
long-throated flumes and broad-crested weirs. These structures provide a practical, low-cost, flexible
means of measuring open-channel flows in new and existing irrigation systems, with distinct
advantages over other flume and weir devices. These include the lowest head loss requirement of
any critical flow device, and custom design and calibration via the computer program, which is based
on well-established hydraulic theory. This allows the design of structures that meet unique
operational and site requirements, eliminates the need for laboratory calibration and allows postconstruction calibration of structures using as-built dimensions.
In recent years long-throated flumes have become the measurement device of choice for most
applications (USBR, 1997), superseding Parshall flumes and other traditional devices. These older
devices were laboratory-calibrated, because the flow through their control sections is curvilinear. In
contrast, streamlines are essentially parallel in the control sections of long-throated flumes, making
them amenable to analysis using straightforward hydraulic theory. Significant advantages of longthroated flumes include:
Rating table uncertainty of 2% or better in the computed discharge.
Choice of throat shapes allows a wide range of discharges to be measured with good precision.
Minimal head loss needed to maintain critical flow conditions in the throat of the flume.
Ability to make field modifications and perform computer calibrations using as-built dimensions.
Economical construction and adaptability to varying site conditions.
The model used to design and calibrate long-throated flumes and broad-crested weirs is described in
Clemmens et al. (2001). Equations describing ideal flow (no losses) at critical-depth conditions are
used to obtain an initial head-discharge rating, and the rating is then modified to include head losses
due to friction, channel contraction, and channel expansion. Head losses are computed by modelling
the boundary layer developed in the flume throat or weir crest section. The model is able to
determine both the head-discharge rating of the structure and the associated modular limit (the
highest tailwater level at which critical flow occurs).
Inputs
Inputs to the programme consist of a geometric description (Figure 16.B1) of the flume or weir site
with upstream and downstream canal dimensions, hydraulic properties of the site (tailwater
conditions, flume and channel roughness characteristics, discharge ranges to be measured), design
constraints (freeboard requirements and flow measurement accuracy objectives) and information
about methods to be used for measuring the upstream head to allow computation of discharge.
The programme comes with a range of values which may be loaded from example designs provided
with the package allowing to easily familiarise with the programme before any site specific data need
to be entered. Inputs may be done either through specific input fields placed adjacent to the
particular section displayed onscreen or through selecting options from drop down menus, radio
buttons and selection boxes. All changes are applied instantly and changes are displayed graphically
onscreen showing the effects of the input changes performed. The main programme and input
screen is shown in Figure 1 above. Other input options are provided through specific screens.
Input specific explanations and recommended values are shown as an input aid when entering or
changing values. A wide range of in and output units may be pre-selected or changed during the
process and may be saved with the design. A nine step Flume Wizard provides a easy to use step by
step aid for new designs giving detailed explanations related to the particular design step. Results
may be saved and loaded for further refinement at any later stage.
16A-2
March 2009
Control
section
Gaging
station
y1
H1
H
h2
H2
h1
p1
>H1max
2.5 p1
0.7L>H 1max
to 4.5 p1
0.07L<H1min
2 to 4 H1max
Approach Converging
channel transition
y2
Throat
Diverging
transition
Tailwater
channel
Figure 16.B1 Definition Sketch of Broad-crested Weir for WinFlume

Outputs
Output from the program consists of text reports, flume drawings, rating tables and curves,
simplified rating equations determined by curve-fitting, and wall gages that indicate discharge
directly. All outputs are displayed graphically on screen as tables and graphs. The main results may
be printed out or saved to files for further processing.
16.B2 Design Example
Problem:
Using the WinFlume software, develop the rating curve of the broad-crested weir having the
following properties:
GENERAL DATA ON FLUME
Type of structure: Stationary Crest
Type of lining: Concrete - smooth
Roughness height of flume: 0.00015 m
BOTTOM PROFILE DATA
Length per section: Approach section, La = 0.45 m
Converging transition, Lb = 1.20 m
Control section, L = 0.60 m
Diverging transition, Ld = 0.0 m
Vertical dimensions: Upstream channel depth = 1.0 m
Height of sill, p1 = 0.30 m
Bed drop = 0.0 m
Diverging transition = Abrupt Expansion
APPROACH SECTION DATA
Section shape = SIMPLE TRAPEZOID
Bottom width = 0.60 m
Side slopes = 1.0:1
CONTROL SECTION DATA
Section shape = RECTANGULAR
Downstream face = Verticle
March 2009
16A-3
TAILWATER SECTION DATA

Section shape = SIMPLE TRAPEZOID
Side slopes = 1.0:1
Solution:
Click on the Flume Wizard and key in the given data according to the following steps:
Step 1: Open WinFlume and Click Flume Wizard Icon on the Tool Bar of the software. Enter
identification notes (brief description) of the project.
Step 2: Choose SI system for length, velocity and discharge.
Step 3: Select stationary crest with smooth concrete as described in the problem.
Step 4: Now edit the bottom profile of the broad-crested weir, as shown in Figure 16.B2.
Step 5: At this stage, enter the cross section shape and dimensions of the approach channel, control
section, and tailwater channel. One may proceed to the control section and tailwater channels using
the buttons in the upper right corner of the 'Cross Section Dimensions' dialog box.
Step 6: Define the discharge range for the flume and the associated tailwater levels at the flume site.
In the case of designing a new flume, one should enter the minimum and maximum discharge for
which accurate flow measurement is required. The performance of the flume will be evaluated at
these two flow rates to determine if the design is acceptable.
If one is analyzing an existing flume, enter the minimum and maximum typical flows through the
flume. It is important that reasonable values are entered, because WinFlume will attempt to draw
the water surface profile through the structure at these two discharges.
The used must also define the tailwater levels in the downstream channel. WinFlume will use this
information to verify that the flow through the flume is modular. For detailed information about
determining tailwater levels, click the button labelled 'Explain Methods'.
Figure 16.B2 Data Entry Screen in WinFlume Software
16A-4
March 2009
Step 7: Enter the minimum and maximum flow to be measured by the weir, as shown in Figure
16.B3.
Figure 16.B3 Data Screen for Minimum and Maximum Flow to be Measured
Step 8: Select the type of device will be used to measure the upstream water level and the expected
error of that device. These data are used to estimate the expected discharge measurement
uncertainty of the weir. If this is a new design, the user may also wish to adjust the allowable
measurement uncertainty at minimum and maximum flow. WinFlume will evaluate the design to
determine if the desired measurement accuracy can be obtained. There are a few options available
for the type of devices that can be selected for the head measurement (Figure 16.B.4).
Figure 16.B4 Selection of Head Measurement Device
March 2009
16A-5
Step 8: Now the user needs to enter the freeboard requirement in the upstream channel, either as
an absolute vertical distance, or as a percentage of upstream head above the flume crest. The
screen for the freeboard can be activated from the same screen as shown in Figure 16.B4. Finally
give a meaningful name of the file (with extension flm) and save in the computer..
Step 10: Click on the button for Reports and Graphs to get the output results and reports. The
most useful output is the rating curve as shown in Figure 16.B5. Rating Table can be chosen from
the same button/icon.
0.5
0.4
0.3
Head, m
0.2
0.1
0.0
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
Discharge, cu. m/s
Figure 16.B5 Example of Rating Curve Generated by WinFlume

If the entered dimensions of the broad-crested weir are not acceptable, revise the data until the
hydraulic calculations are accepted by WinFlume.
16A-6
March 2009
Part E Farm Infrastructure

Chapter 17 - Roads and Bridges
Chapter 17 ROADS AND BRIDGES
Table of Contents
List of Figures ................................................................................................................... 7-iv
17.1
GENERAL .............................................................................................................. 17-1
17.2
FARM ROADS ........................................................................................................ 17-1

17.2.1
Hierarchy. 17-1
17.2.2
Components.. 17-3
17.2.3
General Standard and Classification. 17-3
17.2.4
Unpaved Roads 17-4
17.2.5
17.2.4.1
Earthen Laterite Surfaced Roads ............................................... 17-4
17.2.4.2
Crushed Aggregate Surfaced Roads........................................... 17-5
Planning and Design Considerations 17-6

17.2.5.1
Survey Data Requirement......................................................... 17-6
17.2.5.2
Alignment Selection ................................................................. 17-7
17.2.5.3
Reserve Width ......................................................................... 17-7
17.2.5.4
Material Selection .................................................................... 17-7
17.2.5.5
Vehicle Dimensions .................................................................. 17-9
17.2.5.6
Vehicle Turning Radius............................................................. 17-9
17.2.5.7
Load Carrying Capacity............................................................. 17-9
17.2.5.8
Load and Speed Characteristics of Vehicles/Machinery ................ 17-10
17.2.5.9
Vehicle Capacity ...................................................................... 17-11
17.2.5.10 Design Flood Level................................................................... 17-11

17.2.6
17.2.7
Design Procedure for Earthen Laterite Surfaced Roads. 17-11

17.2.6.1
Thickness Criteria .................................................................... 17-12
17.2.6.2
Soil for Subgrade Requirements ................................................ 17-12
17.2.6.3
Standard and Minimum Thickness of layers ................................ 17-12
Design Procedure for Aggregate Surfaced Roads. 17-12

17.2.7.1
Design Index........................................................................... 17-12
17.2.7.2
Thickness Criteria .................................................................... 17-13
17.2.7.3
Surface Course Requirements ................................................... 17-14
17.2.7.4
Thickness Design Nomograph ................................................... 17-15
17.2.7.5
Standard and Minimum Thickness of Layers ............................... 17-16
17.2.8
Design Procedure for Roads in Hill Slope.. 17-17
17.2.9
Geometric Standards 17-18
March 2009
17.2.9.1
Alignment ............................................................................... 17-19
17.2.9.2
Horizontal Alignment................................................................ 17-19
17.2.9.3
Vertical Alignment.................................................................... 17-19
17.2.9.4
Sight Distance ......................................................................... 17-20
17.2.9.5
Stopping Sight Distance ........................................................... 17-20
17.2.9.6
Curves .................................................................................... 17-20
17.2.9.7
Minimum Radius of Curvature ................................................... 17-21
17.2.9.8
Superelevation ........................................................................ 17-22
17-i
17.2.9.9
Slopes of Road Embankments................................................... 17-22
17.2.9.10 Lay-bys................................................................................... 17-22

17.2.9.11 Junction Treatment.................................................................. 17-23
17.2.9.12 4-Way Junction ....................................................................... 17-23
17.2.9.13 T Junction or 3 way Junction or Y Junction............................. 17-23
17.2.10 Soil Improvement 17-24
17.2.10.1 Physical Process ...................................................................... 17-24
17.2.10.2 Chemical Process..................................................................... 17-26
17.2.11
Drainage Design 17-26

17.2.11.1 General................................................................................... 17-26
17.2.11.2 Components of Surface Drainage .............................................. 17-27
17.2.11.3 Planning and Design Criteria..................................................... 17-28
17.2.11.4 Design Procedure for Surface Drains ......................................... 17-29
17.2.11.5 Design Procedure for Culvert .................................................... 17-32
17.2.12 Road Furniture and Utilities.. 17-33

17.2.12.1 Furniture................................................................................. 17-33
17.2.12.2 Utilities ................................................................................... 17-34
17.2.13 Maintenance Guidelines17-34
17.2.13.1 Roads .................................................................................... 17-35
17.2.13.2 Drainage................................................................................. 17-35
17.3
BRIDGES............................................................................................................... 17-36
17.3.1
General. 17-36
17.3.2
Type of Bridges 17-36
17.3.3
Bridge Elements.. 17-37
17.3.4
General Design Considerations 17-39
17.3.5
Design of Substructure 17-41
17.3.6
17.3.5.1
Foundation.............................................................................. 17-41
17.3.5.2
Piles
17.3.5.3
Abutments .............................................................................. 17-41
17.3.5.4
Pier
17.3.5.5
Wingwall/Retaining Wall........................................................... 17-43
17.3.5.6
Approach Slab ......................................................................... 17-43
.................................................................................... 17-41
.................................................................................... 17-42
Design of Superstructure 17-44

17.3.6.1
Selection of Components.......................................................... 17-44
17.3.6.2
Beam .................................................................................... 17-45
17.3.6.3
Deck .................................................................................... 17-45
17.3.6.4
Deck Joints ............................................................................. 17-49
17.3.6.5
Bearings ................................................................................. 17-50
17.3.6.6
Selection of Parapets .............................................................. 17-52
17.3.6.7 Design Consideration of Parapets ................................................. 17-53

17.3.7
Freeboard 17-53
17.3.8
Drainage.. 17-55
17.3.9
Miscellaneous 17-55
17.3.10 Maintenance Guidelines.. 17-56

REFERENCES .................................................................................................................... 17-57
17-ii
March 2009
List of Tables
Table
Description
Page
17.1
Criteria for Selecting Aggregate Surfaced Roads
17-4
17.2
Design Standard, Equivalent Farm Roads and Minimum Reserve Width
17-7
17.3
Design Vehicle Dimensions and Outer Turning Radius for Some Common
17-10
Type of Vehicles and Vehicle Combinations

17.4
Load and Speed Characteristics of Farm Vehicles/Machinery
17-10
17.5
Conversion of Farm Vehicles to P.C.Us.
17-11
17.6
Classification of Traffic
17-13
17.7
Design Index for Aggregate Surfaced Roads
17-13
17.8
Traffic Composition
17-13
17.9
Gradation of Aggregate Surface Courses
17-15
17.10
Maximum Permissible Values for Liquid Limit and Plasticity Index
17-15
for Subbases and Select Materials

17.11
Structural Layer Coefficients for Subbase and Crushed Aggregate
17-16
17.12
Standard and Minimum Thickness of Pavement Layers
17-17
17.13
Geometric Design Criteria for Roads in Rolling and Mountainous Areas
17-17
17.14
Farm Roads and Equivalent JKR Design Standards
17-19
17.15
Desirable Maximum Grade, Maximum Grade and Design Speed
17-20
17.16
Design Speed, Minimum Stopping Sight Distance and
17-20
Minimum Passing Sight Distance

17.17
Design Speed versus K- Value for Crest Vertical Curve and Sag Vertical Curve
17-21
17.18
Minimum Radius versus Designated Design Speed and Maximum
17-20
Superelevation Rate
17.19
Recommended Slopes for Corresponding Soil Type
17-22
17.20
Mackintosh Probe for Road Class and Corresponding Blows
17-25
17.21
Recommended Values for Mannings n
17-30
17.22
Values of Runoff Coefficient C
17-31
17.23
Span Length with Corresponding Beam Type
17-45
17.24
A Guide to Span Length and Type of Deck
17-46
17.25
Span Length and Bridge Deck
17-49
17.26
Type of Deck Joints and Acceptable Movements
17-50
17.27
Vehicle Impact Test Criteria for Various Containment Levels
17-53
March 2009
17-iii
List of Figures
Figure Description
Page
17.1
17-1
Typical Cross-section of Road, Paddy Field, Drain and Canal

in Irrigation Project
17.2
Canal and Road Hierarchies in Paddy Irrigation Farm
17-2
17.3
Typical Farm Road and its Components
17-3
17.4
Roads along Primary Canals in Kerian Rice Irrigation Scheme
17-4
17.5
Laterite Roads in Farms, Kerian Irrigation Scheme
17-5
17.6
Cross-sectional View for Earthen Laterite Road
17-5
17.7
Crushed Aggregate Surfaced Roads in Farms
17-6
17.8
A Partial View of Cross-section of Crushed Aggregate Surfaced Roads
17-8
with Earth Shoulder

