A

Project Report
On

“SELF BALANCING ROBOT”

(Major project)

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement

for the award of the
Degree of
Bachelor of Technology
In
ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

Under the supervision of :- Submitted by:-

Ms. Geetanjali Sharma Apurva Bhardwaj(050075)

Iti Goyal(050049)
Meenakshi Kushwah(050167)

May 2009
Faculty of Engineering & Technology
Mody Institute of Technology and Science
(A Deemed University Under Section 3 of the UGC Act of 1956)
 Lakshmangarh-332311(Distt-Sikar)

Mody Institute of Technology and Science

( a Deemed University Under Section 3 of the UGC Act 1956)
Lakshmangarh-332311 (Dist.-Sikar)
P phones: (01573) 225001 to 225012 (12 lines) Fax: (01573) 225042

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the major project entitled “SELF BALANCING ROBOT”,
submitted by Ms.Apurva Bhardwaj(050075), Ms.Iti Goyal(050049), Ms.Meenakshi
Kushwah(050167), to department of Electronics and Communication Engineering in
partial fulfillment of requirement for the degree of Bachelor of Technology by Mody
Institute of Technology and Science, Lakshmangarh is a record of the work done under
my supervision and guidance.

Date : Ms.Geetanjali Sharma

(Project Supervisor)
Lecturer (ECE)

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 EXAMINER CERTIFICATE

The Project entitled “SELF BALANCING ROBOT” submitted by Ms. Apurva

Bhardwaj(ECE) , Ms. Iti Goyal(ECE) ,Ms. Meenakshi Kushwah(ECE) ,students of
B.Tech VII semester are approved in partial fulfillment of the requirement of the degree
of Bachelor of Technology from the Mody Institute Of Technology and Science
,Lakshmangarh , Sikar.

Date: (Examiner)

Prof. S.M Sharma

(HOD ECE)

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

“Perseverance, inspiration and motivation have always played a key role in any venture
.It is not just the brain that matters most, but that which guides them: the character, the
heart, generous qualities and progressive forces. What was conceived just as an idea
materialized slowly into concrete facts. The metamorphosis took endless hours of toil,
had its moments of frustration, but in the end everything seemed to have sense.”
At this level of understanding it is often difficult to understand the wide spectrum of
knowledge without proper guidance & advice. Hence, we take this opportunity to express
our heartfelt gratitude to respected Ms. Geetanjali Sharma who being our project guide
had faith in us, enlightened us with the valuable guidance and allowed us to work on this
project.
A heartfelt gratitude to Prof. P. K Das (Dean, FET) for providing us with an opportunity
to work in the Power Electronics lab and VLSI lab as a part of the major project.
We would like to thank Prof. S.M Sharma (HOD Electronics) for his immense interest,
constant inspiration and kind co-operation throughout the period of work undertaken.
We would like to pay our sincere gratitude to Mr. Vijay Singh and Mr. Santosh for
helping us with the technicalities of the electronics and computer lab and making our
work easier with his kind cooperation.
We would also like to acknowledge our profound sense of gratitude to my Friends and
Parents for their moral support to crave out this project and above all GOD for removing
all the hurdles in the way.

APURVA BHARDWAJ(050075)

ITI GOYAL(050049)

4
 MEENAKSHI KUSHWAH(050167)

TABLE OF CONTENTS

S.NO. CONTENT PAGE NO.

1. Abstract 6

2. Introduction 7

3. Component Description 10

4. Parallel Port 28

5. Power Supply 34

6. Circuit Description 41

7. Visual Basic 43

8. Coding 50

9. Conclusion 52

10. References 53

11. Appendix 54

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ABSTRACT

In our project balancing is achieved by laser mesh where flap or bot can balance in 2 axis
where 3 laser meshes give respond whenever flap obstacle been detected. Respect to this
in our algorithm program will respond to motor where it is rotate clockwise / anti-
clockwise. If there any obstacle still lying in the path of laser mesh it will give mal-
function that generate an error message. This project contain motor driving circuit, power
supply with regulated output, Laser transmitter and receptor circuit & mechanical section
contains ball bearings, Acrylic sheet & few of nut Bolts.

System Required for this Project:

PC with Minimum PIII with 256 MB Ram 10GB HDD & VB6.0

Programmer skills:
Visual Basic 6.0, Active Dlls, ActiveX

End-user Skills:
Basic Operating System handling

System Requirement:
Computer Minimum PIII with 256 MB Ram 40Gb. HDD, VB6.0, Serial communication
port, LPT Port

Hardware required:
IR sensors, Lasers, Power supply, D type 25 pin connector, comparator IC

Global Application:
Sky high building balancing
Precision balancing system

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INTRODUCTION

What is a Robot?
A robot is an "apparently human automaton, intelligent and obedient but impersonal
machine". Indeed, the word robot comes from robota, Czech for 'forced labour'. Yet, as
robotics advances this definition is rapidly becoming old. Basically, a robot is a machine
designed to do a human job (excluding research robots) that is either tedious, slow or
hazardous. It is only relatively recently that robots have started to employ a degree of
Artificial Intelligence in their work - many robots required human operators, or precise
guidance throughout their missions. Slowly, robots are becoming more and more
autonomous.

The difference between robots and machinery is the presence of autonomy, flexibility and
precision. Indeed, many few robots are mere extensions of machinery - but as the field
advances more and more, the current 'fine line' will widen more and more.

The field of robotics has been around nearly as long as Artificial Intelligence - but the
field has made little progress. This is only natural, since the field not only attempts to
conquer intelligence, but also the body that embodies it - a formidable task indeed!
Robotics, though, is not just about humanoid robots; but also about their commercial
applications in manufacturing, safety and hundreds of other fields. Let us back-track
though, and look at what could constitute a robot?

Robotics is an absolutely fascinating field that interests most people - AI buff or not. As
research from more serious robotics projects such as Cog and Kismet filter down into the
commercial arena we should look forward to some very interesting (and cheap) virtual
pets like Aibo and the furbies. Hopefully, commercial home-based robots will also be
available for a price not more than an expensive vacuum cleaner. With computers
becoming more and more powerful, interfacing home robots with your computer will
become a reality, and house work will (hopefully!) disappear.

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WHAT’S IN A ROBOT?

Basically a robot consists of:

• A mechanical device, such as a wheeled platform, arm, or other construction,

capable of interacting with its environment
• Sensors on or around the device that are able to sense the environment and give
useful feedback to the device
• Systems that process sensory input in the context of the device's current situation
and instruct the device to perform actions in response to the situation

Mechanical platforms -- the hardware base

A robot consists of two main parts: the robot body and some form of artificial
intelligence (AI) system. Many different body parts can be called a robot. Articulated
arms are used in welding and painting; gantry and conveyor systems move parts in
factories; and giant robotic machines move earth deep inside mines. One of the most
interesting aspects of robots in general is their behavior, which requires a form of
intelligence. The simplest behavior of a robot is locomotion. Typically, wheels are used
as the underlying mechanism to make a robot move from one point to the next. And some
force such as electricity is required to make the wheels turn under command.

