Ventajas e Inconvenientes Sistemas de Monitorización Puentes

Smart Maintenance, Analysis
and Remediation of
Transport Infrastructure
Deliverable 1.1 Selection of Sensors to be

used at SMARTRAIL test sites
Project funded by the EU 7th Framework Programme under call

SST.2011.5.2-6 Cost-effective improvement of rail transport
infrastructure. Grant agreement no: 285683
(c) The SMARTRAIL Consortium 2012
Project Information
Project Duration:
01/09/2011 31/08/2014
Project Coordinator:
Dr. Kenneth Gavin (kenneth.gavin@ucd.ie)
School of Civil, Structural and Envrionmental Engineering
University College Dublin
Newstead Building
Belfield,
Dublin 4
Ireland
SMARTRAILSmart maintenance analysis and remediation of transport infrastructure
Document information
Version
Date
Action
st
Partner
01
22.05.2012
1 draft
UCD
02
26.11.2012
Final
UCD
Title:
SMARTRAIL DEL 1.1 Specification of Sensors to be used at SMART

Rail test sites
Authors:
The SMARTRAIL Consortium
Reviewer:
Kenneth Gavin (UCD)
Copyright:
Copyright 2011 2014. The SMARTRAIL Consortium
This document and the information contained herein may not be copied, used or
disclosed in whole or part except with the prior written permission of the partners of
the SMARTRAIL Consortium. The copyright and foregoing restriction on copying,
use and disclosure extend to all media in which this information may be embodied,
including magnetic storage, computer print-out, visual display, etc.
The information included in this document is correct to the best of the authors
knowledge. However, the document is supplied without liability for errors and
omissions.
All rights reserved.
Contents
1
Background .............................................................................................................. 7
Bridge Scour ............................................................................................................. 9
2.1
Introduction............................................................................................... 9
2.2
Instrumentation used to monitor bridge scour ........................................... 9
2.3
Single use Buried Devices / Float-Out Devices ............................................ 9
2.4
Pulse / Radar Devices:.............................................................................. 12
2.5
Piezo-electric Film Sensor Devices............................................................ 15
2.6
Buried / Driven Rods: ............................................................................... 15
2.7
Superstructure Monitoring ...................................................................... 19
2.8
Sound Wave Monitoring .......................................................................... 21
2.9
Electrical Conductivity Devices ................................................................. 23
2.10
Discussion on Scour Monitoring Equipment ............................................. 24
2.11
Instrumentation of choice for Scour ......................................................... 25
Slope Monitoring ................................................................................................... 26

3.1
Introduction............................................................................................. 26
3.2
Slope Monitoring Instrumentation ........................................................... 26
3.3
Positive Pore Water Pressures ................................................................. 33
3.4
Negative Pore Water Pressures................................................................ 35
3.5
Soil Moisture ........................................................................................... 38
3.6
Summary ................................................................................................. 39
Laboratory Study ................................................................................................... 40

4.1
Overview ................................................................................................. 40
4.2
Use of Accelerometers to investigate bridge scour ................................... 40
4.3
Experimental Apparatus........................................................................... 42
4.4
EXPERIMENTAL METHODOLOGY .............................................................. 47
4.5
Results ..................................................................................................... 49
4.6
Discussion ................................................................................................ 52
4.7
5
Conclusions and Recommendations ......................................................... 53
Laboratory measurement of soil suction ............................................................... 54