17.9
Typical Cross-section of Crushed Aggregate Surfaced Roads
17-9
17.10
Thickness Design Curves for Aggregate Surfaced Roads
17-14
17.11
Thickness Design Nomograph
17-16
17.12
Lay-by for Maneuvering
17-22
17.13
A 4-Way Junction with Major and Minor Road
17-23
17.14
Typical T Junctions
17-24
17.15
JKR Dynamic Cone Penetrometer Values
17-25
17.16
Earth Drains in Farms
17-27
17.17
Drains in Cut Section and Fill Section
17-28
17.18
Typical Cross-sectional View of Swale Drains
17-32
17.19
Common Signs Used in a Farm
17-33
17.20
A Section of Guard Rail
17-34
17.21
Marker Post at Sharp Bend
17-34
17.22
Farm Bridges in Kerian Irrigation Scheme
17-36
17.23
Probable Bridge Structures in a Farm
17-38
17.24
Elements of a Single Span Bridge
17-38
17.25
Typical Farm Bridge
17-39
17.26
Schematic Diagram for Bridge Components
17-42
17.27
Different Shapes of Pier
17-42
17.28
Type of Wingwalls
17-43
17.29
Prestressed Beams
17-45
17.30
Reinforced Concrete Decks
17-48
17.31
Post-tensioned Bridge Decks
17-49
17.32
Details of Deck Joints
17-51
17.33
Bearing of Bridges
17-52
17.34
Typical Bearing Layout
17-52
17.35
Different Types of Bridge Parapets
17-52
17.36
Freeboard Level for Bridge
17-54
17.37
Freeboard Level for Culvert
17-54
17-iv
March 2009
17
17.1
ROADS AND BRIDGES
GENERAL
This section provides guidelines for development of farm roads and bridges in irrigation and drainage
scheme. It elaborates the basic technical information necessary for planning and design works. For
detailed design procedures, end users are advised to refer specific road and bridge design manuals
such as:
17.2
Jabatan Kerja Raya. A guide on geometric design of roads. Arahan Teknik (Jalan), 8/86.
Malaysia
Jabatan Kerja Raya. Intermediate guide to drainage design of roads. Arahan Teknik
(Jalan), 15/97. JKR 20401-0027-97. Malaysia
Jabatan Kerja Raya, Manual on pavement design. Arahan Teknik (Jalan), 5/85. Malaysia.
Department of Defense. (2004). Aggregate surfaced roads and airfields areas. TM 5-822-5.
USA.
FAO Corporate document repository. (1988). Farm roads in tropical countries. Rome.
BS 8002: Code of Practice for Earth Retaining Structures.
BS 8004: Code of Practice for Foundation Bridges.
British Standard Institution BS 5400: Steel, Concrete and Composite Bridges.
FARM ROADS
Farm roads serve agricultural purposes, such as movement of machineries, equipment, workforce,
agricultural products and fertilizers. Two categories of roads are needed inside a farm, the internal
roads serving the fields and the roads within and around the farmstead. Each category of roads
requires different treatments and the treatments vary depending on the type of farming carried out.
Figure 17.1 shows a typical cross-section of road, field, drain and canal in an irrigation project.
6.5m
(min)
6.5m(min)
Structure
Structure
Main Road
Road
Canal
Canal
900mm
F.S.L
F.S.L
Road
Road
900 mm
SR/TR
Secondary
Road
1:1 to 1:3
Berm
Berm
FieldField
n
Bund
Bund
1
1:1 to 1:3
1
1:1 to 1:3
Drain
Drain
Slope 1:1 1:3

1
n
Figure 17.1 Typical Cross-section of Road, Field, Drain and Canal in Irrigation Project
17.2.1
Hierarchy
Road hierarchy should be integrated with the canal networks and drainage system. In addition, it will
also integrate with multilevel management from agency or association of the farm. In a paddy
irrigation project (wet farm), road network should follow the canal alignment for economic reasons.
The hierarchy has four (4) classes as follows:
Roads along Primary Canal (PC) - Class A
Roads along Secondary Canal (SC) - Class B
Roads along Tertiary Canal (TC) - Class C
Roads along Quaternary Canal (QC) - Class D
March 2009
17-1
Figure 17.2 shows canal and road hierarchies in a paddy irrigation farm.
SR
TD
TC
TD
SC
MD
QR
SD
SR
TD
TR
TC
PC
QC
QC
TC
MR/PR
QC
QC
QC
QC
QC
QR
TR
Small drain
Small
road
SC
SR
SC = Secondary Canal
TC = Tertiary Canal
SR = Secondary Road
TR = Tertiary Road
MR/PR= Main Road/Primary Road
QC = Quarternary Canal
PC = Primary Canal
QR = Quarternary Road
MD = Main Drain
TD = Tertiary Drain
SD = Secondary Drain
Figure 17.2 Canal and Road Hierarchies in Paddy Irrigation Farm

In addition to the above, farm paths are used for movement of small farm machineries, light vehicles
and movement of workfor
ce. The farm paths are divided into two classes, they are: Working path 1.0 m wide, connecting
road more than 1.3 m wide. The connecting road acts as a backbone, while the working paths are
located laterally to the road (Mechanized production system for orchards on slopping land in Japan,
2000).
The main road in a farm shall be aggregate crushed surface. The other roads along the canals of a
paddy field such as secondary canal, tertiary canal and quaternary canal should also have aggregate
crushed surfaced roads.
All roads are 6.5m wide including shoulder width 1.0m in both sides of road with a cross slope of 5%
to 7% (150mm to 210mm, depending on surfaced materials). Slopes 1: 1 for well drained soils while
slopes 1: 3 for wet soils.
17-2
March 2009
17.2.2 Components
Farm roads consist of main track, shoulder and road side drain. Figure 17.3 depicts a typical farm
road and its components.
CL of road
Varies
3m
Varies 1m
R/S
4.5m(min)
R/S
Slope
Berm
RSD
Main track
1:1 to 1:3
1
150mm to 210mm
1
n
R/S = Road Shoulder

RSD = Road Side Drain
Road reseve width
Figure 17.3 Typical Farm Road and its Components

a) Main Track
This is the main carriageway for vehicle movements. It needs more attention during design and
construction stages. The width of main track depends mainly on characteristics of traffic. High
strength materials are placed in this section.
b) Shoulder/Verge
It is the reserved area by the verge of a road; generally it is kept clear of all traffic. The shoulder
(R/S) which is adjacent part of main track also plays an important role for farm vehicles. Shoulder
also carries lesser loads compared to main track when necessary; it is used for overtaking and
emergency parking if required. Generally, thickness of the shoulder is less than main track of
roadway. Earth shoulder is preferred in a farm on economic point of view.
Shoulder supports the main track from lateral movement of main track and protects erosion of the
main track.
c) Road Side Drain
It is an important part for a road. It drains out all the surface rain water from road surfaces and
keeps the road dry for traffic movements.
17.2.3 General Standard and Classification
Roads are standardised according to their performance requirements, functional role of an irrigation
project. Standardisation is done for the following reasons:
It provides uniformity in the design of roads.
It provides consistent, safe and reliable road facilities for traffic movement.
To provide guide for less arbitrary decisions on road design.
In an irrigation project, roads are constructed on canal banks, to economize cost and time. The
aggregate surfaced roads vary from class A to class D. Selection of proper class depends upon the
traffic intensity and is determined from the Table 17.1.
March 2009
17-3
Table 17.1 Criteria for Selecting Aggregate Surfaced Roads

Road
Class
A
Roads
Hierarchy
Primary
Number of
Vehicles per day
500 -100
Secondary
100- 50
Tertiary
50 - 20
Quaternary
Under 20
Remarks
Roads along the
canals of
irrigation project
The dimension of the primary road depends mainly on traffic flow. The dimensions for secondary,
tertiary and quaternary canals also vary with land allocated for each canal together with traffic flow.
Figure 17.4 shows roads along primary canals in an irrigation project.
Figure 17.4 Roads along Primary Canal in Kerian Rice Irrigation Scheme
17.2.4
Unpaved Roads
Unpaved roads are low cost roads, and are widely used in farm areas. Its surface is not paved with
asphaltic concrete or cement concrete. In this chapter, two types of unpaved roads are considered,
those are laterite roads and crushed aggregate surfaced roads.
17.2.4.1
Earthen Laterite Surfaced Roads
Laterite is the most suitable material for this type of roads. Laterite covered road surface can be
classified as all weather roads, as it can be used in all seasons of the year. Figure 17.5 shows typical
earthen laterite roads found in Malaysia while Figure 17.6 illustrates a cross-section.
To achieve a quality laterite road, the following parameters need to be considered:
CBR - The soil strength parameter, CBR is the main governing factor for a road design. CBR for
laterite generally varies from 4.0 to 60.0 depending on source of laterite. A proper borrow pit
with higher CBR values of laterite, shall be selected for road materials.
Grading - A proper combination of various particle sizes is required to achieve a maximum dry
density with optimum moisture content. It will enhance a durable and long lasting road.
Sediment - Any improvement of durability and resistance to laterite roads will be enhanced
extensively with reduction in sediment pollution generated from unpaved roads.
17-4
March 2009
(a) Along Water Canal
(b) Through Farm
Figure 17.5 Laterite Roads in Farms, Kerian Irrigation Scheme

The selected soil should possess some properties. Presence or absence of certain properties controls
the behaviour of soils. The soil should be tested in the laboratory for its required properties.
Elasticity, plasticity, cohesion and internal friction should be checked with other properties. These
properties vary according to the size of the constituent particles and their grading, i.e. the relative
proportion in which the sizes are present and on the amount of moisture content.
CL of
Ofroad
road
Min 3m
3m
Varies
Varies
Berm
Berm
M/T
R/S M/T
Varies R/S
Varies
1m
1m 4.5m(min)
4.5m(min)
Top
Laterite
Top300mm
300mm
Laterite
Embankmentfillfill
with
Embankment
with
available
Availableearth
fromfrom
sitesite
1:1
1:3
1:1 to 1:3
RSD
RSD
11
Tertiary
Tertiarydrain
drain
1
n
1
n
R/S -Road
R/S
RoadShoulder
Shoulder
M/T - Main Track
M/T Main Track
Figure 17.6 Cross-sectional View for Earthen Laterite Road
17.2.4.2
Crushed Aggregate Surfaced Roads
A crushed aggregate surfaced road provides a more durable surface for heavy vehicles and less
prone to failure than native surfaces. The goal of crushed aggregate surfaced road is to provide long
term durability and resistance to erosion. Figure 17.7 shows crushed aggregate surfaced roads,
found in Malaysia.
It is designed to prevent mud coming out of surfaces. In other words, it is all weathered roads and
behaves as paved bituminous roads if properly designed and maintained. Crushed aggregate
surfaced road acts as wearing and as well as base course for load dispersion of vehicles.
To achieve quality road, the followings shall be considered:
CBR - The strength parameter, the CBR value for crushed aggregate is around 80.
Grading - A proper gradation of aggregates will produce a mixture of minimum air voids in the
crushed aggregate surfaced road resulting maximum dry density. Particle size distribution in the
March 2009
17-5
aggregate mixture will be in such a way that almost all of the voids filled with smaller size
particles resulting a durable and long lasting road.
Abrasion Resistance - Higher quality, more stable crushed aggregate is required in terms of
abrasion; this will reduce significantly the cost of maintenance and environmental concerns
related to unpaved runoff.
Sediment - Unpaved roads are the dominant source of sediment. Any improvement of durability
and resistance of aggregates will achieve extensive reduction in sediment pollution generated
from unpaved roads.
Segregation of Aggregates - A proper method of laying aggregates can minimize the

segregation, resulting a compact, durable surface.
(a) Crushed Aggregate Surfaced Road in Kerian

Irrigation Scheme
(b) Crushed Aggregate Surfaced Road at Junction

Paya Kertau Scheme, Pahang
Figure 17.7 Crushed Aggregate Surfaced Roads in Farms

17.2.5 Planning and Design Considerations
The objective of this section is to provide a guideline for planning and design considerations of an
overall farm road facility. This would help the physical development of an economic, efficient and
functionally effective facility, sound operation and maintenance features for keeping long term
requirements of a farm.
Presently, there is no standardised rule for design guideline of farm roads. The design life for the
road is generally 20 years. The major cost of road construction mainly depends on the soil condition
on site. Settlement is the main issue, need to address in the road design. Compaction of soil layers is
one of the major contributing factors for a better road.
17.2.5.1
Survey Data Requirement
A detailed land survey is important for proper alignment of road. The survey work is part of the
topographical survey of the project. Any wet and low lying areas prone to flooding can be avoided in
road alignment from the available survey data. The best alignment of roads and bridges should be
chosen from the surveyed data in conjunction with economic, financial and facilities of the farm. The
comprehensive requirements of a farm should meet from the survey layout plan.
17-6
March 2009
17.2.5.2
Alignment Selection
A survey is required to determine the best location of a road alignment. Places of soft ground, steep
slopes, and places of big rock should be avoided. Aerial photographs are taken for a large scale of
project to find a suitable alignment for the road. An overview from aerial photograph provides
valuable information on natural drainage. Since, depending on type of irrigation, road alignment also
changes. Roads in paddy farm are aligned along the canal bank to match the canal alignment and for
cost effective. On the other hand, roads for upland or dry farms are aligned with respect to available
facilities such as, block area of the farm; consequently, design criteria are also affected. Due to the
site constraints, special type of roads are also needed and care should be taken in designing of roads
in swampy areas. The followings should be considered during alignment selection:
Along existing reserve for roads
To minimize land acquisition
To provide road frontage at farm lots as much as possible
Along the canals or drains
17.2.5.3
Reserve Width
The requirement for the reserve has to follow the availability of land for roads in the project site or
to follow the guidelines of Jabatan Kerja Raya (JKR) or any other requirements imposed by
authorities. The reserve width helps for future upgrading of the roads, provided wider width is
selected during initial planning stage. Primary roads, secondary roads, tertiary roads/quaternary
roads of a farm can be assumed to equivalent of JKR rural standards of R2, R1 and R1a respectively.
Table 17.2 shows a relation between design standards and minimum reserve width.
Table 17.2 Design Standard, Equivalent Farm Roads and Minimum Reserve Width (JKR, 1989).
JKR design Standard
Equivalent Farm Standard
Minimum Reserve Width (m)
R2
Primary road
20
R1
Secondary road
12
R1a
Tertiary/Quaternary road
12
Note: Reserve width includes embankment slopes, excluding drain areas.
17.2.5.4
Material Selection
The material selection for a road depends on various factors. Capital cost for earth road is very low
as it uses the available soil from site. Preferences are given for soils from site to reduce the import
cost. In this manual, the materials for structural layers are soil from site with required strength, sand
as subbase and crushed aggregate as a road surface as well as load bearing strata. Quary dust is
laid on top of crushed aggregate for riding comfort and for a levelled surface.
The factors in material selection are:
Usage
Cost
Natural earth
March 2009
17-7
a) Subgrade
All top soils and vegetation should be removed and excavate to a depth of 300mm; neatly spread
and level surplus earth on adjacent land; cut out any soft places to required depth and fill with dry
rammed stone; properly shape and regulate the formation true to line and level, parallel to the
required finished surface of the road and compacting by a vibratory roller with a maximum
compacted layer thickness of 300mm, the compaction should be 95% to 100% of Maximum Dry
Density (MDD) and with required Optimum Moisture Content (OMC). The maximum dry density and
optimum moisture content should be carried out in laboratory by Proctor test or modified Proctor
test. Natural soils obtained from project site are preferred for subgrade materials, having a
minimum 4 days soaked California Bearing Ratio (CBR) value 4.0. Figure 17.8 shows a cross-section
of crushed aggregate surfaced roads with earth shoulder.
Crushed
Earth
Earth
Varies
Varies
Shoulder
1.0m
1.0m
Shoulder
Aggregate
Crushed
a
mQuarry
dust (min
100mm)
50mm 50m
Quarry
Dust
(min
(min 10100mm)
4.5m(min)
4.5m (min)
75mm
75m Sand/
Quarry/Crushed
Dust
du (optional)
Aggregate
Figure 17.8 A Partial view of Cross-section of Crushed Aggregate Surfaced Road with Earth Shoulder
b) Sub-base (optional)
The bottom layer of material is known as the sub-base, and its function varies with the character of
formation level. Materials in this layer should be hard, granular, preferably non-absorbent and
permeable. Sand or quarry dust is used for subbase, having a 4 days soaked CBR value 20.0 or more
and the selection of subbase should satisfy the gradation criteria as per JKR specification. The
subbase layer serves as filter layer.
c) Base Course/Surface Course
The purpose of base course is to spread and transmit the load from the surface to formation level
and as well as serving wearing course surface. A vehicle wheel subjects a relatively small area of the
road surface with a high pressure. The base must be capable of spreading the load that the safe
pressure on the formation level is not exceeded.
Crushed aggregate surfaced roads comprises of one or more layers of various materials, havin
different CBR values. Due to the pattern of load distribution to formation level, the lower CBR valued
materials are kept in the bottom most layers and higher CBR valued materials are kept upwards for
proper load distribution. Crushed aggregate is generally used for base course, having a 4 days
soaked CBR value 80 or above. Wet Mix Macadam (WMM) is also used for better quality of roads.
Figure 17.9 shows a typical cross-section of crushed aggregate surfaced roads with quarry dust on
top.
d)
Quarry Dust
The purpose of quarry dust on top of crushed aggregate surfaced roads is mainly to fill the voids in
the aggregates. It will provide better riding comfort during driving. Proper compaction of quarry dust
on top of crushed aggregates with required moisture content will minimize noise and as well as
surface sealant to minimize penetration of rain water in the layers of materials. The required 4 days
soaked CBR is more than 20.0
17-8
March 2009
Varies
Varies
Min 3m
3m
Min
Berm
Berm
M/T
M/T
Varies
VariesR/S
R/S
1m
1m 4.5m(min)
CL ofOfroad
road
50mm
dust
50mmQuarry
Quarry
dust
4.5m(min)
100mm
aggregate
(min
100mm)
100mmCrushed
Crushed
aggregate
(min
100mm)
75mm
dust
(optional)
75mmSand/Quarry
Sand/Quarry
dust
(optional)
RSD
RSD
1:1 to 1:3
1
1
n
Tertiarydrain
drain
Tertiary
Subgrade
Subgrade
M/T = Main Track

