1

1. MEASUREMENT OF ANGLES (HORIZONTAL & VERTICAL)

A. MEASUREMENT OF HORIZONTAL ANGLE BY REPETITION METHOD
AIM:
To Measure the horizontal angle between the two given stations P and Q with
respect to instrument station O.

INSTRUMENTS:
Transit Vernier Theodolite and its accessories & Ranging Rods.

PROCEDURE:
Let P and Q be the two given stations. It is required to measure the angle POQ by the method of
repetition where O is the station occupied by the theodolite as show n in fig. 1.

O
Fig.1.
1.

Set up the instrument over O and level it accurately (The instrument should be in face right
position and the telescope in the inver ted position).

2.

Set the reading on vernier A to 0 0 0' 0" exactly using upper clamp and upper tangent screw.
Loosen the lower clamp, direct the telescope to the station P and bisect P exactly using
lower clamp and lower tangent screw.

3.

Unclamp the upper clamp screw, turn the telescope clockwise (Right swing) and bisect
station Q exactly by using the upper clamp and upper tangent screw.

4.

Read both the ver niers A and B and enter the readings in Table 1.

5.

Leaving the ver niers unchanged (with upper clamp screw clamped), unclamp the lower plate
and turn the telescope until the station P is attain again bisected accurately using lower
clamp and lower tangent screw.

2
6.

Release the upper clamp screw, turn the telescope clock-wise and again bisect the station Q
exactly using upper clamp and its slow motion screw. The verniers will read now twice the
value of angle POQ.

7.

Repeat the process until the angle is measured for the required number of times (usually
three repetitions). Read both the verniers. The final reading is divided by the number of
repetitions to get the correct value of the angle POQ.

8.

Change the face of the instrument. The telescope will be now in normal position and the
vertical circle will be in face left position. Repeat the whole series of obser vations in exactly
the same manner with left swing. The average of the two values of the angle thus obtaine d
gives a very precise value of angle POQ.

OBSERVATIONS & CALCULATIONS:

TABLE 1:
Face Right
Inst.
at
O

Sight
to

A
0

' "

Right Swing
Horz.
B
Mean
Angle
0
0
0
' "
' "
' "

Face Left
A
0

' "

B
0

' "

Left Swing
Horz.
Mean
Angle
0
0
' "
' "

Remar ks

P
Q
P
Q
P
Q

Horizontal angle between P & Q =

RESULT: Horizontal angle between P and Q

Note:

1.

Final reading / No. of repetitions

The reading while turning the telescope clock-wise increases.

It decreases when

the telescope is turned anti-clockwise.

2.

The initial reading in the case of left swing with left face will be 180 0 00' 00" instead
of 00 00' 00" in right swing.

3. The experiment can be conducted for different initial reading other than zero and
different combinations of face and swing.

B. HORIZONTAL ANGLES BETWEEN GIVEN STATIONS BY THE METHOD

OF REITERATION
PROCEDURE:
Let A, B, C, D & E be the given stations and O be the station occupied by the theodolite as
shown in fig. 2.

It is required to measure the angles AOB, BOC, COD, DOE and EOA by the

method of reiteration.

1.

Set up and level the instrument over O.

2.

Round 1. Inst. Face Right.

0

a) Set the leading ver nier at 0 0' 0" exactly and clamp the upper clamp screw.
b) Turn the w hole instrument round and strike A.

A is now called the REFERENCE

OBJECT (R.O.)
c)

Without touching the lower clamp strict B, C, D, E and A in succession, swinging the
inst. to the right, and note the corresponding angles and enter in Table 2.
The first and the las t readings for A may not agree.

If the difference is not too

great record both readings. The final reading of the R.O. must never be assumed. If
the difference is too great reject the entire round.
3.

Round 2. Inst. Face Left.

a) Relevel and recentre the inst. if necessar y
b) Set the leading ver nier at 180
c)

0' 0" exactly and clamp the plate.

Turn the whole inst. round and strike the R.O.

d) Without touching the lower clamp again strike E, D, C, B and A in succession,

swinging the inst. to the left and note the angels correspondingly.
B

O
A

Fig. 2.

OBSERVATIONS & CALCULATIONS:

TABLE 2:
Face Right
Inst.
at
O

Sight
to

A
0

' "

Right Swing
Horz.
B
Mean
Angle
0
0
0
' "
' "
' "

Face Left
A
0

' "

B
0

' "

Left Swing
Horz.
Mean
Angle
0
0
' "
' "

Remar ks

A
B
C
D
E
A

Correction
Corrected horizontal angles are

=
AOB =
BOC =
COD =
DOE =
EOA =

Note: 1. Follow the form. It is essential that from whatever side the stations A, B, C, D and E
are approached, they must never be over-ridden, i.e., passed.
2. It is desirable to see A, B, C, D and E are arranged in such a way that at least one
angle is too small and one angle is too large and the rest in between so as to gain
practice in measuring angles of different magnitudes.

C. MEASUREMENT OF VERTICAL ANGLE

PROCEDURE:
Let the instrument be set up and leveled over B. It is required to measure the angle of
elevation AOA 1 and angle of depression AOA 2 where OA1 plane containing axis of the telescope
as shown in fig. 3. T he instrument is to be levelled with respect to the altitude bubble also.
1.