5.1
Background.............................................................................................. 54
5.2
Experimental Procedure .......................................................................... 55
5.3
Test Results ............................................................................................. 58
5.4
Discussion ................................................................................................ 60
5.5
Summary ................................................................................................. 61
Conclusions ............................................................................................................ 62
References ............................................................................................................. 63
Executive Summary
The vision of SMART Rail is to provide a framework for infrastructure operators to ensure the
safe, reliable and efficient operation of ageing European railway networks. This will be achieved
through a holistic approach which will consider input from state of the art inspection,
assessment and remediation techniques, whereby this data will be used to consider what if
scenarios using whole life cycle cost models. Key to achieving the cost-effective monitoring of
complex infrastructure elements such as bridges and embankments will be the achievement of
a step-change in monitoring techniques. The development or relatively low-cost and high
precision sensors offers the opportunity to provide a real-time monitoring of infrastructure.
Climate change is resulting in increased scour of bridges and rainfall-induced landslides on
transport networks. This report discusses the methods available to monitor bridge scour and
slope stability. In keeping with the theme of cost-effective methods which can deliver rapid and
continual feedback on the performance of structures, the use of accelerometers for bridge scour
monitoring and water content and suction probes for slope stability is favoured for full-scale trial
testing in the latter stages of the project. Initial performance of the chosen instruments in
laboratory testing is briefly presented.
Background
Several European countries boast highly advanced rail networks whereby their primary area of
concern in relation to infrastructure performance is related to achieving ever higher network
speeds. In several new EU countries, accession states, and some long-term EU members, an
historic lack of investment in rail infrastructure had resulted in a situation whereby some
elements of the network are in very poor condition. In these countries, parts of the rail
infrastructure would be deemed to have reached the end of its useful life when analysed using
conventional assessment methods. Climate change effects are further increasing the burden on
ageing transport networks with the incidence of infrastructure failure increasing.
Irish railways were amongst the first constructed in Europe, and the 180 m span Malahide
viaduct which carries the Dublin-Belfast line just North of Dublin is one of the oldest railway
viaducts in the world. In August 2009, following reports of unusual flow patterns at one of the
piers, a visual inspection was performed and no unusual distress to the structure was noted.
However, within days of this inspection the pier collapsed as a local passenger train crossed the
viaduct and the Belfast-Dublin express service approached. The collapse, which was caused by
scour of the foundations (which was not visible to the inspector) caused the line to be closed for
seven months and resulted in a repair bill in the region of 4 million.
Visual inspection is one of the most widely used techniques when monitoring the current state of
railway infrastructure. The benefits of such an approach are obvious in that trained inspectors
and engineers develop an intimate knowledge of the visual condition of existing infrastructure
and in some cases (e.g. where drainage channels have become blocked) can organise fast
remedial works. A further advantage is its cost effectiveness, as the inspectors are typically
employees of the network operator. On the other hand, disadvantages of visual inspections
include:
(i)
safety concerns visual inspections involve staff walking on railway lines that are usually
live,
(ii)
Lack of continuity when experienced staff retire, their knowledge is lost. This was
identified as a key significant factor during the public enquiry into the Malahide Viaduct
failure in Ireland.
(iii) A visual inspection of a slope, tunnel or bridge will not reveal whether some deep-seated
mechanism such as a weak soil stratum, reinforcement corrosion in concrete, or scour
beneath a foundation in a river is likely to result in imminent catastrophic failure.
For the above reasons, it is vital that reliable methods of providing real-time information on
critical sections of infrastructure are developed.
In recent years, concentrated research efforts have led to advances in embedded sensor
technology. The Smart Rail project proposes to:
(i)
Use modern ICT networks to collect data from embedded sensor networks and use
said data to populate statisticals for structural health monitoring models.
(ii)
Recognise that rainfall induced landslides result from an infiltration of water into
slopes, causing the water content to increase and the soils strength and stiffness to
reduce. The use of remotely monitored sensors to measure water content variations
would provide critical data to network operators and act as an early warning system
for slope failures. A full-scale experiment is planned on the Irish Rail network, where
an embankment carrying a section of rail line will be instrumented and subjected to
artificial rainfall to induce a slope failure.
(iii)
Investigate Techniques to measure a bridges response to scour. Modern

instrumentation can provide both direct and in-direct measurements of scour. The
use of low-cost instrumentation which can be deployed on a network wide basis and
provide for real-time, indirect measurement of scouring will be considered.
(iv)
Develop a bridge weigh-in-motion system for railway bridges which will be capable
of separating the dynamic responses of the structure from the train vibration, thus
having the ability to detect damage in the bridge.
(v)
Use Corrosion Resistant Sensors (CRS). CRS have been developed for monitoring
reinforcement corrosion in road bridges. CRS sensors will be used for the first time
on rail bridges within the Smart Rail project.
This report focuses on the choice of instrumentation, and where appropriate, the initial
laboratory calibration of the instrumentation chosen for the demonstration projects on
bridge scour and slope stability as set out above.
2
2.1
Bridge Scour
Introduction
The analysis and monitoring of bridge scour has gained considerable interest in recent
years. Adverse hydraulic action, including scour, has been deemed responsible for over
53% of bridge failures in the United States between 1989 and 2000 (Wardhana &
Hadipriono, 2003). Due to the current economic climate, the conservation and maintenance
of existing infrastructure in order to prolong its lifespan has become increasingly important.
There are three primary ways of combating the effects of scour. These are the use of
structural, hydraulic and monitoring countermeasures. Monitoring is usually the least
expensive of the three options (Briaud et al., 2011). Within this branch of countermeasures,
there are several options available: Visual Monitoring, Portable Instrumentation and Fixed
Instrumentation. There is a myriad of existing instrumentation available that falls under the
headings of portable and fixed instrumentation. These aim to monitor the progress of scour
during floods, with varying levels of success. In this section, the available instrumentation is
compared in terms of its successful deployment in detecting and monitoring scour.
2.2
Instrumentation used to monitor bridge scour
Many of the current types of instrumentation in use require underwater installations. These
can be both costly and dangerous. Several instrument types exist and they are grouped
according to the methods they use to monitor the occurrence of scour around bridge piers
and abutments. The most novel approaches involve using the bridge superstructure to
monitor changes induced by adverse scouring of the foundations. All of these methods are
summarised below.
2.3
Single use Buried Devices / Float-Out Devices
These devices are installed into the ground, near the pier or abutment of interest. They can
be buried at multiple depths. Signals are sent to data acquisition systems informing the user
as to their status, be it in position or floated out. Once the device floats out of the ground, it
indicates that the depth of scour has reached this level and the device must be re-installed
once more.
Figure 1 Positioning Float-Out Devices (Monitoring Scour Critical Bridges,