Motors
A variety of electric motors provide power to robots, allowing them to move material,
parts, tools, or specialized devices with various programmed motions. The efficiency
rating of a motor describes how much of the electricity consumed is converted to
mechanical energy.

Power supplies
Power supplies are generally provided by two types of battery. Primary batteries are used
once and then discarded; secondary batteries operate from a (mostly) reversible chemical
reaction and can be recharged several times. Primary batteries have higher density and a

8
lower self-discharge rate. Secondary (rechargeable) batteries have less energy than
primary batteries, but can be recharged up to a thousand times depending on their
chemistry and environment.

Sensors
Regardless of sensor hardware or software, sensing and sensors can be thought of as
interacting with external events (in other words, the outside world). The sensor measures
some attribute of the world. The term transducer is often used interchangeably with
sensor. A transducer is the mechanism, or element, of the sensor that transforms the
energy associated with what is being measured into another form of energy. A sensor
receives energy and transmits a signal to a display or computer. Sensors use transducers
to change the input signal (sound, light, pressure, temperature, etc.) into an analog or
digital form capable of being used by a robot.

Microcontroller systems
Microcontrollers (MCUs) are intelligent electronic devices used inside robots. They
deliver functions similar to those performed by a microprocessor (central processing unit,
or CPU) inside a personal computer. MCUs are slower and can address less memory than
CPUs, but are designed for real-world control problems. One of the major differences
between CPUs and MCUs is the number of external components needed to operate them.
MCUs can often run with zero external parts, and typically need only an external crystal
or oscillator.
There are four basic aspects of a microcontroller: speed, size, memory, and other. Speed
is designated in clock cycles, and is usually measured in millions of cycles per second
(Megahertz, MHz). The use of the cycles varies in different MCUs, affecting the usable
speed of the processor. Size specifies the number of bits of information the MCU can
process in one step -- the size of its natural cluster of information.

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COMPONENT DESCRIPTION

Resistors

Example: Circuit symbol:

Function

Resistors restrict the flow of electric current, for example a resistor is placed in series
with a light-emitting diode (LED) to limit the current passing through
The Resistor
the LED.
Colour Code
Colour Number
Connecting and soldering
Black 0
Resistors may be connected either way round. They are not damaged Brown 1
by heat when soldering. Red 2
Orange 3
Resistor values - the resistor colour code Yellow 4
Green 5
Resistance is measured in ohms, the symbol for ohm is an omega . Blue 6
1 is quite small so resistor values are often given in k and M . Violet 7
1k = 1000 1 M = 1000000 . Grey 8
White 9
Resistor values are normally shown using coloured bands.
Each colour represents a number as shown in the table.

Most resistors have 4 bands:

• The first band gives the first digit.

• The second band gives the second digit.
• The third band indicates the number of zeros.
• The fourth band is used to shows the tolerance (precision) of the resistor, this may
be ignored for almost all circuits but further details are given below.

10
This resistor has red (2), violet (7), yellow (4 zeros) and gold bands.
So its value is 270000 = 270 k .
On circuit diagrams the is usually omitted and the value is written 270K.

Small value resistors (less than 10 ohm)

The standard colour code cannot show values of less than 10 . To show these small
values two special colours are used for the third band: gold which means × 0.1 and silver
which means × 0.01. The first and second bands represent the digits as normal.
For example:
red, violet, gold bands represent 27 × 0.1 = 2.7
green, blue, silver bands represent 56 × 0.01 = 0.56

Tolerance of resistors (fourth band of colour code)

The tolerance of a resistor is shown by the fourth band of the colour code. Tolerance is
the precision of the resistor and it is given as a percentage. For example a 390 resistor
with a tolerance of ±10% will have a value within 10% of 390 , between 390 - 39 = 351
and 390 + 39 = 429 (39 is 10% of 390).

A special colour code is used for the fourth band tolerance:

silver ±10%, gold ±5%, red ±2%, brown ±1%.
If no fourth band is shown the tolerance is ±20%.

Tolerance may be ignored for almost all circuits because precise resistor values are rarely
required.

11
Transistors

Function

Transistors amplify current, for example they can be used to amplify the small output
current from a logic chip so that it can operate a lamp, relay or other high current device.
In many circuits a resistor is used to convert the changing current to a changing voltage,
so the transistor is being used to amplify voltage.

A transistor may be used as a switch (either fully on with maximum current, or fully off
with no current) and as an amplifier (always partly on).

The amount of current amplification is called the current gain, symbol hFE.

Types of transistor

There are two types of standard transistors, NPN and PNP,

with different circuit symbols. The letters refer to the layers
of semiconductor material used to make the transistor. Most
transistors used today are NPN because this is the easiest
type to make from silicon. If you are new to electronics it is Transistor circuit symbols
best to start by learning how to use NPN transistors.

The leads are labeled base (B), collector (C) and emitter (E).
These terms refer to the internal operation of a transistor but they are not much help in
understanding how a transistor is used, so just treat them as labels!

A Darlington pair is two transistors connected together to give a very high current gain.

In addition to standard (bipolar junction) transistors, there are field-effect transistors

which are usually referred to as FETs. They have different circuit symbols and properties
and they are not (yet) covered by this page.

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Connecting

Transistors have three leads which

must be connected the correct way
round. Please take care with this
because a wrongly connected transistor
may be damaged instantly when you
switch on.

If you are lucky the orientation of the Transistor leads for some common case styles.
transistor will be clear from the PCB or
stripboard layout diagram, otherwise you will need to refer to a supplier's catalogue to
identify the leads.

The drawings on the right show the leads for some of the most common case styles.

Please note that transistor lead diagrams show the view from below with the leads
towards you. This is the opposite of IC (chip) pin diagrams which show the view from
above.

Soldering

Transistors can be damaged by heat when soldering so if you Crocodile clip

are not an expert it is wise to use a heat sink clipped to the lead between the joint and the
transistor body. A standard crocodile clip can be used as a heat sink.

Do not confuse this temporary heat sink with the permanent heat sink (described below)
which may be required for a power transistor to prevent it overheating during operation.

Heat sinks

Waste heat is produced in transistors due to the current flowing through Heat sink
them. Heat sinks are needed for power transistors because they pass large currents. If you

13
find that a transistor is becoming too hot to touch it certainly needs a heat sink! The heat
sink helps to dissipate (remove) the heat by transferring it to the surrounding air.

Darlington pair

This is two transistors connected together so that

the amplified current from the first is amplified further by the second transistor. This
gives the Darlington pair a very high current gain such as 10000. Darlington pairs are
sold as complete packages containing the two transistors. They have three leads
(B, C and E) which are equivalent to the leads of a standard individual transistor.