Round 1. Instr ument Face Right

a) By the clip screw bring the altitude bubble to the centre of its run, if necessary
b) Loosen the ver tical circle clamp and direct the telescope towards the object A 1 and
when it is sighted approximately, clamp the vertical circle and bisect A 1 exactly by
using the tangent screw.
c)

Read both the verniers C and D, and enter the readings in Table 3. The mean of two
readings gives the angle of elevation ( ) AOA1.

d) Dow n the telescope and make it horizontal with the help of clop screw. Repeat the
steps b & c to set the angle of depression ( ) AOA2.
2.

Round 2. Instr ument Face Left

a) If necessary, by the clip screw, bring the altitude bubble to the centre of its run
again.
b) Follow the sane procedure used for Round 1 Face right to obtain the angles

3.

& .

The average of the two values (Face right and Face left) thus obtained, gives the value of
the required angle free from instrumental errors.

A1

A2

G
Fig. 3.

OBSERVATIONS & CALCULATIONS:

TABLE 3:
Face Right
Inst.
at
O

Sight
to

C
0

' "

D
0

' "

Right Swing
Vert.
Mean
Angle
0

' "

' "

Face Left
C
0

' "

D
0

' "

Left Swing
Vert.
Mean
Angle
0

' "

Remar ks

' "

A
A1
A2

Note: It is desirable that a number of vertical angles of var ying magnitude above and below the
horizon are measured for practice.

RESULT:
Angle of elevation ( )

Angle of depression ( ) =

2. THEODOLITE TRAVERSING (GALES TRAVERSE TABLE)

AIM:
To plot the given traverse by theodolite traversing with the help of Gales
traverse table.

INSTRUMENTS:
Theodolite and its accessories, Ranging Rods & Tape

PROCEDURE:
It is required to plot a closed traverse ABCDE as show n in fig. 4.
1.

Set up the theodolite instrument over station A and level it accurately. Set the horizontal
angle to zero and fix line of sight towards arbitrary meridian.

2.

Direct the telescope towards station B and observe the bearing of the line AB. Set the
0

back bearing by adding or subtracting 180 . Enter the readings in Table 4.

3.

Shift the instr ument from station A to station B and level it accurately and sight to A with
the help of lower clamp screw. From the station B, obser ve the bearing of the line BC.

4.

Repeat the step 2 & 3 same for the successive lines and observe the bearings of CD, DE
and EA.

E
Fig. 4

OBSERVATIONS & CALCULATIONS:

1.

From the obser ved bearings, compute the interior angles of the traverse.

2.

Add all the included angles. Check that the if included angles must be equal to (2n 4)
right angles, w here n is the number of sides of a traverse.

3.

If not, find out the error in angle and distribute the error equally to all the sides.

4.

Calculate the whole circle bearings of the other lines from the observed bearing of the
first line and the corrected included angles.

5.

From the whole circle bearings of the lines, deduce the reduced bearings (R.B.) of the
lines and determine the quadrants in which the lines lie.

6.

From the given lengths and the calculated reduced bearings of the lines, compute their
latitudes and departures (consecutive coordinates)

7.

Add, all northings and all southings and find the difference between the two sums.
Similarly obtain the difference between t he sum of all eastings and the sum of all
westings.

8.

Obtain the corrected consecutive coor dinates by taking corrections to latitudes and
departures either by Bowditchs rule / Transit r ule given below.
a) Bowditchs Rule,
Correction to latitude or depar ture of any side

(Total error in latitude or depar ture

length of that side) /
perimeter of traverse
b) Transit r ule,
Correction to latitude of any side

=
(Total error in latitude

latitude of that

side) / Arithmetical sum of all latitudes

Correction to departure of any side

=
(Total error in departure

departure of

that side) / Arithmetical sum of all

departure
9.

From the corrected consecutive coordinates, obtain the independent coordinates of the
lines, so that they are all positive, the whole of the traverse thus lying in the first
quadrant (N.E.)

10. Finally, plot the traverse by taking independent coordinates.

TABLE 4:
Cons. Coord.
Inst.

Sight

stn.

to

Line

Length
(m)

Obs.
bearings
(W.C.B.)

Inc.
angles

Correc.
Correc.

bearings
(W.C.B.)

R.B.

Lat.

Quadrant

Correc.
Correc.

Dep.

Ind.

Cons.

coordinates

coordinates

Remarks

RESULT:
A closed traverse ABCDEA is plotted with the values obtained in Gales traverse.

10

3. DISTANCE BETWEEN TWO INACCESSIBLE STATIONS

AIM:
To determine the distance between two in accessible points by horizontal
angle observations with both faces.

INSTRUMENTS:
Transit Vernier Theodolite and its accessories & Ranging Rods.

PROCEDURE:
It is required to find the horizontal distance between two in accessible points P & Q as
shown in fig. 5.
1.

Select base line CD of suitable length so that all points are intervisible.

2.

Set up theodolite at C and level it.

3.

Keep face left, and 0

tangent screw.

0' 0" on vernier. A Bisect P exactly using lower clamp and lower

Release upper clamp and take right swing and bisect point Q exactly

using upper tangent screw. Read both the Verniers A and B and get the mean w hich
gives the angle PCQ ( 1). Enter the readings in Table 5. Release upper clamp, turn the
telescope towards D and bisect it exactly using upper tangent screw and vertical circle
tangent screw. Read both verniers A and B and get the mean, w hich gives the angle PCD
( 2). Knowing angle, PCQ & PCD the angle QCD ( 3) can be found. Change the face of
the instr ument at C and repeat the whole process. Arrive at average values of angles 1,
2&

4.