R/S = Road Shoulder
RSD = Road Side Drain
1
n
Figure 17.9 Typical Cross-section of Crushed Aggregate Surfaced Roads

17.2.5.5
Vehicle Dimensions
The overall width and height of vehicles are important for designing door openings, gateways etc.,
and also during clearing vegetation for roads and driveways. The minimum requirement is an
opening which is 0.6m wider and 0.5m taller than the vehicle to allow for maneuvering. Large lorries
will thus require a minimum opening having a height of 4.8 m and a width of 3.2 m provided there is
straight access to the opening. If the free space in front of the opening is limited (e.g. smaller than
1.2 times the overall length of the vehicle), a wider opening will be required. High vehicles should be
prevented from moving too close to buildings with roof overhangs or other projections which are less
than 5m above the ground level. Vehicles with lift bodies may require a clear height of 7m or more.
Drives near the corners of buildings require an allowance for the vehicle to swing out on the curve,
to get the centre of the turning circle is at the corner of the building or preferably out away from the
corner. The space required for a U-turn is an area with a width equal to the outer turning diameter
and a length equal to the outer turning diameter plus one vehicle length.
17.2.5.6
Vehicle Turning Radius
Farm machineries are slow moving vehicles, lighter in tonnage and shorter in length. Due to these
reasons, vehicle turning radius should be around one metre and above. But for the transport
vehicles, the turning radius should follow as per Jabatan Kerja Rayas recommended guidelines as
shown in Table 17.3, which is also applicable for a farm.
Maximum allowable overall length under current Malaysian legislation is 9.2m or 12m
special approval.
Maximum allowable overall width under current Malaysian legislation is 2.5m.
Maximum overall height control under current Malaysian legislation is only for buses are
4.57m.
17.2.5.7
with
Load Carrying Capacity
Load carrying capacity of a road depends mainly on strength of each individual layers. Load is
dispersed from top to bottom through the layers comprising the road.
Strength of the individual layers is measured by California Bearing Ratio (CBR), and elastic modulus
of the soil type. Load bearing capacity depends mainly on CBR values, but is also related to many
other factors such as soil quality of underlying layers, watertable etc.
March 2009
17-9
Table 17.3 Design Vehicle Dimensions and Outer Turning Radius for Some Common Type of Vehicles
and Vehicle Combinations (JKR,1989).
Design Vehicle
Dimension (m)
Rear
Overall
Length
Overall
Width
Height
Turning
Radius
(m)
0.9
1.5
5.8
2.1
1.3
7.3
6.1
1.2
1.8
9.1
2.6
4.1
12.8
7.9
0.9
0.6
16.7
2.6
4.1
13.7
Overhang
Symbol
Wheel
Base
Front
Passenger
Car
3.4
Single Unit
Truck
SU
WB-50
Type
Truck
Combination
Farm plants and equipment consists of dragline excavator (Rastum Bacrus, RB), harvesters,
excavator, low loader, tipper truck, tractors and trailers, vibratory compactor, tractor mounted
scrapper-blade, pedestrian vibratory roller, water tank, water pump and hand tools. Common farm
vehicles are car, light van, single truck unit, truck combination, and often heavy trucks transporting
produces and fertilizers etc.
17.2.5.8
Load and Speed Characteristics of Vehicles/Machinery
Farm machinery varies as per volume/capacity of a farm. The type of vehicles using the roads
depends on the scale of the farm operation. Mostly, there is a need to allow for larger vehicles used
for delivering supplies or collecting produces. For smaller farms, this may be limited to pick-ups, light
vans and tractors, but on larger farms, the vehicles may be up to the maximum sizes allowed on
roads. Table 17.4 shows a relation of type of vehicles/machinery and their load and speed
characteristics tentatively.
Table 17.4 Load and Speed Characteristics of Farm Vehicles/Machinery

Characteristics
Type of Vehicles
Light vans
Back pusher
Shovel
Tractor and trailer
Water tank
Medium lorries (2-axle)
Heavy lorries (3-axle)
Tractor mounted scrapper-blade
Tipper truck
Harvester
Excavator
Rastum Bacrus (RB)
Low loader
Buses
17-10
Loading
(ton)
Loading
limit (ton)
Speed
(km/hr.)
Speed Limit
(km/hr.)
3
2.5
10
5
8
5
33
3
22
20
20
20
44
10
4
3
12
6
10
7
35
5
25
25
25
25
50
12
30
25
15
15
25
30
30
30
30
10
10
20
15
30
40
30
20
25
30
40
35
35
35
15
15
25
20
35
March 2009
17.2.5.9
Vehicle Capacity
Vehicle capacity of a road is usually expressed in terms of Passenger Car Units (PCU). Vehicles of
different sizes and weights have different operating characteristics, all these should be considered in
geometric design. Commercial vehicles are generally heavier, slower and occupy more roadway
spaces and consequently impose a greater traffic impact on the road compared to passenger
vehicles. Table 17.5 provides the conversion factors to be used in converting the various classes of
farm vehicles to passenger car units and should be used for design of farm roads.
Table 17.5 Conversion of Farm Vehicles to P.C.Us (Adapted from i. HPU, 2002), ii. JKR, 1989.)
Equivalent Value in P.C.Us
Type of Vehicles
Rural
Standards
1.00
Urban
Standards
*Farm
Standard
Roundabout
Design
Traffic Signal
Design
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
Motor cycles
1.00
0.75
1.00
0.75
0.33
Light vans
2.00
2.00
2.00
2.00
2.00
*Back pusher
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
*Tractor and trailer
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
2.50
2.50
2.50
2.50
2.80
1.75
3.00
3.00
3.00
2.80
2.25
*Tractor mounted
scrapper-blade
*Tipper truck
3.00
3.00
*Harvester
3.00
*Excavator
3.00
*Rastum Bacrus (RB)
3.00
*Low loader
3.00
3.00
3.00
3.00
2.80
2.25
Passenger cars
*Water tank
Medium lorries (2axle)
Heavy lorries (3-axle)
Buses
*Farm standards are based on weight of vehicles, damaging effect and other factors.
17.2.5.10 Design Flood Level
In designing flood level for roads, the following design criteria shall be used:
Embankments in areas subject to flooding, the subgrade level (after total settlement in soft
ground areas) shall be designed to be at least 300mm above the 25-year, Annual Rain
Intensity (ARI) flood level.
Culverts shall be designed for a return period of 50 years ARI with a headwater depth not
exceeding two times the diameter / height of the culvert.
Surface drains shall be designed for 10-years ARI and shall cater for efficient removal of
storm water from road surface, erosion protection and slope stabilisation.
17.2.6 Design Procedure for Earthen Laterite Surfaced Roads

Laterite roads are designated as improved earth roads. In practice, no actual structural design is
required for this type of roads. On following some principles for laterite road, it will produce a
reasonably good road for a small investment and can be used in all weathers.
March 2009
17-11
Geometric standards of laterite roads are almost similar to crushed aggregate surfaced roads with
the following exceptions:
No thickness design nomograph is required for design.
Design life is less than that of crushed aggregate surfaced roads, usually 10 years for laterite
roads.
Only the material laterite is used with requisite material properties.
Compaction is done in several layers with requisite compaction criteria.
Overall, laterite road is suitable as a farm road, its performance can be improved with proper
maintenance.
17.2.6.1
Thickness Criteria
The thickness for the laterite surface is around 300mm. This thicknes mostly depends on CBR of the
laterite. Laterite acts as base as well as wearing surface. The higher the CBR of laterite, the higher
the load carrying cpacity. The CBR varies from 4 to 62 depending on the source o laterite.
17.2.6.2
Soil for Subgrade Requirements
Due to only one layer of laterite on subgrade, the load is being transferred to subgrade directly. The
subgrade is acting as base materials. The CBR of subgrade soil should be higher compared to
subgrade soil of crushed aggregate roads.
17.2.6.3
Standard and Minimum Thickness of layers
The minimum thickness of laterite is 300mm. Since, the farm machineries and vehicles using the
laterite surfaced roads as well as crushed aggregate surface roads, more layers are required for this
purpose. The layer of laterites should be multiple of 300mm.
17.2.7 Design Procedure for Aggregate Surfaced Roads
Typical aggregate surfaced roads comprises of one or two layers on subgrade depending on traffic
volume and also drainability of pavement. Optional layer - subbase acts as drainage layer to protect
road from moisture damage. Figure 17.8 illustrates the structural layers of crushed aggregate
surfaced roads. Arahan Teknik (Jalan) 5/85 of Jabatan Kerja Raya (JKR), Malaysia is a modified
version of American Association of State Highway Officials (AASHO) road test. The manual for this
aggregate surfaced road is to be used in conjunction with Arahan Teknik Jalan of JKR, Malaysia and
aggregate surfaced roads and airfields areas, Department of Defense, USA, 2004, TM 5-822-5 for
detail design.
The thickness design of aggregate surfaced roads is similar to that of flexible pavement roads of
Arahan Teknik Jalan of JKR, Malaysia. The procedure involves assigning a class to the road being
designed based upon the number of vehicles per day. A design category is then assigned to the
traffic from which a design index is determined. This design index is used with Figure 17.9 to select
the thickness (minimum of 4 inches, i.e. 100mm) of aggregate required above a soil with a given
strength expressed in terms of California Bearing Ratio (CBR).
In the design of farm roads, the cost of farm roads has to be considered in relation to the value of
the farm. It is to be noted that traffic in farm roads is limited in terms of tonnage and frequency,
hence less expensive construction and low maintenance are expected for a farm road.
17.2.7.1
Design Index
The design of gravel roads will be based on a design index, which is an index representing all traffic
expected to use the road during its life. The design index is based on typical magnitudes and
compositions of traffic reduced to equivalents in terms of repetitions of 18kips single-axle, dual-
17-12
March 2009
wheel load. Designs i+nvolves rubber-tired vehicles, traffic is classified in three groups as shown in
the Table 17.6.
Table 17.6 Classification of Traffic (Department of Defence, 2004. USA)
Group
Type of Vehicles
Passenger cars and pickup trucks
Two-axle trucks
Three-, four-, and five-axle trucks
The design index to be used in designing a gravel road for the usual pneumatic-tired vehicles will be
selected from Table 17.7.
Table 17.7 Design Index for Aggregate Surfaced Roads ( Department of Defence, 2004. USA)
Class of Roads
A
Category I
1
Category II
2
Category III
3
Category IV
4
Figure 17.10 shows a thickness design procedure for crushed aggregate surfaced roads. Traffic
composition will then be grouped in four categories as shown in Table 17.8 in conjunction with traffic
classification. Generally, the above categories are not exceeded beyond these limits in irrigation
projects.
Table 17.8 Traffic Composition
Category
Composition of Vehicles
Traffic composed primarily of passenger cars, and pickup trucks (Group 1

vehicles), and containing not more than 1 percent two axle trucks (Group 2 vehicles)
II
Traffic composed primarily of passenger cars, and pickup trucks (Group 1 vehicles),
and containing as much as 10 percent two axle trucks (Group 2 vehicles). No trucks
having three or more axles (Group 3 vehicles) are permitted in this category
III
Traffic containing as much as 15 percent trucks, but with not more than 1 percent of
the total traffic composed of trucks having three or more axles (Group 3 vehicles)
IV
Traffic containing as much as 25 percent trucks, but with not more than 10 percent of
the total traffic composed of trucks having three or more axles (Group 3 vehicles)
17.2.7.2
Thickness Criteria
Thickness requirements for crushed aggregate layer is determined from Figure 17.9 for a given soil
strength and design index. The minimum thickness requirement will be 4 inches or 100mm. The
figure should be used in conjunction with CBR of the subgrade to determine the thickness of
aggregate required for the appropriate design index. The thickness determined from the figure may
be constructed of compacted granular fill for the total depth over the natural subgrade and also is
applicable for a layered system of granular fill (including subbases) and compacted subgrade for the
same total depth. The layered section should be checked to ensure that an adequate thickness of
March 2009
17-13
material is used to protect the underlying layer based on the CBR of the underlying layer. The
granular fill may consist of base and subbase material provided the top 6 inches meet the gradation
requirements.
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
CBR
20
10
9
De
s ig
n
ind
10
7
6
ex
5
4
9 10
15
20
30
40
50
Thickness, in
Figure 17.10 Thickness Design Curves for Aggregate Surfaced Roads (Department of Defense, 2004.
Aggregate surfaced roads and airfields areas. TM 5-822-5. USA)
17.2.7.3
Surface Course Requirements
The requirements for the various materials to be used in the construction of aggregate surfaced
roads are dependent upon gradation of aggregates. The material used for gravel surfaced roads
should be sufficiently cohesive to resist abrasive action. It should have a liquid limit no greater than
35 and a plasticity index of 4 to 9. It should also be graded for maximum density and minimum
volume of voids in order to enhance optimum moisture retention while resisting excessive water
intrusion. Table 17.9 illustrates recommended gradations for aggregate surfaced roads.
17-14
March 2009
Table 17.9 Gradation of Aggregate Surface Courses (Department of Defense, USA, 2004).
Sieve Size (mm)
25
9.5
4.7
2.00
0.425
0.075
Percentage of Passing (%)

No. 2
No. 3
100
100
60-100
50-85
55-100
40-70
40-100
24-45
20-50
8-15
8-15
No. 1
100
5-85
35-65
25-50
15-30
8-15
No. 4
100
70-100
55-100
30-70
8-15
Note: The percent by weight finer than 0.02 mm shall not exceed 3 percent
The gradation, therefore, should consist of the optimum combination of coarse and fine aggregates
that will ensure minimum void ratios and maximum density. Such a material will then exhibit
cohesive strength as well as intergranular shear strength. If the fine fraction of the material does not
meet plasticity characteristics, modification is done by adding chemicals. Chloride products enhances
moisture retention in some cases, and lime can be used to reduce excessive plasticity. Table 17.10
shows required liquid limit and plasticity index of subbase and select materials.
Table 17.10 Maximum Permissible Values for Liquid Limit and Plasticity Index of Subbases and Select
Materials (Department of Defense, USA, 2004).
Percent Passing (%)
Sieve No. 10
Sieve No. 200
Maximum
Design CBR
Size
(inch)
Subbase
30
100
Select materials
20
Material
17.2.7.4
Liquid
Limit
Plasticity
Index
15
25
Thickness Design Nomograph
As the farm vehicles are lighter in tonnage and the frequency is very little, the thickness design
nomograph is not much effective for lower category roads. Hence, the minimum thickness should be
picked up from the thickness design nomograph. Figure 17.11 shows a thickness design nomograph.
The thickness design nomograph is also valid for crushed aggregate surfaced roads. The design
nomograph is based on the AASHO road test with a relationship between thickness index and axle
load at terminal serviceability of 2.5, 18 Kip single axle, for a subgrade CBR of 3%. The design
method of present JKR (Arahan Teknik (Jalan) 8/85, is based on an 18-Kip single standard axle.
Different axle types must be converted into an equivalent number of 18-Kip Single Axle Loads (ESAL)
in order to make the design. In JKR design of nomograph, the total Equivalent Standard Axle (ESA)
is calculated through a process of steps. Load carrying capacity for crushed aggregate surfaced road
depends mainly on layer thickness and structural coefficients of each layer. The equivalent pavement
thickness is:TA = a1D1 + a2D2 + a3D3+ .+an Dn
(17.1)
Where,
TA = Equivalent pavement thickness
a1, a2, a3, .. an are the structural coefficient of each layer
D1, D2, D3 . Dn are the thickness of each layer.
From the design nomograph, Figure 17.10 (Arahan Teknik Jalan (5/85)), the capacity of road is
related to the California Bearing Ratio (CBR), Equivalent Axle Load (ESA) and then corresponding
equivalent thickness. Table 17.11 shows structural layer coefficients for crushed aggregate surfaced
roads.
March 2009
17-15

D
10
12
C
10
4
5
5
1 x 10
5
1 x 10
5
7
1 x 10
5
8
1 x 10
10
15
1
B C
2 3
D
5
14
12
Corrected Equivalent Thickness TA'(cm)
Equivalent Axle Load, ESA
Subgrade CBR (%)
1 x 10
Equivalent Thickness TA (cm)
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
32
34
36
38
40
42
44
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
32
34
36
38
40
42
44
1. CBR = 3
2. ESA
3. TA for CBR = 3
4. Design CBR
5. Required TA
Figure 17.11 Thickness Design Nomograph (Manual on pavement design. JKR, 1984)
Table 17.11 Structural Layer Coefficients for Subbase and Crushed Aggregate
(Adopted from JKR, 1984).
Type of Layer
Crushed aggregate
Subbase
17.2.7.5
Property
Coefficient
Mechanically stabilized
crushed aggregate
CBR 80%
0.32
Sand, laterite, etc.
CBR 20%
0.23
Crushed aggregate
Cement stabilized
CBR 30%
CBR 60%
0.25
0.28
Standard and Minimum Thickness of Layers
Since the traffic volume is less in a farm, minimum thickness for different layers should be chosen.
But for heavily loaded and higher frequency traffic, the standard thicknesses should be considered
together with thickness design nomograph. Table 17.12 shows the standard and minimum
thicknesses of road layers.
17-16
March 2009
Table 17.12 Standard and Minimum Thickness of Pavement Layers (Adopted from JKR, 1984).
Type of Layer
Crushed aggregate
Subbase course
Standard Thickness
Minimum Thickness
100 200 mm
100 - 300 mm
150 200 mm
100 mm
100 mm
150 mm
Wet mix
Granular
Cement treated
17.2.8 Design Procedure for Roads in Hill Slope