You can make up your own Darlington pair from two transistors.
For example:

• For TR1 use BC548B with hFE1 = 220.

• For TR2 use BC639 with hFE2 = 40.

The overall gain of this pair is hFE1 × hFE2 = 220 × 40 = 8800.

The pair's maximum collector current IC(max) is the same as TR2.

LED

Example: Circuit symbol:

14
Function

LEDs emit light when an electric current passes through them.

Connecting and soldering

LEDs must be connected the correct way round, the diagram may be labelled a or + for
anode and k or - for cathode (yes, it really is k, not c, for cathode!). The cathode is the
short lead and there may be a slight flat on the body of round LEDs. If you can see inside
the LED the cathode is the larger electrode (but this is not an official identification
method).

LEDs can be damaged by heat when soldering, but the risk is small unless you are very
slow. No special precautions are needed for soldering most LEDs.

Testing an LED

Never connect an LED directly to a battery or power supply!

It will be destroyed almost instantly because too much current will pass through and burn
it out.

15
LEDs must have a resistor in series to limit the current to a safe value, for quick testing
purposes a 1k resistor is suitable for most LEDs if your supply voltage is 12V or less.
Remember to connect the LED the correct way round!

Colours of LEDs

LEDs are available in red, orange, amber, yellow, green, blue and white. Blue and white
LEDs are much more expensive than the other colours.

The colour of an LED is determined by the semiconductor material, not by the colouring
of the 'package' (the plastic body). LEDs of all colours are available in uncoloured
packages which may be diffused (milky) or clear (often described as 'water clear'). The
coloured packages are also available as diffused (the standard type) or transparent.

Capacitors

Function

Capacitors store electric charge. They are used with resistors in timing circuits because it
takes time for a capacitor to fill with charge. They are used to smooth varying DC

16
supplies by acting as a reservoir of charge. They are also used in filter circuits because
capacitors easily pass AC (changing) signals but they block DC (constant) signals.

Capacitance
This is a measure of a capacitor's ability to store charge. A large capacitance means that
more charge can be stored. Capacitance is measured in farads, symbol F. However 1F is
very large, so prefixes are used to show the smaller values.

Three prefixes (multipliers) are used, µ (micro), n (nano) and p (pico):

• µ means 10-6 (millionth), so 1000000µF = 1F

• n means 10-9 (thousand-millionth), so 1000nF = 1µF
Colour Code
• p means 10-12 (million-millionth), so 1000pF = 1nF
Colour Number
Capacitor values can be very difficult to find because there are man Black 0
types of capacitor with different labeling systems! Brown 1
Red 2
Capacitor Colour Code Orange 3
Yellow 4
A colour code was used on polyester capacitors for many years. It is
Green 5
now obsolete, but of course there are many still around. The colours
Blue 6
should be read like the resistor code, the top three colour bands giving
Violet 7
the value in pF. Ignore the 4th band (tolerance) and 5th band (voltage
Grey 8
rating). For example: brown, black, orange means 10000pF = 10nF =
0.01µF. Note that there are no gaps between the colour bands, so 2 identical bands
actually appear as a wide band. For example: wide red, yellow means 220nF = 0.22µF.
Different types of capacitors

Electrolytic Capacitors Ceramic Capacitor

17
An electrolytic capacitor is a type of capacitor typically with a larger capacitance per
unit volume than other types, making them valuable in relatively high-current and low-
frequency electrical circuits. This is especially the case in power-supply filters, where
they store charge needed to moderate output voltage and current fluctuations, in rectifier
output, and especially in the absence of rechargeable batteries that can provide similar
low-frequency current capacity. They are also widely used as coupling capacitors in
circuits where AC should be conducted but DC should not; the large value of the
capacitance allows them to pass very low frequencies.

A Ceramic Capacitor is a capacitor constructed of alternating layers of metal and

ceramic, with the ceramic material acting as the dielectric. Depending on the dielectric,
whether Class 1 or Class 2, the degree of temperature/capacity dependence varies. A
ceramic capacitor often has (especially the class 2) high dissipation factor, high
frequency coefficient of dissipation. Capacity depends on applied voltage, and capacity
changes with aging. Ceramic capacitors are used extensively in common low-precision
coupling and filtering applications. They are suitable for high frequencies.

A ceramic capacitor is a two-terminal, non-polar device. The classical ceramic capacitor

is the "disk capacitor". This device pre-dates the transistor and was used extensively in
vacuum-tube equipment (e.g., radio receivers)

Diodes

Function

Diodes allow electricity to flow in only one direction. The arrow of the circuit symbol
shows the direction in which the current can flow. Diodes are the electrical version of a
valve and early diodes were actually called valves.

18
Example: Circuit symbol:

Forward Voltage Drop

Electricity uses up a little energy pushing its way through the diode, rather like a person
pushing through a door with a spring. This means that there is a small voltage across a
conducting diode, it is called the forward voltage drop and is about 0.7V for all normal
diodes which are made from silicon. The forward voltage drop of a diode is almost
constant whatever the current passing through the diode so they have a very steep
characteristic (current-voltage graph).

Reverse Voltage

When a reverse voltage is applied a perfect diode does not conduct, but all real diodes
leak a very tiny current of a few µA or less. This can be ignored in most circuits because
it will be very much smaller than the current flowing in the forward direction. However,
all diodes have a maximum reverse voltage (usually 50V or more) and if this is exceeded
the diode will fail and pass a large current in the reverse direction, this is called
breakdown.
Ordinary diodes can be split into two types: Signal diodes which pass small currents of
100mA or less and Rectifier diodes which can pass large currents. In addition there are
LEDs (which have their own page) and Zener diodes (at the bottom of this page).

19
Connecting and soldering

Diodes must be connected the correct way round, the diagram may be labelled a or + for
anode and k or - for cathode (yes, it really is k, not c, for cathode!). The cathode is
marked by a line painted on the body. Diodes are labelled with their code in small print;
you may need a magnifying glass to read this on small signal diodes! Small signal diodes
can be damaged by heat when soldering, but the risk is small unless you are using a
germanium diode (codes beginning OA...) in which case you should use a heat sink
clipped to the lead between the joint and the diode body. A standard crocodile clip can be
used as a heat sink.
Rectifier diodes are quite robust and no special precautions are needed for soldering
them.

Testing diodes

You can use a multimeter or a simple tester (battery, resistor and LED) to check that a
diode conducts in one direction but not the other. A lamp may be used to test a
rectifier diode, but do NOT use a lamp to test a signal diode because the large current
passed by the lamp will destroy the diode!

Signal diodes (small current)

Signal diodes are used to process information (electrical signals) in circuits, so they are
only required to pass small currents of up to 100mA. General purpose signal diodes such
as the 1N4148 are made from silicon and have a forward voltage drop of 0.7V.

Germanium diodes

20
 Such as the OA90 have a lower forward voltage drop of 0.2V and this makes them
suitable to use in radio circuits as detectors which extract the audio signal from the weak
radio signal.