3.

Now shift the instrument to the point D. Set up over it and level it.
Keep 0

0' 0" on A vernier, bisect exactly point C using lower clamp and lower tangent

screw and also vertical circle clamp and vertical circle tangent screw.

Keep the

instrument in the face right position. Release upper tangent screw. Note the two vernier
readings A and B. The mean value gives the angle CDP ( 4).
Release upper clamp, tur n the telescope towards point Q and bisect exactly using upper
tangent screw. Read the two vernier readings and take mean value which gives angle
CDQ ( 5). From the know n mean value of angle CDQ and CDP, angle PDQ ( 6) can be
computed.

11

P
7

6
5

1
2

D
Fig. 5

OBSERVATIONS & CALCULATIONS:

TABLE 5:
Face Right
Inst.
at
C

Sight
to

A
0

' "

B
0

' "

Right Swing
Horz.
Mean
Angle
0

' "

' "

Face Left
A
0

' "

B
0

' "

Left Swing
Horz.
Mean
Angle
0

' "

P
Q
D

C
P
Q

Distance CD (measured)

=
CD / sin 7 = PC / sin 4
PC = (CD sin 4) / sin 7

From triangle QCD

CD / sin 8 = QC / sin 5
QC = (CD sin 5) / sin 8
From triangle CPQ
2

PQ

= PC

+ QC

2 PC. QC. Cos 1

From which PQ is calculated.

RESULT:
Horizontal distance between two inaccessible P & Q =

' "

Remar ks

12

4. TRIGONOMETRICAL LEVELLING : BASE ACCESSIBLE

AIM:
To find the elevation of the top of a spire/tower/building (Q) using the
principle of trignometerical levelling.

INSTRUMENTS:
Transit Vernier Theodolite and its accessories, Tape & Levelling Staff.

PROCEDURE:
It is required to find the elevation (R.L.) of the top of a tower Q from the instrument
station P as shown in fig. 6.
1.

Set up theodolite at P and level it accurately with respect to the altitude bubble. See that
0

the vertical circle reads 0 0' 0" when the line of sight is horizontal.
2.

Direct the telescope towards Q and bisect it accurately, clamp both the plates. Read the
vertical angle

3.

1 and enter the readings in Table 6.

Plunge the telescope and sight to the same point Q and take the vertical angle ( 1).
Calculate the a verage of the vertical angles measured in both faces.

4.

With the vertical vernier set to zero reading and the altitude bubble in the centre of its
run take the reading on the levelling staff kept at A.B.M. Let it be S.

A
S

Q1

A.B.M.

D
Fig. 6

13

OBSERVATIONS & CALCULATIONS:

TABLE 6:
Face Right
Inst.
at
P

Sight
to

C
0

' "

Right Swing
Vert.
D
Mean
Angle
0
0
0
' "
' "
' "

Face Left
C
0

' "

D
0

' "

Left Swing
Vert.
Mean
Angle
0
0
' "
' "

Staff
intercepts
(m)

Remar ks

R.L. of

A.B.M.

Distance between the instrument station (P) and the given point (Q)
From triangle QAQ1,

h = D tan

R.L. of Q = R.L. of A.B.M. + S + h

RESULT:
R.L. of the given point Q =

14

5. TRIGONOMETRICAL LEVELLING : BASE INACCESSIBLE

(SINGLE PLANE METHOD)
AIM:
To find the elevation of the top of a building Q using the principle of
trignometerical levelling with the instrument stations hav ing their vertical axes in the
same plane as the object.

INSTRUMENTS:
Transit Vernier Theodolite and its accessories, Tape & Levelling Staff.

PROCEDURE:
It is required to find the elevation (R.L.) of the top of a building Q from the instrument
stations P & R as show n in fig. 7.
1.

Set up theodolite at P and level it accurately with respect to the altitude bubble. See that
the vertical circle reads 0

2.

0' 0" when the line of sight is horizontal.

Direct the telescope towards Q and bisect it accurately, clamp both the plates. Read the
vertical angle

3.

1 and enter the readings in Table 7.

Transit the telescope so that the line of sight is reversed. Mar k the instr ument station R
on the gr ound along the line of sight. Measure the distance between P & R accurately.
Let it be b repeat the steps (2) and (3) for both face obser vations. The mean values
should be adopted in the calculations.

4.

With the vertical vernier set to zero reading and the altitude bubble in the centre of its
run take the reading on the levelling staff kept at A.B.M. Let it be S 1.

5.

Shift the instr ument to R and set up the theodolite there. Measure the vertical angle
to Q with both face obser vations.

6.

Repeat step (4) and R and to the same A.B.M. Let the reading at R be S 2.

15
Q

h1

B
S2

S1

Q1

Q'

A.B.M.

h2

Q"

P
b

Fig. 7

OBSERVATIONS & CALCULATIONS:

TABLE 7:
Face Right
Inst.
at
P

Sight
to

C
0

' "

Right Swing
Vert.
D
Mean
Angle
0
0
0
' "
' "
' "

Face Left
C
0

' "

D
0

' "

Left Swing
Vert.
Mean
Angle
0
0
' "
' "

Staff
intercepts

S1

Remar ks
R.L. of
A.B.M.

S2
Horizontal distance between P & R

h1 h2 = S 2 S 1 = S
D =S

b tan 2 / (tan 1 tan 2)

h = D tan 1
R.L. of Q = R.L. of A.B.M. + S 1 + h1
or
R.L. of Q = R.L. of A.B.M. + S 2 + h2
Note : use + sign if S 2 > S 1 and use ve sign if S 2 < S 1 in the expression of D.

