I.

A Globe of Regional Worlds

A. During the years from 1000 to 1300 people from distant regions borrowed ideas, tools, and
cultural norms

B. Contact and exchange reinforced the sense of difference across cultures and set up
bounded cultural worlds like "Europe," "China," or "India"

C. Areas that had remained apart found their own identities strengthen with little contact to
others

D. Paradox: the world was becoming more interconnected while its regions became more
distinct

II. Commercial Connections

A. Revolutions at Sea

1. By the tenth century, sea routes had eclipsed land routes for trade

a. Improved navigational aids

b. Refinements of shipbuilding

c. Better map making

d. Breakthroughs in commercial laws and accounting practices

2. Ships could carry much more than people and beasts of burden could

3. Compass was crucial to the maritime revolution

a. Invented by Chinese

b. Use of the device spread rapidly

c. Allowed sailing during cloudy weather

i. So opened up the Mediterranean during the whole year

d. Mapmaking easier and more accurate

e. Made oceans like the Atlantic easier to navigate

4. Shipping became less dangerous

a. Better vessels rigged with Lateen sails or Junks

b. Protection of political authorities

i. Karim, armed coveys to protect ships

5. Sea routes replaced land routes

a. New routes led to more global connections

b. Also created more divisions

B. Commercial Contacts

1. Agricultural development changed the nature of trade and transportation.

a. Irrigation

b. Crop rotation

c. New grain and grass crops

 d. Grew food in newer areas

e. Changes yielded surpluses that needed to be traded

2. Ships made it profitable to ship bulky commodities

C. Global Commercial Hubs

1. Long-distance trade created new commercial cities

2. Meeting points between two entrepôts became cosmopolitan

3. Three places emerged as major anchorages

a. Cairo-Fustat (old Cairo)

b. Quanzhou

c. Quilong

D. The Egyptian Anchorage

1. Cairo and Alexandria served as main maritime commercial centers with ties to
Indian Ocean

2. Numerous Muslims and Jewish firms (kin-based)

3. Silk yarn and textiles most commonly traded commodities

a. Zaytuni (satin) from Quanzhou

4. The trade cities prospered because Islamic leaders created sophisticated

commercial institutions

5. Karimi-protected fleets became postal carriers

6. Islamic legal system helped created a favorable trade environment

a. Laws against usury

b. Partnerships

E. The Anchorage of Quanzhou

1. Busiest trade city in China

2. More centralized with the Office of Seafaring Affairs

a. Taxed, registered, and examined cargo, sailors, and traders

b. Hosted annual ritual to summon favorable winds

c. Locals and foreigners sought protection from goddess Mazu

3. Junks-main ship used in Asia

a. Sailed to Java, through Strait of Malacca to Quilong on India's southwest

coast

b. Farther west, switched crew and cargo to the smaller Arabian dhows

c. Best ships in the world because of seaworthiness, size, and navigation

equipment

d. Not all sailors on junks were Chinese

4. Quanzhou's population diverse

 a. Foreign traders stayed on and ran successful businesses

b. Mixed except for religious worship

F. The Tip of India

1. Chola dynasty became a major power in south India

2. Eventually Muslim traders settled in southwest coast, and Quilon became a major
trade hub

3. Traders from China used Quilon as a midpoint to unload wares and pick up
passengers and commodities from the West

4. Sailors and traders strictly observed the customs of the city

5. Muslims were largest foreign community in the port

6. Animals-horses and elephants-along with spices, perfumes, and textiles

7. Traders knew each other and personal relationships were key to transactions

III. Regions Together, Regions Apart

A. Sub-Saharan Africa Comes Together

1. After 1000 C.E. sub-Saharan Africa ceased to be a world apart

2. Nowhere in Africa escaped the effects of the outside world

B. West Africa and the Mande-Speaking Peoples

1. Mande-speaking peoples emerged as the link within and beyond West Africa
because of their expertise in commerce and political organization

a. Mande is part of the larger Niger-Congo languages

b. Mande or Mandinka people's home was and is the area between the
Senegal and Niger rivers

2. By the eleventh century the Mande spread their cultural, commercial, and political
hegemony from the high grasslands of the savannah to the woodlands and tropical
rainforests

3. Mande and other groups developed centralized polities called sacred kingships

4. Trading networks already established with trading hubs before European explorers
and traders arrived

5. Most vigorous and profitable businesses were the ones that stretched across the
Sahara desert

a. Most prized trade item was salt mined in northern Sahel by the city of
Taghaza

b. Gold mined within the Mande homeland

c. Slaves were traded to the settled Muslim communities of North Africa and
Egypt

C. The Empire of Mali

1. Successor state to the kingdom of Ghana

a. Exercised political sway over a vast area up to the 1400s

 b. Malian Empire represented the triumph of horse warriors

i. Epic of Sundiata

c. Horses became prestige objects of the savannah peoples

2. Mali Empire was a thriving commercial polity by the fourteenth century

3. Malian Empire had two of the largest West African cities

a. Jenne, an ancient northern commercial entrepôt

b. City of Timbuktu founded around 1100 C.E. as a seasonal camp for

nomads

i. Two large mosques still extant

ii. Famous for its intellectual vitality because Muslim scholars

congregated to debate tenets of Islam

D. East Africa and the Indian Ocean

1. Eastern and Southern African regions were also integrated into long-distance
trading systems

a. Wind patterns made East Africa a logical endpoint for Indian Ocean trade

b. Swahili peoples living along the coast of East Africa became active brokers
with the peoples of the Arabian Peninsula, the Persian Gulf territories, and
India's west coast

c. Most valued trade commodity was gold

i. Mined between Limpopo and Zambezi rivers

ii. Mined by Shona-speaking peoples

2. Commercial integration of the Swahili and Shona peoples enabled products to flow
from the interior to the coast

a. A great meeting ground for trade was the island of Madagascar

i. Madagascar became one of the most intermixed and multicultural

places in the world

E. The Trans-Saharan and Indian Ocean Slave Trade

1. African slaves valued as much as gold

a. After Islam spread into Africa, sailing techniques improved through shared
technology

b. Slave trade across the Sahara and Indian Ocean boomed

2. This slave system was unlike the chattel slavery found much later in the Americas

a. Quran attempted to mitigate the severity of slavery by requiring slave

owners to treat their slaves with kindness and generosity

b. Quran praised manumission of slaves as an act of piety

c. African slave trade flourished under Islam, and slaves filled a variety of
roles in the slave-importing societies

i. Slaves were pressed into military duties

 ii. Some were valued for their seafaring skills and ended up as crew
aboard Muslim trading dhows

iii. Women mostly used for domestic servants

iv. Other enslaved women forced to be concubines of powerful Muslim

political figures and businessmen

v. Enslaved peoples worked on plantations, especially in lower Iraq

a. In the ninth century slaves revolted on those plantations

d. Slaves were prized for their labor and as status symbols for owners

e. These societies owned many slaves, but the economic forces and social
structures of the communities did not rely on mass ownership of human
beings like it did in the Antebellum American South

F. Islam in a Time of Instability

1. Islam had the same burst of expansion, prosperity, and cultural diversification that
had swept the rest of the Afro-Eurasian world

a. The peoples of Islam remained politically fractured even with their

common religious beliefs

b. The dream of trying to unify and centralize the rule of an Islamic state
ended in 1258 when the Mongols sacked Baghdad

2. Islam responded to instability by undergoing major changes

a. Commercial networks carried the word of the Quran

b. Islam became more open and embraced a variety of cultures

3. The world acquired another "core" region centered in what is now called the Middle
East

4. By the thirteenth century, India and China were the more technologically advanced
and prosperous agrarian societies

a. Trade was the main source of prosperity

G. Afro-Eurasian Merchants

1. Long-distance merchants most responsible for integrating Islamic worlds

2. Merchants were as diverse as their business

3. Long-distance trade surged because an advanced legal framework supported it

a. Mercantile community was self-policing because of the need to maintain

reputation

b. Customers and traders were confident agreements would be honored

thanks to partnerships, letters of credit, knowledge of local trade customs
and currency

H. Diversity and Uniformity in Islam

1. Muslim rulers and cleric had to deal with large non-Muslim populations
 a. Muslim rulers granted non-Muslims religious toleration if they followed
Muslim political authority

b. Non-Muslims had to pay a special toleration tax called the jizya

c. Non-Muslims had to be properly deferential to their rulers

i. Wearing special clothing

ii. Dismounting from their horses when passing important Muslim

leaders

d. Regulations shaped the dhimma system, which granted protection to

religious minorities

e. Religious tolerance helped make Islamic cities hospitable environments for

traders from around the world

2. Islam was an expansionist faith

a. Intense proselytizing carried the sacred word to new frontiers

b. Also spread Islamic institutions that supported more commercial

exchanges

3. Islam was not a uniform faith

a. Sufism as Islam's mystical movement

b. It was inside the Sufi brotherhoods that Islam became a religion to the
people

c. Sufi orders brought about massive converts from Christianity

d. The Mevlevi Sufi order is famed for the ceremonial dancing of its whirling
dervishes

I. Political Integration and Disintegration, 1050-1300 C.E.

1. From 950 to 1050, it appeared that Shiism would be a vehicle for uniting the whole
of the Islamic world

a. Fatimid Shiites in Egypt and North Africa

b. Abbadis state in Baghdad fell under Shiite Buyid family

c. Each created universities in Cairo and Baghdad, which ensured that Islam's
two leading centers of higher learning were Shiite

2. But divisions sapped Shiism as Sunni challenged Shiite power and established their
own strongholds

3. Sunni believers were mainly Turks who had migrated, not the Islamic central core
from the steppe lands

4. By the thirteenth century, Islamic core had fractured into three distinctive regions

5. Islam had splinted polities

J. What Was Islam?

1. Islam evolved from Muhammad's original goal of creating a religion for Arab
peoples
 a. Its influence spread across Eurasia and Africa

b. Some worried about Islam's true nature

c. Heterogeneity fostered cultural blossoming as was apparent in all fields of

higher learning

2. The most influential and versatile thinker was Ibn Rushd (1126-1198)

a. Ibn Rushd believed that faith and reason could be compatible

b. He believed that the proper forms of reasoning had to be entrusted to the

educated class-the ulama

3. By the fourteenth century Islam had become the people's faith, not a religion of the
minority

a. The agents of conversion were mainly Sufi saints and Sufi brotherhoods
and not the ulama

b. Sufism spoke to the religious beliefs and experiences of ordinary men and
women

IV. India Up for Grabs

A. Turks brought Islam to India, but it only added to the cultural mosaic

1. India became a trading, migrating, and cultural intersection of Afro-Eurasian

peoples-a nerve center for the political balance of the world

2. India had wealth but it remained splintered into the "rajas" clans

B. Invasions and Consolidations

1. Turkish warlords entered India

a. Mahmud of Gahzna was one such conqueror

b. He wanted to learn from the conquered in order to win status within Islam
and make his capital a great center of Islamic learning

2. Wars over control of the plains raged until one by one the fractured kingdoms fell

3. Land-bound Turkish Muslim regime of northern India was known as the Delhi
Sultanate (1206-1526)

a. Its rulers strengthened the cultural diversity and tolerance that were part
of Indian society and culture

b. The Delhi Sultanate was rich and powerful, which brought political
integration but did not enforce cultural homogeneity

C. What Is India?

1. The entry of Islam into India made more of a cultural mosaic, not less

2. The Turks cooperated to a point; they became Indians but retained their Islamic
beliefs

3. The sultans did not meddle with beliefs or culture and were content to collect the
jizya tax

4. Islam flourished even if it did not make many new converts

 a. As rulers, sultans granted lands to Islamic scholars, the ulama, and Sufi
saints

5. The Delhi sultans built strongholds to defend their conquests

a. Curves of domes, arches on mosques, tombs, and palaces formed in the

shape of lotus flowers were uniquely South Asian

b. Palaces and fortresses quickly evolved into prosperous cities

6. Although newcomers and locals lived in separate worlds, they blended their
cultures

7. When Vedic Brahmanism evolved into Hinduism, it absorbed many doctrines and
practices from Buddhism

a. With the Turk invasion in the thirteenth century, leading Buddhist scholars
retreated to Tibet and enhanced Buddhism there

b. Buddhist followers in India submerged in the Hindu population or

converted to Islam

V. Song China, 960-1279

A. A Chinese Commercial Revolution

1. China's commercial revolution during this period had agrarian roots

a. Agriculture benefited from new metalworking technology

b. China's farmers were able to employ new and stronger iron plows

2. Manufacturing flourished

a. By 1040, the first gunpowder recipes were being written down

b. Song entrepreneur invented an array of incendiary devices

c. Song artisans produced lighter, more durable, and more beautiful

porcelains

3. The Song Chinese brought about the world's first industrial revolution, producing
goods for consumption far and wide

4. The growth of commerce transformed the role of money and its worldwide
circulation

a. Song government was minting strings of currency

b. Merchants began to tinker with printed-paper certificates

5. Government began to print notes to pay its bills that ultimately led to runaway
inflation, which destabilized the Song regime

B. New Elites

1. Commercial revolution enabled Song emperors to privilege civilian rule over

military values

a. The Song undercut the powers of the hereditary aristocrat elites by

establishing a government by a central bureaucracy of scholar-officials

b. Chosen by the competitive civil service exam

 c. Civil officials were now drawn almost exclusively from the ranks of learned
men who eventually became ruling elite

C. Negotiating with Neighbors

1. As the Song flourished, nomads on the outskirts focused on their success

2. Eventually nomadic armies such as those of the Khitan and Jurchen saw China as
object of conquest

3. Song dynasts were weak because they had limited military power despite their
sophisticated weapons

4. China's strength in manufacturing made economic diplomacy an option

a. Paid tribute to groups on the fringes if they were defeated such as the Liao

b. Treaties allowed the Song to continue to live in peace

5. To keep up the payments and ensure peace, the Song government printed more
money, which led to runaway inflation and instability

D. What Is China?

1. Outsiders helped to define "Chinese" as the Han

a. Authentic Chinese valued civilian mores, especially those connected with

education

b. Being "Chinese" meant being literate-reading, writing, and living by codes

inscribed in foundational texts

2. The Chinese created the most advanced print culture

a. Private publishing industry expanded, and printing houses sprang up all

over China

E. China's Neighbors

1. Under its Song rulers, China became the most populist and wealthy of the world's
regions

2. Its population of more than 100 million in 1100 spread Chinese culture through
trade and migration

F. The Rise of Warriors in Japan

1. The pattern of regents ruling in the name of the sacred emperor was repeated
many times in Japanese history

a. Began in Heian period (794-1185)

b. New capital of Heian (today's Kyoto)

2. Intermarriage to the Heian imperial family helped the Fujiwara family consolidate
its power

a. The Fujiwara nobles presided over a refined Heian culture of flower and tea
ceremonies

3. Political marriages enabled the Fujiwara to control the throne

 a. The rise of large private estates (called shoen) shifted the balance of
power to regional elites in the provinces

b. By 1100 more than half of Japan's rice land controlled by large estates

4. Heian aristocrats ruled through political stealth and artistic style

a. Disdained the military

b. In the provinces, warriors attached to certain kinship groups gathered

strength

c. As incipient samurai, they forced local warrior organizations

5. Japan became the home to multiple sources of power

a. An aristocracy

b. An imperial family

c. Local warriors known as shoguns

6. It was an alliance between local potentates and military commanders under the
Kamakura shoguns who served as military proectors and brought Japan stability

G. The Cultural Mosaic of Southeast Asia

1. Southeast Asia, like India, became a crossroads of Afro-Eurasian influence.

2. The prosperity and cultural vitality of China and India spilled into Southeast Asia by
land and by sea

a. Thai, Vietnamese, and Burmese gradually emerged as the largest

population groups in the mainland region

3. Each population group borrowed what they could use in their own culture from the
Chinese

4. In the capital at Angkor, the Khmers created the most powerful and wealthy
empire in Southeast Asia

a. Water reservoirs enabled the Khmers to flourish on the great plain

b. Khmer kings used their military strength to expand kingdom into Thai and
Burmese states

5. Because of its strategic location, Malaaca became perhaps the most international
city in the world

a. Maritime commerce brought people to the area for trade

VI. Christian Europe

A. A World of Knights

1. When the Carolingian empire collapsed, northern Europe was left open to invasion
from Vikings

a. Left European peasants with no central authority to protect them from

warlords

b. Warlords with their weapons came to be the unchallenged rulers of society

2. Peasants faced subjugation to the knightly class

 a. Each peasant was under the authority of a lord who controlled every detail
of his or her life

b. Basis of a system known as "feudalism"

c. Feudal lords watched over an agrarian breakthrough

3. Western Europe's population increased, and by 1300 almost half of Europe's people
lived there

B. Eastern Europe

1. People emigrated to eastern frontiers of Europe to farm

2. Feudalism in eastern Europe was a marriage of convenience between migrating

peasants and local elites

a. Eastern Europe offered the promise of freedom from arbitrary justice and
imposition of forced labor

C. The Russian Lands

1. In Russian lands, western settlers and knights met an eastern brand of Christian
devotion

a. This world looked toward Byzantium

2. Its cities lay at the crossroads of overland trade and migration

a. Kiev became one of the greatest cities of Europe

b. Under Iaroslave the Wise, Kiev was rebuilt to become a small-scale

Constantinople on the Dnieper

i. Even had a miniature Hagia Sophia with a great dome

c. Message of the makeover city was political as well as religious because the
ruler of Kiev cast himself in the mold of the emperor of Constantinople

d. He was now called the tsar/czar from the name Caesar

e. Tsar remained the title of rulers in Russia

D. What Was Christian Europe?

1. Catholicism became a mass faith that transformed the emergence of a region called
"Europe"

2. Parish churches built all over

3. The clergy reached more deeply into the private lives of the laity

a. Marriage and divorce were now part of church business and not a private
affair

b. After 1215, regular confession to a priest was an obligation of all Christians

c. Franciscan instilled a new Europe-wide Catholicism based on daily remorse

and on the daily contemplation of the sufferings of Christ and his mother,
Mary

E. Universities and Intellectuals

1. Europe acquired its first class of intellectuals

 a. Formed a universities (union) first in Paris

b. Ability of the scholars to organize themselves gave them an advantage not

enjoyed by their Arab contemporaries

c. Scholars endeavored to show that everything came together to show

Christianity was the only religion that fully met the aspirations of all
rational human beings

i. Thomas Aquinas

2. The Europe of 1300 was more culturally unified than in previous times

a. Catholicism was more accessible and had permeated more intensively

b. Leading intellectuals extolled the virtues of Christian learning and thought

c. Not a tolerant place for heretics-Jews or Muslims

F. Traders and Warriors

1. Great trading hubs emerged in Venice and Genoa as trade from east and west
passed through those cities

a. Powerful families commanded trading fleets and used their deep pockets to
influence dealings far and wide

G. Crusaders

1. Rome and Byzantium both sought to gain the upper hand in the scramble for
European religious command; a blow to the infidel was a way to outdo each other

a. An unholy alliance evolved to push back the expanding frontiers of Islam.

2. During the eleventh century, western Europeans launched a wave of attacks

against Islam

a. The First Crusade began in 1095, under a call from Pope Urban II for
warrior nobility to put their violence to good use

b. Should combine their role as pilgrims and soldiers and free Jerusalem from
Muslim rule

c. New concept that there was such a thing as good and just wars

d. Such wars could cancel sin

3. In 1097, 60,000 men moved all the way from northwest Europe to Jerusalem

a. Four "crusades"

b. Can't be described as successful because few stayed behind to guard the

territories they had won

4. Some Christians took out their frustrations on other Christians

a. Frankish armies sacked Constantinople in 1204

5. Muslim Middle East saw the crusades as largely irrelevant

a. Long-term effect was to harden Muslim feelings against the Franks of the
West
 6. There were other Crusade-like campaigns of Christian expansion that were more
successful

a. Launched from a secure home base

b. Spanish Reconquista pushed back the Muslims

c. Turned the tide in relations between Christian and Muslim power in the
Mediterranean

VII. The Americas

A. Andean States

1. Growth and prosperity led to the formation of the Chimu Empire in South America

a. The Moche people expanded their influence

b. The Chimu regime lasted until the Incas invaded and incorporated it into
their empire in the 1460s

2. Chimu economy successful because it was commercialized, especially through

agriculture

a. Complex irrigation systems expanded production of food

3. Between 850 and 900 C.E., the Moche peoples founded the city of Chan Chan, with
walls, roads, and palaces

4. Highland empire formed on the shores of Lake Titicaca by the Tiwanaku people

a. Extensive evidence of long-distance trade between highlands and semi-

tropical valleys

b. Trade was active enough to sustain an enormous urban population

B. North American Connections

1. Mesoameria saw the rise and fall of several civilizations

a. Toltecs at Teotihuacán

i. Hybrid of migrants and farmers

ii. Relied on a maize-based economy

iii. Merchants provided status goods

b. Tula was a commercial hub but also a political and ceremonial center

i. Temples made of giant pyramids

ii. Ball courts for real and ritual sport

c. Cahokia was the largest city in North America

i. Part of the Mississippian culture

ii. Landscape dominated by mounds

iii. City outgrew its environment

d. Cahokia represented the growing networks of trade and migration across

North America
 e. North America could organize vibrant commercial societies and powerful
states

VIII.The Mongol Transformation of Afro-Eurasia

A. Mongol conquest may have arisen from the nomads' need for grazing lands

1. New lands provided increase in wealth through taxes

2. First expansionist move followed caravan routes

a. Opportunities to raid not trade

B. The nomads began expansion in 1206 when a cluster of tribes united

1. At a clan gathering, they chose Chinggis (Genghis) Khan, or Supreme Ruler

2. Chinggis launched a series of conquests southward across the Great Wall of China
and westward through Central Asia, Afghanistan, and Persia

3. Mongols also invaded Korea

4. Mongol raiders built a permanent empire by incorporating conquered peoples and

absorbing their culture

a. Intermarriage

5. Through conquest Afro-Eurasian regions were connected by land and sea

C. Mongols in China

1. Kubilai, Chinggis's grandson, completed the conquest of China

2. Kubilai and his army also overran the Korean Peninsula

3. By 1280, the Mongols had established the Yuan dynasty, 1280-1368, with a new
capital at Dadu

4. Political repercussion of these nomadic invasions altered the social and economic
geography of China

5. Song court and its Chinese followers regrouped in the south

a. Much of the economic activity moved south to the new capital of Hangzhou

b. Hangzhou became the political center of the Chinese people

i. Gateway to South China Sea

6. Mongol armies pressed until they reached Hangzhou, which fell in 1276

a. The city survived the Mongol conquest reasonably intact

b. When Marco Polo visited in the 1280s and Ibn Battuta in the 1340s, it was
still one of the greatest cities in the world

7. With the invasion, China acquired a new ruling hierarchy of outsiders

a. Chinese elites governed locally

b. Outsiders ran the central dynastic polity and collected taxes for the
Mongols

D. Mongol Reverberations in Southeast Asia

1. Southeast Asia was hurt by the Mongol conquests

 2. Mongols conquered the states of Sali and Pyu in Unnan and Burma

3. Portions of mainland Southeast Asia became part of the Mongol Empire and
annexed to China

E. The Fall of Baghdad

1. Baghdad no longer the jewel in the Islamic crown but still important

2. Coming from the eastern steppes, Mongols set their sights on all of Asia

a. Mongke Khan, grandson of the great Chinggis Khan, ordered the invasions

b. Kubilai (brother to Mongke) appointed to rule over China, Tibet, and

northern India

c. Hulagu ordered to take the western territories of Iran, Syria, Egypt,

Byzantium, and Armenia

3. Hulagu encountered a feeble foe in the Baghdad caliph in 1258

a. Slaughter was vast; most perished; no quarter given

b. Baghdad became a ruin

c. Syria was next with Muslims slaughtered by the Mongols

4. Egyptian Mamluk forces finally stopped the advance of the Mongols in 1261

a. Mongols were better at conquering than controlling

b. Had a hard time ruling their newfound territories

5. In China and Persia, Mongol rule collapsed in the fourteenth century

6. Mongol conquest shaped the social landscape of Afro-Eurasia

7. The conquest transformed Islam as it was stripped of its power center, Baghdad

8. Once the conquests ended, the Mongol state promoted the interconnectedness of
Afro-Eurasia

IX. Conclusion

A. Trade and migration across long distances made Afro-Eurasia prosper and become more
integrated

1. At the center of Afro-Eurasia, Islam was firm

2. India became a commercial crossroads

3. China boomed and poured its manufactures into trading networks

B. Trade helped define the parts of the world

1. Helped create new classes of people-thinkers, writers, and scientists

2. By 1300 territories were reimagined as world regions with definable cultures and
defensible geographic boundaries

3. Neither Sub-Saharan Africa nor the Americas saw that kind of integration

4. Great African culture flourished as they came into contact with commercial traders

5. American people also built great centers of trade and culture

 C. By 1300, the Afro-Eurasian regional worlds were interconnected by trade, migration, and
conflict

1. Mongol invasion added interconnectedness once they controlled the vast territories
of Afro--Eurasia

2. Sea lanes also became an important source of trade networks

D. With the rise of the Mongol Empire, the regions of the world became those that we now
recognize as the cultural spheres of our modern world

X. Collapse and integration

A. Mongol decline

B. The Black Death

1. Eurasian trade routes

2. Population loss

C. Rebuilding states

1. Dynasties

XI. Islamic dynasties

A. Mongols failed to establish enduring regimes in the Islamic world.

1. Il-khanate in Persia

B. Growing influence of Turkish and Persian-speaking Muslims

1. Nomadic groups

C. Rise of the Ottoman empire

1. Turkish warriors based in Anatolia

2. Champions of Sunni Islam

a. By the mid-sixteenth century, they created a vast multiethnic, multilingual

empire

i. Anatolia

ii. Balkans

3. The Conquest of Constantinople

a. Mehmed the Conqueror (r. 1451-1481)

i. Built a fortress along Bosporus

ii. Conquered the city on May 29,1453

iii. Renamed it Istanbul

b. Refugees fled to West with ancient texts

c. Expansion continued

i. Greece

ii. Balkans

4. The Tools of Empire Building

 a. Suleiman expanded empire further

i. Led army on thirteen military campaigns

ii. Gifted administrator

iii. Called "the Lawgiver" and "the Magnificent"

b. Sultan was defender of the faith

i. Constructed mosques and supported schools

5. Istanbul and the Topkapi Palace

a. Administrative and commercial center

b. Topkapi Palace

i. Residence of the sultan

ii. Training school for the bureaucracy

iii. Harem

a. Had own hierarchy of rank and prestige

b. 10,000 to 12,000 women lived in the palace

6. Diversity and Control in the Ottoman Empire

a. More bilingual than other empire

b. Turkish was the language of administration.

c. Arabic and other languages were spoken in the provinces.

d. Regional autonomy

i. Military appointed loyal followers to collect taxes for Istanbul and

for themselves.