For general use, where the size of the forward voltage drop is less important, silicon
diodes are better because they are less easily damaged by heat when soldering, they have
a lower resistance when conducting, and they have very low leakage currents when a
reverse voltage is applied. Rectifier diodes are used in power supplies to convert
alternating current (AC) to direct current (DC), a process called rectification. They are
also used elsewhere in circuits where a large current must pass through the diode. All
rectifier diodes are made from silicon and therefore have a forward voltage drop of 0.7V.
The table shows maximum current and maximum reverse voltage for some popular
rectifier diodes. The 1N4001 is suitable for most low voltage circuits with a current of
less than 1A.

Diode Maximum Maximum

Current Reverse
Voltage
1N4001 1A 50V
1N4002 1A 100V
1N4007 1A 1000V
1N5401 3A 100V
1N5408 3A 1000V

Bridge rectifiers

There are several ways of connecting diodes to make a rectifier to convert AC to

DC. The bridge rectifier is one of them and it is available in special packages containing
the four diodes required. Bridge rectifiers are rated by their maximum current and
maximum reverse voltage. They have four leads or terminals: the two DC outputs are
labeled + and -, the two AC inputs are labeled .

21
The diagram shows the operation of a bridge rectifier as it converts AC to DC. Notice
how alternate pairs of diodes conduct.

Transformer

A transformer makes use of Faraday's law and the ferromagnetic properties of an iron
core to efficiently raise or lower AC voltages. It of course cannot increase power so that
if the voltage is raised, the current is proportionally lowered and vice versa.

22
 Flywheel Energy Storage

Overview
A flywheel, in essence is a mechanical battery - simply a mass rotating about an axis.
Flywheels store energy mechanically in the form of kinetic energy. They take an
electrical input to accelerate the rotor up to speed by using the built-in motor, and return
the electrical energy by using this same motor as a generator. Flywheels are one of the
oldest and most common mechanical devises in existence. They may still prove to serve
us as an important component on tomorrow's vehicles and future energy needs. Flywheels
are one of the most promising technologies for replacing conventional lead acid batteries
as energy storage systems for a variety of applications, including automobiles,
economical rural electrification systems, and stand-alone, remote power units commonly
used in the telecommunications industry. Recent advances in the mechanical properties of
composites has rekindled interest in using the inertia of a spinning wheel to store energy.

In addition to energy density, flywheel energy storage systems (FES) also offer several
important advantages over chemical energy storage. The rate at which energy can be
exchanged into or out of the battery is limited only by the motor--generator design.
Therefore, it is possible to withdraw large amounts of energy in a far shorter time than
with traditional chemical batteries. Indeed, research into exploiting this property of FES
systems to get short, intense bursts of energy is ongoing with the most notable projects
being a magnetic tank gun and a fusion ignition system. Of course it is also possible to
quickly charge FES batteries making them desirable for application in electric cars where
the charge time could be dropped from a matter of hours to a matter of minutes.

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Advantages: Flywheels store energy very efficiently (high turn-around efficiency) and
have the potential for very high specific power compared with batteries. Flywheels have
very high output potential and relatively long life. Flywheels are relatively unaffected by
ambient temperature extremes.

Disadvantages: Current flywheels have low specific energy. There are safety concerns
associated with flywheels due to their high speed rotor and the possibility of it breaking
loose and releasing all of it's energy in an uncontrolled manner. Flywheels are a less
mature technology than chemical batteries, and the current cost is too high to make them
competitive in the market.

VOLTAGE REGULATOR

A Voltage Regulator (also called a "regulator") has only three legs and appears to be a
comparatively simple device but it is actually a very complex integrated circuit. A
regulator converts varying input voltage and produces a constant "regulated" output
voltage. Voltage regulators are available in a variety of outputs, typically 5 volts, 9 volts
and 12 volts. The last two digits in the name indicate the output voltage

Introduction

It is very easy to get stabilized voltage for ICs by using a three terminal voltage regulator.
The three terminal voltage regulator outputs stabilized voltage at a lower level than the
higher input voltage. A voltage regulator cannot put out higher voltage than the input

24
voltage. They are similar in appearance to a transistor. The 7800 series consists of three-
terminal positive voltage regulators.

These ICs are designed as fixed voltage regulators and with adequate heat sinking can
deliver output currents in excess of 1A. These ICs are used to provide +5 volts and +12
volts supply. Line regulation in these ICs is change in the output voltage for a change in
the input voltage. Load regulation is defined as the change in output voltage for a change
in load current. If there is any high voltage than 12 volt to 7812 it will convert to 12 V by
this IC. If there is any voltage less than 12 volt it allows passing it. FAN is used for
cooling the ICs.

There are two ICs 7805 and 7812 attached with the Intel-fan heat sink. From the base of
7805 IC we get the +5Volt Supply and from the base of 7812 IC we get the 12 Volt
supply. Two LED are also connected with the respective ICs in order to indicate there
proper working.
There are some voltage regulators
• LM7805 for + 5 volts
• LM7809 for +9 volts
• LM7812 for+12 volts
• LM7905 for-5 volts
• LM7909 for-9 volts
• LM7912 for-12 volts

25
 Fig. LM7805 Integrated Circuit Internal Schematic

The "LM78XX" series of voltage regulators are designed for positive input. For
applications requiring negative input the "LM79XX" series is used.

Fig. Symbol of voltage regulator Fig. A LM 7805 regulator

.

26
 Fig. The circuit diagram represents a typical use of a voltage regulator

Note: The LM7805 can reliably deliver 1 amp at a constant voltage.

Input Voltage:
As a general rule the input voltage should be limited to 2 to 3 volts above the output
voltage. The LM78XX series can handle up to 30 volts input, but the power difference
between the input voltage/current ratio and output voltage/current ratio appears as heat. If
the input voltage is unnecessarily high the regulator will get very hot. Unless sufficient
heat sinking is provided the regulator will shut down.

Parallel Port

Essentials
A first step in exploring the parallel port is learning how to get the most from a port with
your everyday applications and peripherals. Things to know include how to find,
configure, and install a port, how and when to use the new bidirectional, EPP, and ECP
modes, and how to handle a system with multiple parallel-port peripherals.