RESULT:
R.L. of the given point Q =

16

6. TRIGONOMETRICAL LEVELLING : BASE INACCESSIBLE

(TWO PLANE METHOD)
AIM:
To find t he R.L. of the top of an object, when the base of the object is
inaccessible and the instrument stations are not in the same vertical plane as the
elevated object (double plane method) by Trigonometrical levelling.

INSTRUMENTS:
Transitmeter, Theodolite and its accessories, Levelling Staff, Tape, Ranging Rod & Pegs.

PROCEDURE:
Let P and R be the two instrument stations which are not in the same vertical plane as
that of the elevated object Q as show n in fig. 8. P and R are should be selected such that the
triangle PQR is a well conditioned triangle.
It is required to find out the elevation of the top of an object Q.
1.

Set up the instr ument at P and level it accurately with respect to the altitude bubble.
Bisect the point Q and measure the angle of elevation

2.

1. Enter the readings in Table 8.

Sight to point R with reading on horizontal circle as zero and measure the horizontal
angle RPQ1 ( 1) from P.

3.

Take a back sight S on the staff kept at A.B.M.

4.

Shift the instrument to R and measure

5.

Measure the distance between two instr ument stations R and P (equals to b)

2 and

2 from R.

17

Q
B
2

h1

h2

b
A

Q'
Q"

Q1
P

A.B.M.

D
Fig. 8

OBSERVATIONS & CALCULATIONS:

TABLE 8:

S.

Inst.

Sight

No

Stn

to

Hor izontal circle

Avg.

Vertical circle

reading

Horz.

reading

A
0

P
R

'"

B
0

Mean

'"

angle
0

'"

'"

C
0

'"

'"

(m)

reading

Remar ks

'"
S

R.L. of

(from P)

A.B.M.

R.L. of

(from R)

A.B.M.

= D tax 1

From triangle PRQ1, angle PQ1R =

0
3 = 180 ( 1 + 2)

By applying sine rule,

=

(RQ1 / sin 1)

(RP / sin 3)

PQ1 = D = b sin 1 / sin ( 1 + 2)

And

Mean

Staff

From triangle AQQ' h1

(PQ1 / sin 2)

Dist.

RQ1 = b sin 1 / sin ( 1 + 2)

h1 = D tan 1 or h2 = RQ1 tan 2

R.L. of Q = R.L. of A.B.M. + S + h1
Or
R.L. of Q = R.L. of A.B.M. + S (from B) + h2

RESULT:
R.L. of the given station Q

18

7. TACHEOMETRY (STADIA HAIR METHOD)

AIM:
To find the R.L. of an elevated object, when the line of sight is inclined and the
staff is held vertical by using Tacheometry (Stadia Hair method).

INSTRUMENTS:
Tachometer and its accessories (Theodolite), Tape, Pegs & Levelling Staff.

PROCEDURE:
It is required to find the R.L. of an elevated object (Q). It may be the top of building /
water tank / top of hill point.

1.

Set up theodolite (also called as tachometer) over a station P.

Level the instrument

accurately.
2.

Keep a levelling staff over a point (Q) in ver tical position.

3.

Direct the telescope towar ds the levelling staff and take the stadia hair readings (top,
central & bottom).

Also take the vertical angle ( ) corresponding to the central hair

reading and enter the readings in Table 9.

D'

D
C
B'

h
V

Q
A
Q'
S1

P
A.B.M.

Fig. 9

19

4.

Make the telescope horizontal by keep 0 0' 0" in the vertical circle take back sight S 1 on
A.B.M.

OBSERVATIONS & CALCULATIONS:

TABLE 9:
Face Right
Inst.
at
P

Sight
to

C
0

' "

D
0

' "

Right Swing
Vert.
Mean
Angle
0

' "

' "

Face Left
C
0

' "

' "

Left Swing
Vert.
Mean
Angle
0

' "

' "

Axial
readings
(Staff
intercepts)

Remar ks
R.L. of
A.B.M.

A.B.M

Horizontal Distance

K.S. Cos

Vertical Distance

K.S. Sin2 / 2 + C. Cos

R.L. of B.M. + S 1 + V h

R.L. of the staff station P

+ C. Cos

Where S is the difference between top and bottom axial readings.

RESULT:
R.L. of the given staff station

m.

Note: Take the values of tacheometric constants K & C are 100 & zero respectively.

20

8. TACHEOMETRY (TANGENTIAL METHOD)

AIM:
To find the R.L. of an elevated object using Tacheometry (tangent ial met hod).

INSTRUMENTS:
Tachometer and its accessories, Levelling Staff, Ranging Rod & Tape.

PROCEDURE:
It is required to find the R.L. of an elevated object Q as shown in fig. 10.
1.

Set up the theodolite instrument over the station P and level it accurately.

2.

Keep a levelling staff vertically over the point Q.

3.

Mark any two vanes or targets on the levelling staff with a know n distance say 0.5 m or
1.0 m.

4.

Direct the telescope towards the leveling staff and observe the vertical angles made by
the tw o targets (say

1 and

2) with respect to the horizontal and enter the readings in

Table 10.
5.

Keep a levelling staff over a known A.B.M. and take the staff reading (S 1).

B
S
C
r
Q
1

Q'
S1

P
A.B.M.

