Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Quantity
Unit
Symbol
length
meter
(m)
mass
kilogram
(kg)
time
second
(s)
electric current
ampere
(A)
temperature
degree Kelvin
(0K)
force
Newton
(N=kg m/s2)
pressure
pascal
(Pa=N/m2)
stress
pascal
(Pa=N/m2)
work, energy
joule
(J=N m)
power
watt
(J/s)
frequency
hertz
(/s)
1-1
Prefix
Symbol
Multiply factor
peta
1015
tera
1012
giga
109
mega
106
kilo
103
centi
10-2
milli
10-3
micro
10-6
nano
10-9
pico
10-12
femto
10-15
1-2
a constant
<>
..
1-3
F = ma
The basic system of units would be represented by the mass (M), the length
(L) and time (T).
=
F
DV
+
V
D
16
ML
M L ML
2
T
L
LT T T 2
M L2
L3 T 2
L2
ML
T2
1-4
The volumetric flow rate Q through a hole, distance h from the liquid surface
and of diameter D, on the side of a tank as given by
2
Q
=
D
gh
0.68
3
L
T
3
2 L
L 2 L
T T
2
However, for whichever system of units that is being adopted, the equation
is only valid for the same liquid.
Example 1.1:
The drag force FD exerted on a car travelling at a constant speed V
depends on a dimensionless drag coefficient CD, the density of the air , the
car velocity V and the projected frontal area A of the car. Based on unit
consideration alone, obtain a relation for the drag force.
1-5
Solution:
FD depends on CD , , A, V
1
2
=
FD f=
V) 3
( CD , , A,V ) C
(
D ( ) ( A)
FD = CD ( )
( A) (V )
2
ML M 1 2 2 L 3 M 1 L31 + 2 2 +3
L)
=
=
2
3 (
T
T 3
L
T
1 = 1
2 3
=
=
2 1
1=
31 + 2 2 + 3
FD = CD ( )
= CD AV 2
( A) (V )
2
1-6
2. Characteristics of fluids
A solid is a substance which can resist a shear force even when at rest. The
shear force may result in some displacement but does not continue to move
indefinitely.
A fluid owes its shape to the container it is in and constrained by the forces
exerted on it.
1-7
1-8
Example 2.1:
At the molecular level, the diameter of an oxygen molecule is about 31010
m and its mass is 5.31026 kg. What is the average number of molecules in
a volume of 109 mm3 at the given pressure and temperature? What is the
average density of oxygen based on this volume?
1-9
1 - 10
The velocity of a fluid particle can now be defined to be the average of the
momenta of all the molecules constituting the particle divided by the mass
of the particle.
1 - 11
Example 2.2:
The velocity of a fluid particle is defined to be the average of the moment of
all the molecules constituting the particle divided by the mass of the particle.
Where the fluid particle consists of Ni molecules (i=1, 2, n) for the ith
substance in the particle, show that
Solution:
1 - 12
1 - 13
Water
Air
Mass density ()
103 (kg/m3)
Viscosity at 20C ()
10-3 (Pas)
10-6 (m2/s)
1.3 (kg/m3)
1.710-5 ( Pas)
1.310-5 (m2/s)
287 (J/kgK)
1000 (J/kgK)
715 (J/kgK)
1.4
2340 (N/m2)
2.25106 kN/m2
1 - 14
f ( x0 , t0 )
2 f ( x0 , t0 ) ( x )
x, t0 ) f ( x0 , t0 ) +
x +
+
f ( x0 +=
2
x
x
2!
f ( x0 , t0 )
f ( x0 , t0 ) +
=
x f ( x0 , t0 ) + f ( x0 , t0 )
x
2
For very small values of x, the higher powers (x)n for n > 1 will be very
much smaller and the right hand side of the expansion can be truncated,
thus incurring a truncation error which is expected to be very small also.
CE2134 Hydraulics Basic Concepts of Fluids
1 - 15
Example 4.1:
Water flows through a pipe of circular cross section at a steady rate. The
radius of the pipe is R. The flow velocity u(r) at a distance r from the
centreline is given by
u (r )
r2
= 1 2
um
R
What is the velocity of the flow at r = 0.5R? What are the velocities of the
flow at r = 0.52R using the formula given above and using Taylors
expansion?
Solution:
1 - 16
If we plot the velocity u for various points along z, we obtain the velocity
profile.
The term u/z is the inverse of the slope of the tangent at z and it is called
the velocity gradient. It represents that spatial rate of change of the velocity
with z.
1 - 17
Newton (1642-1727) postulated that when straight and parallel fluid flow
takes place, the tangential shear stress between adjacent fluid layers is
proportional to the velocity gradient in the direction perpendicular to the
layers.
u
u
=
z
z
1 - 18
Example 5.1:
The viscosity of a fluid is to be measured by a viscometer constructed of
two concentric cylinders of length l m. The inner rotating cylinder has a
radius of R m and the gap between the two cylinders is h m. The gap is
small such that the velocity profile in the gap is linear. The inner cylinder
rotates at a constant speed of N revolutions per minute (RPM) in the
counter clockwise direction and the torque measured is Nm. Define your
coordinate frame and derive the expression for the viscosity of the fluid.
Assume that the gap size is small such that the velocity profile across the
gap is linear.