Defining the Ports

What is the parallel port? In the computer world, a port is a set of signal lines that the
microprocessor, or CPU, uses to exchange data with other components. Typical uses for

27
ports are communicating with printers, modems, keyboards, and displays, or just about
any component. Most computer ports are digital, where each signal, or bit, is 0 or 1. A
parallel port transfers multiple bits at once, while a serial port transfers a bit at a time
(though it may transfer in both directions at once).The ports explained here is about a
specific type of parallel port: the one found on just about every Pc. or IBM-compatible
personal computer. Along with the RS-232 serial port, the parallel port is a workhorse of
PC communications. On newer PCs, you may find other ports such as SCSI, USB, and
IrDA, but the parallel port remains popular because it's capable, flexible, and every PC
has one.
The term PC-compatible, or PC for short, refers to the IBM PC and any of the
many, many personal computers derived from it. From another angle, a PC is any
computer that can run Microsoft's MS-DOS operating system and whose expansion bus is
compatible with the ISA bus in the original IBM Pc. The category includes the PC, XT,
AT, PS/2, and most computers with 80x86, Pentium, and compatible CPUs. It does not
include the Macintosh, Amiga, or IBM mainframes, though these and other computer
types may have ports that are similar to the parallel port on the Pc. The original PC's
parallel port had eight outputs, five inputs, and four bidirectional lines.
These are enough for communicating with many types of peripherals. On many
newer PCs, the eight outputs can also serve as inputs, for faster communications with
scanners, drives, and other devices that send, data to the Pc.
The parallel port was designed as a printer port, and many of the-original names for the
port's signals (PaperEnd. AutoLineFeed) reflect that use. But these days, you can find all
kinds of things besides printers connected to the port. The term peripheral or peripheral
device is a catch-all category that includes printers, scanners, modems, and other devices
that connect to a Pc.

28
Accessing Ports

Windows, DOS, C, JAVA and Visual Basic provide several ways to read and write to
parallel ports. The most direct way is reading and writing to the port registers. Most
programming languages include this ability, or at least allow you to add it. Visual Basic
includes other options, including the Printer object, the Print Form method, and Open

29
LPT x. Windows also has API calls for accessing LPT ports, and 16-bit programs can use
BIOS and DOS software interrupts for LPT access. This chapter introduces the parallel
port's signals and ways of accessing them in the programs you write.
Parallel ports can be used to connect a host of popular computer peripherals:
• Printers
• Scanners
• CD burners
• External hard drives
• Iomega Zip removable drives
• Network adapters
• Tape backup drives

Pin Out Diagram Of Parallel Port

30
Parallel Port Basics

31
Parallel ports were originally developed by IBM as a way to connect a printer to our PC.
When IBM was in the process of designing the PC, the company wanted the computer to
work with printers offered by Centronics, a top printer manufacturer at the time. IBM
decided not to use the same port interface on the computer that Centronics used on the
printer.

Instead, IBM engineers coupled a 25-pin connector, DB-25, with a 36-pin Centronics
connector to create a special cable to connect the printer to the computer. Other printer
manufacturers ended up adopting the Centronics interface, making this strange hybrid
cable an unlikely de facto standard.
When a PC sends data to a printer or other device using a parallel port, it sends 8 bits of
data (1 byte) at a time. These 8 bits are transmitted parallel to each other, as opposed to
the same eight bits being transmitted serially (all in a single row) through a serial port.
The standard parallel port is capable of sending 50 to 100 kilobytes of data per second.
Let's take a closer look at what each pin does when used with a printer:
• Pin 1 carries the strobe signal. It maintains a level of between 2.8 and 5 volts, but drops
below 0.5 volts whenever the computer sends a byte of data. This drop in voltage tells
the printer that data is being sent.
Pins 2 through 9 are used to carry data. To indicate that a bit has a value of 1, a
charge of 5 volts is sent through the correct pin. No charge on a pin indicates avalue of
0. This is a simple but highly effective way to transmit digital information over an
analog cable in real-time.
• Pin 10 sends the acknowledge signal from the printer to the computer. Like Pin 1, it
maintains a charge and drops the voltage below 0.5 volts to let the computer know that
the data was received.
• If the printer is busy, it will charge Pin 11. Then, it will drop the voltage below

32
 0.5 volts to let the computer know it is ready to receive more data.
• The printer lets the computer know if it is out of paper by sending a charge on Pin 12.
• As long as the computer is receiving a charge on Pin 13, it knows that the device
is online.

• The computer sends an auto feed signal to the printer through Pin 14 using a 5-
volt charge.
• If the printer has any problems, it drops the voltage to less than 0.5 volts on Pin
15 to let the computer know that there is an error.
• Whenever a new print job is ready, the computer drops the charge on Pin 16 to
initialize the printer.
• Pin 17 is used by the computer to remotely take the printer offline. This is
accomplished by sending a charge to the printer and maintaining it as long as you
want the printer offline.
• Pins 18-25 are grounds and are used as a reference signal for the low (below 0.5
volts) charge.

Power Supply

33
Types of Power Supply

There are many types of power supply. Most are designed to convert high voltage AC
mains electricity to a suitable low voltage supply for electronics circuits and other
devices. A power supply can by broken down into a series of blocks, each of which
performs a particular function.

For example a 5V regulated supply:

Each of the blocks is described in more detail below:

• Transformer - steps down high voltage AC mains to low voltage AC.

• Rectifier - converts AC to DC, but the DC output is varying.
• Smoothing - smooths the DC from varying greatly to a small ripple.
• Regulator - eliminates ripple by setting DC output to a fixed voltage.

Power supplies made from these blocks are described below with a circuit diagram and a
graph of their output:

• Transformer only
• Transformer + Rectifier
• Transformer + Rectifier + Smoothing
• Transformer + Rectifier + Smoothing + Regulator

Dual Supplies

34
Some electronic circuits require a power supply with positive and negative outputs as
well as zero volts (0V). This is called a 'dual supply' because it is like two ordinary
supplies connected together as shown in the diagram.
Dual supplies have three outputs, for example a ±9V supply has +9V, 0V and -9V
outputs.

Transformer only

The low voltage AC output is suitable for lamps, heaters and special AC motors. It is not
suitable for electronic circuits unless they include a rectifier and a smoothing capacitor.

Transformer + Rectifier

The varying DC output is suitable for lamps, heaters and standard motors. It is not
suitable for electronic circuits unless they include a smoothing capacitor.

Transformer + Rectifier + Smoothing

35
The smooth DC output has a small ripple. It is suitable for most electronic circuits.

Transformer + Rectifier + Smoothing + Regulator

The regulated DC output is very smooth with no ripple. It is suitable for all electronic
circuits.

Transformer

36
 Circuit Symbol
Transformers convert AC electricity from one voltage to another with little loss of power.
Transformers work only with AC and this is one of the reasons why mains electricity is
AC.

Step-up transformers increase voltage, step-down transformers reduce voltage. Most

power supplies use a step-down transformer to reduce the dangerously high mains
voltage (230V in UK) to a safer low voltage.

The input coil is called the primary and the output coil is called the secondary. There is
no electrical connection between the two coils, instead they are linked by an alternating
magnetic field created in the soft-iron core of the transformer. The two lines in the middle
of the circuit symbol represent the core.

Transformers waste very little power so the power out is (almost) equal to the power in.
Note that as voltage is stepped down current is stepped up.