e. Janissaries

i. Served the sultan

ii. Guarded against decentralizing tendencies in the provinces

D. The emergence of the Safavid empire in Iran

1. Turkish-speaking warriors

2. Shiism as a unifying force

a. Intolerant of other religious views

3. Shah assumed role of a traditional Persian king

4. Activist clergy

E. The Delhi Sultanate and early Mughal empire

1. Delhi Sultanate avoided Mongol conquest

a. Sultans patronized Muslim learning and culture

2. Delhi Sultanate succumbed to new Turkish invaders.

a. Timur
 3. Collapse of Delhi Sultanate precipitated religious revivals.

a. Sufism in Bengal

b. Bhakti Hinduism

c. Sikhism in Punjab

4. Islamic Afghani forces conquered the Delhi Sultanate and created the Mughal
dynasty in 1526.

a. Babur

XII. Western Christendom

A. High Middle Ages (1100-1300)

1. Population growth

2. Commercial and manufacturing advances

a. expansion of long-distance trade

3. Cultural flowering

a. Universities

b. Islamic learning

B. Reactions, Revolt, and Religion in Europe

1. The Black Death

a. 25-50 percent of population perished

b. Declining influence of the Western Church

c. Declining legitimacy of the feudal order

i. Peasant revolts

a. Jacquerie

b. English Peasants' Revolt

ii. Decline of Holy Roman empire

C. State-building and Economic Recovery in Europe

1. Regional dynasties and states appear

a. Promotion of national languages

b. Use of religion to legitimize rule

c. Chronic struggles to assert authority

i. Landed nobility

ii. Peasants

d. Use of strategic marriages

2. Political Consolidation and Trade in Portugal

a. House of Aviz consolidated power in fifteenth century

b. Dynasty promoted new commercial horizons

 i. Redirection of trade from Mediterranean to Atlantic Ocean

a. West Africa

b. Vasco da Gama sails to India in 1498

3. Dynasty Building and Reconquest in Spain

a. Marriage of Isabella of Castile and Ferdinand of Aragon in 1469

b. Inquisition against Jews and Muslims

c. Marriage into the House of Habsburg

i. Charles V

4. The Struggle of France and England and the Success of Small States

a. France

i. France's victory in the Hundred Years' War (1337-1453)

ii. House of Valois

a. Strategic marriages

b. England

c. War of the Roses (1455-1485) failed to create a dynastic

house

d. Emergence of the house of Tudor

5. Lack of centralization in most of Europe in the fifteenth century

a. Nobility still powerful

b. City-states flourished like Venice

D. European identity and Renaissance

1. Scholars and artists developed a humanist approach to arts, science, literature

2. Sources for this new approach

a. Commercial prosperity

b. New monarchs and wealthy merchants patronized the arts

c. Printing press

3. Conflict with secular and religious authorities

4. Creation of a network of educated men and women

a. Concept of a good, "civilized" Europe

XIII.Ming China

A. Impact of the Black Death on China

B. Resistance to the Yuan dynasty

1. Red Turbans

2. Zhu Yuanzhang

C. Ming dynasty founded 1368

 D. Centralization under the Ming

1. Beijing

a. Forbidden City

b. Marriage and kinship

c. Rule through kinship

2. Elimination of rivals

3. Establishment of imperial bureaucracy and administrative network

a. 10,000 to 15,000 officials

b. Villages

c. Social hierarchy

4. Rebuilding of infrastructure, tax system

E. Religion under the Ming

1. Emperors used religion to legitimize rule

F. Ming Ruleship

1. Religious and local dissent

2. Terror and repression

G. Trade under the Ming

1. Merchants reestablished long-distance commercial exchange

a. Porcelain

2. Emperors suspicious of long-distance trade

a. Foreign influence

b. Official, but seldom enforced, ban on maritime commerce in 1371

3. Maritime expeditions of Zheng He (1405-1433)

a. Exception to Ming policy

b. Attempt to establish tributary relations throughout the Indian Ocean

c. Voyages canceled after threat from Mongols reappeared in the north

4. Trade continued but without official patronage

XIV.Conclusion

A. By the 1500s a small number of centralized, expansive dynasties had emerged or were
emerging.

B. Each was politically innovative.

1. Use of dynastic marriage, religion, administrative bureaucracies

C. Each sought commercial expansion.

D. Europe, because of Muslim predominance in Eurasian trade, sought new connections.

XV. The Old Trade, and the New

A. Eurasian trade revived strongly in the fifteenth century, having collapsed in the wake of the
Black Death during the 1300s.

B. Maritime trade in the Indian Ocean particularly rebounded, although the overland trade
routes continued.

C. Europeans remained minor players in this trade system, having little to offer in terms of
goods and being isolated geographically from the center of this trade regime.

D. Portuguese and Spanish maritime ventures began to alter the status quo.

1. Portuguese mariners explored the African coast and eventually made their way to
India via the southern tip of Africa.

2. Spanish kingdoms sponsored Columbus's bid to reach Asia by way of the Atlantic
Ocean.

E. The revival of the Chinese economy

1. Internal growth in Ming dynasty China fueled Eurasian commerce.

a. Capital moved from coast, inland to Beijing

b. Chinese population doubled during Ming rule

c. Reconstruction of Grand Canal aided trade

d. Chinese population doubled during Ming rule.

e. A larger percentage of the population lived in urban areas.

f. Elaborate trade networks developed.

2. Domestic production of silk and porcelain expanded.

3. Foreign demand for silk and porcelain increased.

a. Best-quality silks from Suzhou

b. Blue and white Ming ware

4. Foreigners could pay for Chinese products with silver, the basis of the Ming
monetary system.

a. Japan was a major source of silver in the sixteenth century.

b. Increasingly, the Americas became an important supplier of silver through

the Philippines.

F. Revival of Indian Ocean trade

1. Islamic merchants reworked a network of exchange linking the East African coast,
South Asia, and Southeast Asia to China.

2. The Indian subcontinent was the center of these trade routes.

a. Indian population expanded.

b. India boasted several large urban areas.

c. India manufactured silk and cotton textiles.

d. Indian merchants sought silver in their exchanges in order to purchase

goods from China.
 e. Rulers along Indian Ocean flourished by taking custom duties on trade.

3. Melaka in Southeast Asia emerged as an important emporium.

G. Overland commerce and Ottoman expansion

1. Overland commerce reemerged in some places.

a. One route linked China to Central Asia, Muscovy, and the Baltic.

b. Another linked China and Indian Ocean ports to the Ottoman empire and
Europe.

c. Aleppo in Syria, part of the Ottoman empire, emerged as an important

entrepot.

d. Ottoman empire encouraged overland routes by protecting caravans and

providing safe rest stops.

i. Revenue from this commerce helped finance Ottoman military

expansion.

ii. In 1453, the Ottomans conquered Constantinople and, making it

their capital, renamed it Istanbul.

XVI.European exploration and expansion

A. Many Europeans believed the Ottoman capture of Constantinople threatened their

traditional overland access to Asia markets.

B. The Portuguese in Africa and Asia

1. The Portuguese explored the West African coast in the fourteenth century.

a. They hoped to reach Asia by heading south.

i. They hoped to gain a cut of the Indian Ocean trade.

ii. They also hoped to convert non-believers

iii. They also hoped to establish commercial ties with Africans.

iv. Africa was a major source of gold

2. Navigation and Military Developments

a. New technology and borrowed information aided their ocean voyages

b. They also developed tacking (sailing against the wind).

c. Using the compass and the astrolabe, they determined latitude

d. Using Greek and Arab knowledge, Muslim mariners, and their own
experience, they developed hybrid ships for long-distance travel

i. The carrack suitable for enclosed bodies of water

ii. The caravel was better for unpredictable currents and winds.

iii. Often their vessels blended elements of both

e. Military technology also important

i. Gunpowder from Chinese

ii. Cannons, some small enough to go on ships

 3. Sugar and Slaves

a. In the fifteenth century, Africa became a vital trading area

b. Africa became a source of gold and sugar

c. The Portuguese established numerous ports of call and fortresses

d. The Portuguese also occupied several islands off the coast of Africa and
developed sugar plantations.

e. The use of enslaved Africans from mainland on the island sugar plantations
became a model that would be transported to the New World.

4. Commerce and Conquest in the Indian Ocean

a. Vasco da Gama first accomplished this feat.

i. Da Gama and later Portuguese mariners were greatly aided by

Muslim pilots.

ii. Indian rulers were not impressed with his cargo.

5. In the sixteenth century the Portuguese created a trading post empire in the Indian
Ocean.

a. They used their ships armed with cannons to capture several key ports
such as Aden, Hormuz, and Melaka, Sofala, Kilwa, Goa, and Calicut.

b. They used this strategic advantage to set up a pass system (the cartaz),
like a toll.

c. Lisbon eclipsed Italian ports as the prime entry point of Asian goods to
Europe.

XVII.The Atlantic World

A. The development of sea lanes from Europe to the Americas was an epochal transformation
in world history.

1. Diseases brought by Europeans devastated the indigenous population, opening up

the area to European conquest and colonization.

2. The ensuing labor shortage led Europeans to bring African slaves to the Americas
at numbers far greater than Europeans.

3. Accidental discovery led to resettlement and conquest.

4. The competition for the spoils of the Atlantic system heightened European rivalries.

B. The western voyages of Columbus

1. Columbus never accepted that he had discovered a "New World" in his voyages to
the Americas in the late fifteenth century. Others, however, soon realized the
significance of his journeys.

C. First encounters

1. Columbus's first encounters with natives in the Caribbean symbolized the

competing visions of Native Americans held by Europeans-innocents or savages

a. Encountered Tainos
 b. The Caribs were described as warlike

2. We know less about Indian perceptions of Europeans.

a. They were impressed with European technology.

b. They often thought of Europeans as godlike.

c. European beards, breath, and bad manners often repulsed them.

D. First conquests

1. Columbus claimed the island of Hispaniola for Spain.

a. There the Spanish experimented with governing an American colony.

i. They enslaved the Indian population with the encomienda system,

whereby the crown would reward conquerors with grants of land
and labor.

a. Encomenderos (those granted the land) had to pay special

taxes on precious metals extracted from their land.

ii. When the gold supply on the island dwindled, many Spaniards
looked for opportunity elsewhere.

iii. Dominican friars trying to convert the Indians often protested their
treatment by the Spanish.

iv. The vast majority of the Indians died off very quickly.

E. The Aztec empire and the Spanish conquest

1. Mexica Society

a. In Mesoamerica, the Mexica had created a large, complex empire that

embraced perhaps 25 million people.

b. The Aztec state was based on extensive kinship networks.

c. Priest played a powerful role as well.

i. The Mexica believed in a cyclical universe and a coming

apocalypse.

ii. Captives were sacrificed to the gods.

d. From 1440 onward, the Aztec empire was under stress.

i. Conquered people on the periphery were rebelling.

F. Cortés and Conquest

1. Hernan Cortés arrived in early sixteenth century.

a. Aztec ruler Moctezuma and his ministers feared Cortés and his men were
the god Quetzalcoátl and his entourage and sent emissaries to distract
them, but made little effort to fortify the empire.

b. Doña Marina, a daughter of a local Indian noble farmer, was the key to
translating between Aztecs and Spanish.

2. Cortés made alliances with aggrieved Aztec enemies.

 3. Cortés entered the Aztec capital, Tenochtitlán, in 1519 and captured Moctezuma,
who then ruled as a Spanish puppet.

4. The Aztecs rose in rebellion two years later but were defeated by the Spanish and
their allies.

a. Spanish had more advanced technology.

b. Aztecs fought to capture, not to kill.

c. Diseases brought over by the Spanish wiped out much of the Aztec
population and made resistance all the more difficult.

d. Cortés became governor of the colony "New Spain."

G. The Incas

1. From capital of Cuzco, Incas governed an empire of 4 to 6 million

a. As Spanish arrived, internal strife over inheritance of empire

b. Smallpox epidemic struck

2. Spanish led by Francisco Pizarro, take advantage of internal conflict to conquer the
Incas in 1532.

3. After conquest, Spanish establish their capital in Lima.

4. Spanish fight over spoils of the empire.

H. The Columbian exchange

1. Spanish conquest of the Americas initiated a massive exchange of flora and fauna
between the Afro-Eurasian land mass and the Americas.

a. From the Americas came tomatoes, beans, and other crops.

b. From the rest of the world to the Americas came wheat, sugarcane, and
livestock.

i. Without natural predators, cattle, swine, and horses thrived in the

Americas.

ii. Indeed, the altering of the American landscape can be called

"ecological imperialism."

c. Most devastating were diseases brought to the Americas by Europeans.

i. Smallpox, measles, pneumonic plague, and influenza were

especially devastating.

ii. Up to 90 percent of the indigenous population was wiped out.

I. Spain's tributary empire

1. The Spanish tapped into existing commercial systems, not completely dismantling
the indigenous empires they inherited.

a. They continued the encomiendas, which built on previous Aztec and Incan
labor conscription systems.

2. Few Spanish women immigrated to the Americas.

a. Spanish men consorted with native women.

 b. Many Spaniards married into prominent Indian families.

3. Most Spaniards and their offspring lived in towns.

4. The Spanish quickly plundered the gold and silver of the Aztec and Incan empires.

5. Silver

a. In the sixteenth century, the mines at Potosí in Andes were the largest
source of silver.

b. In the seventeenth century Mexico became the prime source of silver.

c. The Spanish adopted indigenous labor conscription schemes to mine the

silver.

i. Mortality rates in the mines were appalling.

J. Portugal's New World Colony

1. Portuguese created enclaves along coast.

a. Unlike Spanish, the Portuguese rarely intermarried.

2. When no precious metals were discovered in Brazil, the Portuguese began to raise
sugarcane in the fertile fields.

a. When the Indian population fled, the Portuguese imported African slaves to
produce the crop.

i. Most slaves were men who died off relatively quickly, necessitating
the importation of more slaves.

3. Sugar Plantations

a. Labor model came from West Africa Island plantations

b. Sugar major export from New World

c. Plantation fairly small, between sixty to one hundred enslaved people

d. Terrible work and living conditions led to high mortality and need for
constant imports of more enslaved Africans.

4. This development provided an alternative model to colonization and exploitation to

the Spanish tributary empire

K. Beginnings of the transatlantic slave trade

1. The growth of the slave and sugar trade were intimately linked.

2. Africa supplied five times as many peoples to the Americas as Europe between
1492 and 1820.

3. Many European merchants participated in the slave trade.

4. Trade in African slaves predated the Europeans.

a. Arab and Muslim traders transported large numbers of slaves to Muslim

centers of civilization starting in the seventh century.

b. Africans also maintained slaves themselves.

i. Because of underpopulation and poor climate and soils, labor was

a precious commodity.
 ii. Slaves in Africa were often not consigned to permanent servitude.
They often were assimilated into families.

5. The Atlantic slave trade intensified demand for Africans. Very few areas of the
continent were untouched.

XVIII.The Transformation of Europe

A. The emergence of the linkages between Africa, the Americas, and Europe deepened
divisions in Europe

B. The Habsburgs and the Quest for Universal Empire in Europe

1. Initially the emergence of the Atlantic system strengthened the Habsburg dynasty
that ruled Spain.

2. Other rivals quickly tried to tap into this source of wealth and power.

a. The English crown sponsored pirates to seize Spanish cargo in the Atlantic.

i. Sir Francis Drake was the most famous of these.

b. English provocations precipitated naval warfare between the English and

the Spanish, with the English coming out on top in the defeat of the
Spanish Armada in 1588.

C. The Reformation

1. The Protestant Reformation furthered emerging rivalries in Europe.

2. Martin Luther, a German monk, spearheaded this movement against papal

authority in the early sixteenth century.

a. Luther criticized corruption in the church and preached that salvation came
through individual faith alone.

b. His words spread by the printing press and converts, Luther challenged the
Catholic church's primacy in Western Europe's religious affairs.

i. Luther's ideas gained a strong following in Germany and northern

Europe.

ii. Jean Calvin, who modified many of Luther's teachings, developed

a strong following in Switzerland, the Netherlands, France, and
Scotland.

iii. Tudor kings in England developed a moderate blending of

Protestant and Catholic beliefs-Anglicanism.

iv. Many of these new Protestant sects developed animosity toward

each other as well as toward the Catholic church.

3. The Catholic church responded with the Counter-Reformation.

a. The church worked to end corruption.

b. Church doctrine gave greater emphasis to individual spirituality.

c. Society of Jesus (Jesuits) formed to revive the church and spread its
message around the world.

D. Religious warfare in Europe

 1. The religious fervor of the sixteenth century precipitated numerous bloody wars.

a. These wars were accompanied by atrocities committed by both sides

against one another.

2. The wars weakened the Habsburg dynasty.

a. Spain spent much of its American silver on the wars.

b. The Protestant Netherlands successfully revolted and achieved

independence from Spanish control.

3. The wars helped bring an end to the Valois dynasty in France and led to the
emergence of a stronger dynasty-the Bourbons.

a. France was wracked by civil war, as exemplified by the St. Bartholomew's

Day Massacre, in which thousands of Protestants were massacred by
Catholic crowds.

b. Henry IV initiated the Bourbon dynasty with an emphasis on domestic

peace.

4. The wars helped strengthen England and Holland, as they could expand commercial
networks around the world at the expense of Spain.

5. The wars also strengthened emerging national identities.

XIX.Prosperity in Asia

A. The conquest of the Americas gave Europeans the means to reshape relations with Asia.

1. Portugal took the lead in establishing a maritime empire in the Indian Ocean and
the South China Sea.

a. The Portuguese became important shippers in the Indian Ocean and

between the Atlantic and Indian Oceans.

2. The Spanish monopoly of American silver allowed them to enter into Asian
commerce.

a. The port of Manila in the Philippines became an important entrepot were

New World silver was exchanged for Chinese manufactured goods.

3. Other European powers such as the English, the French, and the Dutch soon
entered the fray.

B. Mughal India and Commerce

1. As Europeans entered into the commerce of the Indian Ocean, the Mughal dynasty
was one of the world's wealthiest and most powerful empires

a. Mughal power rested on military strength

i. They used cavalry and artillery to subdue most of the Indian

subcontinent

2. Mughal rulers were flexible in their dealings with the diverse people of their realm

a. Akbar tolerated religious differences and even married non-Muslim wives

b. Akbar took part in discussions of comparative religions

i. Debate took lace in his Din-i-Iladi (House of Worship)

 3. The Mughals benefited from increased Indian Ocean commerce

a. Increased commerce brought in more silver and reinforced the use of

money

b. European commercial networks expanded the markets for Indian products

and provided greater access to imports without threatening the territorial
integrity of the empire

c. Greater commercialization allowed Mughals to reform imperial finances,

weakening the power of zamindars, or tribute collectors

i. They began to collect taxes in money, not goods

ii. Zamindars were paid a fee instead of a share in taxes collected

4. Mughal rulers used newfound wealth to sponsor impressive artwork and

monumental feats of architecture

C. Prosperity in Ming China

1. China's Ming dynasty experienced similar patterns to those in Mughal India during
the sixteenth century

a. New World silver flowed into China.

b. Employees paid in money, not goods

c. Agriculture and handicraft production soared

d. Constraints on borrowing and lending eased

2. Ming China's population soared due to economic prosperity

a. Several cities had a population of over one million

3. Asia's relations with Europe

a. Europeans appeared more often in China during the sixteenth century

b. Portuguese took lead

c. There were one thousand Portuguese in Macao in 1563

d. Jesuits and other Catholic orders sent missionaries to evangelize

4. Like the Mughals, the Ming confined Europeans for the most part to coastal
enclaves

XX. Conclusion

A. In the middle of the fifteenth century, the world had many different regional trading
spheres. European exploration and innovation changed all of that by 1600. By then,
Europeans had developed sea lanes that linked the world

B. The accidental discovery of the Americas increased European wealth and power through the
creation of an Atlantic Ocean system linking Africa, the Americas, and Europe

C. The newfound wealth afforded them greater influence in Asia. Although they were in no
position to dominate Asian affairs, by 1600 the balance of power was moving towards the
western portion of Eurasia
 D. Native Americans and African slaves played a significant role in making the modern world.
Harsh labor conditions and disease took their toll on the indigenous people and enslaved
Africans

XXI.Increasing Economic Linkages and Social and Political Effects

A. Transoceanic trade mainly affected mercantile groups

B. The deepening of connections across different economic regions increasingly challenged

rulers and altered the lives of common people

C. Economic integration weakened some rulers while strengthening others

XXII.Extracting Wealth: Mercantilism

A. The lucrative mining ventures in Spanish and Portuguese colonies in the New World led
other European powers to seek similar opportunities in the seventeenth century

B. These latecomers did not discover mineral wealth but instead exploited the fertile land to
raise cash crops such as sugarcane, tobacco, indigo, and rice, as well as negotiating with
Indians to establish a profitable fur trade

1. Sugar transformed the European diet

2. Public tooth pulling became a popular entertainment

C. These adventures in the Americas led Europeans to create a new economic

philosophy-"mercantilism."

1. This doctrine presumed the world's wealth was fixed and that one country's wealth
came at another's expense

2. It assumed that colonies existed to enrich the motherland

3. Colonies existed to generate wealth for the motherland and were forbidden to trade
with the motherland's competitors

D. New colonies in the Americas

1. Holland's trading colonies

a. In the early seventeenth century, the Dutch East India Company founded a
colony centered on the Hudson River in North America that initiated a
thriving fur trade with the Iroquois Indian Confederation

b. In 1621, Dutch merchants had formed the Dutch West India Company to
promote commerce in the Atlantic Ocean and promote Dutch participation
in the slave trade

c. Although the Dutch never established an elaborate colonial presence in the

Americas, they were able to profit from an extensive carrying trade across
the Atlantic during the seventeenth century

i. The Dutch were often referred to as "universal carriers"

2. France's fur-trading empire

a. French adventurers explored the St. Lawrence River valley and the Great
Lakes in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries
 b. In the early seventeenth century, Samuel de Champlain founded the
colony of New France in the St. Lawrence River valley

i. With relatively few settlers, the French established a thriving fur

trade with Native Americans

ii. This "colonization without conquest" stretched France's empire

deep into North America

3. England's landed empire

a. Unlike the French, England's colonists established expansive agrarian

settlements along the Atlantic seaboard of North America

i. Relations with Indians were thus more confrontational

b. Protestant refugees colonized New England

i. They fought brutal wars with Indians in the 1630s and 1670s

c. Farther south, the Virginia Company fostered the growth of a tobacco

colony in the Chesapeake.

i. English settlers battled Indians for most of the century

d. By 1700, 250,000 European settlers lived in English mainland North

American colonies along with 150,000 African slaves; three quarters lived
in the Caribbean Islands

4. The plantation complex in the Caribbean

a. In the seventeenth century, the Portuguese sugarcane plantation model

was extended into the English and French possessions in the Caribbean

b. Because of the decimation of the Indian population in the previous century,

African slaves made up the vast majority of the population on these islands

c. Sugar was a "killing" crop

i. It flourished in hot and humid climates that fostered diseases to

which even Africans had no natural immunities

ii. European plantation owners rarely lived on their plantations,

leaving managers to run them

a. These managers tended to work slaves to death

b. Sugar production included planting, harvesting, and

manufacturing

c. Rarely were slaves afforded proper housing and nutrition

d. The average life expectancy for a slave who survived the

Atlantic passage was three years

iii. Slaves resisted as they could

a. There were a few incidents of armed insurrection

b. A more common form of resistance was flight

c. Slaves founded sanctuary "maroon" communities in the

highlands
 d. The most common form of resistance was subterfuge in
daily work

e. No one colonial power dominated the Caribbean plantation

complex

f. The wealthiest colony was the French Saint Domingue

E. The Atlantic slave trade and Africa

1. During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, far more Africans than
Europeans migrated to the Americas

2. Capturing and shipping slaves

a. Europeans grafted onto an existing system

b. Roughly 12 million slaves were shipped to Atlantic ports from the 1440s to
1867

c. The capture and transportation of slaves to the African coastal entrepots

were conducted by African commercial networks

i. In the Bight of Biafra, the tradition of "pawnship" or the use of

human "pawns" to secure European commodities in advance of the
delivery of slaves was used by European merchants

a. A secret male society called "Ekpe" enforced payments of

promised slave deliveries.

b. Slaves were treated horribly

ii. Most died before ever leaving Africa

a. They were stuck for long periods in filthy holding camps

b. They were held in wretched conditions on slave vessels for

extended periods of time

iii. Roughly 20 percent of all slaves did not survive the Atlantic
passage

3. Slavery's Gender Imbalance

a. Slave trade led to gender-ratio imbalances in Africa and America

i. Europeans traders preferred males, and African sellers desired to

keep women as domestic workers

b. Imbalance of gender ratio in New World meant little reproduction and a

need for continued purchases to increase labor force

c. Male slaves outnumbered female in the New World, but in slave-supplying

regions the opposite was true

d. Female-slave labor plantations developed in parts of Africa

e. Polygyny reinforced because of gender-ratio imbalance

f. Dahomean women asserted more power and authority because of their

numbers

4. Africa's new slave-supplying polities

 a. In some parts of Africa, the slave trade wreaked havoc

i. Feuding to control the lucrative trade resulted in civil war in the

Kongo Kingdom after 1665

ii. Slavers became increasingly proficient with European firearms and

easily captured many slaves from targeted populations

b. The slave trade also helped some merchants and warlords to consolidate
and extend political power

i. Certain mercantile groups in central and West Africa grew

wealthier

ii. Long-distance trade networks fostered the growth of strong state

systems

a. The Asante state encompassed 250,000 square miles in

West Africa and displaced local political organizations

b. The Oyo empire performed a similar feat, linking

commercial networks in tropical rain forests to the
savannah areas to the north in West Africa

c. Both states benefited from access to European firearms

c. Although the slave trade enriched and empowered some Africans, it cost
Africa dearly

i. The Atlantic commercial system shifted wealth from the

countryside to urban areas

ii. Many areas suffered severe population loss

XXIII.Asia in the seventeenth and eighteenth century

A. Europeans were not so dominant in Asian trade networks as they were in the Atlantic world.
Yet by 1750 parts of Asia were beginning to feel the brunt of growing European military,
political, and economic power

B. The Dutch in Southeast Asia

1. The Dutch government chartered the Dutch East India Company (VOC) in 1602 to
challenge the Portuguese and Spanish influence in the Indian Ocean system

a. Because of Amsterdam's financial strength, the VOC was able to raise

more capital than any of its European competitors

b. The VOC's goal was to achieve a trade monopoly wherever it could

i. In the 1620s, the VOC seized the city of Jakarta (which they
renamed Batavia) on the island of Java and the nutmeg-producing
islands known as Banda and proceeded to monopolize the nutmeg
trade

ii. The VOC went on to capture the cities of Melaka and Banten in an
effort to control the entire spice trade in Southeast Asia

iii. Chinese and English merchants continued to compete with the

VOC and it never achieved the monopoly it sought
 c. To avoid using bullion, the VOC became involved in inter-Asian trade such
as sending textiles from India or copper from Japan to markets in
Southeast Asia

d. Old cosmopolitan Asian cities were eclipsed by new European outposts.

