Basics of wireline logs, its interpretation

and the physics behind it with special

reference to Gamma ray Logging

Contributed by:
Sujoy Mukherjee
Geologist

Contents
Page
1. Introduction

2. Basic well logs and their response to different types of formations

2-4

3. Application of Gamma ray logs

4 - 10

4. Basics of well log interpretation and the physics behind it

11 - 15

5. References

16 - 17

Introduction
In oil-field terminology, a log is a record made during or after drilling a well. It indirectly
gives a report on the geological formations penetrated.
Prior to drilling a well, a logging program is chosen with a suite of tools to be run that is
suitable for the target formation petrophysical properties, the engineering characteristics of
the hole (mud type, hole diameter,etc.), and the problems to be resolved by the tool
measurements. A logging company is chosen for the job. When the well approaches total
depth, the logging crew prepares for logging as the drill pipe is tripped out of the hole.
They lay the tool parts out on the catwalk, calibrate them, and assemble them into a tool.
When the drill-pipe has been removed from the hole, the tool is attached to a cable and
lowered down the hole. The length of the tool is variable , but can be anything between 6m
and 30m or more.
On reaching bottom, the depth is measured either from the ground or the Kelly
Bushing(KB) of the drilling platform, and compared with the drill crews estimate. First the
tool is raised through 30 to 60m in an initial recording pass, that creates the repeat
section. The tool is lowered back to the bottom and the main run initiated as the tool is
pulled up the entire hole (well). Comparison between the main run and repeat section are
made for a quality assurance of repeatability (precision). The field engineer checks this, as
does a company representative (the well site geologist or engineer), who also does other
quality checks on the final log.
The logging tools are pulled up at a uniform speed so as to maintain a fairly constant
tension in the steel cable. Sometimes the tool may get caught in the hole and (hopefully)
spring free, and these problem intervals will show on the tension log and warn that log
depths there will have some error.

Basic well logs and their response to different types of formations

Figure A
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Spontaneous Potential (SP) Logs (e.g SP.SPEA.009 in Figure-A)

This log measures the electrical current that occurs naturally in boreholes as a result of
salinity differences between the formation water and the borehole mud filtrate (formation
and surface). These logs are used as indicators of permeable beds (including determining
permeable sands and impermeable shales) or for locating bed boundaries. The SP log was
one of the first tools to be used to distinguish shale from sand in clastic sequences .

Gamma Ray Logs (e.g GR.SPEA.009 in Figure-A)

This log records the radioactivity of a formation. Shales (or clay-minerals) commonly have
a relatively high gamma radioactive response, and consequently gamma ray logs are taken
as good measures for grain size (and subsequently inferred depositional energy). Thus
coarse-grain sand, which contains little mud, will have low gamma ray value, while a fine
mud will have a high gamma ray value. The values range of gamma ray is measured in
API (American Petroleum Institute) units and range from very few units (in anhydrite) to
over 200 API units in shales.
Gamma ray logs are one of the most commonly used logs for sequence stratigraphic
analysis.

Resistivity Logs (e.g AT10.SPEA.009 & AT10.SPEA.009 in Figure-A)

This log measures the bulk resistivity (the reciprocal of conductivity) of the formation.
Resistivity is defined as the degree to which a substance resists the flow of electric current.
Resistivity is a function of porosity and pore fluid in a rock. Porous rock containing
conductive fluid (such as saline water) will have low resistivity. A non-porous rock or
hydrocarbon-bearing formation has high resistivity. This log is very useful for determining
the type of fluids in formations and is frequently used as an indicator of formation
lithology.

Neutron Logs (e.g NPOR.SPEA.009 in Figure-A)

This log measures the porosity of a formation, indicating in its response the quantity of
hydrogen present in the formation. The log is calibrated to limestone. The linear limestone
porosity units are calibrated using the API Neutron pit in 19% porosity, water-filled
limestone is defined as 1000 API units. This log is useful in measuring lithology (usually in
combination with Density Log).
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Density Logs (e.g DPHI.SPEA.009 in Figure-A)

This log is a measure of the formations bulk density and is mostly used as a porosity
measure. Different lithologies can also be determined using Density log based on returned
density value. For example, pure quartz will have a bulk density (g/cm-3) up to 2.65, coal
1.2-1.8, halite 2.05, limestone up to 2.75, dolomite up to 2.87, anhydrite 2.98.
Density is mostly commonly used in conjunction with Neutron logs to determine lithology
of formation (density-neutron suites such as Schlumberger FDC-CNL suite).

