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Heat Transfer
Modern solutions for
optimum efficiency

E X P E R T I S E

S O L U T I O N S

S U S T A I N A B I L I T Y

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Contents
1.0

Executive Summary

2.0

Effective heat transfer is at the heart of almost every process

3.0

Types of heat exchanger

3.1

Shell and tube

3.2

Plate and frame heat exchangers

3.3

Plate and shell heat exchangers

3.4

Corrugated tube heat exchangers

3.5

Shell and coil heat exchangers

3.6

Heat Pipe heat exchangers

4.0 Controlling steam heat exchangers

4.1 Condensate control maximises heat transfer

4.2

Tackling heat exchanger stalling

5.0 Spirax Sarco heat transfer solutions

5.1 Plate and shell heat exchangers (PSHE)

5.2

5.3

Exhaust vapour condensers (EVC)

EasiHeat heat transfer systems

5.4 Related systems support effective heat transfer

6.0 Conclusion

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1.0 Executive Summary

Effective energy transfer is a basic prerequisite for

However, its important to have a sound grasp of the

the success of many industrial processes, as well as

basics of energy transfer and steam plant operation

underpinning building services for space heating and

in order to specify systems correctly and prevent

hot water. The foundation of most energy transfer

problems cropping up later. In the case of users for

applications in industry is the heat exchanger.

whom steam lies outside the scope of their core

activities, bringing in expertise from external steam

Steam is the most efficient and flexible energy transfer

specialists can help to ensure that their heat transfer

medium and there is a range of heat exchanger

installations provide optimised, reliable service for

technologies available that can provide reliable

years to come.

service across a wide variety of different applications.

Whats more, the exchangers at the heart of energy
transfer are increasingly supported by advanced
controls and other innovations such as pre-fabricated
systems that make it far easier to optimise their
performance.

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2.0 E
 ffective heat transfer is at the heart of almost
every process
Whether energy is needed for an industrial process or

Meanwhile, effective control enables the thermal

for space heating, effective energy transfer underpins

energy transferred to vary flexibly to match the

the operations of almost every organisation.

changing demands of the process. Not only does this

link closely with energy efficiency, but it can also affect

At its most basic, heat transfer is concerned with two

production efficiency by impacting on parameters

things: temperature and the flow of thermal energy

such as product quality and waste.

from a heat source to a heat sink. On top of this,

there are two requirements that any successful heat

Thermal energy can be transferred via convection

transfer technology must provide: efficiency and

(e.g. air currents), radiation (e.g. from a flame or

control.

other radiant element) and conduction (e.g. from

steam to hot water via a pipe wall or plate). Of these,

Energy efficiency determines what proportion of

conduction is the most widespread and versatile

the energy entering the process ends up where its

approach and can be applied using a number of

needed. Its key to minimising the carbon footprint of

different heat exchanger technologies.

the process and reducing operating costs.

Heat transfer: the basics

The heat transfer coefficient is the proportionality coefficient between the heat flux (the rate of
transfer of heat across a surface) and the thermodynamic driving force for the flow of heat (i.e. the
temperature difference).
h=

q
T

where
h : heat transfer coefficient (W/m2.oC)
q : heat flux (W/m2)
T : difference in temperature between the heat source and sink (oC)
The best heat exchangers will have a high heat transfer coefficient determined by several factors,
including the construction material and the flow regime of the fluids.

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Steam: an ideal energy transfer medium

There is good reason why steam is the heat transfer vehicle of choice across a vast range of
industrial sites and other establishments, such as hospitals.
Its cost efficient. For example, electricity currently costs roughly three times more per kilowatt hour
in the UK and Ireland than natural gas. By choosing the right boiler, steam users have the flexibility
to use the fuel supply of their choice to match their needs.
Water has a very high specific heat capacity, making steam one of the most efficient energycarrying fluids, able to transport a large amount of energy in a small mass. As a comparison, steam
at 6 bar g would need only a 40 mm bore pipe to carry the same amount of energy as an 80 mm
bore pipe carrying low temperature hot water (LTHW) with an input/output temperature drop of
11C. To put this into perspective, 20 m of 80 mm bore pipe will contain 100 kg of water, while the
weight of 6 bar g steam filling the same pipe bore and length would be about 0.37 kg, or 99.63%
less weight than water. The demands on mechanical installation of plant are much less.
Steam is produced by the evaporation of water, which is a relatively inexpensive and plentiful
commodity that is environmentally-friendly.
Its also flexible. Modern steam distribution systems can supply steam to even the most
inaccessible places on site, delivered at a temperature and pressure to suit the process. Its
temperature can be adjusted accurately by the control of its pressure.