A Synthesis of Highway Practice, n.d.)
2.3.1
Tethered Buried Switch
This device is buried into the soil at the location of interest for scour measurement. It is a
type of float-out device that is buried vertically into the streambed. It can be hard-wired to a
data acquisition system. When the rod changes from a vertical orientation to a horizontal
one, (as would occur during the float-out stage) an electrical switch triggers. This type of
instrument sends out three discrete values to the data acquisition system 1, 2 and 3. If the
rod is vertical, it emits a signal of 1 at a rate corresponding to the chosen sampling rate the
user specifies. A value of 2 corresponds to scour levels reaching the depth of embedment
and floating out has occurred. A value of 3 indicates that the sensor is damaged and needs
to be repaired.
Advantages
The system is a reliable indicator of
scour reaching a certain level at a
given location.
The system also tells you if a fault has
occurred by transmitting a default
value of 3.
Disadvantages
It has a single use and requires reinstallation once it has floated out.
It is susceptible to damage by debris
since it is hard-wired directly to the
data logger device.
10
Figure 2 Tethered Buried Switch (TBS) (Briaud et al., 2011)
2.3.2
Float-Out Device
A float-out device is a cylindrical device with typical dimensions of 11.43cm in diameter and
300cm in length. These devices may be installed in the streambed at various locations of
interest near abutments and bridge piers. They are installed in a vertical orientation and
may be installed at various depths. They become activated when scour levels reach the
upper level of the sensor and the senor floats out of position. An on-board trigger
mechanism sends a signal to a data acquisition system that then alerts the user when the
device has floated out of the installed position. This is indicated by its orientation changing
from vertical to horizontal.
Advantages
Disadvantages
They provide an easy method of The system is costly, both to purchase

detecting if scour has reached the and to install.
datum of the sensor, thus is reliable in
The sensor must be reset after each
this regard.
float-out event, making it impractical for
They are a self-contained unit and thus remote sensing requirements.
are mechanically simple.
It only works if the scour hole reaches
the level of the sensor and will only work
at the location where the sensor is
placed, which may not be the exact
location of maximum scour occurrence.
They have a limited battery life which is
in the region of seven years, thus they
require re-installation after this time has
elapsed.
11
Figure 3 Typical Float-Out Device (Monitoring Scour Critical Bridges, A

Synthesis of Highway Practice, n.d.)
2.4
Pulse / Radar Devices:
These devices utilize radar signals or electromagnetic pulses to determine changes in

material properties that occur when a signal is sent through a changing medium as would
occur at a water-sediment interface. These signals henceforth determine the depth of a
scour hole, at a given time.
2.4.1
Time-Domain Reflectometry
This method was originally developed by electrical engineers interested in detecting

discontinuities in power and communication transmission lines. It works on the principle of
measuring changes in the dielectric permittivity constants of various materials. Measuring
probes are installed into the streambed at the location of scour interest. A fast rising step
impulse is sent down a tube, buried into the ground. When the wave reaches an area where
the dielectric permittivity changes, a portion of the energy is reflected to the receiver.
Dielectric permittivity properties are different for air, water and sediment/ Hence, a
geophysical profile may be established that will show the progressive depths of scour at the
particular location of interest (Hussein, 2012).
12
Advantages
Disadvantages
Relatively full images may be obtained It requires that long probes be installed
that show the air/water interface and the at bridge piers, which is expensive and
water/sediment interface.
time consuming as well as requiring
underwater engineering works.
A good geophysical profile is thus
established
showing
clearly
the
existence and depth of scour.
Figure 4 Time-Domain Reflectometer (Briaud et al., 2011)
2.4.2
Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR)
A GPR transmitter is floated out in a river to the location of interest for obtaining the depth
of a scour hole. An electromagnetic pulse is then sent through the water and the waves are
partially reflected as they pass through the different media. The waves are of a very high
frequency (in the range of MHz). It works on a very similar principle to the previous Time
Domain Reflectometry (TDR) approach, whereby changes in the dielectric properties are
identified as the waves reflect at different stages. The reflected signal is recorded into the
receiver and an overall geophysical map may be generated, showing clearly the submerged
scour hole and its depth.
13
Advantages
Disadvantages
The method is easy to implement and Requires manual use and must be
can be relatively successful.
floated into position.
The method can produce an accurate
model of the channel bottom (to depths
of the order of 10m) and subterranean
lithological features with thicknesses in
the region of 0.3m. A 200 MHz
intermediate frequency can undertake
this.
The method is non-invasive and can be
moved rapidly across the channel
surface to obtain the images required for
analysis.
It is dangerous to undertake these

activities during a flood scenario.
The equipment is relatively expensive.
The device only gives scour information
at the time the method is employed and
is not suitable for the purpose of
continuous monitoring.
The device does not need to be

physically coupled to the water surface
and can be operated remotely.
Profiles can be extended across
emerged sandbars and onto the shore.
Figure 5 Typical GPR Profile (Anderson, 2007)
14
2.5
Piezo-electric Film Sensor Devices
These types of sensors utilize strain deformations to generate an electrical signal, which
can alert the person monitoring that scour levels have reached a certain level. An array
of sensors can be placed onto plates that are buried. When buried, no bending
deformation occurs. When exposed to flow, deformation occurs and a signal is sent to a
data-logger to alert that scour levels have reached the particular level of the sensor.
2.5.1 Fibre Optic Sensors using Fibre Bragg Grating (FBG)