C. Transformations in Islam

1. The Safavid empire under assault

a. The Safavid dynasty foundered in the eighteenth century for several

reasons

i. Weak rulers allowed chaos to emerge

ii. Afghan warriors attacked and invaded the empire

2. The transformation of the Ottoman Empire

a. When the territorial expansion of the empire slowed in the seventeenth

century, intellectuals in the Ottoman Empire became concerned that the
empire was in decline

b. A succession of weak rulers created a sense of crisis

c. The inflow of American silver into Ottoman commercial networks

destabilized the empire

i. Merchants increasingly defied commercial regulations and traded

commodities such as wheat, copper, and wool to Europeans for
silver. This reduced the amount of goods available in the Ottoman
Empire

ii. This illegal trade did not enrich the imperial coffers, and the
government had to resort to deficit spending.

iii. Deficits, shortages, and the inflow of silver sparked inflation

a. In the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries,

artisans and peasants revolted in what were called the
Celali revolts against the state

b. This instability led many regions of the empire to seek

more autonomy

c. Egypt, the wealthiest province, achieved virtual autonomy

by the seventeenth century

d. Financial reforms taken by the Koprulu family, who

controlled the office of grand vizier, arrested the financial
difficulties in the middle of the seventeenth century

e. In the 1680s the Ottomans once again threatened central

Europe

f. By the end of the seventeenth century, the Ottomans had

lost Hungary and talk of decline had begun once again

3. The Mughal empire

 a. The Mughal empire continued to expand its territory in the Indian
subcontinent, but by the end of the seventeenth century the dynasty found
it increasingly difficult to rule effectively over such a large and diverse
realm

b. The Mughals encouraged foreign commerce, but never opted to become a

naval power or expand its territory overseas

i. In the seventeenth century, the empire prospered as European

demand for Indian products, especially cotton textiles, increased
dramatically

ii. Imported silver fueled economic growth

iii. Indian farmers also adopted New World crops that increased
agricultural production and helped sustain a large population surge

c. Increased population and wealth, however, empowered regional and local

rulers who increasingly demanded more autonomy

d. Under Aurangzeb (1658-1707), the Mughals continued to expand their

territory in southern India, which drained the treasury

i. Aurangzeb raised taxes and imposed additional taxes on non-

Muslims

e. After Aurangzeb's death, there were widespread revolts against central

authority

i. Many regions achieved their independence or autonomy

f. Although Mughal authority declined, India continued to prosper and to

actively trade in the international economy

4. From Ming to Qing in China

a. As with the Mughal dynasty, increased prosperity led to the splintering of

central control in Ming China during the seventeenth century

i. Merchants in particular defied commercial regulations. The

government thus failed to reap the profits of long-distance trade

b. Administrative problems

i. As with the Ottoman empire, the quality of Ming leadership

declined in the sixteenth century

ii. Zhu Yijun, the Wanli Emperor (1573-1620) avoided governing for
years

iii. He and other emperors had little impact on the vast bureaucracy

c. Economic problems

i. Pirates, officially labeled Japanese but quite often Chinese,

constantly raided coastal ports

ii. Silver caused numerous problems

a. In times of influx it caused inflation

 b. In times of shortages, peasants had to scramble to
acquire silver in order to pay their taxes. This dislocation
often led to revolts

c. An overall silver shortage in the 1630s and 1640s led to

an economic slowdown and, correspondingly, to higher
taxes

d. Collapse of the Ming

i. Economic problems hamstrung the government's ability to cope

with natural disasters and food shortages in the early sixteenth
century

ii. Several formidable rebellions appeared

a. One led by Li Zicheng captured Beijing and ended the

Ming dynasty in 1644

e. The Qing dynasty

i. The beneficiaries of the Ming collapse were the Manchus, a

neighboring group north of China

ii. The Manchu formed the Qing (Pure) dynasty and by the end of the
seventeenth century had embarked on impressive economic and
territorial expansion

iii. The Qing were successful early on because of their flexibility and
respect of local traditions

a. The Qing continued to rule under Confucian principles

b. Newly acquired territories in Tibet and Mongolia retained

their local administrative institutions

f. The Qing Dynasty Asserts Control

i. They decreed that all Han Chinese shave their foreheads and wear
a braided queue in the back

ii. They banned intermarriage with Manchus

iii. They decreed that Han Chinese wear Manchu garb

g. The Qing oversaw a huge population increase as stability returned

i. New World crops helped support this large population

h. Expansion and trade under the Qing

i. The Qing still carefully regulated long-distance trade

i. European merchants could only trade in the city of Canton under

sponsorship of Chinese merchants.

i. The Qing revival reinforced the Chinese sense of cultural

superiority

D. Tokugawa Japan

1. Japan tended to deal with external pressures better than its Asian counterparts
 2. Unification of Japan

a. During the sixteenth century, Japan was wracked by civil war between
various feudal warlords, or daimyo

b. At the end of the century one warlord, Toyotomi Hideyoshi, came out on
top of the other warlords

c. On Hideyoshi's death, another daimyo, Tokugawa Ieyasu, attained power

i. In 1603 he took the title of shogun (military ruler in the emperor's

name) and passed it to his son

d. The Tokugawa moved the administrative capital to Edo (modern-day

Tokyo)

e. Under the new regime, villages paid taxes to daimyos, who in turn
transferred resources to the shogun

i. Peace brought prosperity as farmers became more productive and

the government improved the realm's infrastructure

a. Population doubled in the seventeenth century

3. Foreign affairs and foreigners

a. The Tokugawa banned Christianity and expelled all missionaries

b. The Tokugawa also limited trade to Dutch merchants, who were allowed to
remain at a small island near Nagasaki and unload just one ship per year

c. The Tokugawa did not completely isolate Japan from the world

i. Trade flourished between China and Japan

ii. The shoguns gathered reports and publications from Chinese and
Dutch emissaries

iii. Much of the periphery of the empire escaped close supervision

d. The regime also tried to create buffer zones between Japan and other
powers

i. Ry?ky?s in the south

ii. Ezo in the north

e. This carefully regulated interaction helped build the dynasty by limiting

domestic upheavals brought on by greater contact as in the cases of Ming
China and Mughal India

XXIV.Transformations of Europe

A. Expansion and dynastic chaos in Russia

1. After 1480, the Muscovy state expanded rapidly across much of north central and
northeast Eurasia and expanded trade networks to help consolidate a powerful
political order

a. Expansion into the steppe land eliminated attacks from descendants of the
Mongols

b. Trade enhanced government coffers

 2. Internal feuding plagued the regime in the sixteenth century

3. In 1613, the crown passed to the Romanov dynasty, which imposed order

a. They centered as much power as possible in their own hands

b. Nobles had to serve as bureaucrats

c. Peasants were made the serfs of nobles to sustain the crown and the
nobility's wealth

4. Under Peter the Great (1682-1725), Russia, as it became known, expanded

westward to the Baltic and southward into the Caucasus

5. Thousands of Russian natives immigrated into Siberia in the eighteenth century,

helping Russia consolidate an empire that stretched from the Baltic to the Pacific

B. Economic and political fluctuations in Western Europe

1. Economy of Europe continued to grow, but it was affected by developments

throughout the world and the Thirty Years War.

2. The Thirty Years War

a. A war fought between Protestant princes and the Habsburg Catholic

emperor for religious predominance in Central Europe

b. A struggle for continental control between Catholic powers, namely the

Spanish and Austrian Habsburgs and the French

c. Dutch sought independence from Spain so they could trade and worship as
they liked

d. Brutal war cost lives of civilians and mercenary soldiers

i. Protestants saved by the Swedish king Gustavus Adolphus II at

one battle

ii. Fighting, disease, and famine wiped out one third of Germany's
urban population and two fifths of its rural population

e. Treaty of Westphalia signed in 1648.

i. Agreed to a rough balance of power between Catholics and

Protestants

ii. Dutch got independence

iii. Costs of war caused discontent among Spain, France, and England
that would continue

iv. Central Europe devastated and took more than one hundred years
to recover

f. War transformed war making in Europe

i. Enhanced the powers of larger, centralized states

ii. Increase size of standing armies

iii. Army became more professional

iv. Weapons more standardized and efficient

 v. War cost more and led to public debt

3. Western European Economies

a. To finance wars depended on taxing peasants

b. Commercial expansion led to rising merchant class willing to invest capital

on new endeavors

c. Some countries, such as Spain, lost ground because of rising military costs

d. Dutch mercantile class used advantages in shipbuilding and financial

practices to prosper

e. England and France also emerged as commercial powerhouses in the

seventeenth century

i. State set policies that promoted national business and drove out
competition

a. Navigation acts

f. Economic development was not limited to port towns.

i. Reforms and improvements in agriculture spurred food production

ii. England's agriculture became more commercial with "enclosure

movement"

C. Dynastic Monarchies: France and England

1. All European monarchs tried to centralize authority around a ruling household

during the seventeenth century. Some succeeded better than others

2. The Bourbon dynasty strived toward "absolute" rule, where the kings answered
only to God

a. Versailles symbolized their goal, as it served as a place where the nobility

came to seek the benefits from the king and where the king could thus
keep watch over the nobility

b. Other dynasties-the Habsburgs and the Romanovs, for example-tried to

emulate the Bourbons' pretensions

c. No dynasty achieved "absolute" power despite their efforts

3. England different than France in that it allowed women to rule as queens in their
own right

a. Parliament remained important because monarchs needed commoners to

raise funds

4. In England, the Stuart dynasty's efforts to achieve absolute power provoked civil
war with Parliament

a. Eventually, with the Glorious Revolution of 1688-1689, the Stuart kings

agreed to rule in conjunction with Parliament, leaving England's nobility
and merchant classes a permanent say in public affairs

5. These political struggles stimulated much political writing such as Thomas Hobbes'
Leviathan and John Locke's Two Treatises of Civil Government
 D. Mercantilist wars

1. The ascendance of new powers such as France and England intensified commercial
rivalries in Europe

a. In the eighteenth century new mercantilist wars to control sea lanes and
colonies emerged

b. European powers accordingly built large navies

c. These wars culminated in the Seven Years' War (1756-1763), the first
world conflict

i. This war was fought in Europe, the Americas, and India

ii. The British empire was the clear winner with the most lucrative
overseas empire

XXV.Conclusion

A. Economic integration between 1500-1650 unsettled the world. More and more people were
drawn into long-distance commercial networks

B. These networks fostered further European colonization in the Americas and an explosion in
the Atlantic slave trade, with diverse repercussions in Africa

C. In Eurasia, economic integration challenged the legitimacy of the Ottoman and Mughal
empires while contributing to the downfall of the Ming dynasty in China

D. Newer powers in England, Russia, and Japan were able to use this process to further
consolidate and/or expand their power. But even in these new regimes, the pace of change
was often unsettling

XXVI.Trade and culture

A. New wealth from global trade allowed for cultural flowering in much of the world during this
time period

1. China, the Islamic world, Africa and Europe were not threatened with foreign
takeover and their educated and artistic groups continued to affirm the validities of
their own ways

2. Japan, in contrast, was more receptive to some foreign ideas

B. Europeans increasingly colonized the indigenous peoples in the Americas and Oceania, and
it was European culture that spread and diversified in these areas during this period with
strong influence from Native Americans and African slaves

C. During this era, Europeans increasingly explored the Pacific Ocean and closely examined
other cultures. They increasingly analyzed the world using the methods of the scientific
revolution and the Enlightenment and found themselves superior

1. Captain Cook's voyages in the Pacific between 1768 and 1779 are a prime example
of this development

XXVII.Culture in the Islamic world

A. Muslim elites devoted large resources to cultural development in the three Islamic dynasties
of the period-the Ottoman, Safavid, and Mughal dynasties. Each developed a relatively
autonomous form of Muslim culture.
B. The Ottoman cultural synthesis

1. Ottoman culture blended Sufis mysticism and ultra-orthodox ulama, military and
administrative traditions, and the dominant Islamic faith and minority Christian and
Jewish sects

a. Ottomans permitted dhimmis (followers of religions permitted by law) to

organize themselves into millets (minority religious communities) that had
cultural, but not political, autonomy

b. The diverse Ottoman world was governed by the kanun (its administrative
law)

i. Suleiman the Magnificent oversaw its codification

ii. The code included laws on the rights and duties of subjects, what
clothes they could wear, and regulations between Muslims and
non-Muslims

2. The Ottoman education system tolerated differences

a. Civil and military bureaucrats were educated in one set of schools

b. The ulama emerged from the madrasas

c. Tekkes taught the devotional strategies of various Sufi orders

d. Ottoman education tended to stress law, language, and religion over

science and math

3. Scholars tended to focus on the defects and decline in the Ottoman system

4. Ottoman rulers encouraged delight in the world

a. Tulipmania obsessed elites

b. Working classes enjoyed coffeehouses and taverns

5. Ottoman subjects were interested in Europe

a. Many adopted European fashion and décor

b. Some intellectuals took interest in European science but were discouraged

by the ulama

C. Safavid culture

1. Because Shiism created a culture of criticism, the Safavids cultivated more

conservative elements of Persian society. They created a system based on Shiism
and loyalty to the ruling dynasty

a. They used traditional education institutions to inculcate this synthesis

2. Under Shah Abbas, Persia enjoyed a cultural revival

a. He moved the capital to Isfahan and hired artists and architects to create a
showpiece for his rule

3. Safavid artists, patronized by the court and the landed and commercial classes,
perfected the design of illustrated books

4. Other artists improved carpet-making, mosaics, and calligraphy

 D. Power and culture under the Mughals

1. Like the Ottomans, the Mughals ruled over a large non-Muslim population. Mughal
culture thus was open and a synthesis of Muslim and Hindu traditions

a. Akbar promoted this open culture

i. Under his rule, Mughal intellectuals cultivated Muslim legacies but

also studied the classic Hindu literary works

ii. Akbar also valued Hindu art and music

b. Mughal rulers after Akbar continued to patronize intellectuals and artists

c. Emperor Shah Jahan hired architects to beautify Agra, the imperial capital

i. He commissioned the construction of the Taj Mahal, which blended

Persian, Islamic, and Hindu motifs

ii. Women in the Mughal court pursued the arts, including poetry

2. Mughals participated in foreign trade and adopted some European technologies,

especially involving guns and cannons

3. The Mughals, like most Muslims, looked to China for external inspiration, not
Europe. Europe was not considered culturally equal

XXVIII.Culture and politics in East Asia

A. China: The challenge of expansion and diversity

1. Transmission of Ideas

a. In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, China experienced a surge in

the publication and circulation of books and ideas

i. Books circulated because economic prosperity made them

affordable to many, but not most

ii. Demand was especially high for study aids for the civil service
exam

iii. Some elite women exploited this popularity of books, becoming

authors of poetry and other literary arts

iv. Despite official attempts to regulate this development, there was

no centralized system of censorship. Controversial works
circulated freely

2. Popular Culture and Religion

a. Among nonelites, oral communication and rituals continued to transmit

cultural norms

i. In the villages, people learned about the outside world through

travels to marketplaces and assorted travelers

ii. Government officials had no real control over how villagers

absorbed or interpreted this information

3. Religion remained syncretic and religious practices were diverse and decentralized
 a. Emperors tolerated diverse beliefs so long as they did not challenge the
Confucian order

4. The central role of the emperor remained paramount during this time

5. Technology and Cartography

a. Much of Chinese astronomy and calendrical science had been developed to

assist the emperor in determining proper dates for agriculture, festivals,
mourning periods, and judicial assizes

6. European missionaries and traders were greatly impressed with Chinese art and
science but believed their own science was superior

a. Missionaries tried to impress the Chinese with their astronomy and

cartography

i. Chinese officials recognized their value, especially in cartography,

but were confident in their own methods

a. The Chinese rejected European emphasis on spatial

ordering with maps, believing that these did not convey
their belief in the centrality of China, and especially the
emperor, to the earth's proper order

7. Despite greater contact with Europeans, the Chinese remained rather ignorant of
the rest of the world and closed minded

a. Chinese elites clung to their sense of cultural superiority and viewed

foreign ideas as a threat to their social order

B. Cultural identity in Tokugawa, Japan

1. Increased trade and political stability fostered a cultural flowering in Japan during
this time period that reflected native, Chinese, and European influences

2. The political elites-the imperial court, the shogun, religious institutions, the
samurai and the daimyo cultivated N? theater, teahouses, flower arranging,
lacquerware production, and screen painting

3. At the same time, a new, rougher, more urban culture emerged, patronized by
merchants and artisans.

a. Geishas appeared

b. Kabuki theater emerged

c. This pleasure-oriented urban culture was known as the "floating world"

because it distorted official societal norms

4. One-third of the Japanese population was literate during this period, leading to the
emergence of booksellers and book lenders

5. In high culture, Chinese influence remained important

a. Confucianism offered the Tokugawa Shogunate a useful ideology

b. The regime required everyone to register at a Buddhist temple

c. Buddhism supplemented but did not replace Shinto¯, the indigenous belief
system of ancestor veneration and worshipping gods in nature
 6. Chinese authorities tapped other important sources of knowledge

a. "Dutch learning" circulated openly in the eighteenth century

i. Japanese scholars absorbed European texts on science,

geography, and medicine

ii. Students of European teaching were not numerous, but they had a
large influence

iii. European teachings never challenged the supremacy of Confucian

philosophy

7. The Japanese were far more willing to borrow from Europeans than the Chinese

a. Japan had a history of absorbing foreign ideas, especially Chinese thought

and customs

b. The Japanese did not considering learning from overseas sources a sign of
cultural inferiority

XXIX.The Enlightenment in Europe

A. Origins of the Enlightenment

1. The Enlightenment flowed from regional traditions and Europe's contacts with the
wider world

a. Learning during the Enlightenment was more ambitious and expansive

than previous learning

i. Enlightened thinkers aspired to universal and objective principles

applicable to all peoples everywhere

a. Most of these thinkers were unaware that European,

upper-class male perspectives colored their views

b. Enlightened thinking was shaped by cultural contacts with

other groups

ii. By the eighteenth century, European thinkers were becoming

more critical of other cultures

2. The Enlightenment was also the product of continued social, political, and religious
tension

a. Extensive warfare in the seventeenth century gave rise to critics of

established religious and political authorities

b. Increased commerce spawned new private wealth that could fund new
intellectual and artistic pursuits. Intellectuals and artists no longer had to
depend on church or court patronage

B. The New Science

1. The crises of the seventeenth century led many intellectuals to seek objective
truths and look beyond established institutions for inspiration

a. Scientists such as Galileo and Newton began to use the philosopher

Bacon's approach, which consisted of experimentation and observation
 b. Scientists increasingly began to identify "natural laws" governing the
universe

c. Expanding commerce furthered these pursuits

i. New wealth funded research

ii. Greater exposure to different plants, animals, people, and

historical experiences demanded new explanations

d. Many monarchs supported these efforts by funding royal academies of

science

e. Increased literacy in Europe spread these ideas and this approach to

understanding the world

i. Farmers and military leaders increasingly used the scientific

approach to improve their methods

f. The emergence of this scientific worldview was uneven

i. Christian ideas still dominated the thoughts of most people

ii. Local customs and traditions prevailed in most areas

iii. The poor and most women were illiterate

iv. Governments censored views that they found threatening

C. Enlightenment thinkers

1. The scientific approach led many European philosophers to believe in the power of
human reason and the perfectibility of mankind

a. While optimistic, they wrote scathing critiques of the flaws in their societies

i. Voltaire attacked the torture of criminals

ii. Diderot denounced French absolutism

iii. Smith criticized mercantilism

b. Enlightened thinkers trusted nature and human reason but distrusted

institutions and traditions

i. Rousseau wrote that "Man is born good; it is society that corrupts

him"

ii. Enlightened thinkers especially railed against superstition

2. Enlightened thinkers were often incarcerated or exiled for their writings

3. The Enlightenment was an uneven, pan-European movement

a. It was strongest in northwestern Europe and weakest in Iberia,

Scandinavia and Poland

b. Its reach extended to the port towns of Britain's North American colonies

c. Overall it had its strongest influence among the literate peoples of

commercial cities

i. Book clubs, coffeehouses, and salons helped spread these views

 4. Although many aristocrats patronized Enlightenment thinkers, many philosophers
rejected social distinctions based on birth

a. John Locke believed that man was born a tabula rasa

b. Few Enlightenment male philosophers believed in gender equality

5. Enlightenment thinkers urged religious toleration

6. Increasingly in the eighteenth century, Enlightenment philosophers "discovered"

the laws of human behavior

a. Adam Smith's Wealth of Nations described universal economic laws

i. He stressed unregulated markets with minimal government

interference

a. The "invisible hand" of the market would guarantee

general prosperity and social peace

ii. He believed that non-European peoples that he deemed uncivilized

would have to imitate Europe and organize themselves according
to natural laws

b. Another famous work was the French Encyclopedia, to which nearly two
hundred intellectuals contributed essays

i. While criticizing aspects of European society, it generally praised

the superiority of European culture over all others

7. Enlightenment thinkers urged a cultural hierarchy that extolled commerce and

rationality

a. They ranked societies according to how well they met these standards

i. Although acknowledging other societies' accomplishments, they

viewed Europe as taking the lead here

8. Absolutist governments were not entirely hostile to enlightened ideas

a. They appreciated the need for greater social mobility and commerce to
enrich the state

XXX.African Culture Flourishes

A. Africa had strong artisanal traditions dating back centuries, but the slave trade gave African
elites money to support new cultural achievements

1. Artisans maintained local forms of cultural production, including woodcarving,

weaving and weapon making

B. Arts and crafts could glorify royal power and capture the energy of a universe that was
believed to be suffused with spiritual beings

C. The Asante, Oyo, and Benin Cultural Traditions

1. Slave trading states became wealthy and powerful

a. Asante

i. Gold used in crafting seats and stools for royalty

b. Oyo
 i. Bronze heads of Ife, crafted by Yoruba artisans

c. Benin

i. Bronze and terra cotta heads

XXXI.Hybrid cultures in the Americas

A. In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, the mingling between European colonizers
and native peoples produced new hybrid cultures, but increasingly this mixing grew
unbalanced as Europeans imposed their political and cultural authority

1. From the onset, Indians were under pressure to adapt their cultures to European
intrusion

2. Europeans also were culturally imperialistic

a. Missionaries devoted themselves to converting natives and slaves to

Christianity

3. Europeans also had to adapt to a new cultural environment

a. As time passed and colonists achieved a level of stability and prosperity,

however, they began to deemphasize their past dependency on natives

b. By the eighteenth century, European colonists increasingly looked to

Europe for cultural standards

B. Spiritual encounters

1. Christian missionaries, with the backing of governments and armies, were

successful at converting indigenous peoples and African slaves

a. Catholic missionaries went to great lengths to learn Native American

culture and use that knowledge to promote Christianity

2. The Christianity that emerged among these groups tended to be a hybrid form that
incorporated indigenous gods and traditions

a. Some Europeans captured by Indians adopted indigenous faiths and

customs

3. Sexual relations between Indian and African women and European men were very
common in the Americas, leading to the emergence of new ethnic categories

4. Europeans also tried to convert African slaves

a. Like the Indians, Africans blended Christianity with their native Islamic or
other beliefs

i. Christianity often helped inspire resistance among slave

communities

C. The making of colonial cultures

1. Iberian colonies

a. The most powerful group were the Creoles, or people of pure European
descent born in the Americas.

i. They resented the control that "peninsulars" (European residents

born in Europe) had over colonial society
 ii. They also resented mercantilist regulations

b. Creole identity also emerged from the ideas of the Enlightenment

i. Enlightened ideas justified their resentment of peninsulars and

mercantilist restrictions on trade

ii. In many cities, reading clubs and salons operated

a. The Spanish and Portuguese crowns tried to limit or

censor publications, but ideas still spread

2. British America

a. Wealthy colonists strove to imitate English ways

i. They imported more English goods

ii. They modeled their governments after England's

iii. They practiced patriarchy

b. In the process of trying to be more English they consumed and produced

Enlightenment tracts

i. Thomas Jefferson's "Declaration of Independence" is the most

famous Enlightenment document

XXXII.Imperialism in Oceania

A. Europeans increasingly began to explore the Pacific east and south of modern-day
Indonesia in the eighteenth century

B. The impact on Australia was profound

1. Until then, Australia had been a world apart, separated by water and distance from
other regions

2. 300,000 indigenous hunters and gatherers lived there at the time of European
exploration

C. The Scientific Voyages of Captain Cook

1. The voyages of Captain Cook led the English to discover the continent's verdant
east coast

a. Cook symbolized his age

i. His voyages opened up the Pacific to European colonization

ii. The Royal Society and the British crown sponsored his voyages

iii. Popular accounts and engravings of his voyages increased

European curiosity about the exotic worlds of the Pacific

iv. His voyages opened up the Pacific to cultural colonization

b. Many scientists accompanied Cook during his voyages

i. They made about 3,000 drawings of plants, birds, landscapes, and

peoples unknown to Europeans

ii. They classified new flora and fauna according to the new Linnaean
classificatory system
 iii. They gave geographical features English names

2. After Cook's voyages, the British hoped to make Australia a trading port and a
supplier of raw materials

a. When the local population proved incapable of aiding in this goal, British
authorities sent colonists

i. These colonists brought European flora and fauna

3. By 1788, the British controlled the eastern half of Australia

a. They began exporting criminals as well as encouraging free labor migration

to the new colony

b. By 1860, there were 1.2 million Anglo-Australians

4. European diseases wiped out much of the indigenous population during this period

D. Classification and "Race"

1. European exploration and colonization of new areas in the Pacific came at a time
when Europeans were using race to categorize other peoples they encountered

2. Many Enlightenment figures had begun to use the term race to designate groups of
people in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries

a. Linnaeus identified five groups among Homo sapiens, classifying people

according to their physical characteristics and social qualities

i. Europeans were light-skinned and governed by laws

ii. Asians were "sooty-skinned" and regulated by opinion

iii. Native Americans were copper-skinned and governed by custom

iv. Africans, the lowest rung, were dark-skinned and ruled by

personal whim

b. Johann Friedrich Blumenbach, the father of modern anthropology, took this

view and classified humans into four races-European, Asian, African, and
American

i. He introduced the term "Caucasian" to denote Europeans

ii. He believed that Pacific Islanders fell somewhere between

Caucasian and Ethiopians (whom he considered different from
Africans)

iii. The death of Cook at the hand of Hawaiians led Europeans to

deemphasize this mystique and view the peoples of Oceania as
savages

XXXIII.Conclusion

A. A global cultural renaissance occurred between 1600 and 1780

1. Book production and consumption soared

2. New monuments arose

3. Knowledge of other cultures increased among the world's educated groups

 B. In China, Africa, and the Islamic world, social and cultural forces from within rather from
without generated these cultural flowerings

C. This cultural renaissance was uneven, mainly benefiting elite and middle-class men in the
Eurasian societies

1. The indigenous peoples of the Americas and Oceania were increasingly subjected to
European cultural domination

D. Europeans increasingly gained an expansive view of the world and their place in it.

1. They developed "universal" and "objective" standards with which to analyze the
world and to master it

E. The Chinese and Islamic empires rejected these European views

F. Indigenous people in the Americas and Oceania resisted cultural domination

XXXIV.Revolutionary Transformations and New Languages of Freedom

A. The transatlantic disruption that occurred between 1750 and 1850 had its roots in the
mercantilist system of the previous century