Determine the viscosity of the fluid if l = 0.4 m, h = 0.0015 m, R = 0.12 m, N
= 300 RPM and = 1.8 Nm.
1 - 19
Solution:
1 - 20
Example 5.2:
The air hockey game at Rocky Recreation Room has pucks of mass 30 g
with a diameter of 100 mm. If the air hockey table is poorly installed with a
surface slope of 2 from the horizontal. A player fires a puck uphill, and the
velocity of the puck after the strike is 10 m/s. The air film under the puck is
0.1 mm thick. Determine its speed at the instant it passes the goal 2 m
away.
Solution:
1 - 21
1 - 22
There also exists a large class of non-Newtonian fluids where the viscosity
is not independent of the rate of deformation.
1 - 23
1 - 24
1 - 25
No real gas is perfect although their properties match quite closely with
those of the perfect gas. Most gases obey this equation quite closely.
1 - 26
Example 6.1:
Calculate the density of air when the absolute pressure and temperature are
respectively 140 kPa and 500C if R = 287 J/kg K.
A hydrogen filled balloon is to expand to a sphere 20 m diameter at a height
of 30 km where the absolute pressure is 1100 Pa and the temperature is 400C. If there is to be no stress in the fabric of the balloon, what volume of
hydrogen must be added at the ground level where the absolute pressure is
101.3 kPa and the temperature is 150C?
Solution:
1 - 27
Example 6.2:
An artificial atmosphere consists of 20% oxygen and 80% nitrogen by
volume at 1 atmosphere (standard atmosphere defined as 100 kPa) and
150C. What is the density and partial pressure of the oxygen and the density
of the nitrogen? R of oxygen is 259.8 J/kg K and R of nitrogen is 296.8 J/kg
K.
Solution:
1 - 28
The ability of the molecules to leave the liquid increases with temperature.
When this happens and there is residual liquid left, the space is said to be
saturated with the vapour of the liquid and the vapour pressure is called the
saturation pressure corresponding to the given temperature.
If there is no residual liquid in the container, that is, all the liquid have
evaporated in the container, the partial pressure of the vapour is less than
the saturation pressure for the given temperature.
1 - 29
1 - 30
Example 6.5:
(a) If water vapour in the atmosphere has a partial pressure of 3500 Pa and
temperature of 300C, what is its density?
(b) If the barometer reads 102 kPa abs, what is the partial pressure (dry) air
and what is its density?
(c) What is the density of the atmosphere (air plus water vapour present)?
Solution:
1 - 31
Example 6.6:
At approximately what temperature will water boil in Mexico City where the
elevation is 2256 m?
Solution:
1 - 32
7. Compressibility
All liquids are slightly compressible; however, under many situations, the
density changes associated with changes in pressure are very small.
The compressibility effects of liquids are taken into account only when there
are abrupt large changes in pressures. The bulk modulus K of a liquid is
defined by
p
K=
/
1 - 33
Gases, on the other hand, are generally compressible. However, they are
treated as incompressible when the associated density changes are again
very small as with some subsonic flows around buildings.
Example 7.1:
At normal atmospheric conditions, approximately what pressure must be
applied to water to reduce its volume by 2%?
Solution:
1 - 34
Example 7.2:
At normal atmospheric conditions, what is the change in the air pressure
when the percentage change in the mass density of the air is of the order of
1% given that the speed of a pressure wave in air is given by c = K /
and at normal atmospheric conditions it is of the order of 340 m/s?
Solution:
1 - 35
Adhesion forces act to hold two separate bodies together whilst cohesion
forces act to hold atoms, ions or molecules of the same body together.
Capillarity results from the combination of adhesion and cohesion.
For a water drop on a surface, both cohesion and adhesion occur but one is
stronger than the other.
Surface tension comes about from the forces between the molecules of a
liquid and the forces between the liquid molecules and those of the adjacent
substance.
1 - 36
If the water molecules are more strongly attracted to each other than with
the surface, they tend to bead up. The quantity of liquid will adjust its shape
until its surface area is a minimum.
A drop of liquid in free space will therefore take on a geometrical shape with
the minimum surface area (for stable equilibrium) and this shape is a
sphere.
If there is stronger attraction to the surface, they spread out as they try to
get closer to the surface material.
1 - 37
Water in contact with air has a surface tension of about 0.073 N/m at normal
temperature. For mercury, it is about 0.48 N/m. For all liquids, surface
tension decreases with temperature. Surface tension of water is reduced
when organic solutes such as soap and detergents are present.
1 - 38
D cos = g
D2h
4
4 cos 2 cos
=
h
=
gD
gr
2
r
( pi p0 ) =
CE2134 Hydraulics Basic Concepts of Fluids
1 - 39
When the bubble is in the air (like the soap bubble), the balance of forces
again consists of the downward force due to the pressure difference and
the resisting forces due to surface tension only that now the soap bubble
has 2 areas of exposure to the air, inside the bubble and outside the
bubble.
2 2
r2 ) =
r
( pi p0 ) (
circumference
projected area
4
r
( pi p0 ) =
1 - 40
Example 8.1:
An insect of mass M = 3106 kg rests on the water surface. The leg in
contact with the water surface may be approximated by a hemisphere of
radius r = 2105 m. If the surface tension of the water with the insect is
= 0.072 N/m, find the contact angle. An insect has 6 legs.
Solution:
1 - 41