methods
These fibre optic sensors are composed of Fibre Bragg Grating (FBG) elements that
can monitor bridge scour in real-time. Optical fibres are useful in that they are reliable
against corrosion, long term degradation and general environmental damage. Several
Fibre Bragg Grating sensors can be arranged linearly along an optical fibre. This can
then be mounted onto a cantilever plate, and installed at different levels of a steel pipe
fixed to a pier or abutment. The system works on the principle of picking up strain
deformation that will occur in the plate if it becomes exposed to the impulse force from
flowing water. Only plate elements exposed to the flow will bend, hence an accurate
measurement of scour levels can be derived from this.
Advantages
Disadvantages
Method is reliable and relatively cheap The resolution is only as good as its
to implement.
number of sensors.
Method can be tailored to particular It may be highly sensitive to vibrations of
accuracy levels required by augmenting the support pipe due to the flowing water
the number of sensors placed onto the or traffic excitation.
optical fibre.
For this reason, reviewers have declared
little difference being obtained in some
cases between buried and exposed
sensors. (May, Ackers, & Kirby, 2002).
2.6
Buried / Driven Rods:
These instruments work on the principle of a manual or automated gravity based

physical probe that rests on the streambed and moves downward with increasing
progression of a scour hole during a flood scenario. The system utilises some form of
remote sensing mechanism to detect the level change of the gravity sensor. The sensor
must be sufficiently large to prevent penetration into the bed while in a static stage prior
to the occurrence of scour as this will affect the accuracy of the perceived results.
15
2.6.1
Magnetic Sliding Collar
This is a magnetic collar placed around a structurally rigid pipe that is driven or
augered into the streambed at a particular location near a bridge pier. The magnetic
nature of the collar allows it to trigger sensors in the rod. As the streambed erodes, the
collar slides down along the rod. The data may be either manually or automatically
read. In the case of automatic reading, flexible cables are attached to a datalogger and
convey magnetic switch closures corresponding to collar movement. The manually
read case requires the use of a hollow metal tube to connect the sensor to the bridge
deck.
Advantages
Disadvantages
Relatively cheap and gives a good Manually

read
scenario
requires
indication of maximum scour depth infrastructure in the form of metal tubing
attained during a flood.
that is very susceptible to damage from
ice or debris.
We can only detect scour depths
specifically at the location of the device.
It requires a pile driver to install the
device into the ground.
Once the flood waters subside, the collar
will remain at the lowest elevation
reached. Hence, the device must be
reset after each individual flood event.
This is both costly and labour intensive.
16
Figure 6 Magnetic Sliding Collar (Monitoring Scour Critical Bridges, A

Synthesis of Highway Practice, n.d.)
2.6.2
Scubamouse
The scubamouse device consists of a steel pipe that is buried or driven into the
streambed in front of a bridge pier. The steel pipe has a horseshoe-shaped collar
around the outside, which rests initially on the un-scoured streambed. As scour
progresses during a flood, the collar remains at rest on the riverbed, which lowers in
elevation. As water stages reduce when the flood begins to subside, the scour hole
begins to fill with sediment, thus burying the collar. The collar remains at rest at a depth
corresponding to the maximum depth of scour reached during the flood. A radioactive
detection mechanism is slid down the inside of the steel buried pipe in order to detect
the resting location of the collar. A signal may then be sent back to a data logger
device. This device operates very similarly to the magnetic sliding collar described
previously.
Advantages
Disadvantages
This method is inexpensive and easy to A significant disadvantage is that the

deploy.
device has a single use.
It works on the very simple principle of a This means that it needs to be reset after
weight resting on the riverbed.
each individual flood event.
This makes it very impractical for bridges
that are susceptible to frequent flooding.
17
2.6.3
Wallingford Tell Tail Device
This type of device has been installed on many older high risk structures in the UK at
the location where the maximum scour is expected. It consists of a set of omnidirectional motion sensors, mounted on tails connected to a rod and buried in the
streambed at a range of depths. It can be connected to a data logger via a cable. The
motion sensors detect bed movements that are indicative of scour having reached the
depth of embedment of the sensor.
Advantages
Disadvantages
This device is relatively reliable and has One significant disadvantage is that the
a low power consumption.
device must be reset when the level of
the sensor is reached.
2.6.4
Mercury Tip Switch
A number of mercury tip switches can be arranged along a support pipe that is driven
or augured into the ground near the front of a bridge pier or abutment. The devices
work on the premise that as the rod or pipe is driven into the streambed, the tip
switches become folded up against the rod, which closes the circuit. The presence of
the streambed material is what is responsible for ensuring that the switch remains
open. As the streambed erodes away due to scour, the material around the switch will
no longer hold the switch open and it will flip into the closed position, thereby breaking
the circuit.
Advantages
Disadvantages
Due to the simple switching mechanism, One disadvantage of this type of sensor
the parts can be purchased in any is that the use of mercury in the tip could
be perceived as an environmental
electronics shop.
hazard.
Also, due to the simplicity of the
technology, it is easy to develop a Even though the housing is extremely
rugged sensor array that can endure durable, environmental damage from
long-term exposure to the elements.
debris or ice may release the mercury
within.
The accuracy of the system can also be
tailored to the needs required. By Also, once the depth of scour is reached,
spacing the switch array closer together, this sensor type will not show any further
a more accurate scour monitoring scour activity such as scour hole in-fill or
system can be developed.
re-scour.
18
2.7
Superstructure Monitoring
This is a relatively new area in the region of scour monitoring. It proposes using the
superstructure to detect changes in the support conditions caused by excessive
scouring of pier and abutment foundations. There are a number of ways to detect this
damage. The following instruments aim to use structural characteristics as a damage
indicator.
2.7.1
Tiltmeter
A Tiltmeter (or Inclinometer) is a device used to measure the rotation of a structural