The ratio of the number of turns on each coil, called the turns ratio, determines the ratio
of the voltages. A step-down transformer has a large number of turns on its primary
(input) coil which is connected to the high voltage mains supply, and a small number of
turns on its secondary (output) coil to give a low output voltage.

Vp Np power out = power in

turns ratio = = and
Vs Ns Vs × Is = Vp × Ip
Vp = primary (input) voltage Vs = secondary (output) voltage
Np = number of turns on primary coil Ns = number of turns on secondary coil
Ip = primary (input) current Is = secondary (output) current

Rectifier

37
There are several ways of connecting diodes to make a rectifier to convert AC to DC. The
bridge rectifier is the most important and it produces full-wave varying DC. A full-wave
rectifier can also be made from just two diodes if a centre-tap transformer is used, but this
method is rarely used now that diodes are cheaper. A single diode can be used as a
rectifier but it only uses the positive (+) parts of the AC wave to produce half-wave
varyingDC.

Bridge rectifier
A bridge rectifier can be made using four individual diodes, but it is also available in
special packages containing the four diodes required. It is called a full-wave rectifier
because it uses all the AC wave (both positive and negative sections). 1.4V is used up in
the bridge rectifier because each diode uses 0.7V when conducting and there are always
two diodes conducting, as shown in the diagram below. Bridge rectifiers are rated by the
maximum current they can pass and the maximum reverse voltage they can withstand
(this must be at least three times the supply RMS voltage so the rectifier can withstand
the peak voltages). Please see the Diodes page for more details, including pictures of
bridge rectifiers.

Bridge rectifier:Alternate pairs of diodes Output: full-wave varying DC

conduct, changing over the connections (using all the AC wave)
so the alternating directions of AC are
converted to the one direction of DC.

Single diode rectifier

A single diode can be used as a rectifier but this produces half-wave varying DC which
has gaps when the AC is negative. It is hard to smooth this sufficiently well to supply

38
electronic circuits unless they require a very small current so the smoothing capacitor
does not significantly discharge during the gaps. Please see the Diodes page for some
examples of rectifier diodes.

Output: half-wave varying DC

Single diode rectifier
(using only half the AC wave)

Smoothing

Smoothing is performed by a large value electrolytic capacitor connected across the DC

supply to act as a reservoir, supplying current to the output when the varying DC voltage
from the rectifier is falling. The diagram shows the unsmoothed varying DC (dotted line)
and the smoothed DC (solid line). The capacitor charges quickly near the peak of the
varying DC, and then discharges as it supplies current to the output.

39
Note that smoothing significantly increases the average DC voltage to almost the peak
value (1.4 × RMS value). For example 6V RMS AC is rectified to full wave DC of about
4.6V RMS (1.4V is lost in the bridge rectifier), with smoothing this increases to almost
the peak value giving 1.4 × 4.6 = 6.4V smooth DC.

Smoothing is not perfect due to the capacitor voltage falling a little as it discharges, 5 ×
giving a small ripple voltage. For many circuits a ripple which is 10% of the supply Io
voltage is satisfactory and the equation below gives the required value for the
smoothing capacitor. A larger capacitor will give less ripple. The capacitor value Vs
must be doubled when smoothing half-wave DC. Smoothing capacitor for 10% × f
ripple, C =

C = smoothing capacitance in farads (F)

Io = output current from the supply in amps (A)
Vs = supply voltage in volts (V), this is the peak value of the unsmoothed DC
f = frequency of the AC supply in hertz (Hz), 50Hz in the UK

Regulator

Voltage regulator ICs are available with fixed (typically

5, 12 and 15V) or variable output voltages. They are
also rated by the maximum current they can pass.
Negative voltage regulators are available, mainly for use
in dual supplies. Most regulators include some

Voltage Regulator

40
automatic protection from excessive current ('overload protection') and overheating
('thermal protection').

Many of the fixed voltage regulator ICs have 3 leads and look like power transistors, such
as the 7805 +5V 1A regulator shown on the right. They include a hole for attaching a
heatsink if necessary.

CIRCUIT DESIGN AND DISCRIPTION

In this project following circuits are used.

• Power supply circuit
• Transmitter circuit
• Receiver circuit

POWER SUPPLY CIRCUIT

A +12V DC supply is needed for our circuit for this we use regulated power supply. An
ideal regulated power supply is an electronic circuit designed to provide a predetermined
DC voltage which is independent of current drawn, temperature and any variation in line .
This circuit comprise of a transformer, a bridge rectifier, a ∏ filter and a regulator IC
7812. Also for testing purpose a 5 volt DC , regulated power supply is also made by
using regulator IC 7805 .

LED

41
 7812
C1
C1 C1
C3
C1

I/P C1 R

7805

C2 C2
C3 C1
R

Fig power supply circuit

Values of components are:-
C1= 0.01µF C2 = 2200 µF, 35 V C3 = 470 µF, 35 V
R = 330 Ω I/P = 220 V AC
All diodes are 1N4007

The transformer is used to convert 220 V AC to 12 V AC supply, a bridge rectifier circuit

consisting four IN4770 diode used to convert the AC supply to pulsating DC supply. A
capacitor C1 in parallel to each diode of bridge circuit is used for spike control. A п filter
is used to filter out DC component from pulsating DC supply. The filter circuit allowed
only DC component to pass through it at the output. A diode and a capacitor parallel to
the choke of filter is used to short the circuit. Regulator IC is used to provide a regulated
12V DC supply. A capacitor between it’s input terminal and common terminal is used for
protection against black out and a capacitor between it’s output terminal and common
terminal is used for spike control.
To indicate that supply is available at the output terminal or not a LED in series with a
resistance is

VISUAL BASIC

42
Why We use Visual Basic?

Visual Basic provides a convenient method for building user interfaces; it can interface
with code written in the c for efficiency. Other graphical user (GUI) is not as good as V.B
is. Through V.B user can draw pictures, buttons, text boxes and other user interface
items. User adds little snippets of code to handle the user interaction, user adds the
initialization code as the last step, and user can add more complex function if he wants
but not many.

Features of Visual Basic

 Compiled and interpreted
 Object Oriented.
 Robust and secure.
 Distributed.
 Familiar, small and simple.

The Visual Basic.

The Visual Basic has three distinct states: Design, Run, and Debug. The
Current state appears in Visual Basic is title bar. This chapter concentrates on the Design
state. We’ll cover the Debug state later in the book. (In the Run state, Visual Basic is in
the background while your program runs.) It’s the Design state that’s Become complex
over the years, and we’ll lay it bare in this chapter

Visual Basic is composed of these parts:

43
“The menu bar
“The toolbar
“The Project Explorer
“The Properties window
“The Form Layout window
“The toolbox
“Form designers
“Code windows

The Menu Bar

The menu bar presents the Visual Basic menus. Here’s a list of those menus and
What they do:
“File handling and printing; also used to make EXE files
“Edit Standard editing functions, undo, and searches
“View Displays or hides windows and toolbars
“Project Sets project properties, adds/removes forms and modules, and
Adds/removes references and components
“Format Aligns or sizes controls
“Debug Starts/stops debugging and stepping through programs
“Run Starts a program, or compiles and starts it
“Tools Adds procedures, starts the Menu Editor, sets IDE options
“Add Ins_Add-in manager, lists add-ins like Application Wizard and API Viewer
“Window Arranges or selects open windows
“Help Handles Help and the about box

The Toolbar

This toolbar contains buttons matching popular menu items

A form designer and code window.