Fig. 10

21

OBSERVATIONS & CALCULATIONS:

TABLE 10:
Face Right
Inst.
at
P

Sight
to

C
0

' "

Right Swing
Vert.
D
Mean
Angle
0
0
0
' "
' "
' "

Face Left
C
0

' "

D
0

' "

Left Swing
Vert.
Mean
Angle
0
0
' "
' "

Central
hair
readings

Remar ks

R.L. of

A.B.M.

A.B.M

Vertical angle to the upper vane ( 1)

Vertical angle to the lower vane ( 2)

Difference between the two vanes (S)

difference of two central hair

readings taken

Staff reading on A.B.M.

(S 1)

Height of the lower vane above foot of the staff =

Horizontal distance from the instrument station P to the staff station Q = D = S/(tan
Vertical distance from the instrument axis to the lower vane = V = D tan 2
R.L. of the staff station P = R.L. of A.B.M. + S 1 + V r

RESULT:
R.L. of the given station Q =

Note: Use + if

1>

2, use if

1 <

tan 2)

22

9. GRADIENT BETWEEN TWO STATIONS BY TACHEOMETRIC

LEVELING
AIM:
To find the gradient between the two stations by Tacheometric levelling.

INSTRUMENTS:
Tachometer and its accessories, Levelling Staff & Tape

PROCEDURE:
It is required to find the gradient between the A.B.M. and elevated object Q s show n in
fig. 10 (refer the experiment 8). After finding out the horizontal distance, vertical distance, R.L.
of the staff station Q adopt the following procedure further to find the gradient.

1.

When the instrument is at P, measure the horizontal angle QPR ( 1) as shown in fig. 11
and enter the readings in Table 11.

2.

Shift the instrument to point R (A.B.M.) and take the horizontal angle QRP ( 2).

3.

Measure the distance between the instrument station P and R (A.B.M.) let it be b.

Q
d
3

R
(A.B.M.)

P
Fig. 11

23

OBSERVATIONS & CALCULATIONS:

TABLE 11:
Face Right
Inst.
at
P

Sight
to

A
0

' "

Right Swing
Horz.
B
Mean
Angle
0
0
0
' "
' "
' "

Face Left
A
0

' "

Left Swing
Horz.
B
Mean
Angle
0
0
0
' "
' "
' "

Remar ks

R.L. of

A.B.M.

Q
P

Let d be the distance between R & Q

0
3 = 180 ( 1 + 2)

Applying sine rule for the triangle PRQ,

b / sin 3 = D / sin 2 = d / sin 1
calculate d
Gradient fr om B.M. to Q = Difference in elevation between A.B.M. and elevated object
Q / Horizontal distance
= (R.L. of Q R.L. of B.M.) / d

RESULT:
The gradient between the two stations

24

10. CURVE TRACING (SIMPLE OFFSET METHOD)

AIM:
To set a simple curve by simple offset method (Linear).

INSTRUMENTS:
Chain / Tape, Pegs & Ranging Rods.

PROCEDURE:
1.

Locate the tangent points T 1 & T 2 and find out their chainage. Calculate the length (c) of
the first sub-chord so that the first peg is the full station.

2.

With zero mar k at T 1 spread the chain (or tape) along the first tangent to point A, on it
such that T 1 A1 = C = length of the first sub chord as shown in fig 12.

3.

With T 1 as centre and T 1 A1 as radius, swing the chain such that the arc A 1 A = calculate
offset O1. Fix the point A on the cur ve.

4.

Spread the chain along T 1 A and pull it straight in this direct on to a point B2 such that
the zero of the chain is at A and the distance AB2 = C = length or the normal chord.

5.

With zero of the chain centered at A and AB2 as radius, swing the chain to a point B such
that B2 B = O2 = length of the second offset. Fix the point B on the cur ve.

6.

Spread the chain along AB and repeat the spreads (4) and (5) till the point of tangency
2

(T 2) is reached. All intermediate offsets will be equal to C /R, while the last offset will be
equal to c'/2R (C + c').

25

O2

O1 A

A'

B1 B
C2
C1

T1

C3

O
Fig. 12

CALCULATIONS:
Length of I offset
II offset

O1 = C1 / 2R
O2 = C2 / 2R (C1 + C2)
O3 = C3 / 2R (C2 + C3)
On = Cn / 2R (Cn-1 + Cn)

RESULT:
A simple curve of radius R is set by offset method.

Note: 1. The last point so fixed must coincide with the point of tangency (T 2) fixed originally by
measurements from the vertex.
2.

If the closing error is more, curve must be reset.

3.

If the error is less, it should be distributed to all the point by moving them side ways
by an amount proportional to the square of their distance from the point T 1.

26

11. CURVE SETTING (DEFLECTION ANGLE METHOD)

AIM:
To set a simple curve by Rankines method of deflect ion angles

INSTRUMENTS:
Transit Vernier Theodolite and its accessories, Arrows, Tape & Ranging Rods.

PROBLEM:
0

Two tangents intersect at chainage 592m, the deflection angle being 20 40'. Calculate
the necessary data for setting out a simple cur ve of 150m radius, if it is intended to set out the
curve by Rankines method of deflection angles. Peg inter val being 20 m.
Details of the Curve:
Radius of curve

150 m

Deflection angle

20 40'

Chainage of intersection

592 m

Length of tangent (T)

R tan ( /2)

Chainage of T 1

564.65 m

Length of curve (L)

Chainage of T 2

618.75

Length of normal chord

st

() 27.35 m

/ 180)

(+) 54.10 .