element caused by compromised support conditions induced by progressive scouring
of foundations. They can be used in two primary ways. If progressive scour causes
adverse settlement of a pier support, an inclinometer placed on the bridge deck near
the pier interface should show rotation of the deck. The other method is to place these
devices in a line along a rigid pier. If differential settlement occurs due to differential
undermining of a pier support, the inclinometer should detect this as a rotation of the
pier. They can be combined together in a housing at orthogonal orientations to create a
dual axis Tiltmeter. This will provide information on movements in two planes of
rotation. This can be desirable and useful due to the three-dimensional problem scour
poses. A positive output denotes clockwise rotation.
Advantages
Disadvantages
These devices can be used in remote Rotation values may be an indication

sensing applications.
that complete compromised support
conditions have been met and it may be
They are robust and reliable.
effectively too late.
Another major advantage is that these
These may not show the progression of
sensors do not require high sampling
scour, but merely show it when it has
rates, thus they conserve energy.
reached significant levels.
The output is simple to read as it is
effectively the degrees of rotation vs.
time.
No major analysis is required in order to
obtain meaningful data.
19
Figure 7 Tiltmeter (Monitoring Scour Critical Bridges, A Synthesis of

Highway Practice, n.d.)
2.7.2
Accelerometer
An accelerometer is a motion sensing device that can be used to obtain the change in
acceleration profile of a super-structural element subject to excitation (ambient or
forced). It operates by taking data points at a sampling rate that is high in comparison
with the structural vibration that is expected depending on the scale of the structure.
This acceleration profile can be used to obtain dynamic characteristics such as natural
frequency and damping ratio. Any changes in the structural support scheme caused by
scour can be detected using these sensors, which are placed on piers.
Advantages
Disadvantages
This has the potential to be a robust

method, if used correctly.
There is an issue with high power

consumption (Briaud et al., 2011).
It can be used as a remote sensing

system.
There is also the possibility that one

may not obtain adequate excitation
from ambient traffic or rail loading to
obtain a high signal to noise ratio.
It does not require an underwater

inspection or expensive underwater
installations, hence it is easy to install
when compared with other types of
instrumentation.
Rigid pier structures may not vibrate

adequately to pick up the signals.
It can be used to show the progression of

a scour hole as is indicated by changes
in the acceleration profile as the hole
develops.
20
2.8
Sound Wave Monitoring
These devices utilise sound wave reflection from material of different densities and
other properties to establish the location of the sediment-water interface and hence, the
depth of a scour hole.
2.8.1
Sonic Fathometer
This device can be mounted onto a bridge pier or abutment, immediately below the
level of the water stage. A sonic pulse is emitted from a pulse generator, which travels
through the given medium until it comes to the sediment-water interface. At this
location, partial reflection occurs and the reflected wave passes back to a receiver. By
applying known material properties to the data obtained, meaningful information
regarding the location and condition of the streambed may be assessed. The scour
hole, if present, will be measurable with this method. It works on a very similar principle
to that of the pulse / radar devices described previously but differs by using sound
waves in lieu of electromagnetic or radar pulses.
Advantages
Disadvantages
The devices are cheap and easy to If high levels of air entrainment exist due
to high flow turbulence, or if a particularly
deploy.
high concentration of moving sediment
They also prove to be quite accurate
just above the static sediment interface
over small distances.
exists, the device will not work
Fixed sonar monitoring can provide accurately.
continuous data for the soil erosion and
The device is only accurate within certain
the nature of the streambed.
depth tolerances.
Too shallow an installation will lead to
useless data being obtained.
The devices are only useful within a
narrow area.
The state of the streambed outside of
this bracket will not be known, thus
effective placement on the device is
imperative.
Since the device is placed below the
waterline, any debris present can
potentially damage the device rendering
it useless.
21
2.8.2
Reflection Seismic Profilers
This type of device typically employs a coupled acoustic source transducer / receiver
transducer placed immediately beneath the surface of the water. The acoustic source
transducer produces short period pulsed acoustic signals (in the range of kHz) at
regular time intervals or distance intervals as it is towed across the water surface. The
high frequency seismic pulsed signal propagates through the water column into the
subterranean sediments below. At this interface, some of the acoustic signal is
reflected back to the receiver. This receiver measures and can digitally record the
magnitude of the reflected signal in terms of its energy and two-way travel time. The
magnitude of the reflected signal vs. its travel time for the different signalled locations
can be displayed on a time trace. This allows for an effectively continuous depth profile
to be obtained across the river cross-section, by combining the signals from multiple
locations. Estimated seismic interval velocities can be used to transform the time-depth
profile into a depth profile. Water velocities are a function of suspended sediment
concentration and can vary appreciably (Anderson, 2007).
Advantages
Disadvantages
This tool can provide an accurate depth- The source and receiver need to be
structure model of the channel bottom to submerged.
depths of the order of tens of meters.
The tool cannot be used, therefore, to
Post-acquisition processing of the data gain profiles across sandbars or other
can be applied.
structures above the waterline.
Depending upon the source frequency,
the tool can provide very accurate
imagery of the channel sub-features,
including in-filled scour holes.
Contamination of data by noise is