B. As wealth increased, men and women who partook of this wealth demanded a relaxation of
mercantilist restrictions

1. They demanded greater freedom to trade

2. They demanded more influence in governing institutions

C. Over time, these demands became more radical and revolutionary

1. Revolutionaries championed the concept of popular sovereignty, free people, free

trade, free markets, and free labor as a more just and efficient foundation for
society

2. The question then emerged of how far to extend these freedoms

a. Revolutionaries disagreed whether these freedoms applied to women,

slaves, Native Americans and other non-Europeans, and the propertyless

D. By and large, Europeans and Euro-American elite groups reserved these freedoms for
themselves

E. Europeans also used force to open Asian and African markets to their trade and investment

XXXV.Political ordering

A. The spread of revolutionary ideas across the Atlantic world in the second half of the
eighteenth century followed the trail of Enlightenment ideas

B. As the rhetoric of revolution spread, people disagreed over the meaning of terms such as
liberty, independence, freedom, and equality

C. These ideas spawned the American and French Revolutions

1. In both, revolutions replaced monarchies with republics

2. They in turn encouraged other similar developments in the Caribbean and much of
Spanish America

D. After the break with monarchies, revolutionary societies tended to break into liberals or
moderates and radicals
 E. At first moderates won the debate but radical ideas proved difficult to contain

XXXVI.The North American War of Independence, 1776-1783

A. Britain's North American colonies proved highly prosperous by mid-century

B. This prosperity masked tensions

1. Land was a constant source of dispute

2. Big planters' interests often collided with independent farmers'

3. Western settlers, seeking available land, often clashed with Indian and French
interests

a. In the Seven Years' War, colonists and the British military defeated the
French and their Indian allies

C. After the Seven Years' War, the colonists increasingly protested British administration of the
colonies, often claiming to defend their rights as Englishmen

1. Merchants protested the Revenue Act of 1764 designed by the British to make the
colonists contribute more to the maintenance of the empire

D. Eventually this agitation turned into warfare and calls for independence by pundits such as
Thomas Paine in Common Sense

E. In July 1776 the colonists declared independence

1. The Declaration of Independence, written by Thomas Jefferson, drew on

Enlightenment themes

F. As the Americans fought the British militarily they began to try and develop new republican
institutions

1. States held constitutional conventions

2. These new constitutions gave sweeping powers to the legislative branch

3. They reduced property qualifications that determined who could vote

a. Only New Jersey allowed a limited number of women to exercise the

franchise

G. The new revolutionary rhetoric inspired common men no longer to defer to gentlemen of
higher rank

1. Many women demanded greater respect and equality

2. Slaves often fled to British forces, expecting freedom in exchange for loyalty to the
crown

3. In Shays's Rebellion in 1786, independent farmers in Massachusetts organized an

armed rebellion against taxes they could not pay

H. The prospect of a radical revolution propelled elites to convene a Constitutional Convention

in order to prevent "anarchy" from subsuming the new nation

1. While maintaining a republican form of government, the new constitution

substantially enhanced the power of the federal (national) government over state
legislatures
 2. It included a system of checks and balances to deter majorities from trampling
over the rights of the minority within the federal government

3. It eventually included a Bill of Rights to protect individuals from the federal

government

I. While Federalists (supporters of the Constitution) and Anti-Federalists (opponents of the

Constitution) continued to debate the function and size of the federal government, they
kept this debate civil and within the confines of the constitutional arena

J. The election of Thomas Jefferson in 1800 signaled the triumph of a new model in which
social tensions would be diffused through western expansion as land ownership became
easier

K. For the time being, the Revolution ignored slaves, free African Americans, women, and
Native Americans

1. Gabriel Prosser's attempted rebellion

XXXVII.The French Revolution, 1789-1799

A. The French Revolution, even more than the American Revolution, inspired many other
rebellions around the world that lasted into the twentieth century

B. As in the American Revolution, Enlightenment ideas against oppressive government had

gained legitimacy among millions and helped propel the nation into revolution

1. In addition, harvests had been poor for years, leading many peasants to protest
heavy tax burdens

C. King Louis XVI opened the door for reform when he convened the Estates-General in 1788
in order to seek new forms of revenue to service the crown's debt

D. Reform quickly turned to revolution as members of the Third Estate (the common people)
called for greater representation

1. Upon hearing of these events, peasants rose up in the countryside to protest the
feudal dues and obligations they resented

2. On July 14, 1789, a Parisian crowd attacked the Bastille, an infamous political
prison

3. In August, the Third Estate, calling itself a national assembly, abolished feudal
privileges of the nobility and clergy and passed a "Declaration of the Rights of Man
and Citizens"

a. It recognized political equality and popular sovereignty

b. Some women suggested that women be included as citizens but their

petitions were rejected

i. Olympe de Gouge completed "Declaration of the Rights of Women

and Citizens"

E. As the Revolution gathered speed, it split into different directions

1. Liberals, or Girondins, wanted a constitutional monarchy

2. Jacobins wanted to create a pure republic with a new culture

3. When the king tried to flee the country in 1791, Jacobins gained the upper hand
 a. They purged the assembly of "counter-revolutionaries," held new elections
using universal male suffrage in 1792, declared France to be a republic,
and executed the king in 1793

b. They launched a "Reign of Terror" under the leadership of Robespierre that

saw the executions of 40,000 persons judged enemies of the state

c. The Jacobins reformed the army, introducing universal conscription and

chose and promoted officers based on merit, not aristocratic privileges

i. The army promoted national identity and loyalty to the Revolution

d. The Jacobins tried to do away with aristocratic and Catholic influences on

the nation's culture

i. These efforts were widely dismissed

4. In 1794, moderates regained control of the government

5. In 1799, in light of ineffective government, Napoleon Bonaparte and other generals

from the army organized a coup

6. In 1804, Napoleon declared himself emperor of the French nation

a. His reign checked the excesses of the Radical era but let many
revolutionary changes continue

b. He allowed religious freedom

c. He submitted a constitution to a plebiscite

d. His Code Napoleon codified the nation's laws into one legal framework

i. The code emphasized the equality of men and the protection of

individual property

XXXVIII.Napoleon's Empire, 1799-1815

A. Napoleon envisioned a new Roman empire based on the principles he espoused in France

B. His attempts to bring Europe under French rule laid the foundations for nineteenth-century
nationalist strife

1. Strong local resistance appeared in Spain, Germany, and Egypt

2. As locals in areas occupied by the French tired of hearing that French ways were
superior, they looked to their own past for inspiration

C. Napoleon's military campaigns became a global conflict, with fighting in Africa, Europe, and
the Americas

1. A coalition of Prussia, Austria, Russia, and Britain finally defeated him in 1815

D. The victorious powers at the Congress of Vienna redrew European borders, established a
balance of power among themselves and France, and promised to guard against future
revolutions

1. Austria, Prussia, and Russia remained absolutist monarchies

2. The Congress of Vienna could not turn the clock back completely

a. In many areas, some of Napoleon's reforms were kept in place

 i. The abolition of serfdom among German states

b. The nationalist sentiments that French troops stirred continued in places

such as Germany and Italy

XXXIX.Revolutions in the Caribbean and Iberian America

A. The contagion of revolution spread to the Caribbean and Iberian America

1. In the 1780s, Andean Indians called for freedom from the forced labor draft and
other regulations and besieged Spanish authorities

2. In the 1790s slaves successfully revolted against French authorities and French
settlers in Saint Domingue

3. These rebellions confirmed Iberian American elites loyalty to the crowns of Portugal
and Spain for the time being

4. Even when they joined in the call for severing colonial ties, they sought to establish
regimes less committed to revolutionary goals than in the United States or in
France

B. Revolution in Saint Domingue (Haiti)

1. The island slaves (500,000) outnumbered whites (40,000) and free people of color
(30,000)

2. After 1789, whites campaigned for self-government while slaves used the language
of the French Revolution to call for freedom

a. By 1791, the island had descended into civil war

b. In 1792, slaves fought French troops sent to restore order

c. In 1793 the French National Convention abolished slavery

d. Former slaves took over the colony

3. In 1802, Napoleon tried to reassert French authority and slavery by sending an

army of 58,000 troops to the island

a. Toussaint L'Ouverture organized resistance among the former slaves

b. Most French troops died of disease or wounds inflicted by guerillas

4. In 1804, leaders declared the Republic of Haiti

a. International recognition proved elusive

C. Brazil and constitutional monarchy

1. Brazil's road to statehood avoided revolution

a. When French troops occupied Portugal, the royal Braganza family fled to
Brazil and ruled their empire from there

b. In 1821, long after liberation, the king agreed to return to Portugal but left
his son Pedro in charge

c. When calls for independence grew popular, Pedro declared himself head of
an independent Brazil with a constitutional monarchy
 d. He was supported by Brazilian elites who wanted to avoid slave
insurrections or regional insurrections

i. The central government put down revolts by gauchos in the

interior and urban slaves in Bahia

e. By the 1840s Brazil had achieved political stability without revolutionary

unrest

D. Mexico's independence

1. Unlike Brazil, Mexico and other Spanish colonies gained autonomy from the
Spanish crown during the Napoleonic Wars

a. When the crown regained power, creoles (American-born Spaniards)

resented the reappointment of peninsulars (officials from Spain) to power
and wished to regain this elite position

i. They used Enlightenment ideas to back up their grievances

2. In Mexico between 1810 and 1813, Fathers Hidalgo and Morelos organized a revolt
of peasants, Indians, and artisans calling for the redistribution of wealth and land
reform, among other things

a. Creoles, peninsulars, and the Spanish army overcame the rebellion after
years of fighting

3. When the Spanish crown was unable to prevent anarchy, the local army joined the
creoles in proclaiming Mexico's independence in 1821

E. Other South American revolutions

1. Men such as Simón Bolívar and San Martín waged wars for independence in the
rest of Spain's colonies from 1810 until 1824

a. This warfare mobilized Indians, mestizos and slaves as well as elites

2. When the wars of liberation ended, civil war erupted between different social,
ethnic, and religious groups

3. Multiple new states rather than a united federation appeared, and they were
controlled by social elites and usually ruled by caudillos (military chieftains)

XL. Change and Trade in Africa

A. Increased domestic and world trade led to new state-building

1. New and powerful kingdoms emerged around Lake Victoria in the first half of the
nineteenth century

B. Abolition of the Slave Trade

1. In the aftermath of the American and French Revolutions, a small group of

abolitionists emerged, often led by Quakers, who wanted to end the slave trade

2. Soon they achieved success

a. Denmark banned the slave trade in 1803

b. Great Britain banned it in 1807, and the United States banned it in 1808

c. France followed in 1814

 d. By 1850, the amount of slaves traded had dropped sharply

e. In 1867 the last slave vessel crossed the Atlantic

3. The British navy was instrumental in suppressing the slave trade and enforcing
these bans

a. Both Sierra Leone and Liberia on the West African coast became home to
freed captives and former slaves returning from America

C. New trade with Africa

1. European traders promoted new forms of commerce, dubbed "legitimate" trade,

after the demise of the slave trade

a. West Africans began to export palm oil, peanuts, and vegetable oils

b. Some deforestation occurred because of new export crops

2. This new legitimate trade gave rise to new political and commercial powers

a. New merchants amassed new fortunes

i. William Heddle of Sierra Leone

ii. Jaja of Opobo

iii. William Lewis

b. For some states, the demise of the slave trade was a disaster

i. The Asante state wavered but endured

ii. The Yoruba state fell

3. The end of the slave trade strengthened slavery in Africa

a. More and more slaves were used for fieldwork or as porters, not domestic
servants

b. The Fulani Emirates of northern Nigeria had a population that was 80%
slave

c. Africa became the largest slaveholding continent in the nineteenth century

XLI.Economic reordering in the Atlantic world

A. The political upheavals shattered the old mercantilist system that encouraged an economic
transformation known as the industrial revolution

1. By 1850 people in Western Europe and North America were wealthier and healthier
than their counterparts anywhere else

2. Western European nations, especially Britain, were using this economic power to
increase their political and economic power around the world

3. Why this area, and not China or India, advanced so has long perplexed historians
and economists

B. Britain's economic transformation

1. A large number of factors came into play in the late eighteenth century to produce
Britain's economic transformation

a. Britain had a large accessible source of coal and iron ore

 b. Technological innovations, especially the steam engine, appeared

c. Britain had an effective system to mobilize capital

d. Britain had a well-developed internal market

e. British merchants had access to most of the world's markets

f. Britain had a large and adaptable labor force eager (or forced) to work for
wages

g. Agricultural production had increased, allowing for more food with

relatively fewer farmers

i. This in turn led to the growth of urban areas

ii. It also increased the pool of wage laborers

2. This transformation spread and organized a new division of labor around the world

a. Britain and other industrial societies increasingly exported manufactured

goods to dependencies or colonies in exchange for agricultural products

b. Free trade and free labor was the new economic ideology

C. Trading and financing

1. New products such as tea and soap joined sugar and silver as strong international
commercial commodities

2. In industrial societies, even the poor could afford these and other products

3. Merchants reaped the greatest reward from this expansion of international trade
and gained higher status

a. They provided financing (took risks)

b. Accountants and lawyers also profited

4. This new class of commercial men and women were known as the "bourgeoisie"

5. The bourgeoisie's rise to prominence altered the social and political equation

a. Many assumed positions of authority

i. The Rothschilds, a German Jewish family, amassed huge fortunes

and influence, loaning money to kings and governments

b. The bourgeoisie invested in trade in various places in the world and began
to pressure governments to protect these endeavors

c. The bourgeoisie also began to push for free trade

i. The first region of the world to practice free trade was Latin
America

a. The British seized on this opportunity for cheap foodstuffs

and other staples

ii. By the 1840s the British had ended most protectionist regulations
and adopted the attitude that domestic wealth depended on the
export of industrial goods and the import of basic commodities

D. Manufacturing
 1. In the late eighteenth century, the build up of technical knowledge allowed for
huge improvements in manufacturing

a. The steam engine developed by James Watt of Scotland and others was
paramount here

i. Steam power allowed for trains and steamships that revolutionized

transportation

ii. Steam power also greatly improved iron production, sugar

refining, pottery making, and textile production

2. One of the first areas to be revolutionized by these technological innovations was

the textile industry in Britain

a. From 1782-1812 the price of cotton cloth declined by 90%

b. The cotton gin allowed the American South to become Britain's principal
supplier of cotton

c. By 1848, cotton textiles were 40% of Britain's exports

3. This process gradually spread to other European nations and North America

E. Working and living

1. The industrial revolution altered where and how people worked for all those caught
in its tentacles

a. Increasingly Europe's workers dwelled in cities

i. Cities were not healthy places

b. Children, wives, and husbands worked outside the home for often paltry
wages

i. Real wages did not begin to rise until after 1850

ii. Idleness meant no source of income

c. Hours were long and conditions often unsafe

d. A more rigid concept of work developed

i. Employers used clocks to impose discipline and measure efficiency

e. The impact of the industrial revolution caused widespread concern

i. Luddites smashed machines that rendered workers unemployed

ii. Reformers and novelists publicized deplorable conditions and

advocated reforms

a. Charlotte Brontë, Shirley

b. Charles Dickens, Hard Times

c. Friedrich Engels, The Condition of the Working Class in

England

2. This economic reordering transformed all aspects of the lives of those caught up in
it

a. It altered what they traded and what they consumed

 b. It required new methods of mobilizing capital

c. It changed patterns and rhythms of work routines

d. It changed where people worked and lived and family size and
arrangements

e. It changed how those caught up in industrialism viewed those who were

not

XLII.Persistence and change in Eurasia

A. Between 1750 and 1850, Europeans altered the status quo in Eurasia in order to secure
"free" access to these markets

B. Revamping the Russian monarchy

1. Russia emerged victorious after Napoleon's invasion in 1812, but Napoleon's

presence had presented an alternative to the absolutist system and serfdom that
sustained the Romanov dynasty

2. When Alexander I died in 1825, some elites (Decembrists) called for a

constitutional monarchy modeled on Britain and France or even a republic

3. The new tsar, Nicholas I, suppressed this reform movement

4. To avoid further dissent Nicholas projected the image of tsar as the head of the
family and created a secret police force to root out opposition

5. In the 1830s he preached a conservative philosophy stressing "Orthodoxy,

Autocracy, and Folk Nationality," that romanticized the people without
enfranchising them

C. Reforming Egypt and the Ottoman empire

1. The Ottoman empire was also shaken by Napoleon's invasion of Egypt

2. In the wake of the French invasions, reformist energies swept Egypt and the
Ottoman empire

3. In Egypt, Muhammad Ali brought a series of widespread reforms

a. He looked to France as a model for Egypt

i. The key to stability was a strong army

ii. He hired French advisers to develop a modern army

b. He pursued education and agricultural reforms

i. He established schools of medicine and engineering

ii. He made Egypt a major cotton exporter

c. His reforms altered the lives of the common people

d. Eventually, his threat to Ottoman rule compelled Europeans to force him to

reduce the size of his military and allow unimpeded access to Egyptian
markets

4. Pressure from Egypt and Europe forced reforms on the Ottoman empire
 a. Sultan Selim III tried to reduce the power of the janissaries in 1805 and to
create a modern army but they overthrew him in response

i. Clerics also resisted efforts to modernize the empire

ii. Sultans did not want to appeal to common people for support in
light of the multiethnic and multireligious nature of the empire

b. Mahmud II ended this political deadlock during his reign. His reforms and
those of his successors were known as the Tanzimat

i. In 1826 he eliminated the janissaries with clerical support

ii. He then proceeded to use European advisers to create a modern

army

iii. Schools began to teach European languages and sciences

c. These reforms were not revolutionary

i. Landowners resisted land reform

ii. Merchants resisted financial reform

d. Throughout the nineteenth century, the empire fell further behind Europe
in terms of military and economic power, and the dynasty became
financially dependent on Europe for its survival

D. Colonial reordering in India

1. The English East India Company increasingly dominated India

a. Officials extracted a proclamation from the Mughal emperor in 1765

allowing the Company to collect tax revenue in Bengal and other places
and the right to trade freely throughout the empire

b. In return, the company paid the emperor a fixed fee

c. After annexing more territory, the Company ruled over 200 million people
by the early 1800s and became the dominant power in the subcontinent

2. The Company adopted a government structure to rule the territory

a. It used Hindu kings and Muslim princes in its administrative structure

b. It maintained a large standing army of 155,000 soldiers, one-third of them

native recruits (sepoys)

c. It brought in English scholars in order to learn about Indian society,

culture, and history

i. The Asiatic society formed

3. Company rule altered the lives of Indians in many ways

a. Its policies promoted private property and undercut village autonomy

b. Colonial cities such as Calcutta, Madras, and Bombay grew

i. Europeans lived in enclaves

ii. Indian rural migrants lived in crowded "black towns"

 4. In Britain, the Company's position in India generated calls for an end to its
monopoly on trade with the subcontinent

a. In 1813, Parliament ended its monopoly

5. India now served all of industrializing Britain

a. It became a major market for British textiles and a major exporter of

cotton to British factories

b. Partial deindustrialization occurred as India's traditional cotton

manufacturing sector declined

6. British reformers began to call for changes in Hindu and Muslim society

a. They demanded an end to the sati

7. Increasingly, officials and scholars began to view Indians as backwards and in need
of enlightenment

a. Educational and administrative institutions began to stress the English

language and European ideas

8. India became a full-fledged colony as Indian merchants, intellectuals, and

manufacturers were all forced to play a subordinate role to the British and their
needs

E. Persistence of the Qing Empire

1. Expansion of the Empire

a. Emperor Qianlong expanded the empire to the north and the west

b. As a result, increased agricultural productivity allowed for greater

commercialization and increased state revenue

2. Problems of the Empire

a. Rulers did not pay attention to what was happening in the Atlantic world

i. In 1793 Qianlong expressed no need to acquire European products

3. Unsettling trends began to emerge

a. The population expanded to 300 million

b. The Qing dynasty, which taxed lightly, found it difficult to administer the
realm

i. Many local officials grew corrupt

4. Several rural rebellions against the dynasty occurred

5. By the mid-nineteenth century, the Chinese could no longer ignore European

powers

6. The Opium War and the "opening of China"

a. By the eighteenth century, opium consumption had spread throughout

China despite official bans

b. The English East India Company fueled this consumption by smuggling

opium from India into China in order to purchase Chinese tea
 i. The use of opium cut down on the need to pay for Chinese goods
with silver

ii. Silver began to flow out of China, reversing a long-term trend

c. In 1834, Parliament ended the Company's trade monopoly with China,

meaning more merchants could provide opium for Chinese addicts

d. In 1838, Lin Zexu, a court official, tried to end the opium trade and
enforce the ban

e. In 1840, a British fleet retaliated by bombarding the coastal regions and

sailing up rivers

f. To restore order, the Qing sued for peace

i. They agreed to cede the island of Hong Kong to the British

ii. They agreed to pay an indemnity for the war

iii. They opened five "treaty" ports to foreign trade and settlement

iv. They agreed to extraterritoriality for European residents

XLIII.Conclusion

A. Changes wrought by politics, ideas, commerce, industry, and technology unleashed an

upheaval in the Atlantic world that disrupted polities everywhere

B. The world remained multicentered, but economic power was shifting to the western end of
the Eurasian land mass

XLIV.Reactions to social and political change

A. Everywhere the transformations of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries upset
people's lives and established ways

1. In Europe, political and economic revolutions overturned the old order

2. In North America, the United States' conquest of lands and expansion upset Indian
groups

3. In Latin America, new nation-states struggled to sustain order

4. In Asia and Africa, rulers had to come to terms with European economic and
military power

B. Dissidents in all areas emerged to propose alternative scenarios that drew upon their own
traditions as well as their contacts with outside disruptive forces

1. In one pattern, particularly in the Islamic Middle East, Islamic Africa, non-Islamic
Africa, and China, alternative perspectives were shaped by the disruption of
European commerce

a. These areas saw the emergence of leaders who believed that their own
traditions required rejuvenation

2. In another pattern, mainly in Europe and the Americas, utopians and radicals
envisioned more equitable rearrangements to the order created by the industrial
and political revolutions

a. The most radical envisioned a socialist alternative

 3. The third pattern emerged among the colonized peoples

a. Indigenous peoples in the Americas and South Asia struggled to defend

their traditional worlds

C. All these movements shared four traits

1. All of them opposed some form of established authority

2. They were steeped in local historical and cultural traditions

3. They advocated new political and social arrangements

4. They either took place far from the center of the new order or were led by people
on the margins

XLV.Prophecy and revitalization in the Islamic world and Africa

A. The era of Islamic expansion and the flowering of the Ottoman, Safavid, and Mughal
empires were over

1. European power encroached upon the Islamic World

2. Prophets emerged who urged revival and restoration of theocratic governments

3. Non-Islamic Africa was also transformed by the new emerging European trading
regime and also witnessed the rise of charismatic leaders who drew strength from
spiritual and magical traditions

B. Islamic revitalization

1. Movements to revitalize Islam took place on the peripheries

2. Wahhabism

a. Muhammad Ibn abd al-Wahhab preached that the local population of the
Najd region of the Arabian peninsula had become too religiously lax in the
late eighteenth century

i. Wahhabism swept across the peninsula

ii. Followers sacked Shiite shrines and overtook the holy cities of
Mecca and Medina

iii. The Ottomans used Muhammad Ali of Egypt and his army to put
down the revolt

3. Dan Fodio and the Fulani

a. Muslim revolts emerged in West Africa in the late eighteenth and early
nineteenth centuries

i. The Fulani people sought to recreate a purer Islamic past

ii. The Fulani Muslim cleric and prophet Usman dan Fodio created a
vast empire

a. He waged jihad against unbelievers

b. He especially targeted Hausa rulers deemed too lax in their religion and
too tolerant of nonbelievers
 c. Fulani women of North Nigeria made critical contributions to religious
revolt

i. Men expected women to be modest but to support their

community

ii. Best known female Muslim leader was Nana Asa'u

d. Eventually a new state emerged-the Sokoto Caliphate-that avidly

promoted the growth of Islam

C. Charismatic military men and prophets

1. In southern Africa, in the early nineteenth century, the Mfecane revolt reordered
the political map

a. The Bantu population in southern Africa had grown to strain the resources
of the land

b. Shaka Zulu, son of a minor chief, possessed great military and

organizational skills, and emerged to create a ruthless warrior state to
replace the modest chieftaincies

i. He assimilated many conquered peoples

ii. Other peoples duplicated his efforts in response to the threat his
new state posed

a. The states of Ndebele and Sotho emerged

c. Shaka's power stemmed from the tradition of "big men" in the area who
emerged at times of crisis and social change

i. Shaka and other leaders forged new states and built new ethnic
and kinship ties using long-standing religious and cultural symbols

XLVI.Prophecy and rebellion in China

A. China's Taiping Rebellion, unlike those in the Islamic world and Africa, arose in an area with
some Western influences

B. Rising population, coupled with rising opium use and debt, had put increased pressure on
land and resources

C. Lack of authority and respect for the Qing dynasty following the loss to the British in the
Opium Wars paved the way for the Taiping Rebellion of 1850

1. The rebellion drew on China's tradition of peasant revolts rooted in religious sects

2. Women played an important role

D. The dream

1. Hong Xiuquan was a native of Guangdong province

a. He encountered Western missionaries while preparing for the civil service

examination in the 1830s

2. On failing the exam, he began to have visions that led him to forming the Society
of God Worshipers and the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom

a. Confucius and women generals were in the visions

 3. Hong reportedly realized the significance of the dream on reading a Christian tract
in 1843

a. Hong believed that he was the son of Lord Ye-huo-hua (Jehovah) and that
Jesus was his brother

b. Like Jesus, Hong believed he had been sent to save the world

E. The rebellion

1. Hong began preaching and converting in the surrounding areas

2. His followers lived in contradiction to Chinese traditions of hierarchy, patriarchy,

and religion

a. His first followers came from the margins of society

b. Converts could not consume alcohol, opium, or indulge in sensual pleasure

c. Men and women were segregated for administrative and residential

purposes

i. Women were allowed to serve in the Taiping army or bureaucracy

d. All land was divided among families according to need

i. Men and women received equal shares

3. In 1850, full-fledged rebellion began against the hated Manchus

a. In 1851, Hong set up the Taiping kingdom with its capital at Nanjing,
declaring himself the Heavenly King

b. In 1853, Taiping rebels captured Nanjing and systematically killed Manchu

men, women, and children

c. Han and Manchu elites rallied to the dynasty's side

d. Westerners also supported the Qing

i. Believed Taiping's doctrine represented a perversion of Christianity

4. Qing forces crushed the rebellion and killed Hong in 1864

5. Rebels became an inspiration for further reform

XLVII.Utopians, socialists, and radicals in Europe

A. Restoration and resistance

1. The social and political unrest between 1815 and 1848 stemmed from the
ambiguous legacies of the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars

2. Political innovation meant that there were a variety of different state forms and
ideologies from which to choose

B. Critics of the Restoration were varied

1. Reactionaries wanted to reverse secularization and democratization

a. Slavophiles in Russia wanted to cleanse the realm of "Western" influence

2. Liberals pressed for legal and political reforms encoded in the American and French
Revolutions, but not economic equality
 a. John Stuart Mill embodied this thought

3. Radical visions

a. Radicals envisioned total reconfiguration of the old regime's state system

b. Radicals were a diverse lot

i. Some demanded equality and end to personal property

c. Nationalists demanded new nation-states in Poland, Serbia, Greece, Italy,

and Germany in place of the Ottoman, Habsburg, and Russian empires

i. Greece secured its independence from the Ottoman empire in the

1820s

d. Socialists and Communists demanded political and economic reform

i. They worried about the economic gap between workers and the
new wealthy middle class

e. Fourier and Utopian Societies

i. Utopian Socialism was the most visionary of all alternative

movements

ii. Charles Fourier was the most influential of Europe's prophet-

visionaries

a. His "system" planned for reorganizing society into

phalanxes of about 1,500 people

b. All members of the phalanx would work

iii. Fourier's writing gained popularity in the 1830s

a. Women worked toward reform based on Fourier's system

b. Writings influenced Russians such as Fyodor Dostoevsky,

Italians like Giuseppe Mazzini, the Spanish republican
Joaquin Abreu, and the German Karl Marx

f. Marxism

i. Karl Marx became the most important Restoration-era radical

ii. Collaborating with Friedrich Engels, he developed a materialist

theory of human history

iii. They believed the current clash between wage workers and
capitalists would usher in a brave new world of true liberty,
equality, and fraternity

a. This new world would not have private property

b. The state would wither away because there would be no

need for human exploitation

4. The revolutions of 1848 resulted in uprisings in France, Austria, Italy, and

Czechoslovakia, but they failed to achieve even limited goals, much less radical
ones. Still, radical visions continued to shape views of alternatives
 C. Marx published The Communist Manifesto in 1848, calling on the workers of all nations to
unite and overthrow capitalism

XLVIII.Insurgencies against colonizing and centralizing states

A. In the nineteenth century, Native Americans and Indians developed alternative visions to
their colonial status that drew upon traditional cultural and political resources, yet
envisioned something new

B. Alternative to the expanding United States: Native American prophets

1. Tenskwatawa emerged as a prophet, part of a long tradition in Native American

cultures

a. Indian seers had periodically emerged to encourage native peoples to

purge colonial influenced and invigorate native traditions

i. Popé encouraged the Pueblo villages in New Mexico to rise up

against colonial Spain

ii. During the 1750s, Neolin led rebels against the British in the Ohio
Valley

2. In the early 1800s, the Indians of the Ohio River valley envisioned a world from
which the Euro-American invaders had disappeared

a. The Shawnee had lost most of their holdings to the United States

b. Many cooperated with American officials and Christian missionaries in

order to survive

i. They took up farming and private property

ii. They embraced Christianity

3. Tenskwatawa, a distraught Shawnee, had much in common with Hong Xiuquan, the
Taiping leader

a. Having lived an uninspiring life thus far, he claimed to have fallen into a
trance and envisioned a heaven where the Shawnee would return to
traditional ways

b. He exhorted Indians to return to traditional ways and to reduce their

dependency on Euro-Americans

i. He urged them to abandon alcohol, guns, and Christianity

c. He claimed that if the Indians heeded his message, they could restore their
way of life and Euro-Americans would disappear

d. By 1805, he had converted numerous people from various tribes

4. His brother Tecumseh, a noted warrior, spread Tenskwatawa's vision around the
Great Lakes and organized armed resistance to the United States

5. From 1811 to 1813 Tecumseh and his forces fought valiantly but were ultimately
defeated by the United States army

6. During the 1820s and 1830s, most Indians in the eastern half of the United States
were relocated, often by force, west of the Mississippi
 a. Cherokee Trail of Tears

C. Alternative to the central state: The Caste War of Yucatan

1. The most successful of all rebellions in modern history or the New World was the
Mayan revolt against the Mexican government in the nineteenth century

2. The Mayan of the Yucatan had enjoyed relative autonomy for centuries

a. They maintained their villages, ruled by elders, with collective ownership of

the land

3. In the nineteenth century, regional elites began growing sugar and used debt
peonage to coerce labor out of Mayans

a. During the Mexican-American War of 1846-1848, government officials

sought revenue and soldiers from Mayan villages

4. In 1847, the Mayans began a revolt against local elites and the Mexican
government that would last for half a century

a. The conflict was known as the "Caste War" because Mayans wanted to end
their status as a special caste that paid separate taxes and did not enjoy
the same rights as whites

b. Mayan leaders essentially upheld a republican model based on full political

equality

5. The rebellion was successful early on but Mexican forces used brutality to repress it

6. The war transformed the Mayan rebels

a. Some forged a mixed syncretic religion that blended Mayan and Christian
traditions and demanded complete cultural autonomy, not just political
equality

7. By the late nineteenth century, the rebellion still thrived in rural areas, but isolation
and hunger had depleted the rebels' numbers

8. Henequen cultivation entered the area at this time

a. The Mexican government threw its full weight behind the large landholders'
efforts to force the Mayans to work the plantations

9. Hunger and government arms crushed the rebellion by 1900

D. The Rebellion of 1857 in India

1. By 1857, the East India Company's rule in India was a century old and had become
increasingly autocratic

a. In the 1840s it increasingly annexed more land and stripped native

aristocrats of their privileges

b. It began collecting taxes directly from the peasants, bypassing traditional

tax collectors

c. It transferred judicial authority away from indigenous elites

d. In 1856, the Company, violating treaty obligations, attempted to annex

the province of Awadh
 2. Furthermore, the Company began a program of building railroads, telegraph lines,
and a postal network to unify its domains

a. The goal was to make India a colonial-capitalist economy

3. In 1857, Indians revolted

a. The revolt began within the Company army as native recruits rebelled
against what they perceived as religious insensitivity

i. "Grease cartridge" controversy

b. Soldiers reasserted the authority of the Mughal emperor who still existed
but had no real power

c. The revolt spread quickly as peasants, artisans, religious leaders, and the
landed gentry joined in

i. Though the dispossessed aristocracy and petty landholders led the

rebellion, many individual leaders came from lower ranks

ii. The rebellion united Hindus and Muslims

iii. Peasants often attacked anything that smacked of Company rule

or any local people who benefited from Company rule

d. The revolt was really a series of revolts where local people attempted to
settle local grievances. There was no national vision

e. The revolt did not challenge traditional hierarchies of caste and religion

4. By 1858, the British had brutally crushed the rebellion

a. They eliminated the Mughal dynasty through exile and execution

5. In August, Parliament assumed control over India, ending Company rule and
transferring authority over India to the British crown

6. Queen Victoria declared religious toleration, improvements, and local say in her
government

XLIX.Conclusion

A. When viewed on a global scale, all of these rebellions signify a yearning on the part of
many different peoples for a world with multiple centers and historical trajectories

B. Even after defeat, their messages remained alive and continued to shape their communities
despite the "victory" of the dominant powers. The yearning for an alternative continued,
though it would take different forms in the next century

I. Nation-Building and Expansion

A. Ideology of nation-state building was widespread

B. Many times the state created the nation through shared ideals, laws and customs

C. Nation-states sought to expand globally

1. Scramble for colonies brought prestige to nation-states

D. Large migrations of peoples to new lands

E. Colonial empires moved labor, capital, and commodities to new territories

II. Expansion and nation-state building in the Americas

A. Leaders in the Americas shared similar goals in the nineteenth century

1. They strove to create stable political communities

a. They desired public participation and legitimacy

b. They created uniform laws and courts

c. They issued standard currencies

2. They wanted to expand their territory

a. They wanted to incorporate the periphery into the national fabric

b. This challenged the traditional ways of life of indigenous peoples

3. Methods and processes differed from country to country

B. The United States

1. Thomas Jefferson and others promoted territorial expansion as necessary for the
independence and economic well-being of white citizens

a. In 1803, the United States concluded the Louisiana Purchase

b. In the 1840s it divided Oregon with Great Britain

c. During 1846-1848 it conquered half of Mexico

d. Gold rush in California led to mass migration to the state in the 1850s

2. Territorial expansion eventually caused the Civil War as Americans disagreed over
the role of slavery in the country's future

a. After the war, although former slaves were nominally incorporated into the
citizenry they were definitely second-class citizens

3. The defeat of the South strengthened the national government, which promoted
economic development

a. By 1900 the U.S. had 200,000 miles of railroad track

b. Mechanization of agriculture led to huge gains in production of wheat

c. The United States became the leading manufacturer in the world

4. The transformed economy generated renewed social conflict

a. The new economy was prone to overproduction and depression

b. Class conflict heightened

i. 1% of all Americans controlled 90% of its wealth

ii. Radical labor leaders emerged

iii. Radical agrarians led protests against the new order

c. The government took the land of the Great Plains Indians

5. With nowhere left to expand in North America, many Americans looked to overseas
expansion to cure overproduction and class unrest

C. Canada
 1. Canada separated peacefully from Britain in 1867

a. The new nation was sharply divided between English- and French-speaking
citizens

2. The new government used territorial expansion to promote unity and nationalism

a. The Canadian government used state resources to promote settlement in

the West

b. It also used diplomacy and treaties to reduce conflict with Great Plains
Indians

3. Canada emerged with a stronger state, but a weaker sense of nation

D. Latin America

1. By the middle of the century, Latin American countries had become liberal capitalist
societies who sought territorial expansion but with major differences

a. Unlike in North America, most of the good land went to large estate
holders who produced export crops such as sugar or coffee, or raised cattle

b. Also, Latin American elites held a monopoly of power, unlike in the United
States and Canada where there was broader participation among whites

i. Latin American states also excluded Indians and blacks

2. Landed elites maintained control of the Brazilian government and preserved their
property rights, even while abolishing slavery. This development shaped territorial
expansion

a. Brazilian state was deliberately exclusionary and placed restrictions on

suffrage

b. The state allocated huge concessions to capitalists to extract rubber latex

from the Amazon River basin

i. Merchants and landowners made huge fortunes

ii. Workers, mainly Indians, also benefited as long as prices remained

high

iii. The enterprise went bust by the turn of the century because of
international competition

III. Consolidation of nation-states in Europe

A. During the second half of the century, liberals and conservatives were in alliance and
nationalism assumed a more conservative character

1. Nationalism became a way of muting social conflict and mobilizing the state

2. Many conservatives reconciled themselves to liberal political agendas. Liberals

sided with conservatives in opposing radical economic reform

a. Louis Napoleon embodied this alliance in France

i. He used universal male suffrage (particularly an alliance of

peasants and the bourgeoisie against radicals) to become another
emperor and strengthen the state at home and abroad
 3. Unification in Germany and Italy

a. Prussian conservative prime minister Otto von Bismarck and Piedmont

conservative prime minister Camillo di Cavour exploited nationalist
sentiment to create the modern nation-states of Germany and Italy,
respectively

i. Both used war to unite the regions

ii. Both used nationalism to strengthen the state and dampen

radicalism

iii. Both were strong powers able to compete with Britain and France

a. Unification brought economic growth

iv. Neither had a broad franchise

a. Germany, however, instituted Europe's strongest welfare

state to blunt radicalism

b. Both were divided among regional and class lines

4. Contradiction of the nation in Europe

a. Nationalism weakened the Austrian empire

i. In 1867 the ruling Habsburgs agreed to home rule for Hungary

and the realm became known as the Austro-Hungarian empire

a. Other ethnic groups soon clamored for similar recognition

ii. The Irish pressed for home rule within the British empire after the
great potato famine of the 1840s

IV. Industry, science, and technology

A. The second industrial revolution swept through the industrial sector of the world economy
after 1850

B. Japan became an industrial power after 1880

C. The United States and Germany overtook Britain in terms of world share of industrial output

D. New materials, technologies, and business practices

1. Steel production soared

2. Chemicals, oil, and pharmaceuticals became major industries

3. Mass transportation vehicles such as automobiles and trolleys emerged

4. Electricity, a cheap source of energy, became widely used

E. Science and industry became firmly wedded

1. German industrialists pioneered research laboratories staffed by university-trained

chemists and physicists

2. The United States soon followed

F. Giant integrated firms emerged

1. In Europe and the U.S., limited-liability joint-stock companies became major

providers of funds for business activity
 a. Shareholders were no longer liable for firm's debts

b. U.S. Steel, Standard Oil, Imperial Chemical Industries, and Krupp were a
few examples of these huge firms

G. Integration of the World Economy

1. Europe and the U.S. increased exports

2. Their need to control the flow of tropical resources grew

a. Industries now needed access to rubber, copper, oil, and bauxite more
often found in tropical climates

3. They possessed larger pools of capital for overseas investment

a. Britain remained the world's leading investor, sending one-tenth of its

annual income overseas

H. The enlarged world economy needed labor in certain regions to raise crops, work in mines,
or staff factories

1. Indian workers moved to the Caribbean, Mauritius, Fiji, and South Africa

2. Chinese laborers moved to California and Cuba

3. Irish, Poles, Jews, Italians, and Greeks flocked to North America and South
America

I. New technologies in warfare and transportation increased European dominance

1. Steam-powered gunboats and breech-loading rifles opened new territories for

exploitation

2. Railroads facilitated the movement of peoples and goods to coastal ports

3. Steamships allowed for more efficient ocean travel

a. The Suez Canal decreased the amount of time needed to travel from the
Atlantic to the Indian Ocean

4. Telegraph cables allowed for instant communication

J. Scientific and technological innovation encouraged other innovations

1. Charles Darwin developed his theory of evolution

K. European scientists, laymen, clergy, and anthropologists began debating the sources of
what they perceived to be European superiority

1. Social Darwinism emerged to justify white supremacy

V. Imperialism

A. Between 1860 and 1900, European nations, as well as Russia, the United States, and
Japan, vastly expanded their territorial control in Southeast Asia, Africa, Central Asia, and
the Caribbean

1. India and the imperial model

a. Britain's experience in India served as a role model

b. After the Rebellion of 1857, the British government sought to remake the
colony
 i. An appointed British viceroy, responsible to the British cabinet,
ruled the colony

ii. The viceroy oversaw the development of a modern transportation

and communication system

a. By 1910, India had the fourth largest railroad network in

the world

b. Engineers built dams and telegraph lines

iii. India became a consumer of British manufactured goods and a

supplier of raw materials such as cotton, jute, tea, wheat, and oil
seeds

a. Peasants did most of the production but rarely saw the full
returns of their labor

iv. Indian trade helped to balance Britain's trade deficit with the rest
of the world

v. The "Raj" helped foster a sense of Indian national identity as well

2. Dutch colonial rule in Indonesia

a. Holland ended Dutch East India Company rule in the 1830s, and the Dutch
government assumed direct control

b. The new administration forced everyone to raise coffee on one-third of

their land

i. Famine spread through the colony over the next two decades

c. In the 1860s, the Dutch began an "Ethical Policy"

i. Dutch settlement was encouraged

ii. More private enterprise was allowed

d. The Dutch spent time and effort putting down rebellions throughout the
rest of the century

e. Indonesian production of sugar, tobacco, rice, tin, oil, and rubber,

however, made huge profits for the Dutch

3. Colonizing Africa

a. Africa bore the brunt of European imperialism

i. Only Ethiopia and Liberia avoided conquest

b. The French and British, with toeholds in North and South Africa,
respectively, moved into the interior after 1850

c. Other European countries soon duplicated these efforts

i. European powers, the United States, and the Ottoman empire met
in Berlin in 1884-1885 to make sure this "scramble" happened in
an orderly fashion

ii. European partition of Africa divided ethnic, tribal, religious, and

linguistic groups
d. Europeans were motivated out of desires for investment and trade

i. Stanley and Livingstone's explorations excited many about the

continent's economic potential

e. Europeans also saw colonies as a sign of national greatness

i. Individuals, such as Karl Peters of Germany and Cecil Rhodes of

Britain, often promoted this vision and their own personal fortunes
in Africa

ii. King Leopold II, chafing at being a monarch of tiny Belgium, built
a personal empire in the Congo

a. Later the Belgian government took control after the

human rights abuses under his regime became well known

f. Others viewed imperialism in Africa as a chance to spread Christianity

g. Africans resisted this encroachment on their lives, but resistance was

largely futile

i. Africans were internally divided

ii. European technology was superior to African weapons

iii. Only Menelik, ruler of Ethiopia, repulsed the Europeans

a. He modernized his army and played Europeans off each

other

iv. Other Africans did hold out for a long time

a. Samori Touré in West Africa used guerilla tactics against

the French and was not defeated until 1900

h. Colonial administrations

i. Some European administrations, such as Leopold's Congo, relied

on brute force

ii. Others relied on military adventurers, settlers, and avaricious

entrepreneurs

a. Some individuals established near-fiefdoms that they

exploited for personal gain

iii. All Europeans relied on African armies to do their bidding

a. The Force Publique in the Congo

iv. Over time, Europeans created stable, rationalized bureaucracies

a. This system laid the foundations for today's nation-states

in Africa

b. The goal of these administrations were to

i. Have the colony pay for its administration

ii. Preserve domestic peace

 iii. Promote economic growth that would generate
income for Africans and European investors

c. New exports such as cocoa, coffee, palm oil, palm kernels,

tea, sisal, and cotton became major exports

i. Most of this wealth went to Europeans

v. New trade patterns disrupted traditional lives

a. Europeans lured thousands of workers to mines in

Katanga and South Africa

i. Most of these workers ended up indebted to these

companies

b. Women had to take care of subsistence and cash crops at

home

c. Working conditions and pay in the mines were deplorable

vi. Overall, European administrations were quite fragile

4. The American empire

a. In the 1890s, the United States began to emulate the European model of
colonization in Africa and Asia, building on the Manifest Destiny rhetoric of
the 1840s

b. American expansion took place during and after the Spanish-American War

i. Although it had fought for the independence of Cuba, America

acquired Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines, and limited
Cuba's independence

a. Both Cubans and Filipinos revolted

ii. These colonies allowed the U.S. to intervene in the affairs of many
countries in Central America and the Caribbean to protect
American property and investment

VI. Imperialism and culture

A. Overseas expansion reinforced ideas of cultural and racial superiority at home

1. Social Darwinism gave Europeans the belief that it was their duty to rule

a. Europeans often viewed their role as one of "civilizing" less developed

societies

i. Many organizations emerged to promote this view

B. Celebrations of imperialism appeared in popular culture

1. Portable cameras appeared allowing for imperial images in postcards and

advertising

2. Motherhood was celebrated as necessary to the imperial effort

3. The image of the adventurous boyhood also appeared

a. Juvenile literature was increasingly organized around sex roles

 i. Boys' literature focused on adventure in exotic locals

a. Rudyard Kipling's novels

ii. Girls' literature stressed domestic service and nurturing

VII. Japan, Russia, and China

A. Expansion was not just a Western phenomenon

B. Japanese transformation and expansion

1. With the Meiji Restoration in the late nineteenth century, Japan became a modern
nation-state

a. In 1868, elites toppled the Tokugawa Shogunate

i. The new government developed a new model of political

community that stressed unity and superiority

ii. The Meiji Constitution was modeled on that of Germany

a. One percent of the population voted for representatives to

the "Diet"

2. The Meiji Restoration led to a remarkable economic transformation

a. Land reform allowed peasants to become small landholders

i. Peasants improved their productivity

b. The government also created a uniform currency, constructed a postal

system, laid telegraph lines, formed foreign trade associations, launched
savings and export campaigns, built railroads, and hired foreign
consultants

c. Eventually, the government sold many of these valuable enterprises to

individuals

i. This initiative helped create powerful family holding companies

known as zaibatsu

3. Expansion offered more markets for this modernizing economy and a chance to
assert the country's "greatness"

a. In 1872 the Japanese took over the Ry?ky?s kingdom

b. In 1876, they recognized Korea as an independent state and angered

China, which considered Korea a "sphere of influence"

c. In 1894-1895, they defeated the Chinese in the Sino-Japanese War

i. China ceded Taiwan to Japan

d. In 1910 Japan annexed Korea

4. Like Europeans, the Japanese viewed colonial peoples as inferior

5. They also expected colonies to serve the economic interests of Japan

a. In particular, they developed rice production for export to Japan

b. Taiwan also exported sugar to the rest of Asia, earning foreign currency for
Japan
C. Russian transformation and expansion

1. Russia embarked on expansion in the late nineteenth century, largely as a

defensive reaction to expansion of countries around its territory

2. At first this expansion did not go well

a. Britain and France prevented Russian expansion into southeastern Europe

in the Crimean War of 1853-1856

b. The war spurred Russian authorities on a state-led modernization course

i. Autocratic rule remained

a. The monarchy stifled dissent

ii. Serfdom was abolished

a. Landholders kept the best land and serfs had to pay large
redemption taxes for the poor land they received

iii. The government also reformed the education and legal systems

iv. The government encouraged railroad construction, industrial

production, and mining

3. With modernization came expansion

a. In the 1860s, Russia conquered Turkestan

i. Russians soon migrated into the Central Asia province

ii. Russia soon conquered much of the Caucasus Mountains region in

order to prevent it from falling into the hands of Ottomans or
Persians

iii. Russia acquired land in Manchuria from China in the 1860s

a. To invest in the area it sold Alaska to the U.S.

b. In the 1890s the Trans-Siberian railroad linked the region

to the west

4. By 1900, Russia had acquired a multiethnic empire of which Russians barely

accounted for half the population

a. Conquered regions were made full part of the realm

i. Appointed governors ruled them

ii. In some areas, the government promoted "Russification" or use of

the Russian language and promotion of Russian culture

iii. In others, the Russians respected cultural autonomy and tried to

incorporate local elites into their regime

5. While expansion was supposed to bring security to the borders it created even
more insecurity

a. The British, Ottomans, Persians, and Japanese all felt that Russian
expansionism threatened their holdings in Asia and Europe

b. Defending the borders was a constant strain on the Russian government

 c. Economic modernization also created instability

D. China under pressure

1. The Chinese were slower than the Russians and the Japanese to emulate European
models of industrialism and imperialism

a. Historically they were more worried about internal revolts and threats from
their northern border

2. The Self-Strengthening Movement

a. Starting in the 1860s, reformist bureaucrats sought to adopt Western

learning and technological skills

i. They built arsenals, shipyards, coal mines, and steamships

ii. They sent 120 students abroad

b. Conservatives were skeptical about these efforts

i. They argued that industrialism would lead to unemployment

ii. They believed railroads would affront geometric sensibilities and

disturb harmony between humans and nature

a. The first short railroad was torn up in 1877 shortly after it

was built

3. Internal developments

a. Population pressures led to migrations to the frontier areas of Manchuria,

Southeast Asia, and Central Asia

b. In coastal cities, Chinese-language newspapers appeared

4. Hundred Days' Reform

a. Defeat in the Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895) led to an attempt at

comprehensive reform on the part of the Qing dynasty

b. Scholars Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao wanted China to emulate Japan
and develop railroads, modern banking, etc.

c. In September 1898, the Guangxu emperor agreed

d. The efforts aroused conservative opposition, which rallied around the

Empress Dowager Cixi

e. The Guangxu emperor was put under house arrest and the reforms ended

VIII.Conclusion

A. Between 1850 and 1914, the majority of the world's population lived in empires, not
nation-states

1. Still, nationalism spread during this time

2. Strengthening state power went hand-in-hand with reordering the polity around
"the nation"

B. In the second half of the century, nation-building had allowed some states to extend their
power beyond national borders
 1. Colonization was integral to nation-building in many societies

a. Brazil, Japan, and the United States all integrated important provinces

b. Others did not attempt to integrate their colonies into the nation, such as
Britain with India and Holland with Indonesia

i. Ideologies of race and empire became woven into the fabric of

imperialism

2. By 1900, three new world powers-the United States, Germany, and Japan-had
emerged

a. Russia was also powerful, but it rested on a weak foundation

3. The emergence of nation-states and colonies allowed an effective framework for

integrating the global economy

1. Industrialism spread

2. Labor, capital, and commodities moved across the world at higher rates
than before

3. Much of this integration occurred between nation-states and their empires,

not among the various empires

2. Ironically, imperialism spread the idea of nationalism to colonial subjects

1. Colonial subjects often used the rhetoric of nationalism to assert their

autonomy

a. Filipinos, for example, used Jefferson's Declaration of

Independence to oppose American invaders

I. Progress, Upheaval, and Movement

A. Some benefited from changes in the years before 1914; others faced social and economic
frustration

1. In Europe and the United States, left-wing radicals and middle-class reformers
sought political and social change

2. In places colonized by Europe and the United States, resentment grew toward
colonial rulers and indigenous collaborators

3. Revolutions in China, Mexico, and Russia toppled autocratic regimes

B. New industries drove economic growth and urbanization

1. Growing capitalism also led to rising inequalities

2. Industrialization changed how and where people worked

3. Widespread rural-to-urban migration

4. Cities gained magnificent new cultural institutions such as museums and libraries,
which at least a minority of residents had the leisure time and disposable income to
enjoy

5. Cities also housed millions in crowded, disease-ridden slums

a. Conflicts between the rich and the poor abounded, particularly when city
administrations tried to improve or beautify urban blight
 C. European and North American intellectuals worried about the world's future; they wrote
about the downside of progress

1. The writings of intellectuals of the type labeled modernism

2. Modernist ideas circulated the globe including European and North American
colonies

D. Peoples in Motion

1. Mass emigration took place globally

a. Europeans moved to America and Australia

b. Indians moved to other parts of South Asia, Africa, and the Caribbean

c. Chinese moved to North and South America, New Zealand, Hawaii, and
West Indies, and Southeast Asia

d. Many migrated within their own country

2. Varied reasons why people emigrated

a. Mine workers

b. Colonial officials and soldiers

c. Missionaries

d. Merchants and traders

3. Emigration was risky and could bring isolation in the new land

a. Male migrants outnumber females

b. Social and labor problems abounded as cities tried to accommodate the

growing migrant population

4. Few restrictions anywhere until 1914

a. U.S. Chinese Exclusion Act, 1892

b. Most viewed immigrants as a positive force in the economy

5. Cities boomed and led to the idea of city planning

6. Urban life transformed women's lives

a. More jobs available

b. Increased literacy and cheaper reading materials

c. Ready-made clothes and goods allowed women more leisure time

II. Discontent with Imperialism

A. Although Europeans had quashed initial local resistance to their colonial rule, animosity to
their rule in Asia and Africa continued after 1890. Indeed, Europeans found themselves
suppressing unrest in their colonies with more force and bloodshed

B. Unrest in Africa

1. African resistance, whether organized or not, continued into the twentieth century

a. This resistance made thoughtful Europeans uneasy as to why Africans

would resist the "benefits" of the European civilizing mission
 2. The most devastating colonial war in Africa during this time was the South African
(Boer) War (1899-1902), which pitted Britain against the Afrikaners, descendants
of Dutch settlers living in the Transvaal and the Orange Free State in southern
Africa

a. The war revolved around control of gold resources

b. Ultimately the British won, but not without enormous expenditure in men,
matériel, and prestige

i. British tactics of confining civilians to concentration camps were

publicized throughout the world

3. German genocidal treatment of the Herero and San peoples in German Southwest
Africa between 1904 and 1906 also aroused public revulsion in the Western world