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3.0 T
 ypes of heat exchanger
Heat exchanger technology has evolved substantially in recent years and is now available in a range of
configurations to suit different applications. Heat exchanger types can be divided broadly as follows.

3.1 Shell and tube

Shell and tube heat exchangers (or calorifiers) used

The minimum practical temperature difference

to be the norm in most applications and are still very

achieved in a typical shell and tube exchanger by the

common in heavy industries such as oil, gas and

time the fluids exit the unit (known as the approach

petrochemicals, where they are well-suited to high-

temperature) will not usually be less than 5C.

pressure applications. They are also used widely

in hospitals to provide heating and domestic hot

The shell is typically pressurised and will therefore

water services. However, they are gradually being

require an annual insurance inspection involving

superseded by more compact and energy efficient

a comprehensive and time-consuming strip-down.

alternatives.

This also applies to all the related technologies listed

below that include a pressurised shell.

The shell is a pressure vessel containing a bundle of

tubes. One fluid flows through the shell and the other
through the tubes. Each fluid enters the exchanger
at a different temperature and heat passes between
them through the tube walls as they flow through the
process.
Secondary fluid out
Steam in

Tube bundle

Condensate out

Secondary fluid in
Shell and tube

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3.2 Plate and frame heat exchangers

There is no pressurised shell and the volume of liquid

Standard plate heat exchangers (PHEs) are

in a PHE is very low, so this is one type of exchanger

increasingly popular in applications that transfer heat

that does not generally require an annual insurance

between medium- and low-pressure fluids, although

inspection as long as it is fitted with a spray/

more specialised welded, semi-welded and brazed

splash guard as the system is self-relieving, which

versions can be used with high-pressure fluids.

significantly reduces downtime and maintenance

costs.

In place of tubes passing through a shell, PHEs are

built from a series of corrugated metal plates that are

3.3 Plate and shell heat exchangers

held together to form channels through which the two

A plate and shell heat exchanger combines PHE and

heat transfer fluids flow in alternating layers of the

shell and tube heat exchanger technologies.

sandwich. A standard plate stack is spaced using a

series of gaskets, which are usually the limiting factor

The heart of the exchanger contains a fully welded

when it comes to high-temperature/high-pressure

circular plate pack, with nozzles carrying flow in and

applications.

out (the plate side flow path). This assembly sits in

an outer shell that creates a second flow path (the

The plates produce an extremely large surface

shell side).

area relative to physical size, which promotes very

effective heat transfer. Each chamber is only a few

This plate and shell combination offers high heat

millimetres across so the majority of the volume of

transfer, compact size, low fouling and a close

each liquid contacts the plate. The corrugated troughs

approach temperature. It is also able to cope with high

also promote turbulent flow. Both of these features

pressures and temperatures without leaking, thanks

encourage greater heat transfer, even at low flow

to the all-welded plate pack that eliminates the use

rates, and help prevent fouling.

of gaskets that may leak under high pressure. As this

type of heat exchanger includes a pressurised vessel,

The approach temperature achievable with PHEs can

it would typically need annual inspections.

be as low as 1C. They are also far more compact

than shell and tube exchangers when performing the
same duty. This means that they suffer lower heat
losses, boosting energy efficiency by as much as
6% compared to shell and tube heat exchangers.
Sub-cooling of the condensate can increase energy
efficiency even further.

Plate and frame heat exchangers

Plate and shell heat exchangers

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3.4 Corrugated tube heat exchangers

These are a variation on traditional shell and tube
exchangers. They have corrugated tubes to create

Service

greater turbulence and this delivers a substantial

increase in heat transfer compared to smooth tube
heat exchangers.
Improved heat transfer translates into a smaller
heat transfer area for the same duty, which in turn
means more compact heat exchangers. In fact, some
manufacturers claim that the performance of a two- or
four-pass smooth tube design can be achieved in a

Product

single pass in a corrugated tube exchanger.

Shorter tubes and/or fewer passes also result in a
lower pressure drop across the exchanger, which
saves on pumping costs, while the increased

Corrugated tube heat exchangers

turbulence also makes corrugated tube exchangers

more resistant to fouling than smooth tube versions.
This helps to maintain the heat exchangers efficiency
and can reduce maintenance costs.