plausible due to the multi-faceted nature
of the bed and cross-over signalling, as
well as shoreline and bridge pier
echoing.
It requires manual operation and
information on scour holes is only
obtained at the particular instant when
the method is applied.
2.8.3
Echo Sounders
These devices are similar to reflection seismic profilers in that they also employ a
coupled acoustic source transducer / receiver transducer placed immediately below the
surface of the water. The devices differ from seismic profilers in that they emit a higher
frequency acoustic source pulse (in the 100 kHz range), some of which is reflected at
the channel bottom and returned to the receiver. Due to the rapid attenuation of the
high frequency pulsed acoustic energy, relatively little signal is transmitted into or
22
reflected from within the sub-bottom sediment. Traces from adjacent source / receiver
locations can be plotted side by side to generate a coherent time-depth profile. By
applying estimated seismic interval velocities, these plots can be converted into depth
profiles (Anderson, 2007).
Advantages
Disadvantages
This tool can provide an accurate depth Both the source and receiver must be
profile of the river cross-section, if the submerged.
acoustic velocities are known.
Therefore, profiles cannot extend over
Post-acquisition processing can be sand bars or other over-water structures.
applied.
Noise contamination by pier / shoreline
reflection can occur, which can skew the
data received.
Since the method uses high frequency
waves that do not penetrate into the subbottom strata, the device will not show
the presence of in-filled scour holes.
2.9
Electrical Conductivity Devices
These devices measure the ability of a solution to conduct an electric current between
two electrodes. If the material between the probes changes the ability to draw a current
also changes. This can act as a scour indicator.
2.9.1
Electrical Conductivity Probes
These devices measure the ability of a solution to conduct an electric current between
two electrodes. In solution, currents flow by ion transport. Therefore, an increase in ion
concentration will result in higher conductivity values. Conductivity probes actually
measure conductance, which is the reciprocal of resistance. Conductance is measured
using the SI parameter Siemens. The use of this method in the context of scour
measurement is based on the idea that the conductance of the river bed is different to
that of flowing water. The nature of suspended sediments, dissolved ions and chemical
characteristics of water determine its conductivity value. Parent materials and the
composition of the water in the sediments determine the electrical conductivity of the
riverbed. Using this technique, multiple sensors are placed on a probe that is driven
vertically into the riverbed and left,at the desired location of interest for periodic
monitoring. One sensor should be left above the sediment interface as a control, while
the rest should be submerged below the riverbed. If scour occurs, thereby revealing the
buried sensors, then these should measure the conductivity of the flowing water
instead of that of the sediment, thus observing the presence of scour.
23
Advantages
Disadvantages
This method allows for long-term The tool only monitors the development
monitoring and is relatively robust.
of scour directly at the location where it
is buried.
It works well, provided that the
conductivity properties of the sediment It cannot be used to identify scour inand the water vary significantly.
filling.
It is possible to tailor this tool to the
required accuracy by increasing the
density of the sensor array placed along
the buried probe.
Scour features can be significantly