Sonic (acoustic) Logs

This log measures of the speed of sound in the formation, and is related to both the porosity
and lithology of the rock being measured. Thus, if the lithology of a formation is know,
this log can be used to determine its porosity. Shales have lower velocity (higher transit
time) than sandstone of same porosity, making this log a good indicator of grain size.
Sonic log values (in ms/ft) for some rock types are: sandstone 51-56, limestone 47.5,
dolomite 43.5, anhydrite 50, halite 67.

Applications of Gamma ray logs:Depth correlations and core-log integration

Total gamma-ray log curves, which are acquired with every toolstring combination, are
normally used to depth match all of the logs obtained in any one hole. The HSGR log from
the Triple Combo is used as the base curve, and the SGR logs from all the other toolstrings
are interactively matched to it. The depth shift applied to each SGR curve is propagated to
all other logs acquired by that toolstring.
Gamma ray data can also be used for core-log integration, by correlating the natural gamma
results from the whole core multisensor track (WC-MST) with the HSGR and SGR curves.
Furthermore, because the gamma ray log responds principally to fluctuations in the
formation's mineralogy, rather than physical properties such as lithification, it is
particularly useful for making regional, inter-hole comparisons between major
lithostratigraphic units (Figure 1).
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Figure 1: Regional correlation of major lithostratigraphic units, using total gamma

ray data from Leg 189.

Identification
environment

of

lithology,

facies

and

depositional

Naturally radioactive elements tend to have a far greater concentration in shales than in
other sedimentary lithologies, and therefore the total gamma-ray log and, in particular, the
corrected gamma-ray log (HCGR and CGR) and the Th log are frequently used to derive a
"shale volume" (see Ellis 1987 and Rider 1996). In addition, the shape of the gamma log
curve may be used to reconstruct downhole fluctuations in grain size, and infer changes in
sedimentary facies: the standard approach is to interpret bell shaped gamma curves as a
fining-upwards sequence and funnel shaped gamma curves as a coarsening-upward
sequence (Serra & Sulpice 1975). However, these methods are only likely to be of use in
simple sandstone/shale formations, and are subject to error when a significant proportion of
the gamma ray radioactivity originates from the sand sized detrital fraction of the rock (see
Heslop 1974 and Rider 1990).
Gamma ray data may also be used to help interpret the environment of deposition.
Unconformities can result in the accumulation of phosphatic nodules, which may be
evident in the spectral gamma log as an anomalous spike in U. Increased U values, and in
particular low Th/U ratios, may also be associated with marine condensed sequences
(Myers & Wignall 1987). Doveton (1991) used Th/U ratios to estimate paleo-redox
conditions at the time of deposition, which he used to identify generally transgressive and
regressive intervals.

Mineralogy / Geochemistry
The concentrations of the three main radioactive elements in the formation can often be
used to give an indication of the mineralogy and/or geochemistry. For example, high Th
values may be associated with the presence of heavy minerals, particularly in channel sand
deposits overlying an erosional unconformity. Increased Th values may also be associated
with an increased input of terrigenous clays (Hassan et al. 1976) (Figure 2) .
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Figure 2: Spectral gamma-ray data from Hole 1124C, showing high Th values in a
mudstone unit between 420-430 mbsf.

Increases in U are frequently associated with the presence of organic matter. For example,
particularly high U concentrations (>~5 ppm) and low Th/U ratios (<~2) occur in black
shale deposits (Adams & Weaver 1958). In the Ocean Drilling Program, a correlation can
often be observed between the U log and the total organic carbon values measured in the
core (Figure 3)
.

Figure 3: Spectral gamma-ray data from Hole 1172D, showing high U values in an
organic-bearing claystone unit between ~622-640 mbsf.

In sandstones, high K values may be caused by the presence of potassium feldspars or

micas (Humphreys & Lott 1990, Hurst 1990). Glauconite usually produces a very
distinctive, almost diagnostic spike in the K log (Figure 4).