Landslide is the main issue for collapsing the roads along the hill slopes. A figure of 60% of
landslides occurs from design fault in Malaysian (Gue See-Sew and Tan, Yean-Chin. Landslides:
Abuses of prescriptive method). Subsurface investigations (SI) should be properly planned to obtain
the representative subsurface conditions, necessary soil parameters, subsoil and ground water profile
along the alignment of proposed road. Table 17.13 shows geometric design criteria for roads in
rolling and mountainous areas.
In addition to above, design guideline for hill slopes is to follow terrain conditions, which also
applicable to unpaved road surfaces. In general, hill areas are either rolling or mountainous or
combination of both.
Table 17.13 Geometric Design Criteria for Roads in Rolling and Mountainous Areas (JKR, 8/86)
Design Factors
Design control &
criteria
Cross section
element
Elements of
design
March 2009
Design speed
Rolling
Mountainous
Lane width
Shoulder width
Rolling
Mountainous
Shoulder width
(Structure) >100m
Minimum reserve width
Stopping sight distance
Rolling
Mountainous
Passing sight distance
Rolling
Mountainous
Minimum radius
Rolling
Mountainous
Maximum grade (desirable)
Rolling
Mountainous
Maximum grade
Rolling
Mountainous
Crest vertical curve (K)
Rolling
Mountainous
Sag vertical curve (K)
Rolling
Mountainous
R2
R1
R1a
50
40
2.75
30
20
(5.00)0
30
20
(4.50)0
2.00
1.50
1.50
1.50
1.50
1.50
0.50
0.50
0.50
20
12
12
65
45
30
20
30
20
350
300
250
200
250
200
85
50
30
15
30
15
7
8
8
9
10
10
12
12
15
25
10
10
5
5
5
5
12
10
8
8
8
8
Km/hr
m
m
m
m
m
m
%
)0 = Total width of pavement
17-17
The following are the major critera for designing a hill slope road:
Two most important parameters needed to analysis and design of cut slopes in residual soils
are the effective stress strength parameters cohesion intercept, c and angle of friction, .
A common practice in Malaysia is to design the slopes 1:1, assuming angle of friction, =
450 , but the typical values for residual soils is as c = 1 KPa and = 330, the value of ,
varies from 290 to 360. The -value depends on particle size distribution of soils.
Design and proper analysis of slopes should be carried out with correct soil parameters.
The soil sample should be undisturbed, the samples should be tested for a series of
classification and strength tests. Samples are tested at stresses comparable to those in the
field, and should be saturated.
To monitor the ground water profile over a period of at least one monsoon, as most slope
failure occurs during monsoon seasons.
Effective shear strength parameters for the drained analysis of the cut slopes in residual soils
should be adopted instead of undrained shear strength, su. In cut slopes, drained conditions
are the most critical for long term.
The soil should have higher shear strength (c- ), then the Factor of Safety (FS) will
increase accordingly. A higher FS against slip failure is recommended, and should be higher
than 2.
17.2.9
Geometric Standards
The geometric design standard is to be adopted for each class of roads; it should be consistent with
its function and traffic loading. It is recommended that the standards should be selected from the
traffic volume (ADT) of the farm.
a) Design Life
The life assumed for design is 20 years. For a design life of less than 5 years, the design indexes in Table 17.7
may be reduced by one and is applicable only for design indexes 4 and above.
b) Road Width/Lane Width

A recommended width of main track shall be 4.5m (min) with 1.0m shoulder on each side and verge
c) Shoulder/Verge
A shoulder is the portion of the roadway continuous with main traffic lane for accommodation of
emergency parking, stop vehicles, and also protects the pavement by providing lateral support. For
farm roads, shoulder provides additional capacity of road and safety for the traffic. In general, road
shoulders shall be 1.0m wide, unless conditions requires otherwise.
d) Camber
The camber is used to shed water into the side drains. But all weathered roads should have a
camber of 5% to 7% from the middle of the road thus allowing water into both sides of drain and
prevent standing water and softening and surface slipperiness after rain. A recommended cross fall
for laterite road is 2.5 % and could be increased to 3 % to reduce maintenance cost at later stage.
In a farm, especially paddy irrigation project, the roads along primary canal, roads along secondary
canal, and roads along distributary canals can be categorized as in Table 17.14.
17-18
March 2009
Table 17.14 Farm Roads and Equivalent JKR Design Standards

Farm Roads
Equivalent JKR Standards
Roads along primary canal
R2
Roads along secondary canal
R1
Roads along tertiary canal
R1a
Roads along quaternary canal
R1a
These categories are based on the size of farm, type of on-farm development and also for
settlements in the farms.
17.2.9.1
Alignment
Generally, straight roads are preferable due to their shorter distances and also for cost effective. The
road alignment should be integrated with canal hierarchy and drainage system. In upland irrigation
projects, the alignment is chosen from contour map to minimize cut and fill for road section. It also
requires to follow the blocks of irrigation sections for mixed irrigation projects.
The geometric design of the road shall satisfy the criteria specified in Arahan Teknik (Jalan) 8/86
with control access. Geometric standards have varied widely between projects. In general, geometric
standards are based on design speed and safety considerations rather than specific serviceability
requirements. The followings are the main elements for design of roads.
17.2.9.2
Horizontal Alignment
Horizontal alignment and vertical alignment should be designed simultaneously as they are
complement of each other. In the design of horizontal curve, it is necessary to establish the proper
relation between the design speed and curvature and also their joint relations with superelevation.
One of the elements of horizontal alignment is the sight distance. A number of general controls
should be used for the attainment of safe and smooth-flowing roads. They are as follows:
The horizontal alignment should be consistent with the topography, preserving developed
properties and community values. Short curve and too long a straight curve should be
avoided.
Generally, flat curves should be used.
Sharp curves should not be introduced at the end of long tangents.
Curves should be at least 150m long for a central angle of 50 and length should be increased
30 metre for each degrees decrease in the central angle.
Any adverse reversal in alignment should be avoided. The distance between reverse curves
should be the sum of the superelevation runoff lengths and the tangent runoff length.
17.2.9.3
Vertical Alignment
The vertical profile affects the performance of vehicles. The effect of grades on trucks with a weight
power ratio is about 300lb/hp. The following Table 17.15 shows a relation among desirable
maximum grade, maximum grade and design speed.
A desirable minimum gradient or 0.5% and a desirable maximum gradient of 4% shall be allowed for
the design of vertical alignment of the road satisfying the required for sight distance. The desirable
maximum grade should be adopted in most cases. The maximum grade should be used rarely. The
total upgrade for any section of the road should not exceed 300m, unless the grade is less than 4%.
March 2009
17-19
Table 17.15 Desirable Maximum Grade, Maximum Grade and Design Speed (JKR, 1989).
Design Speed(Km/hr)
Desirable Maximum Grade (%)
Maximum Grade (%)
60
50
40
30
20
Road standard R1a
5
6
7
8
9
10
8
9
10
12
15
25
17.2.9.4
Sight Distance
Sight distance is the length of road ahead visible to driver. Farm roads are generally 2-lane undivided
roads of laterite or crushed aggregate surfaced roads. It should have sufficient sight distance to
enable drivers to overtake vehicles without hazard. Sight distance includes stopping sight distance
and passing sight distance.
17.2.9.5
Stopping Sight Distance
The stopping sight distance is the length required to enable the vehicle travelling at or near the
design speed to stop before reaching an object on its path. It is the sum of the two distances: first
one is the distance traversed by a vehicle from the instance the driver sights an object for which a
stop is necessary, to the instance the brake is applied, and the second one is the distance required
to stop the vehicle after the brake application begins. The average brake reaction time is about onehalf second. Perception time is the time required for driver to come to realization that the brake must
be applied. Table 17.16 shows a relation of design speed, minimum stopping sight distance and
minimum passing sight distance.
Table 17.16 Design Speed, Minimum Stopping Sight Distance and Minimum Passing Sight Distance
(JKR, 1989)
Design Speed (Km/hr)
Min. Stopping Sight Distance (m)
Min. Passing Sight Distance (m)
60
85
450
50
65
350
40
45
300
30
30
250
20
20
200
17.2.9.6
Curves
Long gentle curves are preferred for better visibility and less speed reduction compared to sharp
corner. The minimum radius for a horizontal curve is 15 m but 30m or more is preferable. Generally,
flat curves are preferred in roads for smooth running of vehicles. Vertical curves are used for a
gradual change between tangent grades. A parabolic curve with an equivalent vertical axis centered
on the vertical point of intersection is used for its simplicity. The rate of change of grades to
successive points on the curve is a constant amount for equal increments of horizontal distance, and
equals the algebraic difference between the intersecting tangents grades divided by the length of the
curve. Table 17.17 shows a relation between design speed and K-values for curves.
17-20
March 2009
Table 17.17 Design Speed versus K- Value for Crest and Sag Vertical Curves (JKR, 1989)
Minimum K Value
Crest Vertical Curve
Sag Vertical Curve
60
15
15
50
10
12
40
10
10
30
20
There are two types of vertical curve

i.
Crest vertical curve: Minimum length of crest vertical curves is determined by the sight
distance requirements.
ii.
Sag vertical curve: There are four criteria for establishing length of sag vertical curve. These
are:
17.2.9.7
Head light sight distance
Rider comfort
Drainage control and
A rule of thumb of general appearance.

Minimum Radius of Curvature
The minimum radius for a curvature is a limiting value for a given speed. It is determined from the
maximum rate of superelevation and the maximum allowable side frictional factor for the type of
surface of pavement. Table 17.18 shows minimum radius versus designated design speed and
maximum superelevation rate.
Table 17.18 Minimum Radius versus Designated Design Speed and Maximum Superelevation rate
(JKR, 1989).
Minimum Radius (m)

E =0.06
E =0.10
60
150
125
50
100
85
40
60
50
30
35
30
20
15
15
A maximum superelevation rate for farm roads are assumed 0.10%.

Required minimum radius of a curve:
R=
March 2009
V2
127(e + f)
(17.2)
17-21
Where,
R = Minimum radius of a curve (m)
V = Design speed ( Km/hr)
e = Maximum rate of superelevation (%)
17.2.9.8
Superelevation
The maximum rate of superelevation is generally controlled by several factors, such as climatic
conditions, terrain conditions, and frequency of very slow moving vehicles that would be subjected to
uncertain operation. Superelevation of curves on rural paved local roads should not exceed 8 percent
and 6 percent on unpaved roads. Susprelevation is generally not used on low speed (70Km/h or
less).(AASTHO, 1990). This is to avoid problems with such items as drainage, ice formation,
driveways, pedestrian crossing and developed properties. Superelevation of farm roads is not
applicable due to unpaved surfaces and low speed.
17.2.9.9
Slopes of Road Embankments
The side slopes for embankment or cut depends mainly on frictional angle of soil particles, drainage
ability of soil layers. Due to land constraint for slopes, it is recommended to use earth retaining walls
for high embankment, gravity type rubble walls for lower embankment. Table 17.19 shows
recommended slopes with corresponding soil types.
Table 17.19 Recommended Slopes for Corresponding Soil Types
Type of Soil
Slope
Well drained soil
>1:1
Wet soil
>1:3
In between well drained and wet soil
>1:2
17.2.9.10 Lay-bys
For two way traffic and road width 4.0m or less, lay-bys are required at certain intervals for traffic
bypassing. The recommended interval of lay-bys is 500m for moderate delay of farm machineries.
Although a delay is encountered during the maneuver of farm machineries due to impose of lay-bys.
Provision of additional land is required at the location of lay-by. Figure 17.12 shows a sketch of layby for maneuvering of farm machineries.
Edge line
of shoulder
Lay-by
Lane (4.0m)
1
1.5
Lay-by (3.5m)
Shoulder (1.0m)
15.0m
Figure 17.12 Lay-by for Maneuvering
17-22
March 2009
17.2.9.11 Junction Treatment

A road junction is a location where vehicular traffic moving in different directions can proceed in a
controlled manner designed to minimize accidents. It is a road intersection where two or more roads
either meet or cross at grade, i.e. they are at the same level.
In some cases, vehicles can change between different routes or directions of travel. There are two
different types of junction between roads. Interchanges are junctions where roads pass above or
below one another, preventing a single point of conflict by utilizing grade separation and slip roads.
Intersections are not use grade separation; they are at-grade and crosses road directly. Generally,
several types of junctions, such as 4-way junction, T-junction, roundabouts, cul-de-sacs are
commonly used in farm roads.
17.2.9.12 4-Way Junction
4-way intersections are the most common, because they usually involve a crossing over of two
roads. In some cases, the crossing roads are perpendicular to each other. However, two roads may
cross at a different angle. In a few cases, the junction of two road segments may be offset from
each when reaching an intersection, even though both ends may be considered the same street.
Figure 17.13 shows a typical 4-way junction.
Drain/Canal
Road
Canal
Canal
Through
traffic
Culvert
Minor road
Drain/Canal
Major road
Figure 17.13 A 4 Way Junction with Major and Minor Road
17.2.9.13 T Junction or 3 way Junction or Y Junction

A junction between three road segments (arms) is a T junction (two arms form one road) or a Y
junction. It is generally used to connect a minor road to a major road. Figure 17.14 shows a typical
T junction in farms and a sketch of T junction. The stem of T junction generally carries less traffic
compared to 2 arms of main road. Due to less traffic volume and also lighter traffic, the traffic
control should be done by stop sign, give way sign, major and minor road principle. No signalized
junction is required in the farm road. If warranted, a roundabout is suitable for higher capacity of
roads instead of signalized junction.
March 2009
17-23
Canal
Road
Drain/Canal
Road
Canal
Canal
Culvert
Culvert
Drain/Canal
(a) A Typical T Junction with Major and Minor Road
(b)
T Junction in Kerian Rice Irrigation

Scheme
Figure 17.14 Typical T Junctions

17.2.10
Soil Improvement
Scientific methods and engineering principles could be applied to improve soil treatment for the
solutions of engineering problems. It is the applied science of predicting the behaviour of soil for
road construction.
Areas for farming are selected where the soil is fertile to yield corps. To build road on the unsuitable
soil areas, soils are modified or stabilized. The purpose of subgrade stabilization is to enhance the
strength of the subgrade. This increased strength is then taken into account for pavement design
process. Soils are stabilized only if CBR less than 2 (Geotechnical Engineering. 2008). The methods
of subgrade modification or stabilization include physical process and chemical process.
Physical process includes soil densification, blends with granular materials, reinforcements
(geogrids/geotextiles), undercutting and replacement.
Chemical process includes mixing with cement, fly ash, lime, lime-by products and blended
by any one of these materials with soils.
Soil properties such as strength, compressibility, hydraulic conductivity, workability, swelling

potential, volume change tendencies may be altered by various soil modification or stabilization
methods.
17.2.10.1 Physical Process
i)
Geotextiles
The common practice for treatment of unsuitable soil is to reinforce with geotextiles. The stability of
a road embankment on soft soil is insufficient of bearing capacity. Geotextiles are used to reinforce
road embankments by preventing possible slips. Two types of geotextiles are used in stabilizing soft
ground. They are:
Woven geotextiles
Non-woven geotextiles
17-24
March 2009
ii) Replacement by New Materials

The usual approach to treat a soft subgrade is to remove the unsuitable soil and replacing with
stronger materials (higher CBR values) or crushed rocks. The borrowed soil should have higher CBR
values. The simplest way of determining the suitability of subgrade for road is to use the standard
JKR Dynamic penetrometer. This equipment is generally called Mackintosh probe. This simple
equipment that is cost effective and inexpensive to use for determining the soil bearing capacity of
the road subgrade.
iii) Method of Testing by Mackintosh Probe
Mackintosh probe test is carried out to access the resistance of the subsurface soil. The in-situ
strength and properties may therefore be approximately deduced to provide a conservative means of
estimating the depth of the hard formation and to detect any soft materials. For more details in
design stage, JKR Mackintosh probe test is required. Table 17.20 shows number of blows with
corresponding type of roads.
Table 17.20 Mackintosh Probe for Road Class and Corresponding Blows
Road Class
Roads Hierarchy
Blows/300mm
Primary road
20
Secondary road
18
Tertiary road
15
Quaternary road
12
The approximate Standard Penetration Test (SPT) value for the above is equivalent to the
Mackintosh blows reading divided by 8. Figure 17.15 shows allowable bearing capacity versus JKR
dynamic cone penetrometer.
Allowable bearing capacity (ton/sq. ft)
4
Curve used by
H.Q. lab
3
Actual curve to be
used for design
2
For this
design
see note
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
Blows/ ft
Figure 17.15 JKR Dynamic Cone Penetrometer Values
Note: For spread foundation, any layers which have a JKR dynamic cone penetrometer values 18 blows/ft are
present, special treatment such as removal of the material, piling, grouting etc. are to be considered.
March 2009
17-25
iv) Surcharge - Earthwork Consolidation