underestimated, particularly if the sensor
is not located at the location of maximum
depth of the scour hole.
The tool cannot be used to image scour
features that are below the subchannel
bottom sediments.
2.10
Discussion on Scour Monitoring Equipment
There are a range of devices available to monitor scour. Some devices will measure
progression of scour holes as they develop during times of great flooding. Other
devices will only give a static value of scour at the given time the monitoring took place.
The reliability of many of these devices is questionable. Those devices that depend on
the mechanical movement of certain parts are less reliable in that mechanical failure is
much more likely given the hostile nature of the environment of the underwater sensor.
From the perspective of monitoring scour-critical bridges, any of the devices should
prove adequate. Those requiring re-installation may prove troublesome due to the time
and economic cost involved. The buried float-out devices are particularly relevant here.
Once the scour hole has reached their level, they will simply float out and are
essentially no longer operational at that point. The pulse / radar devices such as
Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) and the devices using sound waves such as Sonic
Fathometers and Echo Sounders are only useful in giving scour information at a
particular time (usually after a flood event). They are particularly unsuitable for the
analysing of scour hole progression as maximum scour depths are attainable within a
number of hours during a flood event in sediment streambeds composed of sand.
Limited information, in this regard, is obtained by using these devices. As a preliminary
scour assessment, they are quite appropriate. This refers to portable monitoring
versions of this equipment only. Fixed Sonic Fathometers, on the other hand, can be
used to analyse the progression of scour.
24
The concept of scour holes re-filling upon flood subsidence is particularly important in
that the carrying capacity and stiffness of the in-fill material may be significantly less
than the original sediment in the streambed. Most of the methods for scour monitoring
are incapable of measuring these effects. GPR provides a good analysis but is limited
as described previously. Most of the mechanical based apparatuses such as the
Magnetic Sliding Collar, Scubamouse and Mercury Tip Switches are particularly
ineffective in this regard and also require re-installation once scour levels reach depths
below their operational elevations. The methods utilising Piezoelectric Film Sensors
and Electrical Conductivity Probes offer promise in that they have no mechanical parts
prone to failure. Alas, they are unsuitable to monitoring scour holes re-filling upon flood
subsidence.
Recent developments in scour monitoring instrumentation look at using the
superstructure to monitor the presence and development of scour. The structure will
respond to ambient loading differently if the foundations become compromised or
undermined. Accelerometers can be used to measure natural frequency and
subsequently damping ratios of bridge piers subject to train loading. The novel aspect
here is that underwater instrumentation is not required. This is a consideration that can
reduce the cost of monitoring significantly. Recent developments in this area have
shown promising results with the use of accelerometers. Tiltmeters can also be used to
observe the occurrence of differential settlement of piers due to undermining. In terms
of scour monitoring, they only become effective when the situation has reached a
critical level and thus may be seen to be too late from the perspective of a bridge
manager (Briaud et al., 2011).
2.11
Instrumentation of choice for Scour
Due to the novel nature of the dynamic approach to bridge scour monitoring and
assessment, the use of accelerometers as a method of assessing the progress of
scour holes during floods will be investigated in the SMARTRAIL project. The
frequency response of bridge piers will change depending on the level of supporting
soil surrounding the foundations. As scour progresses, the pier support condition will
vary from somewhere between a fixed and free support closer to a free end support.
This lengthening of the exposed pier should have a corresponding decrease in natural
frequency. Damping ratios may also be analysed. Ongoing research is being
undertaken with regard to use of this equipment in this regard.
25
Slope Monitoring
3.1
Introduction
One of the effects of climate change is increased rainfall, a factor which is having a
detrimental effect on the integrity of the slopes. It is imperative to the safe operation of the
railway that we can monitor and analyse slope safety in real time. Soil matric suction is a
critical strength component in embankment stability. Rainfall infiltration has been shown to
reduce soil suction (Gavin & Xue, 2009; Ridley, McGinnity, & Vaughan, 2004; Xue & Gavin,
2007) thereby decreasing the safety of the slope. Several techniques have been developed
to monitor negative pore water pressure (soil suction). These are set out in detail below.
Soil moisture content is also a critical parameter as it has a direct correlation to soil suction
and there is a lot of existing data which enables users to predict soil suctions using a soilwater characteristic curve for a particular soil. Soil moisture has been measured for many
years (A Tarantino, Ridley, & Toll, 2008) and numerous companies provide a highly
accurate means of doing so. Further details are outlined below.
Several methods of monitoring slope deformations are also outlined in this report. However,
many of these methods are considerably more expensive than monitoring pore pressures
and soil moisture content and typically give less warning time.
3.2
3.2.1
Slope Monitoring Instrumentation

Tencate GeoDetect
Tencate is a French company which has produced a geotextile called GeoDetect ,which is
outfitted with fibre optic cables. These cables act as sensors and can be monitored for
changes in strain and temperature. It can be used to provide an early warning system, as a
structural health monitoring sensor or simply as soil reinforcement. When installed
correctly, strains as low as 0.02% can be monitored within the soil. The system is
connected to an optical interrogator which sends pulses of light through the fibre optic
cables embedded within the geotextile. If there is a strain change within the cable the light
will be refracted at this point. This refraction is then picked up by the optical interrogation
unit. This information is then relayed back to a computer where it can be interpreted in real
time.
26
Figure 8 Transfer of data from Site to Computer (http://www.tencate.com)
Advantages
An extremely accurate way to monitor
ground movements.
Extremely easy to install in new
embankments geotextile.
Easily applicable to real time monitoring.
Proven track record in monitoring railway
settlements having previously been used to
great success by SNCF.
Disadvantages
The optical interrogator needed to interpret
the changes in light pulses is currently quite
expensive and makes the technology quite
prohibitive on a large scale.
While easily to install on new embankments,
medium scale earthworks would be required
to install on an existing embankment.
Equipment is buried. Therefore,
maintenance could prove to be potentially
problematic.
27
(a)
(b)
Figure 9 Close up of Geotextiles showing Fibre optic cables (b)

(http://www.tencate.com)
3.2.2
Geobeads Alert Solutions
Geobeads is a multi parameter sensor manufactured by Alert Solutions in the