Figure 4: Spectral gamma-ray data from Hole 1171D, showing high K values due to
the presence of glauconite.
In ocean floor volcanics, K can become significantly enriched in secondary alteration
minerals, which are typically found where the formation is more permeable and intense
fluid-rock interactions can occur (Brewer et al. 1992). An example of this can be seen in
ODP Hole 896A, where the lowest K values occur in relatively impermeable massive
flows, whereas higher and more variable K concentrations can be correlated with the more
permeable pillow lavas and breccias (Brewer et al, 1998).More quantitative attempts have
been made to derive a mineralogy from the spectral gamma-ray log, which generally
involve cross-plotting Th against K (Quirein 1982), PEFL against K (Schlumberger 1991),
or PEFL against Th/K (Schlumberger 1991). However, the validity of these methods is
questionable (Hurst 1990), and it is unlikely that they are applicable in a wide variety of
sedimentary environments.
Cyclostratigraphic analysis
Spectral gamma-ray data can also be used for cyclostratigraphic analysis of the formation,
to help identify the frequency of paleoceanographic and/or climatic change (Figure 5). Data
acquired by the recently developed Lamont Multisensor Gamma ray Tool will be
particularly valuable for time series analysis, due to its very high resolution (~8 cm).
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Figure 5: Spectral gamma-ray data (A) and preliminary spectral analysis (B and C)
from 1170D. The power spectrum show the results of spectral analysis over the entire
logged section (B) and the interval where the Th and K data show the most
pronounced cyclicity (C).

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Basics of well log interpretation and the physics behind it:The purpose of any Geophysical Log is to provide meaningful information about the
geological and physical conditions in and around a borehole. Many books have been
written on the subject of log interpretation. Fundamental Log Interpretation has not
changed in decades and will probably not change.
Every log should contain calibration information. Interpretation can then be based on
accurate and true measurements.
ELECTRIC LOG (E-LOG) INTERPRETATION:
Possibly the most important log that can be obtained is an E-log. A properly calibrated Elog will provide important information about Electrical Resistivity.
In addition to resistivity, Spontaneous Potential (SP) is obtained. SP will show lithology
and type of lithology in terms of sand or shale or clay and proportion of each.
Electrical Resistivity provides information about the fluid that is in the pore spaces within
the rock matrix in oil and water wells. Because electrical resistivity is controlled by ion
flow in liquids, the E-log will provide confirmation of the existence of water and water
quality, and/or hydrocarbon content of the rock matrix. The electrode spacing used on the
E-log tool is directly related to the depth of measurement. When multiple spacings are
used, resistivities of different depths are measured. It is possible to form conclusions on
invasion and permeability based on resistivity measurements made at two or more different
depths into the formation. If no invasion has occurred, then both shallow and deep curves
will read the same resistivity! If invasion has occurred, then the shallow resistivity will
reflect the resistivity of the invading mud filtrate and the deep resistivity will reflect the
formation fluid resistivity.
In a water well, higher resistivity in a saturated zone implies higher quality water.
The amount of water contained in a formation is directly related to porosity and also affects
formation resistivity. As the volume of water increases, the capacity for ions increases.
More ions means more conductivity.
Conductivity and Resistivity are inversely related.
Formation resistivity is affected by three factors: Salt Concentration, Temperature, Pore
volume (porosity).
Formation Resistivity Factor (F) is a fundamental concept in log interpretation and
analysis.
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Formation Resistivity Factor is a proportionality constant based on the ratio of Ro to Rw.

The equation is:

F = Ro/Rw

Ro is resistivity of a 100 percent water filled formation and Rw is resistivity of the water.
Given Rw = .05,
If Ro = 5.0 then F = 100
If Ro = 1.25 then F = 25
If Ro = .55 then F = 11
Archies equation relates Formation Resistivity Factor (F) to Porosity () as follows:
F = a / m
The constants (a) and (m) are related to lithology.
Cementation factor (m) in a cemented sandstone or a porous limestone is 2.0 and (a) is
equal to 1.0.
Resulting in the equation:
F = 1 / 2