4. Equally troubling was the Maji-Maji revolt in German East Africa in 1905-1906

5. Westerners tried to rationalize these incidents

a. They argued that the Africans were fanatics

b. Other times they were critical of other imperial countries' colonial

administrations whose brutality and incompetence had provoked this
rebelliousness

c. For the most part they argued that rebellions were aberrations and seldom
questioned the overall thrust of colonialism

C. The Boxer Uprising in China

1. Forces within and without unsettled China at the turn of the century

a. Overpopulation strained resources

b. Inertia constrained the Qing dynasty from responding to social and

economic problems

i. The court was divided between conservatives and reformers

a. In 1898, conservatives seized control

ii. After the Sino-Japanese War in 1894-1895, the Japanese and

other Western powers pushed for "spheres of influence" in China

iii. The United States proposed an "open door" policy that would keep
all of China open to all traders but demanded that China adhere to
Western political and economic conventions

2. Out of this unsettlement emerged the Boxer Uprising

a. Boxers were peasants and landholders who blamed Western Christian

missionaries and their Chinese converts for the country's condition

i. The movement flourished in northern China, an area hit hard by

natural disasters and harsh economic conditions

ii. Women also participated in the movement as "Red Lanterns"

b. Boxers believed that they possessed super powers that protected them
from earthly weapons
 c. The Qing court threw its weight behind the uprising

d. In 1900, the Boxers harassed and sometimes killed Christians, destroyed

railroad track and telegraph lines, and besieged foreign embassies in
Beijing

e. A multinational foreign army crushed the Boxers and further undermined

the Qing dynasty's capability of ruling China

III. Worldwide anxieties

A. Imperial rivalries come home

1. The creation of a European-centered world deepened rivalries within Europe and

promoted instability

a. The unification of Italy and of Germany smashed the old balance of power

b. New alliances appeared pitting Britain, France, and Russia against

Germany

c. An arms race ensued as conflict heightened

B. Financial, industrial and technological insecurities

1. Small-scale, laissez-faire capitalism had given way to an economic order dominated

by huge firms

2. Instead of smooth progress, the economy of the West bounced between booms and
busts

3. Financiers became important as borrowing and lending became instrumental in

industrial growth

a. Banks in London were at the center of global finances

4. Journalists in the United States increasingly exposed the skullduggery that many of
these financial and industrial giants committed to enrich or empower themselves

a. Reformers soon called for greater governmental regulation

b. Wealthy industrialists such as J. P. Morgan used their money to make

banks solvent

c. In 1913, the United States created the Federal Reserve System to oversee
the nation's money and bankers

5. National economic matters increasingly became international affairs

a. In 1907, a financial crisis in the United States provoked similar crises in

Canada, Mexico, and Egypt

6. Industrialization spread to places such as Russia, but remained uneven

a. Southern Europe and the American South lagged behind northern regions

b. Most colonies lacked industrial enterprises except mines and railroads

7. Economic progress came at a cost

a. Trains and ships connected local communities to the wider world, but often
destroyed local customs
 b. Factories produced cheaper goods but polluted the countryside

c. "Scientific management" often left workers as nothing more than cogs in a

machine

d. Cities also housed millions in crowded, disease-ridden slums

i. Conflicts between the rich and the poor abounded, particularly

when city administrations tried to improve on or beautify urban
blight

C. The "woman question"

1. Women in Western countries increasingly challenged the idea of separate spheres

a. At century's end, women were increasingly employed as teachers,

secretaries, typists, department store clerks, and telephone operators and
thus gained some social and economic independence

b. Women also gained greater access to education and many of them entered
previously all-male professions

c. Other women became involved in public reform movements

d. Many women began to limit the amount of children they had

i. Contraceptives were illegal in most countries, but women found

ways around the laws

2. The push for women's suffrage increased, but had very limited success

a. Middle-class women were not seeking gender equality, despite seeking a

greater public role

b. Radicalized women, however, did challenge the established order

3. Westerners argued that colonialism benefited women

a. Colonial regimes did not support veiling, footbinding, widow-burning, etc.

b. In reality, colonialism often added to women's burdens

i. As male workers were drawn into the export economy, the

responsibility for domestic production fell on women

ii. In Africa, the growth of mining and large estate production meant
that men were often gone for much of the year

iii. European schools excluded women as did many European

property-law practices

D. Class conflict in a new key

1. Although living conditions improved, growing inequality of incomes produced

sharper class conflict

a. Most of this conflict remained peaceful and moderate

i. The popularity of the Labour Party in Britain and the Social

Democratic Party in Germany epitomized this development

b. In conservative regimes with less openness, however, radicalism grew and

often turned violent
 i. Russia and Latin America witnessed the growth of radical
movements

c. The United States did not see the emergence of a successful labor party or
radical factions. Instead it saw workers attempt, often unsuccessfully, to
form unions

2. A few upheavals succeeded in overturning the status quo from below

a. The temporary success of the 1905 Russian Revolution gave rise to a

representative government that used workers' soviets, which were groups
of delegates, to represent particular industries

b. The Mexican Revolution in 1910 saw peasants overthrow the Díaz regime
and brought about a new regime by 1920 that respected democracy, the
sovereignty of peasant communities, and land reform

i. Nearly 1 million Mexicans died in the conflict

ii. The new regime used new national myths to rejuvenate the new
republic based on the heroism of rural peoples, Mexican
nationalism, and a celebration of the Aztec past

c. In other areas, conservative regimes agreed to piecemeal reforms to stay

in power

a. Germany enacted social welfare measures in the 1880s

b. The United States experienced a burst of reforms in the early

twentieth century that supporters labeled "Progressive"

i. These reforms attacked political and corporate corruption

as well as urban vices

ii. 1906 Meat Inspection Act

b. Europe saw similar patterns

B. Cultural modernism

A. Modernism appeared in the arts and sciences in the early twentieth century

1. Modernism explored the power of the irrational

2. Modernist movements trafficked in multiple directions internationally

3. Modernism was less elitist and more democratic

4. Modern artists abandoned harmonic and diatonic sound and

representational art

5. Modernism replaced the certainties of the Enlightenment with the

unsettledness of a new time

B. Popular culture comes of age

1. Popular culture changed in the late nineteenth century

a. New forms appeared such as dance halls, vaudeville, and sports

b. Publishers catered to different markets, especially as more and

more people could read
 i. Newspapers such as the English Daily Mail and the New
York World had circulations of over one million and
appealed to readers with little education

ii. Books increased in number and fell in price

a. The Mexican printmaker José Guadalupe Posada

developed a forerunner of comics

c. The kind of culture one consumed became a reflection of status or

desired status

d. Artists, scholars, and writers in different regions tried to adapt to

social, political, and economic changes all around them and
produced new variations on old forms of work

C. Europe's cultural modernism

1. In intellectual and artistic terms, Europe at the turn of the century

experienced perhaps the richest age it had experienced since the
Renaissance

a. Durkheim, Freud, and Le Bon studied and theorized about human

behavior and focused on irrational behavior

b. Primitivism, or the new appreciation for non-Western art, emerged

in the art world

i. Picasso led the way in incorporating non-Western themes

into his art

ii. Antibourgeois attitudes also affected art

c. Composers such as Richard Wagner stretched the limits of

conventional harmonies. Arthur Schoenberg abandoned them
altogether

d. Isadora Duncan pioneered free form, expressive dance

2. Scientists challenged the ideas of progress and reason

a. Darwin claimed that progress could not be achieved without a

"struggle for existence"

b. James Maxwell described the law of entropy

i. Scientist began to abandon the Enlightenment idea that

man could control nature

ii. In physics, probabilities began to take the place of

certainties

c. Overall, faith in rationalism declined

a. Nietzsche argued that rationality without passion led to

machinelike idiocy

b. Freud introduced sexual longings and childhood traumas

to explain human behavior

2. Cultural modernism in China

 1. Intellectuals in China offered different answers to the question of
modernity

a. As in the West, Chinese authors could now write for a

wider audience

2. In many ways, they presented competing modernities

a. They offered critical reflection on Chinese traditions and

ambivalent reactions to Western culture

b. The Shanghai School of painting incorporated indigenous

and foreign traditions

c. Photography studios opened in southern treaty ports

d. Fantasy novels drew on Western science and indigenous

beliefs

3. Chinese artists struggled to find a balance between Western

thought and traditional Chinese learning

B. Rethinking race and reimagining nations

A. Despite the reshuffling of ideas and people at the turn of the century,
people and nations defended the idea of identities as deeply rooted and
unchangeable

1. The Linnaean classification system became the means for ranking

whole nations

2. Racial roots became a crucial part of cultural identity

3. Who one was became increasingly defined by biology

4. In the West, science was used to sanction racial inequalities

a. Scientists spoke of separate white, black, yellow, and red

races

b. Doctors warned against racial mixing, believing that

mixed types were weak and likely to become prostitutes,
criminals, and homosexuals

5. Race was discussed worldwide as people looked for stability in a

rapidly changing world

6. This voice produced new national movements

B. Nation and race in North America and Europe

1. At the turn of the century, Americans worried that they had

exhausted what had once been an inexhaustible supply of land
and resources with the "closing" of the frontier in 1890

a. President Theodore Roosevelt (1901-1909) established

many conservation policies, such as the National Forest
Service

b. Roosevelt also expanded national parks and wildlife

reserves to give Americans a chance to "play pioneer"
 2. White Americans also were anxious about the changing
complexion of American society

a. In the South, racial segregation and inequality were

codified through Jim Crow laws

b. In the West, Chinese immigration was curtailed

c. White Americans also worried about immigrants from

eastern and southern Europe and colonial subjects in the
Philippines and Puerto Rico

3. Europeans shared similar anxieties as Americans. Millions became

obsessed with racial purity

a. Racial identities hardened in colonies where racial mixing

became discouraged

b. In Europe and America, schoolboys were encouraged to

play sports to strengthen the nation

c. Jews were blamed for "decadence" in society, especially in

Austria, Germany, France, and Russia

C. Race mixing and the problem of nationhood in Latin America generated

special anxieties

1. In an age of acute nationalism, the mixed racial composition of

Latin Americans worried elites

a. Indians were often viewed as an obstacle to change in

Mexico

b. In Brazil and Cuba, observers made the same claim about

African Americans

c. Poor European migrants to booming cities complicated an

already complicated picture

2. Leaders and writers promoted unity by evoking a mythic past

a. In Mexico General Díaz exalted Father Hidalgo and Aztec

grandeur

i. José Vasconcelos, an opponent of Díaz, also

promoted Mexico's Indian past, arguing that
Mexico's greatness flowed from its mixture of
cultures

B. Sun Yat-sen and the making of a Chinese nation

1. As elsewhere, the pace of change generated the desire to trace

one's roots back to secure foundations

2. The Chinese looked back before the Qing dynasty to Han China for
inspiration

3. Sun Yat-sen blasted the Manchus and trumpeted the image of a

"true" Chinese political community
 a. Sun, who was from Canton and Western educated, lived
much of his life overseas because of political persecution

b. He envisioned and promoted a democratic China, free of

Manchu rule, with an economic system based on equalized
land rights

i. He believed that in this manner China could join

the world community of nation-states on a more
equal footing

c. At first, his ideas appealed to Chinese living overseas

d. When the Qing dynasty was overthrown in 1911-1912,

Sun returned to China to promote his ideas

e. Eventually, China would be reconstituted, based largely on

his ideas

f. Sun believed the problem that faced China after the

overthrow of the Qing was assimilating minorities into the
nation

C. Nationalism and invented traditions in India

1. British colonialism increasingly turned unified territory into a

"nation" in many minds

2. In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, a resistance

movement emerged that talked of Indians as "a people" with a
"national" past and traditions

a. The leaders of this movement were Western educated

i. They had developed colloquial languages into

standardized literary forms

ii. This development allowed for the publication of

journals, magazines, newspapers, etc. in
indigenous languages

3. The growth of print cultures went hand in hand with the growth of
a new public sphere where the intelligentsia discussed and
debated social and political matters

a. Voluntary associations proliferated in big cities

b. Eventually urban professionals founded the Indian

National Congress

i. They demanded greater representation of Indians

in administrative and legislative bodies

ii. They also criticized government policies

4. Underlying political assertiveness was cultural nationalism

 a. Nationalists claimed Indians were a people based on their
unique culture and common history, especially a colonial
history

b. As in Latin America, Indian nationalists delved into the

past and rewrote histories in order to establish a modern
but non-Western identity

c. Intellectuals reconfigured Hinduism so that it resembled

Western religion

5. In the process of fashioning this identity, Indian revivalists often

became narrow in their vision

a. Muslim tradition was deemphasized as Hindu traditions

were exalted

6. Hindu revivalism became a powerful political force by the close of

the nineteenth century

a. When British authorities partitioned Bengal into two

territories-one predominantly Hindu, the other Muslim-
Hindu militants protested and boycotted British goods

i. Activists formed voluntary organizations

(Swadeshi Samitis) to promote the indigenous
manufacturing of soap, cloth, medicine, iron, and
paper

a. Although most failed, these enterprises

symbolized a desire for autonomy

b. The Swadeshi Movement swept aside moderates in the

Indian National Congress

c. The Congress began a much broader mass mobilization to

assert political and cultural autonomy

d. Hindu revivalists were not the only nationalist movements

to emerge

i. Others based on religion or regionalism generated

support

a. The Indian National Muslim League was

formed in 1906, dedicated to the
advancement of political interests of
Muslims

e. Unlike leaders of the Rebellion of 1857, these nationalists

imagined a modern national community, something the
British found more difficult to control

D. The pan movements

1. Besides India and China, activists elsewhere imagined new states

based on ethnic communities
 2. These movements threatened multiethnic and multireligious
polities such as the Ottoman and Habsburg empires

a. Pan-Islamism, founded by Jamal al-Din Afghani, urged

Muslims to overcome their differences and unite against
the West

i. Muslims were confronted with many identities at

this time

a. Many in Syria and Lebanon turned to the

nation-state idea as a means of imitating
the West and gaining more autonomy

b. Pan-Germanism gained followers across central Europe

i. German-speaking elites in Slavic lands were

alarmed by the assertion of Slavic nationalism

a. Pan-Slavism in eastern and central

Europe demanded greater autonomy, if
not independent states, for this region's
growing Slavic majority

b. As Russian persecution drove Jews

westward, German resentment increased

ii. Georg von Schönerer founded the League of

German Nationalists in 1882 after the Habsburg
empire failed to favor German nationals

a. Elected to the upper Austrian house, he

tried to pass anti-Jewish legislation

b. He ultimately aimed to bring Austrian

Germans into the German empire

c. Pan-Germanism and pan-Slavism gave

rise to militant groups that brought about
World War I.

B. Conclusion

A. Urbanization, industrialization, and colonialism led many in the world to

question the Enlightenment idea of "progress"

B. To many ruling elite, the "people" were developing the means to unseat
them

1. Socialist and right-wing leaders were learning how to exploit

modern ideas and identities through popular movements

C. The world economy seemed unbalanced

1. Disparities in wealth abounded

2. Integrated world markets increasingly interrupted traditional

economies
 3. Powerful corporations and banks threatened small firms and
individuals

D. Anxieties produced creative energies in the arts and sciences

1. Non-Western artists used Western forms to present anti-Western

ideas

E. This process was far from complete when Europe blew up as the Great War
began in 1914

II. Economic and Political Modernities

A. World War I shook the foundations of the Euro-centered world

A. Conflict in Africa and elsewhere fostered new ideals about freedom and self-
determination

B. War led to accelerated mass production and consumption

C. Postwar leaders had to deal with the changes in production, consumption, culture,
and politics wrought by the war

D. Postwar events challenged liberal regimes and paved the way for authoritarian
ones

B. Becoming modern meant different things to different segments of society

A. Mass production and mass consumption

A. Henry Ford's automobile

B. Three competing political visions of modernism emerged

A. Liberal

B. Authoritarian

C. Anticolonial

C. United States and several European countries modeled modernisms

A. Women's suffrage

B. Mass production and consumption

C. Popular entertainment

D. Great Depression undermined faith in American model of liberal government

E. Great Depression's effects led some on the right and left to turn to authoritarianism

F. European and American colonials began to reject colonialism and pushed for
political independence

III. The Great War

A. The causes of the war were complex

A. Tension could be traced to conflict over colonial territories

B. The decline of the Ottoman empire in southeastern Europe heightened international

tension between Russia and Austria-Hungary

C. Economic and naval rivalry between Britain and Germany further fueled tension
B. By 1914, international rivalries had led to the formation of military alliances

A. The Central Powers were Germany and Austria-Hungary

B. The Triple Entente affiliated Britain, France, and Russia

C. The assassination of the Archduke Francis Ferdinand of Austria by a Serbian terrorist

proved to be the spark that set the alliances off against each other

D. The fighting

A. Instead of a quick war, vast armies fought a defensive war

A. Trenches on the Western Front went from the English Channel to the Alps

1. Machine guns and barbed wire guarded the trenches

2. Life in the trenches proved tedious, damp, dirty, and disease-

ridden

B. By 1915 the war had grown into a stalemate

A. The Battle of Ypres in 1915 and the Somme in 1916 saw hundreds of
thousands of casualties with little gain for either side

C. Stalemate forced governments to enlist more and more men so that millions were
serving in each belligerent army

A. Thousands of women served in auxiliary units

B. Women replaced men in occupations on the home front

C. Food shortages led women to rebel against the state for food for their
children

D. By 1918, casualties exceeded 8 million, with another 20 million wounded

A. Civilians suffered from aerial bombardment, food shortages, and disease

E. Empire and War

A. The horror of war reached across continents

A. The Ottoman Empire, which joined the Central Powers, battled the British
and Russia in Asia Minor, Mesopotamia, and the Caucasus

1. Ottoman forces massacred over 1 million ethnic Armenians,

claiming they were cooperating with the Allies

B. Britain and France conscripted millions of soldiers from their colonies and
dominions in Asia and Africa

1. In some colonies, subjects revolted as the war dragged on

a. John Chilembwe led a revolt in British Nyasaland

B. The war destroyed the Russian, Austria-Hungarian, and Ottoman empires

C. The Russian Revolution

A. In Russia in 1917, military and civilian elites overthrew the tsar in light of
growing unrest

B. Bolsheviks in turn overthrew them later that year and then signed a peace
treaty with the Germans
 1. Revolution led by Vladimir Lenin and Leon Trotsky

D. The Fall of the Central Powers

A. The United States' entry into the war in 1917 tipped the balance in favor of
the Allies

B. In 1918, Germany was on the verge of civil war and German generals
agreed to an armistice

1. The kaiser fled the country and the empire became a republic

F. The peace settlement and the impact of the war

A. The victors imposed a punitive peace on Germany at the "peace conference" held
at the Palace of Versailles in 1919

A. The treaty assigned Germany sole blame for the war, forced it to pay
reparations, and gave its colonies to the victorious powers to be
administered as "mandates"

B. The American president Woodrow Wilson had hoped for a more

harmonious and peaceful settlement

1. His ideas for a League of Nations and national self-determination

did see partial adherence in the peace treaty

a. Many new nation-states emerged in eastern and central

Europe but not beyond

b. The U.S. Senate ended up refusing to ratify the treaty and

thus kept the United States out of the League of Nations

2. Russia was also excluded from the talks and the League

B. The war ushered in other changes

A. Women did not retreat from new responsibilities

1. In Russia, Britain, Germany, and the U.S., women gained the right
to vote in all elections

2. Increasingly, young unmarried women expressed their sexuality in

public

IV. Mass culture

A. The war politicized cultural activities and broadened the audience for nationally oriented
information and entertainment

A. Propaganda campaigns attempted to mobilize entire populations using public

lectures, theatrical productions, musical compositions, and newspapers, film, and
radio

B. After the war, this mass culture became institutionalized

A. Nonelites had more time and money to spend on entertainment

B. Mass culture became synonymous with national culture

C. Radio

A. During the 1920s radio broadcasts could reach the whole nation
 A. Programs targeted special audiences such as women, children or the whole
family

B. Radio also provided for national advertising campaigns

C. Politicians used radio for mass mobilization

1. Benito Mussolini pioneered such efforts

D. Film and advertising

A. Hollywood emerged as the movie-making capital of the world

A. Many criticized its films as vulgar and decadent

B. Politicians used film as well

1. The Nazis employed Leni Riefenstahl to propagandize their

message

B. Radio and film became big business

A. In the U.S. advertising became a major industry that exploited these

mediums

B. The American entertainment industry also grew global in its reach

V. Mass production and mass consumption

A. World War I spurred the development of mass production techniques to supply huge
quantities of war material

B. The war also reshuffled the world's economic balance of power

A. The United States became the world's economic powerhouse, producing one-third
of all industrial goods by 1929

B. The United States, with its mass production and mass consumption (personal
income increased 25% in the 1920s), became the epitome of modernity

C. Mass production of the automobile

A. Henry Ford of the U.S. pioneered the mass production of automobiles

A. In the 1920s, his assembly lines dramatically lowered the cost of an

automobile so that millions could afford them

B. Ford also paid workers twice the national average, recognizing that mass
production required mass consumption

C. The automobile industry caused the American economy to roar

1. Four million out of 25 million workers were connected to the

automobile industry

D. The Great Depression

A. Many people and industries did not fare well in the new "modern" economy

A. Farmers suffered throughout the 1920s from declining staple prices

B. The Great Depression began in 1929

A. Its causes went back to the war

 1. European nations were left with huge debt and huge rebuilding
priorities

2. In the 1920s, Europeans borrowed from the only available source-

American banks

3. When many investors defaulted on their loans toward the end of

the decade, the U.S. Federal Reserve tightened credit, provoking
bank failures in Europe and eventually the stock market crash on
Wall Street in October 1929

B. World trade suffered as financial turmoil spread

1. To protect domestic producers, governments abandoned free trade

and raised protective tariff barriers

2. By 1935, world trade was one-third of its level in 1929

3. Primary producers in the nonindustrial world suffered the most as

commodity prices dropped precipitously

C. The Depression forced many to lose faith in the idea of unregulated free
markets

1. Many advocated state intervention to alleviate the crisis

a. John Maynard Keynes, a British economist, published The

General Theory of Employment, Interest, and Money that
spawned a revolution in government economic policy in
many countries in the ensuing decades

VI. Mass politics: Competing visions of becoming modern

A. World War I completed the discrediting of the liberal order-the belief in progress, free
markets, and societies guided by the educated few-that had begun at the turn of the
twentieth century

A. Everywhere, the masses wanted to share in the modern world's prosperity

B. The Great Depression only heightened this tension

B. Liberal capitalism under pressure

A. In Europe, the war fueled anxieties about modernization, already underway before
1914

A. The appeal of Josephine Baker and Oswald Spengler expressed declining

confidence in urban industrial society

B. Many states had experimented with illiberal policies during the war

A. Germany went as far as instituting "war socialism"

C. The war also broadened the size and scope of governments

C. British and French Response to Economic Crisis

A. After the war, many governments tried to return to previous patterns but the
masses were impatient with free market policies
 B. The mobilized public demanded that governments address their concerns about
jobs, housing, etc.

C. Many people turned to socialism, communism, or radical right movements to

express their frustrations

D. The Depression forced even the most die-hard liberals to rethink their ideas

A. Many countries abandoned liberalism altogether in favor of right-wing

authoritarian rulers

B. Britain and France sustained their parliamentary systems, but rethought

their liberal ideas

D. The American New Deal

A. Strong labor parties and socialist movements did not appear in the United States
after World War I

A. Americans elected conservatives to office who promised to retreat from the

government activism of recent decades

B. While overall economic growth was spectacular, farmers and African

Americans were left behind

1. African Americans began migrating to urban northern cities during

the war. In the 1920s they formed a vibrant cultural scene

B. The Great Depression swept away conservative leadership and led to the election of
Franklin Roosevelt to the presidency in 1932

A. Roosevelt's New Deal, while ideologically vague, enlarged the role of

government in the United States through regulation and regulatory
agencies, relief measures, public works, and pension schemes

B. While unemployment remained high throughout the 1930s, Roosevelt's

policies restored confidence in government, and the United States avoided
authoritarian solutions

1. Roosevelt set out to save capitalism's essential features, not

destroy them

E. Authoritarianism and mass mobilization

A. All the postwar dictatorships, whether on the right or the left, claimed they strove
to mobilize the masses to create dynamic yet orderly societies

A. They treated the masses as an army that needed to be commanded if the

problems of liberal capitalism were to be overcome

B. They claimed to protect the people's well-being better than liberal regimes
while delivering on the promises of modernity without enduring its costs-
class divisions, unemployment, etc.