3.5 Shell and coil heat exchangers

Shell and coil heat exchangers are built from circular
layers of helically corrugated tubes inside a compact
shell. The fluid in each layer flows in the opposite
direction to the layer surrounding it, producing a
criss-cross pattern.
The large number of closely packed tubes creates a
significant heat transfer surface, while the alternate
layers create a swift uniform heating of fluids and
increase the total heat transfer coefficient. The
corrugated tubes produce a turbulent flow, which
improves heat transfer and resists fouling. This helps
to maintain the heat exchangers efficiency and can
reduce maintenance costs.
As this type of heat exchanger includes a pressurised
vessel it would typically need annual inspections.

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Shell and coil heat exchangers

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3.6 Heat Pipe heat exchangers

Vacuum tube

Heat Pipes work on a different principle from the

other heat exchange technologies already discussed.
However, recent advances in their design and
manufacture mean that they are starting to make

Heat out

inroads into certain applications, such as heat

Condensation

recovery from exhaust gases.

Heat Pipes are sealed vacuum tubes with one end in

Separation
plate

the hot stream and other in the cold stream. They

Evaporation

contain a working fluid, and its the constant cycle of

evaporation and condensation as the working fluid
moves around the sealed tube that transfers thermal

Heat in

energy from one stream to the other.

Heat transfer fluid

The Heat Pipe is normally positioned vertically (but

can operate effectively at 4 from the horizontal) with
the lower end of the tube sitting in the hot stream.
The working fluid evaporates and rises to the top of
the tube, which sits in the cold stream. The working
fluid then condenses, giving up heat to the cold
stream and running back down the vacuum tube to
begin the cycle again. The working fluid is chosen
to suit the temperature range for the particular
application.
The big advantage of heat pipes is their great
efficiency in transferring heat. For example, a heat
pipe can transfer up to 1,000 times more thermal
energy than copper, the best known conductor, with
a temperature drop of less than 17C along a 30 cm
length.

Heat Pipe heat exchangers

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4.0 C
 ontrolling steam heat exchangers
With the exception of heat pipes, all the different types

Condensate control also cannot be used in

of exchanger described are most often controlled

applications with quickly varying demand, such as

in a similar way, by sensing the temperature of the

domestic hot water (DHW) systems. It is more suited

secondary fluid (often water) emerging from the unit

to applications that require a small rate of change of

and using a valve to modulate the primary fluid (the

flow such as Low Temperature Hot Water (LTHW).

incoming flow of steam) to the exchanger accordingly.

Also, demand on the secondary side should never fall

below 20% of the design flow conditions.

A fully independent high-limit cut-out should be

fitted in accordance with Health & Safety Executive

Heat exchangers controlled in this way generally offer

recommendations to protect people or equipment

reliable, trouble-free operation, but there are some

should the water temperature exceed a set limit.

issues common to all types of heat exchanger that

operators should look out for.

The transfer of energy from the steam routinely

results in the generation of condensate in the heat

4.2 Tackling heat exchanger stalling

exchanger, and under normal operations this is

Heat exchangers of any type can stall when the

removed via a steam trap.

condensate is not removed effectively and builds

up internally. Typical symptoms of heat exchanger

4.1 Condensate control maximises

heat transfer

flooding include banging and crashing noises coming

An alternative control method to modulating the steam

waterhammer. Plate heat exchangers are more

flow into the heat exchanger is condensate control,

resilient with only a modest risk of waterhammer

which keeps the input steam pressure constant and

occurring. Other symptoms could include erratic

instead adjusts the flow of condensate coming out of

temperature control and corrosion caused by

the exchanger. This varies the amount of condensate

condensate collecting inside the unit, leading to leaks.

from shell and tube heat exchangers caused by

inside the exchanger to control its heat transfer area

and hence its heat transfer rate.

Stalling happens when the pressure in the heat

exchanger is less than or equal to the back pressure

Condensate control allows the condensate to be

on the steam trap, often occurring when demand

maintained at a sub-cooled temperature of 95C to

from the heating process falls due to a change of flow

extract the maximum amount of useful heat from the

rate. When this happens, the control valve reduces

steam and avoids any potential flash steam plumes.

the steam pressure accordingly and this may reach

a level thats too low for the steam trap to clear

Plate and frame, vertical shell and coil, and plate

the condensate effectively. The risk of stalling is

and shell heat exchangers can all be used with

increased when the condensate is discharged against

condensate control. However, shell and tube heat

a lift in the pipework after the steam trap.

exchangers are not well suited to condensate

control because their rigid construction makes them
susceptible to the thermal stresses caused by the
temperature difference between the hot incoming
steam and cooler condensate held inside. This can
lead to thermal fatigue and heat exchanger failure.