Porosity of 10 percent results in a Formation resistivity Factor of 100

Porosity of 20 percent results in a Formation resistivity Factor of 25
Porosity of 30 percent results in a Formation resistivity Factor of 11
Notice these three Formation Resistivity factors are the same as calculated with F = Ro/Rw
above.
Resistivity curves should read the same and depart only where invasion occurs. They
should never cross-over.
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Summary:
A conclusion can be made that if deep and shallow measurements are the same, that no
invasion has taken place. If deep and shallow measurements are different, then invasion
has taken place. Invasion is an indication that a rock matrix is permeable. It is because of
the ability of the E-log to measure fluid content, fluid quality, lithology, and indirectly
permeability, porosity and formation factor that make an E-log the most useful logging
tool.
ACOUSTIC LOG INTEPRETATION:
An acoustic log (sometimes referred to as a sonic log) when properly calibrated, will
provide important information about the physical structure of a rock matrix. The ability of
sound to travel within and through rock or sand and gravel depends on the physical
structure of the matrix. The amplitude, speed and phase relationships of a transmitted
sound wave that returns to an acoustic receiver is a function of all of the combined matrix
densities, interconnections, cementation, fracturing, and porosities within the matrix.
Acoustic logs provide information related to transit time (density) and amplitude
(interconnection) of the material comprising the rock matrix. Surface Geophysics has for
many years used seismic reflection for determination of subsurface structure. Transit time
(t) through sandstone, limestone, water, and other materials have been determined in the
laboratory. Relationships between porosity and transit time are known. It is possible to
determine porosity of a given matrix if the transit time is known.
The equation for porosity () obtained from transit time (t) is:
= (t(log) t(ma)) / (t(f) t (ma))
Where t(log) = Measured t, t(f) = fluid t, t(ma) = assumed matrix t .
Fluid t is usually 200 microseconds per ft.
Sandstone has a t(ma) of 55 microsec/ft., Limestone is 47 microsec/ft., Dolomite 42
microsec/ft.
Shaly Sandstone can range from 57 to 70 microseconds/ft.
Areas having fractures including unconsolidated matrix can be inferred from an Acoustic
Log.
NEUTRON LOG INTERPRETATION:
A Neutron Log when properly calibrated (usually to an API standard) will provide
important information about the content of the pore spaces within a rock matrix. Neutrons
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emitted from a neutron source are slowed down and eventually captured through
interaction with hydrogen atoms. Once captured, a gamma ray of capture is created.
Neutron Logging tools are designed to respond to Thermal Neutrons or to Gamma Rays of
Capture.
Since Oil in its many forms (hydro-carbons) and water (H20) contain hydrogen a neutron
log will provide knowledge of the hydrogen in the pore spaces of the matrix. When more
hydrogen is present, more neutrons are captured, and fewer neutrons reach the neutron
detector. Conversely, lower porosity, neutrons travel farther and reach the detector,
increasing neutrons counted at the detector. In other words, increased fluid filled porosity
is related to lower neutron count.
Neutron porosity is calculated based on neutron tool response in known lithologies having
known porosity.
Tool response is specified in terms of API units. 1000 API units is assigned to any neutron
tool in a water filled hole of 7 7/8 inch diameter in Indiana Limestone having 19 percent
porosity. The API test well is located in Houston, Texas.
Each tool supplier develops a transform from API units to porosity for their own neutron
tools.
The general equation is: Porosity () = natural log (API Log counts * constant + constant)
Neutron Porosity at this point is based on a Limestone matrix (Indiana Limestone).
A correction to obtain porosity for a sandstone matrix is: Porosity (ss) = 0.95 ((n)) +
.035

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DENSITY LOG INTERPRETATION:

A Density Log when properly calibrated will provide reliable information about bulk
density. When density is known and a specific matrix is assumed then porosity of the
matrix may be determined. A mathematical relationship exists between measured density,
assumed matrix density with no porosity and the density of the material filling the pore
space. Water has a density of 1 gram per cubic centimeter. Sandstone with no porosity has
a density of 2.65 grams per cubic centimeter. If a sandstone matrix is assumed for
example, then a given density of 2.00 grams per cubic centimeter allows calculation of 40
percent porosity.
The equation for porosity () obtained from bulk density is: = (ma b) / (ma f)
Where b = Measured bulk density, f = fluid density, ma = assumed matrix density.
Sandstone has a density of 2.65 gm/cc, Limestone is 2.71 gm/cc, Dolomite 2.87 gm/cc.
NEUTRON BULK DENSITY CROSS-PLOT:
Combination of data from a Neutron Porosity Log and Bulk Density log can be helpful in
identification of Lithology. A chart is used that has the known relationship between
Neutron Porosity and Bulk Density for three matrices; Sandstone, Limestone, and
Dolomite. It is possible to determine ratio of Sandstone/Limestone and obtain a more
accurate porosity using the cross-plot chart. Results from the cross-plot chart should be
correlated with known lithological information.
AN ADDITIONAL BENEFIT:
If the Lithology is known to be a Sandstone and the cross-plot shows a Dolomite, then it is
possible one or both sets of log data are not properly calibrated. If the cross-plot shows
correlation, then it provides a closed loop between logging tool response and lithology.
SHALE VOLUME CORRECTION:
Porosity data should be corrected for shale content in the zone of interest. Porosity values
are optimistic when shale is present.
Depending on the value of Rmf/Rw, either the natural gamma data or SP data is used to
determine shale volume.
FORMATION EVALUATION:
After the appropriate corrections are applied, a realistic Formation Evaluation can be made.
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References
Adams, J.A. & Weaver, C.E. 1958. Thorium-uranium ratios as indicators of sedimentary
processes: example of concept of geochemical facies. Bulletin American Association of
Petroleum Geologists 42(2), 387-430.
Brewer, T.S, Pelling, R., Lovell, M.A. & Harvey, P.K. 1992. The validity of whole rock
geochemistry in the study of ocean crust: a case study from ODP Hole 504B. In: Parson,
L.M., Murton, B.J. & Browning, P. (eds), Ophiolites and their modern ocean analogues.
Geological Society of London Special Publication No. 60, 263-278.
Brewer, T.S, Harvey, P.K., Lovell, M.A., Haggas, S., Williamson, G & Pezard, P. 1998.
Ocean floor volcanism: constraints from the integration of core and downhole logging
measurements. In : Harvey, P.K. & Lovell, M.A. (eds), Geological Society of London
Special Publication No. 136, 341-362.
Doveton, J.D. 1991. Lithofacies and geochemical facies profiles from nuclear wireline
logs: new subsurface templates for sedimentary modelling. In: Franseen, E.K., Watney,
W.L., Kendall, C.J. & Ross, W. (eds), Sedimentary modelling-computer simulations and
methods for improved parameter definition. Kansas Geological Society Bulletin 233, 101110.
Ellis, D.V., 1987. Well logging for earth scientists. Elsevier, Amsterdam.
Hassan, M., Hossin, A. & Combaz, A. 1976. Fundamentals of the differential gamma ray
log interpretation technique. SPWLA 17th Annual. Symposium Transactions Paper 8, 1-7.
Heslop, A. 1974. Gamma-ray log response of shaly sandstones. Trans. SPWLA, McAllen,
Texas.
Hurst, A. 1990. Natural gamma-ray spectrometry in hydrocarbon-bearing sandstones from
the Norwegian Continental Shelf. In: Hurst, A., Lovell, M.A. & Morton, A.C. (eds),
Geological Application of Wireline Logs, Geological Society of London Special
Publication No. 48, 211-222.
Humphreys, B. & Lott, G.K. 1990. An investigation into nuclear log responses of North
Sea Jurassic sandstones using mineralogical analysis. n: Hurst, A., Lovell, M.A. & Morton,
A.C. (eds) Geological Application of Wireline Logs, Geological Society of London Special
Publication No 48, 223-240.
Quirein, J., Gardner, J.S. & Watson, J.T. 1982. Combined natural gamma ray
spectral/lithodensity measurements applied to complex lithologies. SPE 11143, 57th
Annual Fall Technical Conference and Exhibition of SPE and AIME, New Orleans, Sept.
26-29.
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Rider, M. 1990. Gamma-ray log shape used as a facies indicator: critical analysis of an
oversimplified method. In: Hurst, A., Lovell, M.A. & Morton, A.C. (eds), Geological
application of wireline logs. Geological Society of London Special Publication No 48, 2737.
Rider, M. 1996. The Geological Interpretation of Well Logs: Caithness (Whittles
Publishing).
Schlumberger, 1991. Log interpretation charts. SMP-7006, Schlumberger Wireline &
Testing.
Serra, O. & Sulpice, L. 1975. Sedimentological analysis of shale-sand series from well
logs. Transactions of the SPWLA 16th Annual Logging Symposium, paper W.
http://www.Ideo.columbia.edu/BRG/ODP/LOGGING/MANUAL/Pat

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