B. Soviet Russia

A. The Bolsheviks survived a bloody civil war and foreign intervention

between 1918 and 1921
 1. Grain requisitioning and military maneuvering created a horrible
famine from 1921 to 1923, in which 7 to 10 million died

B. After their victory in 1924, the Bolsheviks enacted the New Economic
Policy that allowed for the reemergence of trade and private property that
they had confiscated during the war

C. In the latter part of the decade, after Lenin's death, Stalin seized control of
the Communist Party

1. Stalin moved aggressively to build socialism, which the leadership

believed was the road to communism

2. They defined socialism as the opposite of capitalism

a. They banned private property, political parties except

theirs, and markets in favor of economic planning and full
employment

D. Early efforts to create socialism were violent

1. In the countryside, collectivization efforts compelled farmers to

join state-managed cooperatives

a. Many peasants resisted by burning their crops, killing their

livestock, and destroying their equipment

b. The regime labeled resisters "kulaks" or wealthy peasants

and deported them to remote areas

i. This turmoil created another famine that killed

millions

c. Eventually those living on cooperative farms were allowed

individual plots of land and the right to sell their individual
harvests at peasant markets

2. In the cities, the regime launched a five-year plan to "catch and

overtake" capitalist countries

a. The regime purchased advanced technology from

capitalist countries

b. The regime built dams, automobile factories, and heavy

machinery plants

c. Millions moved to these new or revived industrial centers

3. At the party level, persecution accompanied industrialization and

collectivization

a. The regime arrested millions of party members and others

as class enemies

b. New officials and administrators were brought in to run

the planned economy

C. Italian fascism
 A. Peasant and worker unrest gripped Italy after World War I and many elites
feared a Bolshevik-style revolution

B. Benito Mussolini seized the initiative and gained power in 1922

1. Mussolini, a former socialist, organized veterans into a mass

movement he called fascism

a. His early philosophy mixed nationalism with social

radicalism

i. He demanded territorial expansion and greater

rights for women, workers, and peasants

b. After he attracted thousands of followers, he organized a

march on Rome in 1922 and seized power

i. King Victor Emmanuel III refused to send the

army against them

ii. When the government resigned in protest, he

asked Mussolini to form a government

iii. Using fraud and intimidation, fascists won election

in 1924

iv. Mussolini than banned all parties and created a

one-party dictatorship

c. Although he never instituted a sweeping radical agenda,

Mussolini used modern media to gain support and
credibility and he became a model to others

D. German Nazism

A. Germany, like Italy, seemed on the verge of revolution after the war

B. Like Mussolini, Adolf Hitler formed a movement that blended socialist and
nationalist ideas

1. During the 1920s, despite an attempted coup and a widely read

autobiography, Hitler failed to attract much support

2. The Nazis' fortunes soared after the onset of the Great Depression

a. The economic catastrophe led millions to abandon faith in

the Republic and seek more radical alternatives

C. Hitler came to power "peacefully" and legally

1. In 1932, thinking he could control Hitler and use the Nazis against
the communists and socialists, President Paul von Hindenburg
appointed him as chancellor

2. Hitler manipulated fears of communist conspiracy (and

intimidation) to force parliament to grant him dictatorial powers

D. The Nazi regime soon won broad support

1. Rearmament programs absorbed the unemployed

 2. State direction of the economy, which remained in private hands,
reduced economic anxieties

a. The state sponsored public works and organized leisure

activities and vacations for low-income people

E. Germany reemerged as an international power

E. Militarist Japan

A. Japan benefited from the war

1. Without European and American competition, Japan expanded its

Asian trade

a. The economy expanded tremendously in the 1920s

2. Postwar Japan initially headed down the liberal road

a. Mass political parties emerged

b. Suffrage expanded

B. The Great Depression interrupted these trends

1. Japanese trade plummeted and unemployment surged

C. The Japanese military increasingly meddled in the nation's politics

1. The armed forces were free of civilian control and used "patriotic"
organizations to pressure prime ministers to resign, often through
violent intimidation

2. These organizations professed loyalty to the emperor and the

nation

3. In 1931, military officers staged an explosion on the Japanese-

owned Southern Manchurian Railroad and used it as a pretext to
conquer Manchuria, a Chinese province and add it to the empire

4. At home, patriotic organizations continued to agitate against

opponents of the military and its expansionist goals

a. They promoted the traditional Shint? religion, which

revered the state

b. In 1940, political parties were banned and the military

effectively ruled an authoritarian state

F. Common features

A. Russia, Italy, Germany and Japan shared many traits

1. Economically, all believed in strong state intervention

a. In Japan, the state fostered the growth of the zaibatsu

2. All employed mass organizations for state purposes

a. All sought to rally youth through organizations such as the

Hitler Youth and Soviet Communist Youth League

3. All but Japan adopted large-scale social welfare policies

 4. All were ambivalent about women in public roles

a. They urged women to stay at home and produce healthy

offspring

b. Women had greater access to professional careers, partly

out of necessity because of the rise in the number of
single women stemming from World War I

5. All used terror and violence against their citizens, colonial

subjects, or "foreigners" living under their regime

a. The Nazis singled out Jews

6. Despite their brutality, during the 1930s, these regimes attracted

many admirers and would-be imitators in other countries

F. The hybrid nature of Latin American corporatism

A. Latin American countries avoided fighting in the war, but economic disruptions
caused their exports to plummet

A. Radical agitation emerged at home and oligarchic political regimes fell

B. The Depression hammered Latin America's trade and financial system

C. Latin American governments responded by creating regimes that blended aspects

of authoritarianism and democracy

A. The state sponsored economic strategies that looked to the domestic

market, not foreign buyers, as an engine of growth

B. Elites formed mass parties that organized workers, peasants, and ethnic
minorities under the tutelage of the state

C. These "corporatist" states used social and occupational groups to bridge

elites and the rank and file

D. In Brazil, Getúlio Vargas created a strong following which he rode to power in the
1930s

A. He created social welfare programs and sponsored public works

B. He encouraged blacks to organize

1. His regime supported samba schools (organizations that taught

the popular dance and raised money for public works)

C. He also squelched political rivals and dissent, banning political parties in

1937 and creating national representation along corporatist lines

1. While individuals lost political rights, excluded groups such as

unions gained more political power.

D. He used "modern" propaganda campaigns to extend his support

G. Anticolonial visions of modern life

A. The war reshuffled European empires

A. France and Britain acquired Arab lands from the Ottoman empire and
Germany's colonies in Africa
 B. In 1926, Britain rechristened its empire the "Commonwealth" and granted
white settler colonies "dominion" status-independence in return for loyalty
to the crown

1. Nonwhites were deemed not yet ready for self-government

B. After the war, anticolonialism emerged as the path to modernity in Asia and Africa

A. Various nationalist movements emerged or gained stronger support

B. The nationalist movements often disagreed on how nations should be

governed once they gained independence and how citizenship should be
defined

1. The competing visions of democracy and radical authoritarianism

appealed to different leaders and groups

2. Most often looked to indigenous religious and cultural traditions for

inspiration

C. Anticolonialism differed depending on whether the area had been formally

colonized, for how long, or how threatened it was by colonization

C. African stirrings

A. Anticolonial nationalist movements got under way after the war, later than
in areas colonized for longer periods of time

B. With some minor exceptions, Africans were excluded from representation

in imperial governments

C. As a result, many Africans began to experiment with various forms of

protest

1. In southeastern Nigeria, Ibo and Ibibio women protested taxes by

refusing to deal with local chiefs and by boycotting foreign
merchants

2. Many of these protests resembled modern political strategies in

Europe

D. Imagining an Indian nation

A. Opposition in India to British rule was more advanced than in Africa

B. After the war, the British expanded the franchise and granted more power
to Indians in local government

C. During the 1920s and 1930s, Mohandas Gandhi transformed the Indian
National Congress Party into a mass party and an anti-colonial movement

1. Gandhi was Western-educated

2. He developed a philosophy of satyagraha, or nonviolent

resistance, that he employed against the British while living in
South Africa

D. In 1919, the British massacred hundreds of Indians protesting policies at

Amritsar

1. Gandhi and others called for non-cooperation and boycotts

 2. He began to turn the Indian National Congress away from an elite
institution by opening it to anyone who could pay dues

E. In 1930, Gandhi organized an act of civil disobedience over the

government monopoly of salt

1. He and supporters marched to the sea to gather salt for free

2. Journalists covered the march extensively

F. Gandhi's efforts inspired many other acts of noncooperation and nonviolent

protest

1. He urged people to spin, make their own cotton textiles, and

boycott British-manufactured cloth

G. Not all in the Congress Party or in other anticolonial organizations shared

his views

1. Although he supported Gandhi, Jawaharlal Nehru, a National

Congress leader, wanted India to become a powerful nation-state
by embracing science and technology

2. Radical activists wanted revolution, not peaceful protests

3. Muslims did not believe that the National Congress Party squarely
guaranteed their rights

4. Hindu nationalist movements such as Rashtriya Swayamsevak

Sangh (RSS) campaigned to organize Hindus as a militant modern
community and spewed hatred against Muslims

5. Women demanded suffrage and other political rights that the

National Congress did not embrace

H. Still, by 1937, the Indian National Congress had mobilized the masses onto
the stage in order to overthrow British rule

1. Indians saw themselves as different from the West, even if they

disagreed what their new nation would be.

E. Chinese nationalism

A. China was not formally colonized but its sovereignty was compromised

1. Chinese nationalists thus identified ridding the nation of foreign

domination as their number one priority

B. The fall of the Qing dynasty in 1911 led to high hopes among nationalists
that a new modern nation would emerge

1. Quickly, the new Chinese government disintegrated as military

men competed for power

C. In 1919, the May Fourth Movement blossomed in urban areas to protest

the Paris Peace Conference's award of Germany's concession rights in
Shandong to Japan

D. The beneficiaries of this emerging nationalism were the Guomindang,

founded by Sun Yat-sen
 1. Looking to the Russian Revolution as an example, Sun allowed
Chinese Communists to join the Guomindang

2. The Guomindang also began to organize workers' unions,

peasants, and women's associations

E. After Sun's death in 1925, leadership of the Guomindang passed to Chiang

Kai-shek

1. Chiang launched a military campaign to unify the country under

Guomindang leadership

2. His efforts were a partial success, and he formed a national

government in Nanjing

3. In 1927 he broke with the Communists

F. Chiang attempted to mobilize the Chinese masses behind his efforts into
the 1930s

1. The New Life Movement, launched in 1934, attempted to instill

discipline and moral purpose in the citizenry

F. Peasant populism in China: The White Wolf

A. Guomindang leadership viewed the peasantry as backwards and bereft of

revolutionary potential.

B. Nevertheless, a peasant movement emerged in 1913-1914 that challenged

the existing order.

1. The White Wolf movement had more than 20,000 members and
devoted itself to raiding trade routes and market towns in order to
rob from the rich and aid the poor.

2. The White Wolf movement gained its greatest support in rural

areas where peasants were experiencing the disruption of new
market forces.

C. The Guomindang never bridged the differences between the urban-based

movement and peasants, something Communists would take advantage of
later.

G. Post-imperial Turkish nation

A. The Treaty of Sèvres reduced the Ottoman Empire to a part of Anatolia,

and survival of this truncated state was uncertain

B. Mustafa Kemal and other army officers organized resistance to this

outcome

1. In 1920, they reconquered most of Anatolia and the European

territory surrounding Istanbul

2. European powers agreed to renegotiate the Treaty of Sèvres

3. The new Peace of Lausanne abrogated reparations in return for the

Turks relinquishing claims to Arab lands and several Aegean
islands
 a. A massive transfer of Greek and Turkish nationals then
took place between each country

C. Kemal, who took on the name Ataturk-father of the nation-went on to

proclaim a republic and set the nation on a crash course to modernization

1. He aimed to create a European-style secular state

2. He also borrowed several anti-liberal models such as state

economic planning and the use of radical racial theories to foster
Turkish economic development and identity with the state

H. The Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt

A. Elsewhere in the Middle East, anticolonial movements emerged

1. In Egypt, after the war ended, Sa'd Zaghlul pressed for an

Egyptian delegation to the Paris Peace Conference

a. He hoped to present a case for Egyptian independence

b. British officials arrested him and exiled him to Malta

c. The country quickly burst into revolt

2. In 1922, Britain proclaimed Egypt's independence but retained

many rights, such as the right to station British troops on Egyptian
soil and to use these troops in order to protect foreign residents
and the Suez Canal

3. In 1924, the British refused to let the Wafd, Zaghlul's political

party, come to power

4. Anticolonialism in Egypt soon turned antiliberal

a. During the Depression, a fascist group called Young Egypt

had wide appeal

b. The Muslim Brotherhood, established in 1928, attacked

liberal democracy as a facade for middle-class, business,
and landowning interests

i. They wanted more than independence, urging the

people to return to a purified form of Islam

VII. Conclusion

A. The Great War and its aftermath accelerated the trend toward mass society while shaking
confidence in modernization

B. Competing visions of modernity-liberal, authoritarian, and anticolonial-emerged after the

war

C. Authoritarianism seemed best positioned to satisfy the masses during the Great Depression

D. Most anti-colonial movements also viewed liberalism as discredited and looked to socialism
and fascism for models

E. While the rise of authoritarian regimes combined with the Great Depression generated
intense dislocation, the worst days of modernity were about to come with the outbreak of
World War II
VIII.Competing Blocs

A. The breakup of Europe's empires and the demise of European world leadership led to the
division of the world into three blocs

B. The United States and Soviet Union-superpowers

A. Both believed in respective ideologies had universal application

A. United States-liberal capitalism

B. Soviet Union-Communism

B. Size

C. Possession of atomic weapons

D. Each embodied a model of civilization that could be applied globally

C. Third World countries fought internal wars over the legacy of colonialism

D. Internal and external produced tensions and conflicts that challenged the three-world order

IX. World War II and its aftermath

A. By the late 1930s, German and Japanese ambitions to expand and to become, like Britain,
France and the United States, colonial powers brought these conservative dictatorships into
conflict with France, Britain, the Soviet Union, and eventually the United States

A. World War II was more global in scope and in context than World War I

B. Distinctions between citizens and soldiers were further eroded

C. The acts of barbarism robbed Europe of any lingering claims to cultural superiority

A. In the war's wake, anti-colonial movements successfully pressed their

claims for national self-determination

B. The war in Europe

A. The war began with Hitler's invasion of Poland in September 1939 and Britain and
France's decision to oppose it militarily

A. Within two years, Germany and Italy controlled virtually all of Western
Europe

1. The German tactic of blitzkrieg, or lightning war proved decisive

2. Britain escaped conquest, but German planes waged aerial war on

British cities

B. In June 1941, the Germans invaded and nearly conquered the Soviet
Union

B. Nazi occupation brought terror and displacement to Europe

A. The war required more laborers. With men off fighting, women became
highly sought after for the workforce

B. 12 million foreign laborers were brought to Germany for war production

goals

C. The German offensive halted in the Soviet Union with defeat in the battle of
Stalingrad in 1942
 A. For the next two years, the Red Army slowly forced German troops from
Eastern Europe

B. British and American troops battled German forces in the air and on the
seas and in northern Africa

C. Allied Forces finally opened up a second front in Western Europe with the
successful D-Day invasion of June 1944

D. In May 1945, Germany surrendered unconditionally

D. The war in Europe had devastating human and material costs

A. The Soviets lost up to 20 million people, both military and civilian

B. Aerial bombings in German and British cities brought unprecedented

hardships

C. Two-thirds of Europe's Jews were killed systematically in German "death

camps"

D. Nazis killed or imprisoned gypsies, homosexuals, Communists, and Slavs

C. The war in the Pacific

A. Throughout the 1930s Japan had expanded its influence in Asia

A. In 1931 it conquered Manchuria

B. In 1937, it invaded and conquered much of coastal China

1. During this war, Japanese troops inflicted terror on the Chinese

population, the most notorious example being the "Rape of
Nanjing"

C. German occupation of Western European countries in 1940 left their

colonies in Southeast Asia at the mercy of Japanese forces

D. The United States became the chief obstacle to Japanese expansion and,
as a result, Japan launched an attack on the American Pacific fleet at Pearl
Harbor in December 1941 in hopes of a surprise knockout blow

1. The strategy backfired and the United States quickly mobilized for
total war

2. Germany and Italy also declared war on the U.S. in light of their
Tripartite Pact with Japan

E. In 1942 Japan seized the British-ruled Southeast Asian colonies of

Singapore, Malaya, Burma, etc.

1. Japan dubbed its new empire the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity
Sphere

2. The Japanese exploited these areas despite their calls of "Asia for
Asians"

a. Millions were drafted for labor

b. Two hundred thousand mainly Korean "comfort women"

were forced to serve as prostitutes for the Japanese army
 F. American mobilization tilted the balance of power in the Pacific against
Japan by 1943

1. In August 1945, President Harry Truman, in the hope of saving the

American army the monumental task of invading Japan proper,
authorized the use of atomic weapons to force Japan to surrender

a. Japan surrendered a few days after two bombs destroyed

the cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki

b. The bombs left environmental devastation by polluting air,

land, and groundwater

X. The beginning of the cold war

A. The Second World War left Europe in ruins

A. Physically the continent was a wreck, and psychologically, old regimes had lost
credibility

B. Socialism and Soviet-style communism attracted wide support

B. Rebuilding Europe

A. The principal Allies in the fight against Hitler-the Soviet Union, the United States,
and Great Britain-distrusted each other and disputed how to address Europe's
postwar recovery

B. The United States decided to "contain" Soviet influence where it already existed in
Eastern Europe thus initiating a "cold war" between the former allies

A. This policy contributed to the division of Germany into mutually hostile

states loyal to opposing sides in the cold war after the Berlin Airlift of
1948-1949

B. To shore up democratic governments and capitalist economies in Western

Europe, President Truman announced the Truman Doctrine and the
Marshall Plan in 1947, which promised massive economic and military aid

C. These efforts culminated in the formation of the North Atlantic Treaty

Organization (NATO) in 1949; a military alliance between Western Europe
and North America against the Soviet Union

C. To Stalin, containment looked like a direct threat

A. Stalin believed the Soviet Union deserved to be dominant in Eastern

Europe in order to protect its postwar security

B. The Soviet Union responded to the Western Alliance with a military

alliance-the Warsaw Pact-between itself and the nations it dominated after
the war in Eastern Europe in 1955

C. The Nuclear Age

A. The arms race led to stockpiling of nuclear weapons and multiple delivery systems
on both sides

A. These armories, however, prevented all-out direct war between the two
antagonists
 B. Open confrontation emerged in Asia, where there were no well-defined Soviet and
American spheres, such as existed in Europe, after the Second World War

A. The Korean War embroiled American, North Korean, South Korean, and
Chinese troops in a contest to control the Korean peninsula between 1950
and 1953

1. This conflict energized America's anti-Communist agenda and led

to new alliances

B. In 1951, the U.S. signed a peace treaty with Japan, whereby the U.S.
committed itself to defending Japan in case of invasion, stationed troops
and ships there on a permanent basis, and initiated large-scale financial
aid to rebuild the economy

XI. Decolonization

A. After the war, anti-colonial leaders set about dismantling the European order using the
lessons of mass politicization and mass mobilization that had developed in the 1920s and
1930s

A. The process of decolonization and nation-building that followed exhibited three

patterns

A. Civil war such as in China

B. Negotiated independence in India and much of Africa

C. Incomplete decolonization where large numbers of European settlers

complicated the process

B. The Chinese Revolution

A. After the war the Communist Party vowed to achieve full political and economic
independence for China

B. The Communist Party had gained momentum over two decades

A. In 1927, Chiang Kai-shek and the Nationalist regime drove the

Communists into the mountains

B. Soon Mao Zedong took over the leadership of the party

1. In 1934, under attack from the Nationalists, they embarked on a

6,000 mile "Long March" to the northwest of the country to escape
further attacks

C. Under Mao, the party reached out to the vast rural population to fight the
Japanese

1. Mao's emphasis on a peasant revolution helped him win broad

support in China and served as a model for other Third World
revolutionaries after 1945

2. Mao also emphasized women's liberation

D. After the Japanese surrender in 1945, the Communists and the Nationalists
commenced a bloody civil war.
 1. The Nationalists, having lost credibility after their losses to the
Japanese and because of their postwar corruption, proved no
match for Communist forces and fled to the island of Taiwan in
1949

C. Negotiated independence in India and Africa

A. In India and Africa, the British and the French, realizing that only violent coercion
would sustain their empires in the postwar era, withdrew in an orderly manner

B. India

A. Although independence came nonviolently, India came dangerously close

to civil war immediately afterward

1. Within the Indian National Congress Party, there was much

disagreement over the direction of India after independence

a. Gandhi wanted a nonmodern utopia of self-governing

villages

b. Nehru looked to Western and Soviet models for

establishing a modern nation-state

2. The Muslim minority increasingly questioned the direction of

Indian nationalism that was often predicated on Hindu myths and
symbols

a. Riots broke out between Muslims and Hindus in 1946

3. Middle-class leaders were alarmed at the potential for radical

peasant movements

4. On August 14 and 15, 1947, British forces left a partitioned

subcontinent between a Muslim majority Pakistani nation-state
and a Hindu majority Indian nation-state

a. Within days 1 million people had been killed in sectarian

violence

b. 12 million immigrated between the two countries

c. Gandhi's fast in protest of the violence helped to bring

about peace, but he himself was assassinated a few
months later by a Hindu extremist

d. Nehru and the Congress Party developed a workable

system in India over the next decade that emulated
Soviet style economic planning and Western democratic
institutions

C. Africa for Africans

A. World War II and the period immediately after saw the ranks of nationalist
movements swell

B. African migrated to cities in search of a better life

 C. Faced with rising nationalist demands, European powers agreed to
decolonize

1. Ghana (British Gold Coast) became the first independent state

2. By 1963, all of British Africa except Southern Rhodesia (modern-

day Zimbabwe) was independent

D. Charismatic nationalist leaders took charge of political powers

1. Nkrumah led Ghana

2. Azikiwe ruled Nigeria

E. Decolonization in French-ruled Africa followed a similar path

1. At first, the French attempted assimilation into metropolitan

France

a. The French electorate balked at these policies and under

President de Gaulle, France dissolved its political ties in
Africa

F. Among the new leaders in Africa, the sense of creating something different
from existing patterns was strong

1. Nkrumah, Azikiwe, and Julius Nyerere of Tanzania looked to

Africa's pre-colonial traditions that would enable the continent to
develop an African form of socialism without going through
depredations of capitalism

a. African personality was steeped in communal values of

social justice and equality as opposed to European
individualism

b. Léopold Sédar Senghor of Senegal best epitomized these

views

i. He and others developed the idea of "Negritude,"

which claimed that people of African descent were
more humane and had stronger communal
feelings than Europeans

ii. He promised to assimilate what was good from

France but not to be assimilated into France.

D. Violent and incomplete decolonizations

A. Palestine, Israel, and Egypt

A. The British, who ruled Palestine in the interwar years, had issued the
Balfour Declaration, making Palestine a "homeland" for Jews

B. Immigration of Jews, however, created conflict between fledgling Jewish

and Arab nations

1. Arabs living in Palestine declared themselves Palestinians and

worked towards self-determination
 2. To dampen instability, the British curtailed Jewish immigration
precipitously during World War II and immediately after

C. In 1947, the British announced their withdrawal from Palestine and asked
the United Nations to decide its fate

1. The U.N. voted to create two states

a. Israel declared its existence in May 1948 but fretted about

its insecure borders

b. Palestinians looked to Arab neighbors to help them gain

control over the entire area

2. The ensuing Arab-Israeli War was won by Israel

a. The loss delegitimized Arab ruling elites

b. It also created 1 million Palestinian refugees in Arab

countries

D. In response to their defeat over the partition of Palestine, Egyptian

officers, led by Gamal Abdel Nasser, overthrew King Faruq in 1952

1. Nasser quickly instituted broad land reform to gain support

2. He also banned political parties and enacted a new constitution

that banned Communists and the Muslim Brotherhood and
stripped old elites of most of their wealth

E. In 1956, seeking to assert Egypt's influence, Nasser seized control of the

Suez Canal Company, controlled mainly by British and French investors

1. Israelis, French and British forces intervened

2. The Soviet Union and the United States forced their withdrawal

3. After regaining the canal, Nasser became a hero and symbol of

pan-Arab nationalism across the Middle East, including among
Palestinians

B. The Algerian War of Independence

A. The French considered Algeria a part of metropolitan France

1. Over 1 million European colons lived there

2. They owned the best land and monopolized political power

B. In 1954, Front de Libération Nationale (FLN) forces opened guerilla attacks

on French troops

1. The war dragged on for eight years with atrocities committed by

both sides

2. In 1958 colons and army officers started an insurrection that led

to the collapse of the French government and the emergence of
Charles de Gaulle as the leader of a government backed by a new
constitution

C. In 1962, President de Gaulle and the FLN negotiated a peace settlement

 1. 90 percent of the European population fled Algeria

C. Eastern and southern Africa

A. The Mau Mau Uprising in Kenya, which commenced in 1952, forced the
British to concede independence to the black majority there in 1963,
despite the protests of 20,000 British settlers

B. Decolonization had to wait until the 1970s in Portuguese Angola,

Portuguese Mozambique, and British Southern Rhodesia

C. African women played vital roles in the decolonization strategies

1. Organized demonstrations in Africa

2. Kenyan women supplied rebel forces in hiding with food, medical

resources, and information on British military

D. South Africa defied these changes

1. In 1948, the Afrikaner-dominated Nationalist Party came to power

and enacted a series of segregation laws called apartheid

a. The Group Areas Act restricted blacks to living in areas

designated as homelands, only leaving them if they had
official "passes"

2. The African National Congress protested these changes, which led

to government repression

a. After the Sharpeville Massacre in 1960, the ANC and its

leader Nelson Mandela endorsed violence against the
regime

b. Mandela was imprisoned and the ANC banned

3. The West, especially the U.S., continued to support the regime,

seeing South Africa as a bulwark against the spread of
communism in Africa

D. Vietnam

A. The French had ruled Vietnam since the 1880s

B. French reforms gave rise to a new indigenous middle-class intelligentsia

that began to push for a Vietnamese nation-state in the interwar years

1. Ho Chi Minh looked to Marxism as a source of inspiration

2. During World War II he embraced Mao's idea of an agrarian

revolution

a. He formed the Viet Minh-a Communist-led national

liberation organization

b. When the French tried to restore their control after the

Second World War, the Viet Minh opposed them with the
use of guerilla tactics

i. In 1954, the Viet Minh won the decisive battle of

Dien Bien Phu
 ii. A Geneva peace conference divided the country
into two zones, one controlled by Ho and the
other by a French- and American-supported
government

c. North Vietnam supported the efforts of the Viet Cong-

Communist guerillas-to overthrow the southern regime
and unite the country

d. During the 1960s the United States sent military forces to

prop up the southern regime

e. Faced with antiwar protests at home and severe

resistance by Vietnamese, Americans began to withdrawal
troops after the presidential election of 1968

f. A failed U.S. policy of Vietnamization, implemented during

America's troop withdrawal, led to the collapse of the
South Vietnamese government in 1975

XII. Three Worlds

A. As decolonization spread, the United States and the Soviet Union offered their models for
economic and political modernization to the newly independent countries

B. Third World countries usually had ideas of their own but found their efforts toward
modernization infringed upon by the two superpowers

C. The First World

A. Building on the principles of liberal modernism, exemplified by the New Deal, the
First World was committed to capitalism and democracy after World War II

B. Western Europe

A. The reconstruction of Western Europe was a spectacular success

1. Agricultural and industrial productivity soared

2. Consumer goods such as refrigerators and automobiles became

commonplace

3. Governments sponsored elaborate welfare states

C. The United States

A. The United States entered a prolonged expansion during the Second World
War that continued until the early 1970s

1. Home ownership became common

2. "American" made was synonymous with high quality

3. With the baby boom came the growth of suburbia

D. Anxieties over the cold war produced an anti-Communist hysteria among many
Americans against suspected domestic subversives in the late 1940s and early
1950s led by Senator Joseph McCarthy

A. Tensions relaxed after 1954 but politicians of all stripes worked to avoid
the "soft on communism" label
 E. Also during the 1950s, African Americans began to protest segregation and
discrimination and to demand an equal share of the economic pie

A. The NAACP won many court victories, especially against segregation in

education

B. Martin Luther King successfully employed Gandhi's tactics of nonviolent

confrontation to win support against segregation

F. The Japan "miracle"

A. American military and economic support allowed Japan to focus on

rebuilding its destroyed infrastructure with up-to-date equipment

1. The U.S. opened its markets to Japanese products

2. Government policies channeled wages into savings and fostered

the growth of export sectors

3. By the 1970s Japanese products had become sophisticated and

successful in international markets

B. Japan's economy grew by 10 percent annually during the 1950s and 1960s

D. The Second World

A. The Soviets turned Eastern Europe into a bloc of Communist "buffer states" after
World War II

A. The Soviet system continued to frown on private property and to

emphasize state management of the economy with a cradle-to-grave
comprehensive welfare system

B. The Soviet model appealed to many because of its egalitarian principles, despite its
inability to provide the consumer goods common in the First World

A. Soviet science gained worldwide acclaim, especially after the launching of

Sputnik in 1957

C. Repression and dissent

A. The Soviet system, however, was inhumane, brutally suppressing dissent

and those it deemed dangerous to the state

B. Even returning Soviet soldiers who had been prisoners of war were sent to
camps after World War II because they had had too much contact with
foreigners