Consolidation is the compression of soil under steady pressure due to the expulsion of water from
the voids. Hence, soil can consolidate after it has been fully compacted, especially if the soil has a
higher moisture content. Consolidation may take many years depending on the drainage conditions
of the embankment / subgrade / foundation. If the load is removed from the soil, water may return
to the voids causing swelling, and heave of any road built in this situation.
v) Sub-soil Drain
Soil is a material made up of solid particles and various sizes of pores. Water either remains in it or
percolates through it. Water retention and movement constitute two important phases in soil
moisture relationship. Water moves by the action of gravity or/and capillary action. Sub-soil drainage
can improve the soil moisture relationship by keeping the ground watertable well below the road
surface.
The main objective of sub-soil drain is to maintain the soil bearing capacity, i.e. California Bearing
Ratio (CBR) of formation level of soil and is kept consistent as it was in design stage. The CBR
decreases if the sub-soil drain is not work properly.
17.2.10.2 Chemical Process
The high cost of replacement has caused an alternative solution, i.e. stabilization of existing soil. The
purpose of subgrade stabilization is to enhance the strength of the subgrade. Lime, Portland cement,
fly ash and other chemicals have long been used successfully in roadway construction for the
stabilization of soft subgrade soils. Chemical stabilization has often been an economical alternative to
the conventional methods of partial or complete removal of the soft soil and replacement of it with
higher quality fill material.
The natural durability and strength of soil can be improved through the process of soil stabilization
using different types of stabilizers. The aim of soil stabilization is to increase the resistance against
destructive forces of the weather by increasing strength and cohesion, reducing moisture movement
in the soil and imparting water proofing characteristics. The stabilization of soil of low bearing
capacity is an economical, ecological way to strengthen the subgrade soil and helps to build a road in
soft ground.
The influence of stabilizers and their combinations are evaluated through Atterberg limits, standard
Proctor compaction, unconfined compressive strength, splitting tensile strength, modulus of elasticity
and California Bearing Ratio (CBR) tests. Subgrade improved by stabilized soil under traffic loads
shows technical benefits compared with conventional flexible pavements without improved soft
subgrade soil.
17.2.11
Drainage Design
Water is the main enemy of a road. Moisture related damage is a major issue for road deterioration.
A proper drainage design will keep the roads safe and durable. Consequently, the required design life
is achieved. Road side drains and culverts are the major drainage structures in a farm. References
for road side drain are in Figure 17.1 together with Figure 17.3 of this chapter. Recommended
recurrence interval for design of road drainage is 5 years (JKR 20401-0027-97).
17.2.11.1 General
Adequate surface drainages should be provided in order to minimize moisture damage. The first
important step in designing of road drainage structure is hydrological analysis. From the hydrological
analysis, it is necessary to determine the rate of flow, runoff or discharge to estimate the required
drainage facility. Surface runoff, stream and river flow in the vicinity of the roadway shall be
computed and design shall be made for drainage system from computation of the road, which
includes culvert, road side drain, subsoil drain, shoulder drain etc.
17-26
March 2009
There are various statistical methods in determining the storm runoff, but it is recommended that all
designs should be as Hydrological Procedures (HP) published by Jabatan Pengairan dan Saliran
(JPS), Ministry of Agriculture Malaysia for the calculation of storm runoff. All the drainage design
shall be in accordance with the guidelines and criteria established by Jabatan Kerja Raya (JKR) as
well as procedures published by Jabatan Pengairan dan Saliran (JPS). The structural design of
reinforced box culvert shall be in accordance with BS 8110 and the loading shall be in accordance
with BS 5400: Part 2. All culverts shall be designed to resist the worst traffic load. The dimension of
open drains can be calculated by using Mannings formula and the roughness values of surfaces of
drains. Figure 17.16 shows earth drains in farms in Malaysia.
Figure 17.16 Earth Drains in MARDI

17.2.11.2 Components of Surface Drainage
There are different types of drains required in a farm depending on type of discharge and site
condition. The function of surface drainage is to remove excess water caused by rainfall. The main
components of surface drainage are:
Roadway crowns (crossfall)
Shoulder slopes
Sump
Interceptor drain
Bench and berm drains
Shoulder drains
Toe drains
Median drains
Outfall drain
Figure 17.17 shows the drains for cut section and fill section. All drainage systems should be
connected to a natural waterway channel such as river, or any other major drainage system. In
agricultural farms, generally three types of drains are suitable for drainage purposes; those are open
drain, grassed swale drain and lined drains.
March 2009
17-27
Generally, a swale grass drain is preferred for unpaved roads in a farm to cater the surface runoff
from the road surface depending on the above guidelines and criteria. Swale type drain is more
preferable than normal earth drain.
17.2.11.3 Planning and Design Criteria
A good drainage system will help to keep the watertable and strength of the road pavement in a
farm in equilibrium. It is very important both in relation to road construction and maintenance of it.
The followings are the valuable factors for proper planning and design of drainage system.
Interceptor drain
Natura
Bench drain
l groun
d level
CL
Roadside drain
Subsoil
drain
Suboil drain
(a) Drains at Cut Section

CL
Shoulder drain
Berm drain
Natural ground level

Toe drain
(b) Drains at Fill Section
Figure 17.17 Drains in Cut Section and Fill Section.
a) Subgrade Drainage
The subgrade is the layer of naturally occurring material the road is built upon, or it can be the
imported fill material laterite that has been used to create an embankment upon which the road
pavement is constructed. The strength of the subgrade or the material constituting the subgrade is
commonly measured using the CBR test. The strength of the subgrade is an important factor
influencing the thickness of the road pavement design. Water can flow upwards by capillary action
upto the top of pavement layers. The strength of the subgrade can be maintained or even increased
by good drainage. On the other hand, an improper drainage may weaken an existing good subgrade,
resulting deterioration of pavement.
17-28
March 2009
b) Watertable
Low watertable is to prevent the moisture content of the subgrade to a minimum. Higher watertable
effects the subgrade, and consequently decreasing the subgrade strength, measured by CBR value,
on which the road pavement is designed. The watertable of naturally occurring ground will rise and
fall from wet to dry seasons. Also the road pavement itself must be constructed so that it will drain in
the event of a failure of the integrity of the surfacing layers, i.e. if water is able to penetrate the road
pavement then there must be a path for it to exit.
The internal drainage function of a road pavement is usually performed by the granular subbase
layer; this itself should be drained in some way. If water can not find a path out, the road pavement
failure will be premature and swift. Water below the road pavement must be kept low and not be
allowed to rise up into the layers of road comprised.
c) Alignment
Alignment of the drains needs careful study from survey location map. Study also includes water
logged areas, existence of natural stream etc. Straight alignments are preferred for drains and
curved alignments are preferred on curved roadways. Drains should be designed as the same grade
of roads on economic ground. Steep grades and heavy cuts and fills should be avoided, as it raises
difficult problems in erosion control.
d) Longitudinal Grades
The minimum longitudinal grade should not less than 0.5% to minimize the ponding and siltation
within the drain and the maximum longitudinal grade should be chosen on criteria of average flow
velocity. The average flow velocity should not exceed the following values under any operating
conditions: 2 metre / sec for unlined drains
4 metre / sec for lined drains
e) Side Slopes
The maximum side slopes of the cutoff drain and embankment shall be:
Slope in fill 2:1 (H:V)
Slope in cut 0.25:1 (H:V)
17.2.11.4 Design Procedure for Surface Drains
The flow capacity design of surface drains can be divided into two phase, they are as hydrologic
analysis and hydraulic analysis. Hydrologic analysis is to estimate the maximum quantity of water (Q)
expected to reach the element of the drainage system. The remaining water from rainfall after
infiltration which flows on ground is termed as surface runoff. The following rational formula is used
to calculate the estimated discharge. The runoff coefficient (C) values for Peninsular Malaysia are
defined based on four flood frequency regions and it is called regional runoff coefficient (Arahan
Teknik (Jalan) 15/97).
Q
= 0.278CIA
(17.3)
Where,
Q=
peak discharge (cumecs)
C =
coefficient of runoff
I =
average intensity (mm/hr)
A =
area of catchment (acres)
March 2009
17-29
The following are the main factors, which effect the surface runoff:
Intensity of rainfall
Type of soil and its permeability
Natural moisture content of soil
Topography of the area
Type of ground
Type of landuse
Hydraulic analysis is the design of drains from the design discharge (Q) estimated from hydrologic
analysis. Surface drains are designed based on the open channel flow theory. Open channel has
advantages in terms of cost, maintenance and capacity. However disadvantages exists in respect of
right-of-way (ROW) needs, maintenance cost and to traffic and pedestrians.
The velocity of flow in any channel should be high enough to prevent silting and it should not be too
high as to cause erosion. The allowable velocity of flow depends on soil type.
By adjusting the value of slope S, it is possible to limit the velocity of flow, V within permissible limit.
Assuming uniform cross section and slope, mannings formula can be used for determining the
velocity of flow, which is given by:V=
1 2/3 1/2
R S
n
(17.5)
Where,
V = average velocity (m/sec)
n = Mannings roughness coefficient
R = hydraulic radius (m)
S = longitudinal slope of channel (%)
Table 17.21 shows recommended values for Mannings n with minimum, normal and maximum
values.
Table 17.21 Recommended Values for Mannings n
Type of channel and description
1.
2.
3.
Cross conduits flowing partially full

Concrete culvert, straight and free of debris
Concrete culvert with bends, connections with
some debris
Line or built up channels
Precast invert sections and concrete lined channels
Concrete bottom with cemented rubble stone sides
Channels with earth bottom and rubble sides
Natural streams
Clean straight grassed banks
Some weeds and stone
Vegetal lining
Minimum
Normal
Maximum
0.010
0.011
0.011
0.013
0.013
0.014
0.013
0.017
0.020
0.013
0.020
0.023
0.017
0.024
0.026
0.025
0.030
0.030
0.030
0.035
0.035
0.035
0.040
0.035
**For high embankments when the water level at the inlet exceeds 1.0m above the crown of culvert, the
designer should check the stability of the whole embankment against the fluctuations of pore water pressure
17-30
March 2009
For detailed design procedure, users are advised to refer Chapter 13 Surface Drainage .
a) Coefficient of Runoff
The runoff coefficient C, characterizes antecedent precipitation, soil moisture, infiltration, detention,
ground slope, ground cover, evaporation, shape of the watershed and other variables. It is generally
used average values for various surface types are assumed not to vary during the storm. When the
bridge deck pavement is the sole contributing runoff surface, C is usually assumed to be 0.9. Table
17.22 can be useful for selecting an appropriate C value. If more than one type of surface
contributes to a particular inlet, C is determined as the average of the individual C values, weighted
by area.
Table 17.22 Values of Runoff Coefficient C (Johnson and Chang. 1984)
Type of Surface
Value of Coefficient
Paved
0.7 to 0.9
Gravel roadways or shoulders
0.4 to 0.6
Cut, fill slopes
0.5 to 0.7
Grassed areas
0.1 to 0.7
Residential
0.3 to 0.7
Woods
0.1 to 0.3
Cultivated
0.2 to 0.6
Note: For flat slopes and permeable soils, use the lower values, for steep slopes and impermeable
soils, use the higher values.
b) Grassed Swale Drain
Grass channels (biofilters) are typically designed to provide nominal treatment of surface runoff.
Grass channels are well suited to a number of applications and land uses, including treating runoff
from roads and pervious surfaces. It is suitable for upland irrigation farms. It differs from the
enhanced dry swale design in that grass channel do not have an engineered filter media to enhance
pollutant removal capabilities and therefore have a lower pollutant removal rate than for a dry or wet
(enhanced) swale. Grass channels can partially infiltrate runoff from small storm events in areas with
pervious soils. When properly incorporated into an overall site design, grass channels can reduce
impervious cover, accent the natural landscape, and provide aesthetic benefits. During designing a
grass channel, the two primary considerations are:
Channel capacity
Minimization of erosion.
Runoff velocity should not exceed 0.3m per second during the peak discharge associated with the
water quality design rainfall event, and the total length of a grass channel should provide at least 5
minutes of residence time.
The followings are the basic requirements of a grassed swale drain:
Grass channels are used generally to treat small drainage areas of less than 5 acres.
Grass channels should be designed on relatively flat slopes of less than 4%, channel slopes in
between 1% to 2% are recommended.
Grass channels can be used on most soils with some restrictions on the most impermeable soils.
March 2009
17-31
Grass channels should not be used on soils with infiltration rates less than 0.68cm per hour if
infiltration of small runoff flows is intended.
Grass channels should have a trapezoidal or parabolic cross section with relatively flat side slopes
(generally 3:1 or flatter).
The bottom of the channel should be between 0.6m to 1.8m wide. The minimum width ensures
a minimum filtering surface for water quality treatment, and the maximum width prevents
braiding, which is the formation of small channels within the swale bottom. The bottom width is
a dependent variable in the calculation of velocity based on Manning's equation. If a larger
channel is needed, the use of a compound cross section is recommended.
Runoff velocities must be nonerosive. The full-channel design velocity will typically govern.
A 5-minute residence time is recommended for the water quality peak flow. Residence time can
be increased by reducing the slope of the channel, increasing the wetted perimeter, or planting a
denser grass (raising the Mannings n).
The depth from the bottom of the channel to the groundwater should be at least 0.6m to
prevent a moist swale bottom, or contamination of the groundwater.
Designers should choose a grass that can withstand relatively high velocity flows at the
entrances, for both wet and dry periods.
Care should be taken in planning and design stage to minimize the disadvantages and to increase
the benefits. Open drains should be designed to cater the surface runoff from roads and its
embankment slopes. Figure 17.18 shows different types of grassed swale drains.
Drainage Reserve
0.5m Design flow width + freeboard 0.5m
min
min
300mm freeboard
Q
1
4 min
Batter
50
50
4 min
Base
Batter
Design flow width + freeboard
(a) Triangular
(b) Trapezoidal
Note :- -Design for Stormwater Filtering Systems, Center for Watershed Protection
-Department and Irrigation and Drainage, Malaysia ( 2002). MASMA,
Figure 17.18 Typical Cross-sectional View of Swale Drains

The average flow velocity in a grass swale shall not exceed 2m/sec. In case of higher velocity is
required, an underground pipeline, lined open drain, or grass reinforcement system should be
designed.
17.2.11.5 Design Procedure for Culvert
Culvert is a crossing drainage structure having total length of 6m or less between inner faces of dirt
wall. In some cases, it is necessary to estimate a first trial size of the culvert. For details design
procedures, users are advised to refer Chapter 16 Hydraulic Structures. Recommended freeboard
level for culverts for farm roads is at formation level (JKR 20401-0027-97). Recommended
recurrence interval for design of culverts is 25 years (JKR 20401-0027-97).
17-32
March 2009
17.2.12
Road Furniture and Utilities
The term Road furniture and utilities are used to describe a variety of structures within a road
corridor. Road signs are used to provide directions to farm paths, verge marker posts, lighting post,
safety fences, barriers and other control pillars as well as other utility objects markers or posts.
17.2.12.1 Furniture
Road furniture and utility guideline would help to prevent unnecessary visual intrusion and also
minimize any resulting visual impact. Reference should be made from 2A, 2B, 2C and 2D of Arahan
Teknik (Jalan), JKR, Malaysia as a design guideline usage and application.
a) Street Lighting
Street lighting improves the safety of road users and also the ease and comfort of operation.
Generally, street lighting in farms is not warranted. They are seldom justified except on junctions.
The centre to centre distance of street lighting posts is 40 metre. The pole height is 12 metre and
the minimum luminous intensity is 20 lux on pavement surfaces. Street light should be placed at
inner side of curvature, at junction, sharp band, at the points of conflicts and also conflict places of
roadway such as black spot areas.
b) Road Marking
Road marking and delineators are used to regulate traffic or to warn or guide road users. Road
marking is applicable to flexible pavement as well as rigid pavement due to its smoothness and hard
surfaces, and is not applicable to earth roads as well as crushed aggregate surfaced roads.
c) Signage
Traffic signs or road signs are used at the side of roads to impart information to road users. Signs
are directly related to the design guidelines of road and features of traffic control and operation. It
should be designed concurrently with the road design. As language differences can create barriers to
understanding, international signs using symbols together with words have been used in Malaysia
and most countries of the world. Regulatory signs and advisory signs are used mainly in a farm. The
Arahan Teknik (Jalan) 2A/85 of JKR, Malaysia is the guideline used for details dimension of signage.
Figure 17.19 shows some common signage, which can be used in farm roads.
YIELD
(a) Stop sign
(b) Give way sign
(c) Signage for roundabout
Figure 17.19 Common Signs Used in a Farm

d) Guard Rails
Guard rails are used to protect the car from swing away out of roads during any accident. The
design of guardrails shall generally follow the Design Guide Line for Longitudinal Traffic Barrier
Arahan Teknik Jalan (Rev 1/89) of Jabatan Kerja Raya (JKR), Malaysia. Figure 17.20 shows a typical
guard rail section.
March 2009
17-33
Figure 17.20 A Section of Guard Rail.