20 m

Length of 1 sub chord

570 564.65

5.35 m

Length of last sub chord

618.75 610

8.75 m

No. of normal chords

2 nos.

Tangential angle for 1st sub chord 1

1718.9 (C1/R) minutes

(1718.9

61.30'

Tangential for normal chord

5.35 ) / 150
=
=

1' 18"

40' 16"

1718.9 (20 / 150)

100.269'

27

Tangential
angle ( )
0
'
"
1
1
18

Total tangential
angle ( )
0
'
"
1
1
18

Theodolite
reading
0
'
"
1
1
20

Inst.
at

Sight
to

T1

1st Pt

Lengt h of sub
chord
(m)
5.35

2nd

20

59

28

59

28

59

40

3rd

20

48

38

48

38

48

40

8.75

10

28

54

10

28

54

10

th

29

PROCEDURE:
1.

Set the theodolite at the point of cur ve T 1 as shown in fig. 13. Level it with both plates
clamped to zero, direct the theodolite to bisect the point of intersection (V). The line of
sight in this direction is that of the rear tangent.

2.

Release both lower and upper clamp screws and set angle

1 (deflection angle for first

point on the curve) on the ver nier. The line of sight is directed towards first point of the
curve.
3.

With zero and of tape pinned on T 1 and an arrow held at a distance of the first sub-chord
length along it, swing the tape around T 1 till the arrow is bisected by the cross hairs.
Thus the first point is fixed on the cur ve.

4.

Set the second deflection angle

2 on the vernier so that the line of sight is directed

towards second point.

5.

With the zero end of the tape pinned at the established first point on the curve, and
arrow held at distance of 20m along it, swing the tape till the arrow is bisected by cross hairs, thus fixing the second point on the curve.

6.

Repeat the steps (4) and (5) till the last point T 2 is reached.
The last point so located must coincide with the point of tangency (T 2) fixed
independently by measurements from the point of intersection.

If the discrepancy is

small, last few pegs may be adjusted. If it is more the w hole curve should be reset.

28

20 40'

4
3
2
1

T1

T2

R = 150m
A

O
Fig. 13

RESULT:
Simple curve of radius 150m is set in the field.

Note: 1. The curve can be set as a left hand curve or a right hand curve.
2.

The example given is not necessarily for practice. A different example can be taken
depending on local conditions.

29

12. GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM (GPS)

INTRODUCTION:
GPS, which stands for Global Positioning System, is the only system today able to show
us our exact position on the ear tn any time, in any weather, anyw here. It is one of the history's
most exciting and revolutionary development which was developed to meet military needs of the
Depar tment of Defence; but new ways to use its capabilities are continually being found.

What is GPS ?
GPS is a collection of 24 satellites which orbit 12000 miles above the earth's surface,
constantly transmitting the precise the time and their position in space. They provide highly
accurate worldwide positioning and navigation information 24 hours a day; as they are
continuously monitored by ground stations located worldwide. The satellites transmit signals that
can be detected by any one with GPS receiver. As GPS receiver is either on (or near) earth's
surface; and thus listen in on the information received from three to twelve satellites and from
that determine the precise location of the receiver, as well as how fast and in what direction it is
moving.

How GPS works ?

The principle behind GPS is the measurment of distance (or range) between the re ciever
and satellites. The working can be explained like this: If we know our exact distance from a
satellite in space, we know we are somewhere on a surface of an imaginary sphere with radius
equal to the satelite radius. If we know our exact distance fro m the two satellites: than we are
located some where on the line where two spheres intesect. And if we take the third
measurement, there are only two possible points where we could be located. One of these is
usually impossible, and the GPS receivers elliminate that impossible location using mathematical
methods.

What GPS uses to determine location on Earth ?

GPS uses the triangulation of signals from the satellites to determine location on earth.
GPS satellites know their locations in space and receivers can determine their distance from the
satellite by using the travel time of radio message from the satellite to the receiver.
After calculating its relative position to atleast three or four satellites, a GPS receiver can calculate
its position using triangulation. GPS satellites have four highly accurate atomic clocks on board.

30
They also use the database (frequently updated from the earth) of the current and expected
positions for all the satellites in determining the location on the earth.

What are the elements of GPS?

GPS has three parts : The Space Segment, The User Segment and The Control Segment.
Space Segment:
The Space segment consists of 24 operational satellites in six orbital planes (four
satellites in each plane). The satellite operate in circular 20200 Km orbits at an inclination angle
of 55 degrees and with a 12-hour period. The satellite orbits repeat almost the same ground
track (as the earth turns beneath them) once each day. The orbit altitude is such that the
satellites repeat the same track and configuration over any point approximately each 24 hours.
This constellation pr ovides the user with between five and eight Space Vehicles visible from any
point on the earth.