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Controller

Control valve

Secondary
flow out

Vacuum
breaker

Steam in

Condensate
discharge
against a lift or
backpressure

Heat exchanger

Secondary
flow in

Steam trap

Controlling steam heat exchangers

Such variable loads can occur in batch industries like

The best protection against stalling heat exchangers

food, brewing, pharmaceuticals and fine chemicals. In

is prevention by good system design and by fitting

a hospital, a heat exchanger for space heating may

measures to solve the problem. For example, a

be rated to keep the wards warm in the coldest winter,

vacuum breaker could be fitted, but this works by

so it spends much of its life running at relatively low

allowing air into the system, which increases the risk

loads. The load on an exchanger serving a domestic

of corrosion. A better solution is to fit an automatic

hot water system will also vary according to demand.

pump trap to ensure condensate is always cleared

under even the most demanding conditions see
panel Automatic pump traps solve the issue of heat
exchanger stalling.

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Automatic pump traps solve the issue of heat

exchanger stalling
Automatic pump traps from Spirax Sarco use plant steam to provide the motive power to pump out
condensate. Condensate enters the trapping chamber and, if there is no back pressure, it flows
freely through the chamber and into the condensate return system.
However, if back pressure prevents the condensate from leaving normally, the pump traps
condensate outlet closes. Condensate continues to flow into and fill the chamber. A mechanical
float rises with the condensate level until a snap action mechanism opens a steam inlet valve. The
resulting steam pressure in the chamber forces out the condensate and the float falls until it reengages the pump mechanism. This closes the steam inlet and the cycle is repeated.

Exhaust

Exhaust

Condensate
inlet

Condensate
inlet

Condensate
outlet

Condensate
outlet

5.0 Spirax Sarco heat transfer solutions

Spirax Sarco offers a range of heat transfer solutions.

5.1 Plate and shell heat exchangers (PSHE)

5.2 Exhaust vapour condensers (EVC)

The Spirax Sarco EVC, based on the Turflow heat
exchanger, is a compact, corrugated tube heat

The PSHE range of heat exchangers provides

exchanger and uses flash steam from discharge

high heat transfer rates with a high pressure and

and exhaust vent pipework to pre-heat make-up

temperature operating range. They have no gaskets,

or process water thereby recovering valuable

are compact, low fouling and can operate at close

heat energy that would otherwise be lost to

approach temperatures.

atmosphere.

The PSHE has a very wide operating range with

The heat-exchange surface is made up of straight

capacities of up to 100 MW, and can operate at

corrugated tubes designed to generate turbulent

pressures up to 100 bar and temperatures up to 400C.

flows in low-viscosity fluids.

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5.3 EasiHeat heat transfer systems

and quality testing also translate into minimal onsite

The core business of most steam system operators is

disruption and rapid commissioning.

not, in fact, steam. For users such as hospitals, steam

is simply a way to heat their premises and generate

For users who might previously have relied on shell

the domestic hot water they need. The straightforward

and tube exchangers, the ability of EasiHeat systems

approach of the EasiHeat is ideal for this type of user.

to deliver heating and hot water on-demand and

without the need for hot water storage also offers

Spirax Sarco EasiHeat systems are built around

several advantages:

compact plate heat exchangers and are supplied

Ensuring a reliable supply of hot water at all times

skid-mounted, complete with everything they need

to work as efficiently as possible. Buying a complete
system saves time and effort during the specification
and design stages of a new installation, as well as

including challenging peak demand periods

Eliminating hot water storage promotes significant
energy savings through reduced heat losses
Eliminating hot water storage also helps protect