44
Form designers are really just windows in which a particular form appears. You can place
controls into a form simply by drawing them after clicking the corresponding control’s
tool in the toolbox.
Code windows are similarly easy to understand: you just place the code you want to
attach to an object in the code window (to open an object’s code in the code
window, just double-click that object). There are two drop-down list boxes at the
top of the code window: the left list lets you select the object to add code to, and the
right list lets you select the procedure to add

Managing Forms In Visual Basic

Setting Title Bar Text

Adding/Removing Min/Max Buttons and Setting a Window’s Border
Adding Toolbars to Forms
Adding Status Bars to Forms
Referring To the Current Form
Redrawing Form Contents
Setting Control Tab Order
Moving and Sizing Controls from Code
Showing and Hiding Controls in a Form
Measurements in Forms
Working with Multiple Forms
Loading, Showing, And Hiding Forms
Setting the Startup Form
Creating Forms in Code
Using the Multiple Document Interface
Arranging MDI Child Windows
Opening New MDI Child Windows

The Parts of a Form

45
Forms are the names for windows in Visual Basic (originally, you called windows Under
design forms, and the actual result when running a window, but common Usage has
named both forms now), and you add controls to forms in the Integrated Development
Environment. Wearer designing a form in the Visual Basic IDE and you can see several
aspects of forms there. At the top of the form is the title bar, which displays The form’s
title; here that is just Form1. At right in the title bar is the control box, including the
minimizing/maximizing buttons and the close button. These are Controls the user takes
for granted in most windows, although we’ll see they are Inappropriate in others (such as
dialog boxes). A form under design. Under the title bar comes the menu bar, if there is
one. , the form has one menu: the File menu.
Under the menu bar, forms can have toolbars, as you see in the IDE itself.
The main area of a form the area where everything takes place is called the client Area. In
general, Visual Basic code works with controls in the client area and leaves The rest of
the form to Visual Basic (in fact, the client area is itself a window). In We added a
control a command button to the form.
Finally, the whole form is surrounded by a border, and there are several types of
Borders that you can use.

The Parts of an MDI Form

Besides standard forms, Visual Basic also supports MDI forms. A MDI form

A MDI form.

You can see that an MDI form looks much like a standard form, with one major
difference, of course the client area of an MDI form acts like a kind of corral for other
forms. That is, an MDI form can display MDI child forms in it,
Which is how the multiple document interfaces works? , we have two documents open in
the MDI form that’s the third type of form you can have in Visual Basic_MDI child
forms.
These forms appear in MDI child windows, but otherwise are very similar to standard
forms those, then, are the three types of forms available to us in

46
Visual Basic: standard forms, MDI forms, and MDI child forms. We’ll work with all of
them in this Chapter. In fact, we are ready to start getting into the details now as we turn
to the Immediate Solutions section of this chapter.

Immediate Solutions

Setting Title Bar Text

You’ve submitted your project to the user-testing stage and feel smug. What could go
wrong? Suddenly the phone rings seems they don’t like the title in the program’s
Title bar: Project1.
This stymies a lot of Visual Basic programmers, because the text in the title
Bar Seems like something that Windows itself manages, not the program. In fact, it’s up
To the program, and setting the text in the title bar couldn’t be easier. At design time, you
just change the form’s Caption property. Setting a form’s caption.
You can also set the Caption property at runtime in code like this:
Private Sub Command1_Click ()
Me. Caption = "Hello from Visual Basic!"
End Sub

Adding/Removing Min/Max Buttons and Setting a Window’s Border

Forms usually come with minimizing and maximizing buttons, as well as a close Box at
the upper right. However, that’s not appropriate in all cases.
To remove these buttons, you can set the form’s Control Box property to False, as default

Removing the control box from a form

.
TIP: If you are thinking of designing a dialog box, take a look at _Creating Dialog
Boxes_ later in this chapter besides removing the control box, you should also set the
dialog’s border correctly, ads OK and Cancel buttons, and take care of a few more
considerations. You can also set what buttons are in a form by setting its border type. For

47
example, If you set the border style to a fixed type, the minimizing and maximizing
buttons Will disappear.

Setting a Form’s Border

You set a form’s border style with its Border Style property; here are the possible
Values for that property:
“0_None
“1_Fixed Single
“2_Sizable
“3_Fixed Dialog
“4_Fixed Tool window
“5_Sizable Tool window

Adding Toolbars to Forms

For some reason, adding toolbars to forms isn’t covered in a lot of Visual Basic books.
However, users have come to expect toolbars in more complex programs, and we’ll see
how to add them here. Toolbars provide Buttons that correspond to menu items and give
the user an easy way to select the commands those items

VISUAL BASIC OBJECTS

Visual Basic programs display a Windows style screen (called a form) with boxes into
which Users type (and edit) information and buttons that they click to initiate actions.
The boxes and Buttons are referred to as controls. Forms and controls are called objects.
In this section, we Examine forms and four of the most useful Visual Basic controls.

The Menu bar of the Visual Basic screen displays the commands you use to work with
Visual Basic. Some of the menus, like File, Edit, View, and Window, are common to
most Windows applications. Others, such as Project, Format, and Debug, provide

48
commands specificto programming in Visual Basic. The Toolbar is a collection of icons
that carry out standard operations when clicked. For Example, the fifth icon, which looks
like a diskette, can be used to save the current program To a disk. To reveal the function
of a Toolbar icon, position the mouse pointer over the icon for a few seconds. The large
stippled Form window, or form for short, becomes a Windows window when A program
is executed. Most information displayed by the program appears on the form. The
Information usually is displayed in controls that have been placed on the form. The Form
Layout window allows you to position the location of the form at run time relative to the
Entire screen using a small graphical representation of the screen.
Properties window is used to change how objects look and react.
The icons in the Toolbox represent controls that can be placed on the form. The four
Controls discussed in this section are text boxes, labels, command buttons, and picture
boxes.
Text boxes: You use a text box primarily to get information, referred to as input, from the
User.
Labels: You place a label to the left of a text box to tell the user what type of information
to enter into the text box. You also use labels to display output.
Command buttons: The user clicks a command button to initiate an action.
Picture boxes: You use a picture box to display text or graphics output.