User Segment:
The user segment consists of antennas and receivers - processors that provide
positioning, velocity and precise timing to the user. GPS receivers convert Space Vehicles signals
into position, velocity, and time estimates. Four satellites are required to compute the four
dimensions of X, Y, Z (position) and Time. GPS receivers are used for navigation, positioning,
time dissemination, and other research. Navigation in three dimensions is the primary function of
GPS. Navigation receivers are made for aircraft, ships, ground vehicles, and for hand carrying by
individuals. Precise positioning is possible using GPS receivers at reference locations providing
corrections and relative positioning data for remote receivers. Surveying, geodetic control, and
plate tectonic studies are examples. Time and frequency dissemina tion, based on the precise
clocks on board the SVs and controlled by the monitor stations.
GPS can be used to measure atmospheric parameters.
Control Segment:
The Control Segment consists of a system of tracking stations located around the world.
The control segment in addition of having five Monitor Stations also consists of three Ground
Antennas, and Master Control Station (MCS) located at Schriever Air Force Base (formerly Falcon
AFB) in Colorado. The monitor stations passively track all satellites in view, accumulating ranging
data. T his information is processed at the MCS to determine satellite orbits and to update each
satellite's navigation message. Updated information is transmitted to each satellite via the Ground
Antenna.

31

What are the capabilities of GPS ?

GPS, worldwide satallite based radio navigation system was developed to meet the
military needs. But, new ways to use its capabilities are rapidly being explored. They are as
follows:
During construction of the tunnel under the English Channel.
GPS is helping to save lives. Many police, fire and emergency medical service units are
using GPS receivers to determine the police car, fire truck or ambulance nearest to
emergency, enabling the quickest position response in life or death situations.
Automobile manufacturers are offering moving map display guided by GPS receivers.
GPS technologies are also used for outdoor adventures like hiking, biking, hunting and
boating. GPS is an excellent tool to help you to locate specific position.
GPS products have been also explored in sur veying and natural mapping.
It is also monitored for land use planning, urban planning and zoning.
Relief workers could have used photographs by GPS to track refugee movements to plan
deliver y of food supplies.
There can be various other purposes like environmental analysis, oil and gas explorations,
agricultural monitoring, insurance and risk management, emergency preparedness and
disaster assessment and so on.

What are the positioning services used by GPS ?

Standard Positioning Service (SPS):
The standard positioning and timing service w hich is available to all GPS users on a
continuous, worldwide basis with no direct charge .SPS is provided on GPS L1 frequency which a
coarse aquisition code and a navigation data message.
SPS Predictable Accuracy
100 meter horizontal accuracy
156 meter ver tical accuracy
340 nanoseconds time accuracy
These GPS accuracy figures are from the 1999 Federal Radionavigation Plan. The figures
are 95% accuracies, and express the value of two stan dard deviations of radial error from the
actual antenna position to an ensemble of position estimates made under specified satellite
elevation angle (five degrees) and PDOP (less than six) conditions. For horizontal accuracy figures
95% is the equivalent of 2drms (two- distance root-mean-squared), or twice the radial error
standard deviation. For ver tical and time errors 95% is the value of two-standard deviations of
vertical error or time error. Receiver manufacturers may use other accuracy measures. Root-

32
mean-square (RMS) error is the value of one standard deviation (68%) of the error in one, two or
three dimensions. Circular Error Probable (CEP) is the value of the radius of a circle, centered at
the actual position that contains 50% of the position estimates. Spherical Error Probable (SEP) is
the spherical equivalent of CEP, that is the radius of a sphere, centered at the actual position,
that contains 50% of the three dimension position estimates. As opposed to 2drms, drms, or RMS
figures, CEP and SEP are not affected by large blunder errors making them an overly optimistic
accuracy measure.
Precise Posit ioning Service (PPS):
The precise positioning ser vice (PPS) is a highly accurate military positioning, velocity and
timing service which will be available on continuous worldwide basis to the authorized user with
cryptographic equipments and keys and specially receivers. Government agencies and selected
civil users specially approved by the gover nment can use the PPS.
PPS Predictable Accuracy
22 meter Horizontal accuracy
27.7 meter ver tical accuracy
200 nanosecond time accuracy

33

13. MICRO-OPTIC THEODOLITE

INTRODUCTION:
Micro Optic theodolite is a kind of precision angle-measuring instrument. It plays a very
important role in geodetic sur vey and engineering measurement, therefore it is widely used in
third-order triangulation, building, roadwor k, pipe laying, tunnelling, mining, cadastral survey as
well as machine tooling and installation, etc. The lease count of micro-optic theodolite is 1".
Main Parts of theodolite (Refer figures 14, 15, 16, 17 & 18):
1. Objective

2. Illumination mirror

3. Press button

4. Cover for index error adjusting screw

5. Optical sight

6. Lever

8. Bayonet ring

7. Vertical clamp

9. Eyepiece of microscope

10. Eyepiece of telescope

11. Focussing sleeve

12. Adjustment screw

13. Plate level

14. Circle drive

15. Horizontal clamp

16. Foot screw

17. Optical plummet

18. Cover

19. Horizontal drive

20. Circular bubble

21. Adjustment screw

22. Horz. circle drive

23. Vertical drive

23. Change-over knob

24. Micrometer knob

25. Adjustment screw

26. Hole

27. Positioning pin

28. Clamping screw

Fig. 14

34

Fig. 15

Fig. 17

Fig. 16

Fig. 18

35
Method of Operat ion:
This instrument can be used with a three-groove tribach or a socket tribach. Since the
circle drive knob (22) is embedded into the tribach, it is necessar y that the positioning pin (28)
pass thr ough the hold (27) in the tribach before the alidade fits into the tribach. Only by this, the
circle drive can be set properly. Slacken the clamping on tribach before lifting out the alidade
screw (29).
1. Centering:
a) Center ing with the plumb bob
Extend tripod legs so that instr ument will be at comfor table height. Tread tripod shoes firmly
into ground.
Open the container. Lift out instrument, place on tripod and with one hand still holding the
instrument, attach by means of tripod fixing screw. Rotate the footscrews (16) to centre the
circular bubble, slacken ce ntral fixing screw and move over tripod plate until plumb bob is
exactly over ground mark. Retighten fixing screw.
The instr ument can be centered under a plumb bob suspended from a roof or ceiling point,
by lining up the tips of the plumb bob with the small point at the centre of the optical sight.
0

Before doing this the instrument must be levelled-up and the telescope horizontal (90 0' 0").

b) Center ing with the optical plummet:

For precision centering, the optical plummet is used.