e) Reflecting Road Studs
Road safety is a major issue for road users especially at night time driving, although road is a one of
the three factors for accidents. Reflecting devices can improve the road safety at night and also in
wet weather. Reflectorized Raised Pavement Markers (RRPM), marker post, ceramic domes, acrylic
RRPM, glass front RRPM, cats eye, blinking light etc. are the devices in road for safe driving. Figure
17.21 shows common safety devices such as marker posts at sharp bends.
Figure 17.21 Marker Post at Sharp Bend

17.2.12.2 Utilities
In farms, road utilities should be placed along the both sides of earth shoulder or verge, so that any
maintenance work would not affect the main traffic. Street lighting post, guard rail post, water pipe
line, power cable, telephone cables are the main structures for utilities. Water lines should be placed
one side of shoulder, electric lines should be placed other side of the shoulder. Installation of the
water line and power line should follow the safety requirements of Jabatan Bakalan Air (JBA) and
Tenaga Nationals Berhad (TNB) of Malaysia. Care should be taken during digging for road utility
structures.
17.2.13
Maintenance Guidelines
Proper and timely maintenance is effective and cost saving. It includes maintenance of main track,
shoulder, embankment / cut slope, verge, turfing, etc. The aim of maintenance is to provide for
moderate degree of users comfort and convenience at moderate travel speed.
The two main causes of deterioration of laterite and aggregate surfaced roads are environment and
traffic requires frequent maintenance. Rain or water flow will wash fines from laterite surfaced roads,
aggregate surface roads and reduce cohesion, while traffic action causes displacement of surface
materials. Maintenance should be performed at least every 6 months and more frequently if
required. The frequency of maintenance will be high for the first few years of use but will decrease
over time to a constant value. The majority of the maintenance will consist of periodic grading to
remove the ruts and potholes that will inevitably be created by the environment and traffic and to
replace fines. Occasionally during the lifetime of the road, the surface layer may have to be scarified,
17-34
March 2009
additional aggregate added to increase the thickness back to that originally required, and the
wearing surface recompacted to the specified density together with proper cross slope of the
roadway.
17.2.13.1 Roads
The unpaved roads are the prime source of sedimentation, erosion etc. The runoff sediment is high
as the surface of crushed aggregate surface roads are topped up with quarry dust.
a) Runoff Sediment
The crushed aggregate surfaced roads need routine maintenance for dust created on the surfaces
due to traffic movement, dryness of the surface, losing bonding between aggregates etc. Slopes for
embankments need to protect by providing turfing or by any other suitable means. The followings
are the major fields for maintenance.
b) Dust Control
The primary objective of a dust palliative is to prevent soil particles from becoming airborne as a
result of wind or traffic. Where dust palliatives are considered for traffic areas, they must withstand
the abrasion of the wheels or tracks. An important factor limiting the applicability of the dust
palliative in traffic areas is the extent of surface rutting or abrasion that will occur under traffic.
Some palliatives will tolerate deformations better than others, but normally ruts in excess of 1/2 inch
will result in the virtual destruction of any thin layer or shallow-depth penetration. Presently, a wide
selection of materials for dust control is available.
c) Erosion Control for Shoulders and Slopes of Embankments
Erosion control of side slopes is also important. Rain water, surface runoff causes erosion. Proper
drainage system and routine maintenance can arrest the erosion.
d) Turfing
Choosing proper types of turfing grass seed, well maintained seeding, manure applying as required,
watering during germination , regular mowing are the major things need to attention. Properly
maintained turfing is very effective for erosion control.
e)
Routine and Timely Maintenance
A routine maintenance on regular basis keeps the road in workable condition. Repairing of pot holes,
crack mending, and other surface defects are the main tasks under routine maintenance.
17.2.13.2 Drainage
Drainage maintenance is necessary to keep drainage facilities functional, and to prevent any
unacceptable environmental damages. Sediment and erosion are the two main problems to keep
drain in functional. The sedimentation occurs due to erosion of earth materials caused by direct
rainfall, runoff, wind, gravity, or combination of these factors. The drainage sedimentation in farm
occurs mainly from farming operations, and erosion along unpaved roadways. The following steps
should be considered for proper maintenance.
Periodic maintenance is required to maintain the hydraulic capacity of a swale drain.
Grass should be regularly mown
Sediment, debris, litter deposits should be cleaned regularly.
Bared patches and scoured areas should be repaired by removing dead grass, filling
scour holes, and reseeding with a recommended permanent grass seed mix.
March 2009
17-35
17.3
Damaged linings or displaced joints or strut beams should be repaired as soon as

practical to prevent further deterioration of failure of sections of the drain.
BRIDGES
17.3.1 General
Bridge is defined as structure crossings over streams, rivers, depression or obstruction and other
natural features, having a total length of more than 6m between the abutment walls for carrying
traffic, pedestrians, bicycles or other moving loads.
In general, small bridges are needed in an agricultural farm to fulfill the farm requirements. The
length of a farm bridge is short of 1 to 2 span of medium length.
The aim of a bridge design shall be the achievement of acceptable probabilities that the structure
being designed will not become unfit for use during its design life in regards of economic, physical
and aesthetic and other relevant constraints. The ideal site for a bridge is where the river is narrow
and the banks are solid. The bridge should be designed to interfere as little as possible with the
natural course of water. The highest flood level for the river is determined and the bridge is
designed at least 0.5m clearance above that level. Figure 17.22 shows bridges in Kerian irrigation
scheme.
(a) 1- Span Bridge
(b) 2 Span Bridge
Figure 17.22 Farm Bridges in Kerian Irrigation Scheme

17.3.2 Type of Bridges
Bridge can be categorized in many ways, such as material, type of structure, cross section and span
length. The bridge material may be of concrete, timber or steel constructions. The best choice in
Malaysia environment is concrete structure. A bridge can be categorized in various types of
structures such as simply supported, frame, semi integral and integral bridge. Figure 17.23 shows
some probable bridge structures for small water ways in a farm.
In traditional bridge design, it uses expansion joints in conjunction with bearings to accommodate
superstructure movements. Leaking at expansion joints and bearing are major bridge maintenance
issues, whereas, in integral bridge, it has no expansion joints, whenever possible. Integral bridge
superstructures are constructed to work integrally with the abutments. Movements due to creep,
shrinkage and temperature changes are accommodated by soil-structure interaction system. In
general, all bridges are made continuous over intermediate supports and decks with overall length of
60 metres with skews not exceeding 30 are recommended to be integral with their abutments when
the situation permits. It has many advantages over traditional bridges. They are as follows:
17-36
March 2009
Reduce maintenance cost
Improves structural integrity
Reliability and redundancy
Improves long term serviceability
Improves riding surface
Reduce initial cost
Improves aesthetics
Abutment and pier staining and other damages caused by water intrusion are avoidable.
Superstructures can be steel, precast or prestressed cast-in-situ reinforced concrete. Precast or

prestressed reinforced concrete superstructures for integral bridges have the following advantages
over both cast-in-situ reinforced concrete and steel. They are:
Precast, prestressed superstructure experiences less thermal movement than steel

superstructure
A concrete superstructure expand or contract approximately 12.62mm in 30.5 m of bridge

length, however a steel superstructure typically expand and contract 25.24mm of the same
length of bridge
According to the length, bridges are classified as:
Small bridge - Overall length of the bridge between abutments walls is up to 30m and where
individual span is not more than 10m
Minor bridge - Total length up to 60m
Major bridge - Total length greater than 60m
17.3.3 Bridge Elements

The bridge components and its adaptability and suitability in particular site conditions depend on
many factors. A bridge consists of the following structures:
Foundation
Substructure
Superstructure
Figure 17.24 shows elements of a simple bridge. The recommended width of a bridge is 5m for
maneuvering farm machineries. A lay-by is suitable for both sides of the bridges to tackle the slow
moving farm machineries. Figure 17.25 shows a sketch of a simple bridge.
March 2009
17-37
(a) Arch Beam on Small River
(b) Small Arch Beam on Small Stream
(c) Arch Plate Type, dressed with Masonry or Rock
(d) Pratt Truss
(e) Pedestrian, Motor cycle, By-cycle Crossing on

Shallow Depth Water
(f) High Truss Bridge
Figure 17.23 Probable Bridge Structures in a Farm
Bridge deck
Reinforced concrete
approach slab
Pier
Beam
Wingwall
Piling
Figure 17.24 Elements of a Single Span Bridge

17-38
March 2009
Width
Bridge parapet
Wearing course on bridge deck
Superstructure
Beam
W.L
Pier
Pile cap
River bed
Pile
Figure 17.25 Typical Farm Bridge

17.3.4 General Design Considerations
The planning and design section for a farm bridge provides a comprehensive definitions and
procedures to ensure that the bridge is optimum on both technical and economic viewpoint and is
acceptable in various levels. It also provides sufficient engineering guidance to accomplish the level
of details necessary to design an acceptable bridge for irrigation project.
A detail survey data is required in the planning and design stage, and it is the first step in design
guidelines for bridges. Physical site inspection is also a vital factor for planning and design. The
following steps should be considered in planning and design considerations:
Alignment of the proposed road along with the new bridge should be studied concurrently
together with topography, utilities, preliminary drainage plan, right-of-way restrictions,
preliminary hydraulics information, preliminary geology information, environmental
constrains, lighting requirements, type of guardrail, conceptual recommendations for
structure type, and architectural recommendations.
Need to review the site data to determine the requirements of control of structure size,
layout, type and rehabilitation alternatives.
Determine the structure length, width and span configurations with horizontal and vertical
clearance criteria. Arch bridge is recommended if the river is used for navigation and to
provide aesthetic design. Self-weathering steel bridges are relatively less maintenance,
atmospheric corrosion resistance.
Carry out soil investigation and determine foundation requirements based on the result.
The bridge geometric standards should follow the standards of Arahan Teknik (Jalan) 8/86 or
Lembaga Lebuhraya Malaysia (LLM) standards, in addition of British standards and codes of practice
shall be adopted for structures.
The main principal standards are as follows:
BS 8002 : Code of Practice for Earth Retaining Structures
March 2009
17-39
BS 8004 : Code of Practice for Foundation Bridges
British Standard Institution BS 5400: Steel, Concrete and Composite Bridges

Part 3 : 1982 Code of Practice for Design of Steel Bridges
Part 4 : 1990 Code of Practice for Design of Concrete Bridges
Part 5 : 1979 Code of Practice for Design of Composite Bridges
Prestressing Tendon
Part 8 : 1978 Recommendation for Material and Workmanship, Concrete Reinforcement and
Prestressing Tendon
Part 9 : 1983 Bridge Bearings
BS 6779 Part 2 : Specification for Vehicle Containment Parapets and Concrete Construction
BS 4449 : 1988 Reinforcement Specification
BS 6779 : Highway Parapets for Bridges and Other Structures
The following publication issued by UK Department of Transportation should be used in the design:
BD 32/88 : Piled Foundations
BD 33/94 : Expansion Joints for Use in Highway Bridge Deck
BD 37/01: Loads for Highway Bridges
BD 24/92 : The Design of Concrete Highway Bridges and Structure
BD 52/93 : Design of Highway Parapet
BD 42/96 : Design of Integral Bridges
The design of New Jersey concrete guardrail shall be in accordance in Arahan Teknik (Jalan) 1/85
(Pindaan) 1/89) Mannual on Guardrail on longitudinal Traffic barrier.
Elastomeric bridge bearing shall be of natural rubber and shall be in accordance with the
specification proposed by the Committee on natural rubber in construction, Rubber Research
Institute (RRI), Malaysia.
Bridge structures should be on a tangent alignment without sacrificing the overall geometric design
of the road. Tangent alignment makes easier plan preparation and easier bridge construction. Bridge
structure is much costlier than pavement structure. Due to this, tangent aligned of bridge results a
lower structural cost.
Foundations are designed to take an adequate load capacity with limited settlement. The primary
design concerns for a bridge are the foundation settlement and bearing capacity. Total settlement
and differential settlement is normally considered. Differential settlement is when one part of a
foundation settles relatively more than another part. This can cause problems to the structure. It is
important for foundation not to load beyond its bearing capacity. Scour removes supporting soil
from around a foundation as in a pier, supporting a bridge over a river. Changes in soil moisture can
cause expansive clay to swell and shrink. This swelling can vary across the footing due to seasonal
changes or the effects of vegetation removing moisture. The variation in swell can cause the soil to
distort, cracking the structure over it.
Soil investigation should be carried out to get all the required parameters. Soil may be classified
under clay, silt, sand, gravel, peat or combinations. Soil properties should be studied by geotechnical
engineer. Soil parameters are hydraulic conductivity, water content, void ratio, bulk density,
thixotropy, angle of repose, cohesion, porosity, permeability etc. and also effective stress, pore water
pressure, shear strength, consolidation.
17-40
March 2009
17.3.5 Design of Substructure

Substructure is the bridge structure that supports the superstructure. It shall include columns,
crosshead and pilecap and wingwalls but exclude bearings.
17.3.5.1
Foundation
It is the part of a bridge in direct contact with and transmitting load to the founding strata. It may
consist of either piled foundation or footing or foundation mat. The choice of the foundation type to
be used shall depend on the loading, soil type and safe bearing pressures of the bearing stratum,
restrictions placed on differential settlement due to the type of bridge deck.
Generally, for simply supported bridge decks, differential settlements of about 20mm to 25mm can
be tolerated, whereas multi-spans continuous decks, a 10-25mm settlement is taken as maximum
value. Figure 17.26 shows some bridge components.
Bridge foundations generally fall into two categories:
Footings, one each for piers and abutments. However, it is sometimes convenient to split the
deck into two halves longitudinally along the centre line; this is then continued to the
footing.
Piled foundations.
17.3.5.2
Piles
Piles provide solid resistance to vertical loads, while it allows practically unrestrained rotation. Piles
can be designed as end bearing or friction piles. Presently precast driven piles of variable diameters
are preferred over bored piles due to its handling and operation facilities. Piled foundations are
recommended for all types of bridges in Malaysia due to the low value of bearing capacity of soil.
The design of foundation comprises of the following stages:
From the soil investigation report, decision should be taken upon which stratum to impose
the structure load and its safe bearing pressure.
Select the type of foundation, possibly comparing the suitability of several types.
Design the foundation to transfer and distribute the loads from the structure to the ground.
Ensure that the factor of safety against shear failure in the soil is not reached and settlement
is within the allowable limits.
Precast piles should be driven to their required set. Static load test should be carried out with
required Factor of Safety (FS) and the measurement of settlement for both loading cycles and load
releasing cycles is to be determined as per bridge specification of Jabatan Kerja Raya. Where the
static load test is not possible or uneconomical, the use of other methods of testing such as PDA test
are allow. The failure criteria for piles are to be judged from the three criteria as mentioned in
bridge specification of JKR.
17.3.5.3
Abutments
Abutments provide the end supports of deck of a bridge, which also retains earth fill partly or fully of
approaches behind. The abutments are provided to strengthen the stream banks and adequately
support the shore end of the road-bearing beams. They can be constructed of concrete, masonry
work (stone, brick, concrete blocks) or timber. The lower part of the abutments will normally require
wing walls to protect them from the action of the stream. The bridge load is transmitted to the
ground by the abutments. Hence it has to be sufficiently supported by the foundation works. It has
to be designed to resist the lateral earth pressure exerted by the approach embankments.
March 2009
17-41
Deck
D e ckSlab
sla b
Deck slab
Approach
slab
End
End
d ia p h ra g m
diaphragm
Bridge deck
Beam
Beam
Beam
Abutment
A cc e ss
Access
ga
lle ry
gallery
Abutment
Pile
A b u tm e n t
Abutment
(a) Bridge Components
(b) Pile Cap Abutment
Figure 17.26 Schematic Diagram for Bridge Components