CODING

49
Dim a As Integer
Dim p As Integer
Dim q As Integer
Dim b As Integer
Private Sub Command1_Click()
Call PortOut(888, 0)
Unload Me
End Sub
Private Sub Form_Load()
a=1
b=1
Call PortOut(&H37A, 192)
Call PortOut(888, 0)
End Sub
Private Sub Timer1_Timer()
p = PortIn(&H379)
q = PortIn(&H378)
Text1.Text = p
Text2.Text = q
If p = 56 Then
a=1
Call PortOut(888, 2)
b=2
Text3.ForeColor = &HFF&
Text3.Text = "Moving Clockwise"
End If
If p = 88 Then
a=1
Call PortOut(888, 0)
b=0

50
Text3.ForeColor = &HFF00&
Text3.Text = "Center Aligned"
End If
If p = 248 Then
a=1
Call PortOut(888, 1)
b=1
Text3.ForeColor = &HFF0000
Text3.Text = "Moving Anti-Clockwise"
End If
If p = 120 Then
Call PortOut(888, b)
a=a+1
End If
If a = 100 Then
a=0
b=b+1
If b = 3 Then
b=1
End If
End If
End Sub

51
CONCLUSION

In our project balancing is achieved by laser mesh where flap or bot can balance in 2 axis
where 3 laser meshes give respond whenever flap obstacle been detected. Respect to this
in our algorithm program will respond to motor where it is rotate clockwise / anti-
clockwise. If there any obstacle still lying in the path of laser mesh it will give mal-
function that generate an error message. This project contain motor driving circuit, power
supply with regulated output, Laser transmitter and receptor circuit & mechanical section
contains ball bearings, Acrylic sheet & few of nut Bolts.
Its some of the global applications are Sky high building balancing and Precision
balancing system and is expected to be a technology to b used globally in future.
The field of robotics has been around nearly as long as Artificial Intelligence - but the
field has made little progress. This is only natural, since the field not only attempts to
conquer intelligence, but also the body that embodies it - a formidable task indeed!
Robotics, though, is not just about humanoid robots; but also about their commercial
applications in manufacturing, safety and hundreds of other fields.

52
REFERENCES

1. Richard Alami, Rachid Alami, Raja Chatila, Hajime Asama, “Distributed Autonomous
Robotic Systems 6”, Published by Springer, 2007
2. “Designing Autonomous Mobile Robots: Inside the Mind of an Intelligent Machine”
by John .M. Holland, Newnes Pres, 2003.
3. “Introduction to Autonomous Mobile Robots” by Roland Siegwart and Illah R.
Nourbakhsh., MIT Press, 2004.
4. “Boylestad and Nashelsky, “Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory”, Pearson
Education, Eighth Edition.
5. “ Microsoft Visual Basic 6.0 developer's workshop” by John Clark Craig, Jeff Webb
Edition: 5, published by Wombat Technology, 1998.
6. “ Visual Basic 6 from the Ground Up” by Gary Cornell published by McGraw-Hill
Professional, 1998.
7. “Beginning Visual Basic 6 Database Programming” by John Connell ,Edition: 2,
published by Apress, 2003

53
APPENDIX

L293D
QUADRUPLE HALF-H DRIVERS

 Featuring Unitrode L293 and L293D

Products Now From Texas Instruments
 Wide Supply-Voltage Range: 4.5 V to 36 V
 Separate Input-Logic Supply
 Internal ESD Protection
 Thermal Shutdown
 High-Noise-Immunity Inputs
 Functional Replacements for SGS L293 and
SGS L293D
 Output Current 1 A Per Channel
(600 mA for L293D)
 Peak Output Current 2 A Per Channel
(1.2 A for L293D)
 Output Clamp Diodes for Inductive
Transient Suppression (L293D)

Description
The L293 and L293D are quadruple high-current half-H drivers. The L293 is designed to
provide bidirectional drive currents of up to 1 A at voltages from 4.5 V to 36 V. The
L293D is designed to provide bidirectional drive currents of up to 600-mA at voltages
from 4.5 V to 36 V. Both devices are designed to drive inductive loads such as relays,
solenoids, dc and bipolar stepping motors, as well as other high-current/high-voltage
loads in positive-supply applications. All inputs are TTL compatible. Each output is a
complete totem-pole drive circuit, with a Darlington transistor sink and a pseudo-
Darlington source. Drivers are enabled in pairs, with drivers 1 and 2 enabled by 1,2EN
and drivers 3 and 4 enabled by 3,4EN. When an enable input is high, the associated

54
drivers are enabled and their outputs are active and in phase with their inputs. When the
enable input is low, those drivers are disabled and their outputs are off and in the high-
impedance state. With the proper data inputs, each pair of drivers forms a full-H (or
bridge) reversible drive suitable for solenoid or motor applications. On the L293, external
high-speed output clamp diodes should be used for inductive transient suppression. A
VCC1 terminal, separate from VCC2, is provided for the logic inputs to minimize device
power dissipation. The L293and L293D are characterized for operation from 0°C to
70°C.

Block Diagram

NOTE: Output diodes are internal in L293D.

55
Logic Diagram

Schematics of Inputs and Outputs (L293D)

56
57
LM324
QUADRUPLE OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER
• 2-kV ESD Protection (K-Suffix Devices)
• Wide Supply Range:
-Single Supply . . . 3 V to 32 V
(26 V for LM2902)
or Dual Supplies . . . 1.5 V to 16 V
-(13 V for LM2902)
• Low Supply-Current Drain Independent of
Supply Voltage . . . 0.8 mA Typ
• Common-Mode Input Voltage Range
Includes Ground, Allowing Direct Sensing
Near Ground
• Low Input Bias and Offset Parameters:
-Input Offset Voltage . . . 3 mV Typ
A Versions . . . 2 mV Typ
-Input Offset Current . . . 2 nA Typ
-Input Bias Current . . . 20 nA Typ
A Versions . . . 15 nA Typ
• Differential Input Voltage Range Equal to
Maximum-Rated Supply Voltage . . . 32 V
(26 V for LM2902)
• Open-Loop Differential Voltage
Amplification . . . 100 V/mV Typ
• Internal Frequency Compensation

58
Description/Ordering Information
These devices consist of four independent high-gain frequency-compensated operational
amplifiers that are designed specifically to operate from a single supply over a wide range
of voltages. Operation from split supplies also is possible if the difference between the
two supplies is 3 V to 32 V (3 V to 26 V for the LM2902), and VCC is at least 1.5 V
more positive than the input common-mode voltage. The low supply-current drain is
independent of the magnitude of the supply voltage. Applications include transducer
amplifiers, dc amplification blocks, and all the conventional operational-amplifier circuits
that now can be more easily implemented in single-supply-voltage systems. For example,
the LM124 can be operated directly from the standard 5-V supply that is used in digital
systems and easily provides the required interface electronics without requiring additional
±15-V supplies.

59
symbol (each amplifier)

60
61
62
63
64
65
66
ULN 2003
High Voltage, High Current, Darlington Amplifiers

67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80