Turn eyepiece (17,18) of optical

plummet until cross hairs are in focus. Slacken tripod fixing screw and move instrument over
0

tripod plate until cross hairs coincides with ground mar k. Turn the alidade through 180 and
check centering. Re-centre and relevel if necessary.
2. Levelling up:
a) Levelling up with the plate level:
With horizontal clamp open, turn alidade so that plate level (13) is parallel to the line joining
any two footscrews A and B, by equal and opposite rotations. Turn the footscrew until the
0

plate bubble is in centre of its run. Turn the alidade through 90 in clockwise direction and
centre the bubble with the third footscrew C. turn the alidade once again so that the plate
level is parallel to the first 2 footscrews A and B and check if the bubble is in ce ntre. Rotate
the alidade by 180 deg. and check if the bubble is in centre of its run. Repeat the procedure
till the bubble is in centre of its run in all four positions of the alidade. The plate level must
be protected from direct sun rays as these may cause the bubble to run off.

Note if the

bubble is out by more than 1/2 division, then only adjustment is required, if not, adj ustment
is not required.

36
b) Levelling up with the automatic index:
Provided the instrument set-up is very stable. It is possible to level up with the assistance of
the automatic index.

With this method, levelling up to about

1"

2" is possible, it is

especially useful for horizontal angle measurement with steep sights and for plumbing. Level
up with plate level then proceed as follows:
i.

With alidade in any position, tighten vertical clamp and then read vertical circle.
Vertical clamp and drive must not be touched.

ii.

Turn alidade through 180 , read ver tical circle, compute the mean, of the vertical
circle readings taken in steps a and b. Now, set micrometer to give the minutes
and seconds of this mean reading.

iii.

Turn alidade until telescope is parallel to the line joining any two footscrews, A and B.
Turn A and B ver y carefully, by equal and opposite rotations, until the circle
graduation lines in top window of reading micr oscope coincide. That is until mean
vertical circle reading calculated in step b is set.
0

iv.

Turn alidade through 90 , turn footscrew C until circle graduation lines coincides.

v.

Repeat until graduation lines are in coincidence for all positions of the alidade, i.e.
until ver tical circle reading remains constant.

3. Sighting
a) Focussing:
Point telescope to sky or an uniformly light sur face. Turn eyepiece (10) until cross hairs are
sharp and black. The dioptric scale now indicates the correct setting for the obser vers eye.
Note reading for future setting. Slacken horizontal and vertical calmps. Point telescope to
target by means of optical sight. Tighten clamps. Look through telescope eyepiece and turn
focussing sleeve (11) until target is seen. Set cross hairs close to target by turning sleeve
until tar get image is shar p and free from parallax. If there is parallax remove by adjusting
the focussing slightly. During obser vation, no further focussing is allowed.
4. Circle Reading:
Both the horizontal circle and ver tical circle are read in the microscope. The illumination
mirrors (2, 14, 17) directs light to the circles.

The change-over knob is used to select the

required circle. In the left window is the micrometer scale. Turn the eyepiece (9) of microscope
until the reading is shar p and black.
a) Hor izontal circle reading:
Slacken horizontal and ver tical clamps (7, 26 & 15), tur n the alidade.
target by means of optical sight (5).

Tig hten clamps.

turning horizontal and vertical drives (19, 22 & 23).

Point telescope to

Set cross hairs close to target by

37
Turn the change-over knob to its stop, so that the white line on the knob is horizontal. Open
and turn the mirrors towards the light so that the field o f view of the reading microscope is
evenly illuminated.
The eyepiece of the reading microscope is turned until the circle graduation lines are in focus.
The cover is then opened and the circle drive (14, 22) turned until the required reading
appears. The cover is now closed to prevent any accidental displacement of the circle.
The micrometer knob (25) must now be turned until the graduation lines coincide exactly
when the micrometer scale is turned. To avoid damage do not exer t to much pressure, on
the micr ometer knob (25).
Note: The last turn of the knob should be clockwise.
In the central part of the top window are seen the whole degree numbers. Below this is the
number for tens of minutes. In the left par t of the screen the micrometer scale is seen the
numbers for minutes are on the left of the scale and tens of seconds on the right of the scale.
The value of one scale interval is 1".

149

150

151

Fig. 19
0

From the fig. 19 the reading in the horizontal circle is 150 01' 54"
0

Reading in the top window 150 00'

Reading in the left window 1' 54"
b) Vertical Circular Reading:
Turn the change-over knob anticlockwise to its stop until the w hite line is vertical, open and
turn the illumination mirrors towards the light so that the field of view of reading microsco pe
is evenly illuminated. The vertical circle is read in exactly the same way as the horizontal
circle.

38

From the fig. 20 the reading in the vertical circle is 74 47' 16"
0

Reading in the top window 74 40'

Reading in the left window 07' 16"

74

75
4

Micro- meter
scale

Fig. 20

Vernier sca le