17.3.5.4
Pier
Pier is the intermediate supports installed where the stream or space is too wide for a short single
span. Timber trestles, masonry piers and reinforced concrete piers are the most common types of
support. Intermediate supports must be designed to withstand the combined loads of the weight of
the bridge and vehicles moving on it, plus the lateral load generated by the flowing water and any
debris floating in the water. Intermediate piers located in fast flowing water may subject to local
scour and may require some bed protection.
Wherever possible, slender piers monotically integrated to the deck should be used, so that there is
sufficient flexibility to allow temperature, shrinkage and creep effects to be transmitted to the
abutments without the need for bearings at the piers, or intermediate joints in the deck. A slender
bridge deck will usually look best when supported by slender piers without the need for a downstand
crosshead beam. It is the proportions and form of the bridge as a whole which are vitally important
rather than the size of an individual element viewed in isolation. Figure 17.27 shows some common
shape of piers.
Deck
Deck
Deck
Column
Deck
Column
Column
Column
(a) Triple Column Pier
(b) Twin Pier
(c) Leaf Pier
(d) Single Pier
Figure 17.27 Different Shapes of Pier (Monolitic)

Loads transmitted by the bridge deck onto the pier are: Vertical loads from self weight of deck
17-42
March 2009
Vertical loads from live loading conditions

Horizontal loads from temperature, creep movements etc. and wind
Rotations due to deflection of the bridge deck
Soil pressure is cancelled if integral
The overall configuration of the bridge will determine the combination of loads and movements that
have to be designed for. As an example, if the pier has a bearing at its top, corresponding to a
structural pin joint, then the horizontal movements will impose moments at the base; their
magnitude will depend on the pier flexibility. Sometimes, special requirements are imposed by river
authorities if piers are positioned within their jurisdiction. In the case of river authorities a 'cut water'
may be required to assist the river flow, or independent fenders to protect the pier from impact from
boats or floating debris.
17.3.5.5
Wingwall/Retaining Wall
Wingwalls are essentially retaining walls adjacent to the abutment. The walls can be independent or
integral with the abut
walls.
Frictional Strips
(a) Facing
(b) Retaining
(c) Precast Panel
Figure 17.28 Types of Wingwalls

Providing the smaller skew angle for bridge (less than 20), and the cut/embankment slopes are
reasonably steep (about 1 in 2), then the wingwall cantilevering from the abutment wall is likely to
give the most economical solution.
Splayed wingwalls provide even more of an economy in material costs but the detailing and fixing of
the steel reinforcement is more complicated than the conventional walls.
Effect of loads is to be considered on the rear side of the walls are:
Earth pressures from the backfill material.
Surcharge from live loading or compacting plant.
Hydraulic loads from saturated soil conditions.
Soil structure interaction (if integral abutments)
17.3.5.6
Approach Slab
Bridge approaches typically experience two types of settlement, global and local. Global settlement
consists of a consolidation of the underlying natural foundation soils, and is evidence of possible
March 2009
17-43
long-term differential settlement between the bridge structure and the bridge embankment. Local
settlement consists of compression of fill materials directly beneath the approach pavement, and is
evidence of possible embankment consolidation within the upper 10 to 20 feet of the bridge
embankment. It is the combination of global and local settlements adjacent to the bridge end piers
that forms the characteristic bump in the pavement at the bridge ends. The purpose of the bridge
approach slab is to reduce local settlement significantly and to accommodate global settlement by
providing a gradual transition between the roadway and the bridge deck.
The approach slab should serve two purposes:
Approach slabs reduce the compaction of the backfill materials behind the abutment wall due
to traffic. Control of excessive passive pressure soil resistance to thermal expansion is also
achieved.
The thermal movements of the integral bridge system are transferred from the end of the
bridge to the point where the approach slab joins the pavement. A flexible pavement joint is
provided at this point if the roads are paved.
To provide a positive separation from the subgrade, plastic sheet or expanded polystyrene boards
are provided below the approach slab.
17.3.6 Design of Superstructure
It is the upper part of the bridge structure starting from bearing upwards. This includes:
Bearing for beams
Deck beam, diaphragm beam, deck slab
Deck expansion joint
Concrete parapet wall / bridge railing
Deck finishing eg. street light, sidetable, median,etc
Wearing course on bridge deck
Concealed conduit for services in parapet wall
17.3.6.1
Selection of Components
Selecting an appropriate superstructure type is a critical factor in the planning and design process for
a farm bridge. The proper selection depends mainly on location, span length, initial cost, future
maintenance costs and construction time. Site survey plan also helps for preliminary bridge layout
and consequently bridge type. For a farm bridge, precast arches, prefabricated iron truss should be
considered for easy installation and for navigation of boat cruise. Appropriate investigations and data
collection shall be carried out to determine the best design. The following investigations are required
prior to design.
Navigational requirements: As required and as per site demand, to determine soffit levels,
minimum navigational spans for powered boat cruise, an arch type bridge is preferred.
Hydraulic and hydrology data is required to determine the soffit levels and deck finished
levels of the bridge.
Investigation and evaluation of the most appropriate structural forms and span
configurations that optimally satisfy the requirements of visual elegance, functional
adequacy, safety, robustness, suitability, ease of maintenance and cost effectiveness.
Weather and climate data is required in drainage design and bridge loading.
17-44
March 2009
Seismic loadings: To investigate the most appropriate seismic loading for the bridge
structure in order to incorporate adequate protection against such occurrences if the location
of bridge in seismic zone.
For prefabricated steel structured frame, the stability and rigidity should be checked.
The superstructure of the bridge shall be structurally continuous with the minimum
expansion joints. Expansion joints shall follow the recommendations of BD 33/88.
17.3.6.2
Beam
The following Figure 17.29 shows some common type of prestressed beams used in Bridges. Types
of beams in common use are inverted T-beams, M-beams and Y-beams. The Y-beam was introduced
in 1990 to replace the M-beam. This leads to the production of an SY-beam which is used for longer
spans. The span length to beam type is tabulated in the Table 17.24.
17.3.6.3
Deck
The bridge should be designed to carry the weight of the members of the bridge (dead load) and the
weight of any traffic moving across it (moving load). When bridges are constructed with rough
materials under unfavourable conditions a higher factor of safety should be used. Table 17.23 is
intended to be a rough guide to the useful span ranges of various types of deck.
(a) T-Beam
b) M-Beam
(c) I-Beam
Figure 17.29 Prestressed Beams
Table 17.23 Span Length with Corresponding Beam type
March 2009
Span Length
Beam Type
7m to 16m
Inverted T-beam
14m to 25m
M-beam
25m to 35m
I-beam
17-45
Table 17.24 A Guide to Span Length and Type of Deck

Span
Deck Type
Up to 20m
In-situ reinforced concrete.

In-situ prestressed post-tensioned concrete.
16m to 30m
In-situ reinforced concrete voided slab.

In-situ prestressed post-tensioned concrete voided slab.
Prestressed pre-tensioned I - beams with in-situ slab.
Prestressed pre-tensioned box beams with in-situ topping.
Prestressed post-tensioned beams with in-situ slab.
Steel beams with in-situ slab.
30m to 40m
Prestressed post-tensioned SY - beams with in-situ slab.

Prestressed post-tensioned box beams with in-situ topping.
Prestressed post-tensioned beams with in-situ slab.
Steel beams with in-situ slab.
a) Design Criteria for Deck

In selecting the correct bridge type, it is necessary to find a structure that will perform its required
function and present an acceptable appearance at the least cost. Decisions taken at preliminary
design stage will influence the extent to which the actual structure approximates to the ideal, but
final selection should be taken at detailed design stage. Consideration of each of the ideal
characteristics in turn will give some indication of the importance of preliminary bridge design.
Safety : The ideal structure must not collapse in use. It must be capable of carrying the loading
required of it with appropriate factor of safety. This is more significant in detailed design stage.
Serviceability : The ideal structure must not suffer from local deterioration/failure, from excessive
deflection or vibration, and it must not interfere with sight lines on roads above or below it. Detailed
design cannot correct faults induced by bad preliminary design.
Economy: The structure must make minimal demands on labour and capital; the cost should be as
little as possible to build and maintain. At preliminary design stage, it means choosing the right types
of materials for the major elements of the structure, and arranging these in the right form.
Constraints : The construction depth available should be evaluated. The economic implications of
raising or lowering any approach embankments should then be considered. By lowering the
embankments the cost of the earthworks may be reduced, but the resulting reduction in the
construction depth may cause the deck to be more expensive. Headroom requirements have to be
maintained below the deck; the minimum standards for UK Highway bridges are given in TD 27 of
the Design Manual for Roads and Bridges. If the bridge is to cross a road that is on a curve, then the
width of the opening may have to be increased to provide an adequate site line for vehicles on the
curved road.
It is important to determine the condition of the proposed bridge site by carrying out a
comprehensive site investigation. BS 5930: Code of Practice for Site Investigations includes such
topics as:
Soil survey
Existing services (gas, electricity, water, telekom, etc)
Rivers and streams (liability to flood)
Existing property and rights of way
Access to site for construction traffic and farm machineries
17-46
March 2009
b) Preliminary Design Considerations for Deck

i. A span to depth ratio of 20 will give a starting point for estimating construction depths.
ii. Continuity over supports
Reduces number of expansion joints.
Reduces maximum bending moments and hence construction depth of beam or the material
used.
Increases sensitivity to differential settlement.
iii. Factory made units
iv.
Reduces the need for soffit shuttering or scaffolding; useful when headroom is restricted or
access is difficult.
Reduces site work which is weather dependent.
Dependent on delivery dates by specialist manufactures.
Specials tend to be expensive.
Special permission needed to transport units of more than 9.2m long on the highway.
Length of structure
The shortest structure is not always the cheapest. By increasing the length of the structure the
embankment, retaining wall and abutment costs may be reduced, but the deck costs will
increase.
v.
Substructure
The structure should be considered as a whole, including appraisal of piers, abutments and
foundations. Alternative designs for piled foundations should be investigated; piling can increase
the cost of a structure by up to 20%.
It is recommended in Malaysia to use two types of deck, Reinforced concrete decks and prestressed
concrete decks.
c) Reinforced Concrete Decks
The three most common types of reinforced concrete bridge decks are solid slab, voided slab, and
beam and slab. Solid slab bridge decks are most useful for small, single or multi-span bridges and
are easily adaptable for high skew.
Voided slab and beam and slab bridges are used for larger, single or multi-span bridges. In circular
voided decks the ratio of (depth of void) / (depth of slab) should be less than 0.79; and the
maximum area of void should be less than 49% of the deck sectional area. Figure 17.30 shows three
main types of reinforced concrete deck.
d) Prestressed Concrete Deck
There are two types of deck using prestressed concrete:
Pre-tensioned beams with in-situ concrete.
Post-tensioned concrete.
The term pre-tensioning is used to describe a method of prestressing in which the tendons are
tensioned before the concrete is placed, and the prestress is transferred to the concrete when a
suitable cube strength is reached. Post-tensioning is a method of prestressing in which the tendon is
tensioned after the concrete has reached a suitable strength. The tendons are anchored against the
hardened concrete immediately after prestressing.
March 2009
17-47
(a) Solid Slab
(b) Voided Slab
(c) Beam and Slab

Figure 17.30 Reinforced Concrete Decks
e) Design Concept of Prestressed Concrete

There are three concepts involved in the design of prestressed concrete:
Prestressing transforms concrete into an elastic material. By applying this concept, concrete may
be regarded as an elastic material, and may be treated as such for design at normal working
loads. From this concept the criterion of no tensile stresses in the concrete was evolved. In an
economically designed simply supported beam, at the critical section, the bottom fibre stress
under dead load and prestress should ideally be the maximum allowable stress; and under dead
load, live load and prestress the stress should be the minimum allowable stress. Therefore under
dead load and prestress, as the dead load moment reduces towards the support, then the
prestress moment will have to reduce accordingly to avoid exceeding the permissible stresses. In
post-tensioned structures this may be achieved by curving the tendons, or in pre-tensioned
structures some of the prestressing strands may be deflected or de-bonded near the support.
Prestressed concrete is to be considered as a combination of steel and concrete with the steel
taking tension and concrete compression so that the two materials form a resisting couple
against
the
external
moment
(analogous
to
reinforced
concrete
concepts).
This concept is utilized to determine the ultimate strength of prestressed beams.
Prestressing is used to achieve load balancing. It is possible to arrange the tendons to produce
an upward load which balances the downward load such as dead load, in which case the
concrete would be in uniform compression.
f)
Post-tensioned Bridge Decks
Post-tensioned bridge decks are generally composed of in-situ concrete in which ducts have been
cast in the required positions. Figure 17.31 shows some common type of bridge decks.
17-48
March 2009
a) T-Beam
b) Voided Slab
c) Box
Figure 17.31 Post-tensioned Bridge Decks

When the concrete has acquired sufficient strength, the strands are threaded through the ducts and
tensioned by hydraulic jacks acting against the ends of the member. The ends of the tendons are
then anchored. Table 17.25 shows span length to corresponding bridge deck.
Table 17.25 Span Length and Bridge Deck
Span Length
Type of Bridge Deck
20m to 35m
T-beam
20m to 35m
Voided slab
>30m
Box
Tendons are then bonded to the concrete by injecting grout into the ducts after the stressing has
been completed. It is possible to use pre-cast concrete units which are post-tensioned together on
site to form the bridge deck. Generally it is more economical to use post-tensioned construction for
continuous structures rather than in-situ reinforced concrete at spans greater than 20 metres. For
simply supported spans, it may be economic to use a post-tensioned deck at spans greater than 20
metres.
17.3.6.4
Deck Joints
Current practice is to make decks integral with the abutments. The objective is to avoid the use of
joints over abutments and piers. Expansion joints are prone to leak and damage. In general, all
bridges are made continuous over intermediate supports and decks below 60 metres long with skews
not exceeding 30 are made integral with their abutments. Deck and substructure have been
designed to incorporate deck joints then the following guidance is given in BD 33/94 for the range of
movements that can be accommodated by the various joint types as explained in the Table 17.26.
The minimum of the range is given to indicate when the type of joint may not be economical. Figure
17.32 shows details of deck joints. BS 5400 Part 2 Chapter 5.4 specifies maximum and minimum
effective bridge temperatures which have to be accommodated in the bridge structure. The width of
joint between the end of the deck and the abutment is set during construction of the bridge; usually
when the concrete curtain wall is cast. The maximum expansion of the deck is therefore determined
from the minimum effective temperature at which the curtain wall is allowed to be cast; usually 2C.
Hence if a maximum effective temperature of 40C is calculated from BS 5400 Part 2 then a joint
width will have to be provided at the end of the deck to allow for an expansion caused by a
temperature increase of (40-2)=38C.
The maximum contraction of the deck is determined in a similar manner, but using a nominal
effective temperature at which the joint is set. Having determined the range of movement at the
joint, then the type of joint can be specified. The nominal effective temperature used in the
calculations will also have to be specified to enable the correct adjustments to be made on site when
the joints are set.
March 2009
17-49
Table 17.26 Type of Deck Joints and Acceptable Movements
Joint Type
Total Acceptable
Longitudinal Joints (mm)
Maximum Acceptable
Vertical Movement
Between Two Sides of
Joints (mm)
Min
Max
Buried joint under

continuous surfacing.
20
1.3
Asphaltic Plug joint.
100
Nosing joint with poured sealant.
12
Nosing with preformed compression seal.
40
Reinforced Elastomeric.
Elastomeric in metal runners.
Cantilever comb or tooth joint.
25
Maximum value varies according to manufacturers specification or type of joints.
17.3.6.5
Bearings
Bridge bearings are devices for transferring loads and movements from the deck to the substructure
and foundations. In highway bridge bearings movements are accommodated by the basic
mechanisms of internal deformation (elastomeric), sliding (PTFE), or rolling. A large variety of
bearings have evolved using various combinations of these mechanisms. Figure 17.33 shows some
common type of bearings.
a)
Elastomeric Bearing
The elastomeric bearing allows the deck to translate and rotate, but also resists loads in the
longitudinal, transverse and vertical directions. Loads are developed, and movement is
accommodated by distorting the elastomeric pad.
b)
Plane Sliding Bearing