ensuring that all the components are designed to

against the possibility of a health and safety issue

work optimally together. Offsite, factory construction

with Legionella

EasiHeat systems: straightforward solutions

St Georges Hospital in Tooting is saving 45,000 per year by upgrading the heating and hot
water systems in one of its plant rooms to Spirax Sarco EasiHeat systems. The savings arise
from a combination of improved energy efficiency and reduced maintenance.
Switching its domestic hot water and heating from shell-and-tube calorifiers to EasiHeat systems
has delivered energy savings of at least 15% at Aberdeen Royal Infirmary. Replacing the
hospitals ageing shell and tube systems has also saved up to three weeks of maintenance work
each year, since the old systems had to be stripped down for regular insurance inspections.
Catalent Pharma Solutions has been gradually replacing its old heat exchangers over the
past five years, and now has nine EasiHeat systems in place. Spirax Sarco calculated that
Catalent could save 6,500 a year in energy costs by replacing a single 540 kW calorifier with
an EasiHeat.
A single EasiHeat system replaced two bulky shell and tube heat exchangers at
Murex Biotechs site in Dartford, which produces diagnostic tests designed to protect the
blood supply from infectious agents. The change delivered reduced maintenance and more
space in the plant room.
Chocolate manufacturer Bendicks (Mayfair) Ltd. now has an unlimited supply of hot water for
washing down its equipment, thanks to the installation of an EasiHeat system. The new system
has eliminated the disruptions that were caused by an unreliable hot water supply.

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5.4 Related systems support effective

heat transfer

The Spirax Intelligent Monitoring System (SIMS) is

FREME (Flash Recovery Energy Management

a control platform that enables EasiHeat performance

Equipment) is an innovative packaged system that

monitoring, diagnostics and communications. The

recovers all the energy in condensate and flash steam

technology delivers meaningful energy management

and uses it to preheat the feedwater to the boiler.

and system performance data to the user via a

FREME is a closed, pressurised system that enables

mobile device (SMS or e-mail), remotely over the

returned condensate to be fed into the boiler at much

Internet, or through compatibility with existing onsite

higher temperatures than a conventional system that

communication systems such as Ethernet, BACnet,

is open to atmosphere. This reduces the amount of

Modbus, Profibus, CANopen, EtherCAT, DeviceNet

work the boiler needs to do to raise steam, reducing

and others.

energy costs considerably.

Corrugated cardboard maker recovers flash steam

for 40,000 per year cost saving
A Spirax Sarco flash steam recovery system is saving Cambridgeshire-based Jardin Corrugated
Cases nearly 40,000 per year and has reduced the companys CO2 emissions by 282 tonnes
per year.
In its ongoing efforts to save energy and become a more environmentally-friendly operation,
Jardin Corrugated Cases decided to tackle an issue it had with flash steam escaping from its
11,000 m2 manufacturing site in Ely. Not only did the escaping plume of steam waste energy, but
it potentially created a poor environmental image.
Spirax Sarco was called in to help and designed an advanced flash steam recovery system,
which it then supplied, installed, commissioned and project managed.
At the heart of the new installation is a Spirax Sarco FREME system that ensures all the usable
heat in the condensate from the steam system can be returned to the boiler.
Spirax Sarco also provided automatic boiler blowdown controls with full heat recovery, boiler
feedtank insulation and a packaged pump system to ensure all condensate from the main
corrugator is returned for recovery.
As well as the savings in energy and carbon dioxide emissions, the system is saving water and
water treatment chemical costs for Jardin Corrugated Cases and has eliminated the need for
boiler operators to manually blow down the boilers each day saving manpower resources.

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6.0 C
 onclusion
Energy transfer is one of the fundamental

Spirax Sarco is the world leader in steam and energy

applications underpinning many industrial

solutions. We can support steam users and help them

processes, as well as providing building services

optimise their systems to achieve the best possible

such as heating and hot water. Steam is the most

energy and process efficiencies.

widespread and cost-effective medium for

transporting heat around many facilities, and the

Find out more

latest heat exchange technologies are significantly

To find out more about Spirax Sarco heat

improving energy efficiency, raising the reliability

transfer solutions:

of hot water supply, reducing maintenance and

protecting against Legionella.

e: ukenquiries@spiraxsarco.com
w: www.spiraxsarco.com/uk

Most heat exchangers that use steam as the primary

heating fluid are sturdy and reliable, although
problems can arise if a lack of understanding leads
to poor system design or incorrect specification. This
may be a particular issue for steam users who do
not have a high level of steam expertise within their
organisation, which is often the case where steam
systems are outside the scope of their core activities.
Hospitals are a good example.

t: 01242 521361

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Charlton House, Cheltenham,

Gloucestershire GL53 8ER
Tel: 01242 521361 Fax: 01242 573342
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