D. In the 1950s, the Communist Party tried to soften these abuses

A. With Stalin's death, the new party leader Nikita Khrushchev denounced
Stalin's human rights abuses as not part of true communism

B. Leaders in Poland and Hungary immediately liberalized political and

economic controls

1. Soviet leadership soon crushed this dissent, although it did allow

some economic and cultural autonomy

C. In the Soviet Union, dissidents of all stripes emerged, but they were
carefully monitored and often imprisoned
E. The Third World

A. Leaders of newly independent countries were convinced that they could build
strong democratic polities like those in the West and could promote rapid economic
development as the Soviet Union had while avoiding the empty materialism they
associated with the West and the state oppression that had occurred in Communist
regimes

B. Limits to autonomy

A. This third way proved difficult

1. The West sought to insure that market structures and private

property remained intact

2. The World Bank and the IMF loaned millions for development, but
enforced a First World approach to modernization on Third World
nations

3. First World multinational corporations also infringed on the

sovereignty of many Third World nations and transferred wealth
away from them back to their home countries

4. Both the United States and Soviet Union frowned upon neutralism
and often impeded Third World autonomy

a. The Soviet Union backed Communist insurgencies around

the globe

b. The United States used its global alliances to establish

military bases around the world

c. Both superpowers contributed to the militarization of the

Third World

i. In Africa and the Middle East, both superpowers

sold weapons to regimes in return for support and
often created "client states"

B. These became known as "neo-colonial" problems

1. By the 1960s, many new states were mired in debt and

dependency and managed by corrupt regimes supported by one of
the superpowers

C. Third World revolutionaries and radicals

A. During the 1960s Third World radicalism emerged as a powerful force

1. Revolutionaries drew on the world of Frantz Fanon who urged a

decolonization of the mind as well as society

2. Mao's leadership in China also inspired many radicals elsewhere

a. In 1958, he initiated the Great Leap Forward

i. The bold initiative divided China into thousands of

communes where peasants would figure out how
to produce the food they needed and the
 industrial products that would propel China past
the superpowers

b. The experiment failed miserably

i. Over 20 million perished from famine

c. In 1966 he launched the Great Proletarian Cultural

Revolution

i. Millions of young people were urged to cleanse

the Communist Party and society from "old
customs, old culture, old habits, and old ideas"

ii. The political tension kept the country in turmoil

for ten years

d. Despite these failures, radicals found his style and

emphasis on the peasants appealing

B. In Latin America, radicals dreamed of ending United States domination of

the region

1. American intervention overthrew a Guatemalan government bent

on land reform and damping the influence of the American United
Fruit Company on the country's economic and political
development

2. In Cuba, Fidel Castro launched a successful guerilla war against an

American-backed regime in the late 1950s

3. When he redistributed land and nationalized foreign oil refineries,

the U.S. government began to actively seek ways to overthrow the
new regime

a. In 1961, the CIA sponsored the failed Bay of Pigs invasion

manned by Cuban exiles and opponents of Castro

4. In 1962, Castro aligned himself with the Soviet Union and

appealed to his new ally to install nuclear weapons in Cuba in
order to forestall any future American invasions

a. When the Soviets obliged, it brought the world the closest

it has come so far to nuclear confrontation

b. Eventually the Kennedy administration convinced the

Soviets to remove the weapons

c. Radicals throughout Latin America were emboldened by

Castro's success and hoped to emulate him

d. The United States worked with allies in the region to

combat these efforts

i. During the 1960s, the Alliance for Progress

provided money and advisers to improve local
land systems and teach the population the
benefits of liberal capitalism
 ii. The CIA worked with the Chilean military to
overthrow Salvador Allende, a left-wing, elected
president, in 1973

e. By 1975, most rebel forces had been liquidated or

isolated. Most of Latin America was run by military
regimes, however

XIII.Tensions in the Three-World Order

A. Third World radicalism exposed vulnerabilities in the three-world order along with the
continuation of the Vietnam War, dissidence in the Soviet bloc, and the rising fortunes of
oil-producing nations and Japan

B. Tensions in the First World

A. During the 1960s, American society lost some of its confidence

A. The assassination of President Kennedy in 1963, the violence against the

civil rights movement in 1964, the urban race riots that engulfed the
country from 1965 to 1968, and widespread opposition to the Vietnam
war-especially on college campuses-disturbed millions

B. This unsettledness occurred at a time when President Lyndon Johnson led

an effort to expand the welfare state and addressed the weaknesses in
American capitalism

C. Johnson's programs and the civil rights movement unleashed other

campaigns for social justice among Native Americans, Mexican Americans,
homosexuals, and women, among others

1. The development of an oral contraceptive helped unleash a sexual

revolution and freed many women to pursue careers outside the
home

D. Protests against the Vietnam War helped contribute to the withdrawal of

American troops from the conflict and encouraged greater dissent from the
foreign policy consensus of containing communism abroad

C. Tensions in world communism

A. Following the successful example of Yugoslavia in 1948 and the unsuccessful

attempts of Poland and Hungary in 1956, Czechoslovakia attempted to loosen
Soviet domination in 1968 with the Prague Spring

A. The reformist government of Alexander Dubcek allowed for more political

expression

B. Soviet troops crushed this momentum

B. Underground dissent continued to grow after the crushing of the Prague Spring in
the Soviet Union and its satellites

C. The Communist Party of the Soviet Union allowed "national communisms" in many
Eastern countries to emerge as well as in several Soviet republics, in return for
loyalty

D. By the early 1970s, the Soviet Union and China had split from previous cooperation
 A. In the 1960s, Romania gained autonomy in its foreign policy by playing off
its larger Communist allies.

B. African nations exploited Sino-Soviet tension to gain further aid from the
Soviet Union

D. Tensions in the Third World

A. Although the Third World never had a formal alliance, efforts to promote
cooperation often foundered in the 1960s and 1970s

A. Several countries in Africa, Southeast Asia, South America, and the Middle
East formed the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) in
1960 to gain more from world trade in this commodity

1. After the Arab-Israeli War of 1973, Arab members boycotted

Israel's First World allies

a. The boycott dramatically raised the price of oil and led to

economic crisis in the West

B. Other commodity producers tried to duplicate OPEC's success such as coffee and
rubber

A. OPEC's triumph proved short-lived

1. New oil discoveries outside OPEC's orbit reduced pressures on

consuming nations to purchase oil from OPEC at inflated prices

2. Most of the revenue gained from the boycott flowed back to First
World banks or was invested in the United States and Europe

a. a First World banks loaned some of the money to poor

countries in Asia, Africa, and Latin America at high
interest rates

C. Some countries escaped the cycle of underdevelopment, such as South Korea and
Taiwan, where states nurtured industries, educated the population, and required
foreign nationals to work with native firms

A. Their successes did little to change international markets

XIV.Conclusion

A. World War II completed a process that began with World War I

B. The new three-world order replaced European domination and the old liberal order

A. The United States and the Soviet Union became the world's superpowers

B. The nation-state, not empire, became the primary form for organizing communities

C. States gained increased power everywhere

C. Stresses in the three-world order that emerged after the war were beginning to undermine
it by the 1970s

XV. Global Integration

A. During the 1970s political practices and institutions associated with the three-world order
began to crumble
XVI.Removing Obstacles to Globalization

A. A new architecture of power emerged that united the world into a global marketplace

A. U.S. promoted change

B. Ending the cold war

A. The cold war limited global exchanges

1. After 1960, regional conflicts in Southeast Asia, Afghanistan, and

Central America brought tremendous costs to the regions involved

2. The conflict also stretched both superpowers' resources

a. The largest peacetime accumulation of arms in world

history occurred during the 1970s and 1980s

b. Despite efforts at arms control, expensive programs such

as "Star Wars" mired both governments in debt

B. Both alliances showed signs of cracking starting in the 1970s

1. By the 1980s the Soviet Union was caught in a military stalemate

in Afghanistan

2. Eastern Europe had become dependent on Western loans and

consumer goods

3. The Western public was divided over the nuclear weapons buildup
of the 1980s

4. Japanese economic strides challenged American and European

industries' ability to provide employment and profits

C. Starting in the late 1980s, the Soviet bloc collapsed

1. Planned economies failed to provide consumer goods and health

care on a par with the West

2. The selection of a Polish pope inspired massive resistance to

Communist rule

3. In 1980, Solidarity, an independent union, formed to bring down

the socialist state in Poland

4. Mikhail Gorbachev, elevated to leadership of the Soviet

Communist Party in 1985, tried to reform the Soviet bloc along the
lines of the 1968 Prague Spring

a. He also launched major arms control initiatives with the

United States

b. Soon civic groups emerged throughout the Eastern bloc

pressing for more personal freedoms and national
autonomy

5. Instead of using the massive forces at his disposal to save his

regime, Gorbachev let it go
 a. Hard-liners staged a failed coup to arrest these
developments in 1991

6. By the end of 1992, the Soviet Union was no more

7. Several Eastern European states ceased to exist

a. East Germany quickly merged with West Germany

b. Yugoslavia disintegrated into several nations, much like

the Soviet Union

c. This collapse was not entirely peaceful as fighting erupted

in Moldova and Yugoslavia

8. Over the rest of the decade, most of these societies, with a few
exceptions, experienced political and economic stagnation

C. Africa and the end of white rule

A. Final decolonization, or the end of non-European rule, in Africa occurred

after 1975

1. Portuguese colonies in Angola, Guinea-Bissau and Mozambique

became independent by the mid-1970s

2. International pressure and Robert Mugabe's liberation guerilla

movement brought an end to white rule in Rhodesia, now called
Zimbabwe

3. International pressure and internal protest eventually led the

white National Party in South Africa to legalize the African National
Congress and hold democratic elections in 1994.

a. Nelson Mandela, released from prison in 1990, became

the new president bent on preserving South Africa's
industry, education, wealth, and fledgling multiracial
democracy

4. Decolonization did not deliver many of its promises. Africa

remained embroiled in ethnic, religious, and military conflicts

XVII.Unleashing globalization

A. By the 1990s most states eliminated many barriers to trade, migration, and investment and
unleashed the forces of globalization

A. Finance and trade

A. In the 1970s governments in the First World eliminated fixed exchange

rates. This led to a new system of informal management of money across
borders, with private banks playing a large role, along with governments,
in regulating the global economy

B. Intellectually, Keynesian ideas of government management lost sway as a

younger generation of economists preached a philosophy of unfettered
markets as the best means to achieve growth
 1. These ideas strongly influenced the Thatcher and Reagan
administrations in Great Britain and the United States, respectively

2. International Monetary Fund (IMF) emerged as a central player

C. International financial deregulation made it easier for transnational

transactions, acquisitions, and mergers between banks and businesses

D. The "debt crisis" of the 1980s and the International Monetary Fund's
response furthered financial deregulation and integration

1. In the 1970s, Latin American and Eastern European nations

borrowed billions from First World banks

2. When repayment proved difficult, the IMF bailed these

governments out on the condition of reducing state management
of the national economy

E. New technology further enabled financial integration

1. The Internet and online trading accelerated capital mobility

a. Accelerated capital mobility created enormous volatility

and financial panics in Mexico, Russia, and East Asia in the
1990s

F. Financial integration increased commercial interdependence

1. Global trade increased tenfold from 1973-1998

2. International divisions of labor shifted

a. More and more Third World countries became suppliers of

manufactured goods, not primarily raw materials

G. Economic integration spurred the rise of East Asia's economic prominence

1. Share of world exports doubled from 1965 to 1990

2. Japan became the world's leading investor

H. Many countries responded to global competition by creating regional

economic blocs

1. In 1992, the United States, Canada, and Mexico signed the North
American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)

2. Europeans expanded the European Union, slashed trade barriers,

and made plans for a uniform currency during the 1990s

I. High technology and knowledge-based goods became ever more important

exports and imports

1. This created greater disparity between wealthy countries and

those still mainly producing low-tech goods and raw materials

B. Migration

A. Migration, always a major feature in world history, changed after 1970

1. Europeans were no longer on the move

 2. Africans, Asians, and Latin Americans were the most likely to
migrate, usually to Europe or North America

B. Immigration after 1970 has conformed to existing political relations in that

migrants moved from former colonies or dependencies to former imperial
powers or between countries with close diplomatic ties

1. Many immigrants began as temporary or guest workers, especially

in Europe and Japan, where national identities were considered
ethnically homogenous

C. Economic factors have motivated most migrations

1. Global inequities stimulated mass movements from less developed

to more developed countries

D. International migration has often been an extension of internal migration

from rural to urban areas

1. Lagos, Nigeria, grew from 41,000 people in 1900 to 10 million in

2000

2. Oil money spurred migration to Lagos

E. The United States attracted the lion's share of immigrants, in part because
of its more receptive attitude

1. Mexicans made up the single largest group of immigrants

2. Asians numbers also surged

3. The American urban landscape changed in light of heavy

immigration, as it did one century earlier

a. Los Angeles, which had been primarily "white" before

1965, now has a population in which two-fifths are
foreign-born

F. Migration has unsettled many societies from South Africa to the Middle
East

1. Nations around the world struggle with the issue of national

identity

C. Culture

A. Globalization has created less global diversity, but on the level of the
individual's everyday experience, the potential for experiencing global
diversity has greatly increased

B. New media such as cassette tapes, motion pictures, and television provide
a global link between cultures

1. Cable television challenged the dominance of "national networks"

a. MTV, for example, can be seen around the world

2. Television in particular globalized sports

a. American professional sports have increasingly attracted

foreign participants and audiences
 b. Michael Jordan is probably the world's best-known athlete

c. Soccer has become the world's most popular sport

C. Global culture

1. Migrants brought their culture to new destinations and borrowed

from host cultures, producing hybrid cultural expression

a. Reggae became popular where West Indian communities

had moved in the 1960s and 1970s

i. American rap music emerged out of this genre

b. "Latin" music emerged in the United States

2. World popular culture increasingly became "youth" culture

a. Popular culture often represented protest against

traditions or autocratic regimes

3. Cultural mixing provoked opposition in many regions

a. The French government created a cultural ministry to

combat the influence of English on the national language

b. Mullahs in Teheran tried to curb the influence of what they

saw as secularization and materialism

4. The rest of the world has also transformed American popular

culture

a. Music increasingly reflected Hispanic and Caribbean

influences

b. Foreign sports figures have huge followings

D. Local Culture

1. Migration has reinforced the appeal of local and national culture

2. National celebrities often attained large followings among those

who had immigrated to other countries

E. The market for world cultures is competitive and has led to more room for
diverse performers

1. The triumph of the black and gay performer among world

consumers marks major breaks in cultural history

F. The globalization of culture has brought many changes

1. Global culture has become more homogenous, but at the same

time local culture has become more diverse

D. Communications

A. After 1970, a revolution in communications aided the creation of human

networks among world societies

1. Satellites allowed for wider television broadcasts

 2. The personal computer enabled individuals to process words, run a
business, communicate with others, etc., from home

3. The Internet spurred the use of personal computers

4. New corporations such as personal computer makers, Internet

providers, software makers, and dot-coms, generated whole
engines of wealth and power and international networks of
production and exchange

B. The communications revolution has integrated wealthier communities

together around the world while failing to close the gap between the rich
and the poor

XVIII.Characteristics of the new global order

A. Population migrations, international banking, expanded international trade, and technical

breakthroughs in communications created a world that would hardly have been
recognizable to the inhabitants of the world at the beginning of the twentieth century

A. The demography of globalization

A. The world's population stood at 6 billion in 2000, up from 3 billion in 1960

1. Mortality declined, especially among infants

2. Life expectancy increased

B. In Europe and North America, population growth slowed, but everywhere

else it boomed

1. China and India have populations over 1 billion

2. The world's largest cities are no longer in Europe and North

America

C. Population growth is slowest in rich societies and strongest in poor ones,

but in all societies birthrates have declined

1. China has resorted to a "one-child family" policy to hold down

population growth

2. "One-child" policy led to an increased imbalance of the sex ratio

partly because of prenatal sex selection due to availability of
expensive ultrasound scanners

D. Families

1. Definitions of families have become more fluid

2. Divorce rates have increased, especially in the West

3. More children are raised by one parent

4. People are electing to delay marriage, not reproduce, and marry

for love at higher rates than before

E. Aging

1. Longer life spans have also affected family development

 2. Populations in many areas have "grayed," particularly in developed
countries

3. Aging populations have become depended on the state for care

giving and financial aid

a. In many areas, the state cannot take up this burden

B. Health

A. The distribution of disease reflects global inequities

B. Disease controls, antibiotics, vaccinations, and healthy habits have

reduced the spread of contagions

C. What used to be universal afflictions centuries ago are now becoming

limited to particular people and regions

1. For example, Cholera, the result of inadequate water treatment,

still breaks out in Latin America, sub-Saharan Africa, and the
eastern Mediterranean

D. New diseases have appeared.

1. Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (HIV-AIDS) is the best

example

a. Treatment is expensive, leaving the poor and

disadvantaged vulnerable

b. The vast majority of people with HIV-AIDS are poor and

live in Africa and Asia

C. Education

A. Access to education has increasingly separated the haves from the have-
nots

B. Around the world, men tend to receive more education than women,
despite gains in the West

C. Lack of or disparities in education increasingly continue to be drags on

sub-Saharan Africa's and India's efforts to combat poverty

D. In the Arab world, the literacy gap between men and women has
decreased. But Arab men's literacy is still 15-20 percent above that of Arab
women

D. Work

A. Women all over the world find themselves channeled into feminized
professions

B. The percentage of women at the top of corporate pyramids does not reflect
their participation in the workforce or their college graduation rates

C. Working outside the home has challenged traditional roles as mothers

E. Families
 A. To address inequities between men and women, feminist movements
emerged in Europe and North America in the 1960s, then became global in
the 1970s

1. In 1995, the Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing

attracted 4,000 government delegates from 180 countries as
women increasingly struggled to meet the challenges of economic
integration. 30,000 other women representing non-governmental
organizations (NGOs) also attended

F. Production and consumption in the global economy

A. Growth in population, the desire for more education and better health, the
entry of women into paid employment, and the promise of rising living
standards have resulted in the accelerated production and consumption of
the world's resources at an astonishing rate

B. Agricultural production

1. The "green revolution," or the use of chemicals, vastly increased

yields

2. Genetically engineered crops have also expanded yields

3. These agricultural gains have not been spread evenly around the
globe

a. The United States produces one-ninth of the world's

wheat and two-fifths of its corn

b. Asian rice growers have also made impressive gains

C. Even in those societies, those without access to non-farm inputs such as

chemical fertilizers have not benefited from the overall increase in output

1. Many small farmers in Indonesia and Brazil are destroying their

environment in search of cheap land in the rain forests or
mountainous forestland

D. Production has not kept pace with population in all lands

1. Since the 1970s, Africa has experienced major food shortages

2. Much of this problem stems from inadequate government

agricultural policies

G. Natural resources

A. Western nations, especially the United States, consume a high proportion

of the world's resources

1. Cities in the American West drain water resources

2. Energy consumption in the U.S. has turned it into an importer of

oil

3. The Gulf War was a failed Iraqi attempt to shift the global
distribution of oil in favor of producers, not consumers

H. Environment
 A. The depletion of natural resources and pollution led to the growing
awareness of global environmental problems that often transcended
borders

1. Acid rain in Europe and North America has destroyed many

habitats

2. The greenhouse effect, caused by human-made carbons, is

contributing to global warming throughout the world

3. Car pollution causes serious problems in large cities from Los

Angeles to Jakarta

4. Many advanced countries now export hazardous waste to

developing countries

5. The meltdown of a nuclear reactor at Chernobyl inside the Soviet

Union in 1986 showed the potential disasters in generating nuclear
energy

XIX.Citizenship in the global world

A. Supernational Organizations

A. Globalization has posed major problems for nation-states, which supranational

organizations have dealt with.

B. A variety of international bodies have come into existence since World War II that
have impinged on the autonomy of all but the most powerful states

A. The World Bank and the International Monetary Fund have dispersed funds
and expertise around the world but at the same time forced governments
to implement often resented policies in return

B. Nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), such as the International

Committee for the Red Cross, have often become international forces that
rival the political power of nation-states

1. Many NGOs came into being during the 1970s to promote human
and democratic values

a. Amnesty International and the Ford Foundation were

prominent in this area

B. Violence

A. International organizations and NGOs failed to prevent violence at the end of the
cold war

B. In southeastern Europe, various ethnic groups fought for control of regions after
Communist regimes collapsed

A. Dayton Accords (1995), coupled with NATO air strikes, ended much of the
violence in Bosnia

C. International organizations and NGOs failed to prevent violence at the end of the
cold war
 D. In southeastern Europe, various ethnic groups fought for control of regions after
Communist regimes collapsed

E. Most warfare at the end of the twentieth century was conducted within nation-
states, not between them

A. The worst political violence recently has been in Africa

1. Hutus massacred 800,000 Tutsis in Rwanda in the mid-1990s

F. Some societies have tried to overcome political violence

A. In Latin America and South Africa, many governments established "truth"

commissions to inquire about human rights abuses to create bonds
between public authority and citizens

B. Democratic states have difficulty preventing violence by nonstate actors,

as shown in the attacks on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon

C. Religious foundations of politics

A. In India, Hindu nationalism has offered a communal identity for a country rapidly
transformed by the forces of globalization

A. In the 1980s, the Indian government deregulated the economy and

allowed for greater market mechanisms

1. These reforms widened the gap between the rich and the poor

2. Lower classes and castes formed new political parties to challenge

the elite

B. In the midst of this fluctuation, right-wing Hindu nationalists used religion

to fill the role once occupied by the secular state

1. The BJP was devoted to making India a Hindu state

2. By the mid-1990s the party was in power, but it did not try to
challenge the forces of globalization

B. In other areas, religion provided a way to resist Americanization

A. Many Muslims in the Middle East, both clerics and Western-educated elites,
were critical of the intrusion of Western-style materialism and
individualism in their societies

B. In 1979, an Islamic movement overthrew the Western-backed shah of Iran

1. Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini emerged as the leader of the

country, bent on establishing a theocratic state that returned the
nation to Islamic values

2. Khomeini labeled the U.S., the shah's backer, as the great Satan

C. The search for moral foundations of politics has also affected Western
countries

1. In the United States, religion became a powerful political force in

politics during the 1970s
 2. Conservative Protestant groups in particular railed against
secularizing trends

D. Acceptance of and resistance to democracy

A. More and more societies embraced the notion that people had a right to choose
their representatives

A. China is the important holdout

1. Market reforms under Deng Xiaoping, who succeeded Mao as

leader of the Communist Party, raised living standards by the late
1980s

2. Widening gaps between the rich and poor and public corruption
fueled protest and demands for more openness

3. In 1989, protesters converged on Tiananmen Square

4. On June 3, the government ordered a military crackdown where

thousands were killed

5. Although the Communist Party remains in power, market forces

have created an urban entrepreneurial class in contrast to the
rural poor

B. Democracy triumphed in Mexico during the 1990s

1. The political clique that ruled Mexico for decades lost support in
light of corruption and abuses

2. Zapatistas, a group of Indian rebels in Chiapas, rose up in armed

rebellion in 1994

3. The Internet and the Cable News Network gave widespread

coverage of the conflict and international pressure forced the
government to abandon plans for a military crackdown in the
region

4. In 2000, national elections toppled the ruling party and Mexico

abandoned its one-party ruling system

XX. Conclusion

A. By the end of the century, the world was vastly different from the thirteenth-century world

B. In the year 2000, one could speak of a global culture, although local traditions remained
vibrant

A. Increasingly, the nation-state no longer defined collective identities

C. Globalization has created new possibilities and greater inequalities

A. The disparities between the haves and have-nots are greater than ever before

B. Thus as the world has come together, it has also grown further apart

XXI.The New Millennium

A. Y2K

XXII.The United States, The European Union and Japan

 A. September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks on United States

A. Osama bin Laden and al Qaeda claim responsibility

B. Global war on terror declared by U.S. President George Bush

A. U.S. sent troops into Afghanistan to destroy Taliban regime

B. Iraq invaded in 2003

C. Early offensive went well in Afghanistan and Iraq, but then civil unrest as
well as discoveries about bad intelligence on weapons of mass destruction
turned many Americans against the war.

B. Wars in Afghanistan and Iraq have left deep fractures in U.S.-Europe-Russian relations

C. Europe became more integrated as the European Union grew to twenty-five members

A. Two threats to Europe's stability are aging and immigration

A. European women are having fewer children

B. Millions of immigrants, many whom are Muslim

D. U.S. and Japan face similar issues to Europe

A. U.S. also faces an imbalance, with aging baby boomers retiring

A. Growing number of Asian and Latino migrants to the U.S.

B. Debates over English as the official language and illegal immigration

continue

B. Japan faces tough choices over aging population and immigration.

E. Immigration continues to be cause for right-wing political groups to gain footholds in

Europe.

A. In recent years, anti-immigrant sentiments and anti-Muslim, especially, have

grown stronger

A. Questions over assimilation

B. Foreigners remain the poorest and unemployed

B. Terrorist bombings in Europe also turn people against Muslim immigrants

XXIII.Russia, China, and India

A. Outsourcing has become a way for older capitalist societies to compete in the global
economy.

A. Resentment causes tension in the countries where outsourcing takes the place of
native-born workers.

B. Russia's economy is prospering, but its political system is closing in on itself.

A. Vladimir Putin has increased restrictions on the people

C. China

A. China's economy is growing

A. Consumer goods sold to the West, especially America

 B. Fast-growing economy comes with a down side environmental devastation,
growing gaps between rich and poor, poor quality of commodities

D. India

A. Economy flourishing

B. Political unrest between Muslim and Hindus still a major concern.

C. Ongoing tensions between India and Pakistan

XXIV.The Middle East, Africa, and Latin America

A. Middle East

A. Region remains violent, with undemocratic regimes feeding militant Islamic fury.

B. Many reasons that radical Islam has gained acceptance and followers

A. Arab world, except for the few countries rich in oil, are deeply mired in
poverty.

B. Oppressive and dictatorial regimes dominate

B. Africa

A. Radical Islam also growing in Africa

B. Region affected by terrible poverty and diseases such as HIV/AIDS

C. Little positive happening in Africa

D. Darfur in western Sudan continues to suffer genocide.

E. Liberia ended its war and held elections in 2005

A. Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf became the first woman elected president of an

African country.

C. Latin America

A. Gap between rich and poor widening due to globalization

B. Competition through NAFTA has left many farmers poorer as their villages and
work have vanished

C. Left-wing governments have been elected in several countries such as Bolivia,

Brazil, and Chile

D. Antiglobalization is widespread, but greatest in the poorest parts of the world

XXV.Conclusion

A. 2007 G8 summit discussed global warming, among other concerns

A. It's clear that global warming must be dealt with

B. Global warming has led to more natural disasters

A. Katrina

B. Tsunami

B. Changes in economics, culture, and politics will continue to encourage exchange and
interaction. But cultural and religious diversity, economic competition, and environmental
particularities will also persist in driving our worlds apart