Sliding bearings usually consist of a low friction polymer, Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), sliding
against a metal plate. This bearing does not accommodate rotational movement in the
longitudinal or transverse directions and only resists loads in the vertical direction. Longitudinal
or transverse loads can be accommodated by providing mechanical keys. The keys resist
movement, and loads in a direction perpendicular to the keyway.
c)
Roller Bearing
Large longitudinal movements can be accommodated by these bearings, but vertical loads only
can generally be resisted.
The designer has to assess the maximum and minimum loads that the deck will exert on the bearing
together with the anticipated movements (translation and rotation). Bearing manufacturers will
supply a suitable bearing to meet the designers requirements.
Bearings are arranged to allow the deck to expand and contract, but retain the deck in its correct
position on the substructure. A 'Fixed' bearing does not allow translational movement. 'Sliding
Guided' Bearings are provided to restrain the deck in all translational directions except in a radial
direction from the fixed bearing. This allows the deck to expand and contract freely. 'Sliding'
bearings are provided for vertical support to the deck only. Figure 17.34 shows typical bearing
layout.
17-50
March 2009
Surfacing
Flexible
filter
Flashing
Protective layer
Deck joint gap
Deck
waterproofing
Flexible
Elastomeric
filter
pad
Flashing
(a) Buried
Nosing
material
Surfacing
Protective layer
Deck
waterproofing
Surfacing
Elastomeric
pad
Deck
waterproofing
Transition Strips
Protective
Layer
Bedding
Drainage
membrane
(c) Nosing
Elastomer reinforced
with metal plates
(d) Reinforced Elastomeric
Elastomeric Support
beam Securing
elements
framework
Deck
Deck join
waterproofing
gap
Deck joint
gap
b) Asphaltic Plug
Compression
seal
Surfacing
Protective layer
Deck
waterproofing
Surfacing
Sliding
bearing
(e) Elastomeric in Metal Runners
Transition
strip
Surfacing
Securing
Comb or bolts Deck
tooth plates
waterproofing
Plate
Drainage
membrane
Deck joint
gap
Bedding
(f) Cantilever Comb or Tooth Joint
Figure 17.32 Details of Deck Joints
March 2009
17-51

Metal Plates
Rubber
PTFE
Roller Bearing
Metal Plates
Metal Plates
(a) Elastomeric Bearing
(b) Plane Sliding Bearing
(c) Multiple Roller Bearing
Figure 17.33 Bearing for Bridges
Fixed Bearing
Sliding Bearing
Fr
ee
Fi
xe
d
Ab
ut
en
t
Ab
ur
tm
en
t
Sliding Guided Bearing
Figure 17.34 Typical Bearing Layout
17.3.6.6
Selection of Parapets
BS EN 1317-1:1998 describes a Vehicle Parapet as a safety barrier that is installed on the edge of a
bridge or on a retaining wall or similar structure where there is a vertical drop, and which may
contain additional protection and restraint for pedestrians and other road users. Figure 17.35 shows
different types of bridge parapets.
Clamp for Railing
Clamp for Railing
(a) Type A
(b) Type B
(c) Type C
Figure 17.35 Different Types of Bridge Parapets

17-52
March 2009
Manufacturers have developed and tested parapets to meet the containment standards specified in
the codes. Much of the earlier testing work was involved with achieving a parapet which would
absorb the impact load and not deflect the vehicle back into the line of adjacent traffic. The weight
of vehicle, speed of impact and angle of impact influence the behaviour of the parapet.
Consequently a level of containment has been adopted to minimise the risk to traffic using the bridge
(above and below the deck). BS EN 1317-2 1998 specifies criteria for vehicle impact tests on
parapets for various containment levels. The containment levels adopted by TD 19/06 (Design
Manual for Roads and Bridges Volume 2, Section 2, Part 8) required testing is to be carried out for
various vehicles impacting the parapet at an angle of 20o.
17.3.6.7 Design Consideration of Parapets
Information required to be supplied to metal parapet manufacturers is listed in TD19/06, namely:
Containment Level (N1, N2, H2, H4a)
Impact Severity Level (ISL) (Normally Class B)
Working Width Class (W1 to W5)
Height
Length
Table 17.27 Vehicle Impact Test Criteria for Various Containment Levels
Parapet Containment level
Test Vehicle
Impact Speed
N1
Normal Containment (Formerly P2{80})
1.5t car
80 km/h
N2
Normal Containment Level (Formerly P1,
P2{113} & P5)
1.5t car
110 km/h
H2
Higher Containment Level
13t bus
70 km/h
30t Rigid
HGV
65 km/h
H4a
Very High Containment Level (Formerly P6)
Table 17.27 shows vehicle impact test criteria.
Concrete parapets are ideal for very high containment parapets due to their significant mass.
Steel parapets are generally the cheapest solution for the normal containment. This is significant if
the site is prone to accidents and parapet maintenance is likely to be regular. The steelwork does
however require painting and is usually pretreated with hot-dip galvanising. Aluminium parapets do
not require surface protection and maintenance costs will be reduced if the parapet does not require
replacing through damage. The initial cost is however high and special attention to fixing bolts is
required to prevent the parapets from being stolen for their high scrap value. Aluminium also
provides a significant weight saving over the steel parapet. This is sometimes important for parapets
on moving bridges.
17.3.7 Freeboard
Hydraulics is the most essential feature for bridge design. Assessment of flood levels, catchment
area, surface characteristics, various water levels, expected maximum flood discharge at bridge site
during design life of bridge, and maximum scour levels are essential aspects of bridge hydraulics.
March 2009
17-53
Utmost attention should be paid during hydraulic calculations; any faulty determination of these
parameters may lead to failure of bridge structures (Adapted from Guidelines for bridge design, Shri.
S. B.Tamsekar Shri. K. S. Jangde, August, 2007). Figure 17.36 shows freeboard level for bridge.
Abutment
Freeboard
Abutment
Prestressed
beam
Steel tabular piles
Figure 17. 36 Freeboard Level for Bridge

The followings are important features for considerations of hydraulics in bridge design.
To carry out some river cross sectional survey covering at least 500m upstream and 500m
downstream of the proposed bridge site.
The cross section for hydraulics should be across the nearby natural undisturbed channel for the
bridge site along the existing natural crossing.
Appropriate different Mannings roughness coefficient should be used for bed and banks, as the
nature of stream changes according to properties of material and vegetation growth etc.
Computed velocity should be judged in relation to bed material, such as existence of boulders in
the stream and low velocity of flow does not generally go together.
Freeboard is the vertical clearance from the water surface level to formation level. In the farm,
the road category falls under JKR design standard R2, R1 and R1a as lighter traffic and very low
frequency. Recommended freeboard level for bridge 1.0m (JKR 20401-0027-97). Figure 17.37
shows freeboard level for culvert.
Formation level
Freeboard
Tailwater
Headwater
** For high embankments when the water level at the inlet exceeds 1.0m above the crown of culvert, the
designer should check the stability of the whole embankment against the fluctuations of pore water
pressure.
Figure 17.37 Freeboard Level for Culvert
17-54
March 2009
Recurrence Interval for design of bridges: The recurrence interval is the time between an event
and its recurrence such as the mean period of times. The recommended recurrence interval for
design of bridges is 50 years or 25* years (JKR 20401-0027-97).
* This recurrence interval can be used by the designer if one or any combination of the following
condition applies:
If the structure is located in a flood plain
If the structure requires a high embankment
Poor soil condition making high embankment uneconomical
Under the above conditions, the structure must be designed as a submersible structure. Special
consideration however must be given against accumulation of debris or impact by logs etc.
17.3.8 Drainage
The Design Manual for Roads and Bridges BD 30/87 requires surface water to be drained away from
earth retaining structures or backfill. Any water percolating through the fill is collected in a
perforated drainpipe, not less than 150mm diameter, which is located at the rear of the vertical stem
of the wall at the level of the top of the footing. Access to the pipe should be provided for rodding
purposes from inspection manholes positioned at the foot of the wall. Weep holes are often provided
as a safeguard in the event that the drainpipe is blocked; they also provide a visual check that the
system is working. Unless the backfill to the wall is highly permeable then a vertical drainage layer is
provided at the rear of the wall and is connected with the perforated drainpipe. The vertical
permeable layer may take the form of any of the following:
Precast hollow concrete blocks.
Cast in-situ porous no fines concrete.
Granular drainage layer.
Special consideration to the drainage layer is required when the backfill contains materials
susceptible to piping such as silt, chalk or PFA. Under these conditions, a granular drainage layer
only is recommended; hollow blocks or no fines concrete are unsuitable.
Drainage includes bridge deck containing wearing surface, embankments and shoulder along the
edges of bridge deck and parapet. Bridges should have adequate cross-slope and grade to allow
water to run quickly into drains. Depending on the structural design of bridge, an inlet box may be
used to collect the runoff. Debris can be collected by keeping it out of inlet box, so that, it can not go
through in the system. Maintenance at regular interval is the key to the success in the bridge
drainage. The easiest way is to disposal of runoff water to drop straight to the ground or water
underneath the bridge or allow a piping system to carry water in nearby drain or sewerage system.
Coefficient of runoff for bridge deck, when the bridge deck pavement is the sole contributing runoff
surface, C is usually assumed to be 0.9 (Table 17.22).
Deck cross shall have a cross fall of 2.5 % and grade should be less than 0.5 % to facilitate
drainage. Drainage facility for the bridge deck shall be suitably provided so that no water ponding at
all on bridge deck.
17.3.9 Miscellaneous
The bridge is a costly structure in a roadway. It is more permanent structure compared to pavement.
As the design life of a farm bridge is around 50 years or more compared to design life of pavement,
which is only around 10 to 20 years. Due to this, a reliable structure is needed keeping in mind the
future demand.
March 2009
17-55
a) Appearance / Visual
The structure must be pleasing to look at. Decisions about form and materials are made at
preliminary design stage; the sizes of individual members are finalised at detailed design stage. The
preliminary design usually settles the appearance of the bridge.
b) Stability of Structure
Stability checking for abutment, pier is important in design together with shear, moment, safety
factors for the components of structure. The following conditions should be checked for stability of
structure.
The stability of structure and its components against overturning

The Restoring moment the least restoring moment due to the unfactored nominal loads shall
be greater than the greatest overturning moment due to the design loads
Possibility of removal of superimposed dead load
17.3.10
Maintenance Guidelines
The structures may be of concrete, timber or steel constructions, but emphasis is given on low
maintenance cost. Self-weathered steel bridged are preferred in farms due to its low maintenance,
atmospheric corrosion resistance and are not usually susceptible to fatigue. These short span farm
bridges are prefabricated in workshop and installed at site on concrete foundation. For a
prefabricated bridge structure, the following factors should be considered.
A proper inspection should be made in the workshop during fabrication to ensure that the sizes
of bridge members are same and accurate as mentioned in the design plan.
The bridge should be inspected at regular frequency by a qualified in bridge inspection.
Foundations shall be reviewed for scour, settlement and general soundness.
Bridge bearings shall be in functional.
All safety features including handrail, safety rail etc. should be in place and functional.
Bridge deck should be free of debris, soil deposits, and overgrown vegetation.
17-56
March 2009
REFERENCES
Local roads and streets (2009). http://www.aot.state.vt.us./progdev/standards/06local.htm,
1990 AASHTO policy, Chapter lll, for a detailed discussion of design for low speed urban streets.
Gue See-Sew and Tan (2004). Yean-Chin. Landslides: Abuses of prescriptive method.
Department of defense (2004). Aggregate surfaced roads and airfields areas. TM 5-822-5. USA.
FAO Corporate document repository. (1988). Farm roads in tropical countries. Rome.
Shikoku., Masahiro MIYAZAKI* Zentsuji, Kagawa, 765-0053. Department of hilly land agriculture.
Mechanized production system for orchards on sloping land in Japan. Japan.
Road research laboratory. Research on Road Traffic. 1765 pp 201. HMSO, London.
Jabatan Kerja Raya (1989). A guide on geometric design of roads. Arahan Teknik (Jalan), 8/86.
Malaysia.
Jabatan Kerja Raya (1997). Intermediate guide to drainage design of roads. Arahan Teknik (Jalan),
15/97. JKR 20401-0027-97, Malaysia.
Jabatan Kerja Raya (1984). Manual on pavement design. Arahan Teknik (Jalan), 5/85. Malaysia.
Jabatan Kerja Raya (1985). Manual on traffic control devices road marking and delineation. Arahan
Teknik (Jalan), 2D/85. Malaysia.
FAO (2002). How design, management and policy affect the performance of irrigation projects
emerging modernization procedures and design standards. Herv Plusquellec. Bangkok, Thailand.
Rome
Youard. G.B. (1957). Farm Roads, A typical specification for preparatory works,
Lowell Busman & Gary Sands. (2002). The agricultural drainage series covers such topics as basic
concepts; planning and design; surface intakes; economics; environmental impacts; wetlands; and
legal issues. Regents of the University of Minnesota.
Department of Irrigation and Drainage (2002), Manual saliran mesra alam Malaysia.
Drains,Malaysia.
Vol. 10,
Highway Planning Unit (HPU). (2002). Ministry of Works. Malaysia

Eric Biltonen. Intizar Hussain and Doan Doan. Tuan Pro-poor Intervention Strategies in Irrigated,
Agriculture in Asia, Vietnam. International Water Management Institute.
Shri. S. B.Tamsekar Shri. K. S. Jangde. (2007). Guidelines for bridge design.
Geotechnical Engineering (2008). Design procedures for soil modification or stabilization. Indiana.
BS 8002 : Code of Practice for Earth Retaining Structures.
BS 8004 : Code of Practice for Foundation bridges.
British Standard Institution BS 5400: Steel, Concrete and composite bridges.
BS 6779 Part 2 : Specification for Vehicle Containment Parapets and Concrete Construction.
March 2009
17-57
BS 4466 : 1989 Scheduling of Reinforcement.

BS 4449 : 1988 Reinforcement Specification.
BS 6779 : Highway Parapets for Bridges and Other Structures.
BS 5493 : Anti Corrosion Protective System.
BD 28/87 : Early Thermal Cracking of Concrete and Amendment No. 1 (1989).
BD 30/87 : Backfilled Retaining Walls and Bridge Abutments.
BD 32/88 : Piled Foundations.
BD 33/94 : Expansion Joints for Use In Highway Bridge Deck.
BD 37/88: Loads for Highway Bridges.
BD 24/92 : The Design of Concrete Highway Bridges and Structure.
BD 60/94 : Design of Highway Bridges for Vehicle Collision Loads.
BD 52/93 : Design of Highway Parapet.
17-58
March 2009

Volume 5 - Irrigation and Agricultural Drainage PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Volume 5 - Irrigation and Agricultural Drainage PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

GOVERNMENT OF MALAYSIA

Volume 5 Irrigation and

Jabatan Pengairan dan Saliran Malaysia

Volume 5 - IRRIGATION AND AGRICULTURAL DRAINAGE

Volume 5 - IRRIGATION AND AGRICULTURAL DRAINAGE

Dato Ir. Hj. Ahmad Hussaini bin Sulaiman,

Volume 5 - IRRIGATION AND AGRICULTURAL DRAINAGE

Volume 5 - IRRIGATION AND AGRICULTURAL DRAINAGE

Volume 5 - IRRIGATION AND AGRICULTURAL DRAINAGE

How to Use the Manual.............

SI and English Units and Conversion Factor

Introduction and Administration

System and Technology

Water Demand Estimation

Water Intake Facilities

Drainage Water Control and Treatment

Roads and Bridges

Volume 5 - IRRIGATION AND AGRICULTURAL DRAINAGE

HYDROLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES

IRRIGATION AND AGRICULTURAL DRAINAGE

GEOTECHNICAL MANUAL, SITE INVESTIGATION AND ENGINEERING SURVEY

MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL SERVICES

DAM SAFETY, INSPECTIONS AND MONITORING

Volume 5 - IRRIGATION AND AGRICULTURAL DRAINAGE

A process by which substances in gaseous, or solid form dissolve or mix

Soil that is free of lime with a pH of more than 7.

Adherence of gas molecules, ions or molecules to solid surfaces.

A process where a substance becomes permeated with air or another gas.

Comparatively simple chlorophyll-bearing plants, most of which are

Any substance that will kill or control algae growth.

Soils with a pH of below 7 (opposite of acid soils).

The quantitative capacity of aqueous media to react with hydroxyl ions.

A plain bordering a river, formed by the deposition of alluvium eroded

A method of managing irrigation whereby, at every other irrigation,

The natural conditions that would be expected to occur in waters not

Volume 5 - IRRIGATION AND AGRICULTURAL DRAINAGE

Refers to the probability or risk of a natural event with a given size

A qualitative indication of the moisture content of surficial soils at the

Human derived or man-made.

A device installed around a culvert, pipe or conduit through an

The ratio of the average of the lowest one-fourth of measurements of

The ratio of the average of the low one-half of measurements of irrigation

Usually expressed in inches per hour.

The rate at which water is applied to a given area by a sprinkler system.

Application time, set

The amount of time that water is applied to an irrigation set.

Plants that grow either partly or completely submerged in water.

A water-bearing formation that provides a groundwater reservoir. It can

Climate characterized by low rainfall and high evaporation potential. A

Available soil water

Volume 5 - IRRIGATION AND AGRICULTURAL DRAINAGE

The long-term or historic (generally 30 years or more) arithmetic mean of

Average daily peak

Calculated or measured water used by plants in 1 day through

The average elapsed time in years between floods of a given size

A closed conduit used to convey water under or through an embankment,

Basic intake rate

Surface irrigation by flooding areas of level land surrounded by dikes.

A shelf that breaks the continuity of a slope; a linear embankment or dike.

A structure or practice designed in runoff management to prevent the

A fraction of the chemicals in the surrounding environment that can be

The quantity of oxygen consumed during the biochemical oxidation of