Netherlands. Geobeads is quite innovative as it consists of an array of up to 100 nodes
embedded in one cable. The cable itself serves as a power supply whilst
simultaneously enabling data transmission. It can be up to 1000m in length. Each node
can contain multiple sensors to monitor any combination of inclination, positive soil
pore water pressure and temperature. Their pore water pressure sensors are also able
to
detect
negative pore water
pressures (soil
suction).
Figure 10 Close up of a Geobeads sensor(http://www.geobeads.com/)
28
Figure 11 Typical Site after installation (http://www.geobeads.com/)
Advantages
Easily scalable due to its nodal nature, it is
straightforward to expand the operation.
Easier to install than most systems as all
sensors are combined within one small
cable, therefore allowing for fast installation
of multiple nodes at once.
Continuous and automatic measuring,
frequencies of measurement and alarms can
be remotely set.
Disadvantages
Incompatible with other data loggers.
Depending on installation method, sensors
may be sacrificial.
While sensors are relatively affordable,
network controllers and project fees
(monthly fees necessary to use online
remote access) are costly.
Remote sensing can be viewed online 24

hours a day. There is no need to visit test
sites unless a problem arises.
As data is delivered online it can be
accessed from any computer with an
internet connection.
Multiple nodes can be attached to one
network controller (up to 100).
Has previously been used by railways SNCF
and in embankments in the Ijk Dijk project.
29
2.1.3
Laser Scanner
Terrestrial laser scanning can be applied to monitor surface deformations of slopes.

This technique involves taking 3D scans of the slope in question at different time
intervals. A comparison can then be made between scans and any volume change can
be picked up on. Hansje Brinker applied laser scanning on the Ijkdijk project and were
able to detect a statistically significant deformation 26 hours before the dijk failed.
LIDAR is fast, efficient, and portable. Typically it is accurate to 2mm in 100m.
Figure 12 Typical Laser scanner produced by Trimble

(http://www.trimble.com)
Advantages
Disadvantages
Portable and easy to use.
Expensive.
Fast accurate results.
A series of scans is needed for any

deformations to be noticed.
Stand alone equipment does not rely on

data loggers etc.
Highly versatile piece of equipment
which has great reusability.
Equipment is not suited to permanent

installations.
30
2.1.4 Extensometers
Extensometers can be used to monitor heave and settlement within embankments.
They can also provide data on the depth at which settlement has occurred. A number
of different types exist. One of the most common is magnet extensometers which
consist of a number of magnets coupled with the surrounding soil. A probe is then
passed through a nearby access pipe which records the depths of the magnets by
interpreting the strength of their magnetic field. If the access pipe is stable these depths
can be referenced to a datum magnet at the base of the pipe otherwise the top of the
access pipe must be surveyed prior to measurements being taken.
Figure 13 Magnet Extensometer by Slope Indicator
Advantages
Disadvantages
Accurate.
Requires manual readings.
Easy to use.
Installation can cause destruction to

surroundings.
No post processing.
Very localised monitoring.

Can be used to monitor vertical or
horizontal deformation but not both.
31
2.15
Instrument: Inclinometers
Inclinometers are used to detect lateral movement and shear planes in slopes. An
inclinometer casing is first installed in the slope. This casing has precast orthogonal
grooves in its interior walls. The casing is installed with one of the grooves facing in the
direction of principal deformation. An inclinometer sensor with orthogonal tilt sensors is
then inserted into the casing. The sensor has wheels which slot into the grooves in the
casing enabling it to move along the length of the casing. The tilt sensors then monitor
the angle of inclination of the casing at regular intervals and generate a profile.
Subsequent measurements are then compared with this initial profile to monitor the
rate of displacement.
Figure 14 Inclinometer Casing showing precast grooves

(www.slopeindicator.com)
Figure 15 Inclinometer Probe (www.slopeindicator.com)
32
Advantages
Disadvantages
Accurate.
Initially expensive.
Established method.
Destructive installation process.
Good for long term monitoring.
May add rigidity to soft soils.
One inclinometer sensor can be used in

multiple casings.
Manual operation is required.
3.3
Positive Pore Water Pressures
3.3.1
Instrument: Piezometers: Casagrande Standpipe
A standpipe or Casagrande piezometer constitutes a porous filter tip which is

connected to a riser pipe. The porous tip is sealed in the soil at a certain depth using a
bentonite grout. Water is then free to enter or exit the riser pipe through the porous tip.
Therefore, as pore water pressure increases or decreases the water level within the
riser pipe rises and falls respectively. Then by monitoring the change in water depth the
flux in pore water pressure can be observed.
Figure 16 Casagrande Standpipe (http://www.rstinstruments.com)
33
Advantages
Disadvantages
No electronic components.
Manual readings.
Easy to measure.
Requires access to the top of the pipe.

Response time is directly dependent on the
permeability of the soil.
3.3.2
Instrument: Vibrating Wire Piezometer
Vibrating wire piezometers are used in conjunction with a data logger. They consist of a
diaphragm based pressure transducer and a signal output cable. They are available for
a wide range of pressures and can be used in all soil types. They can be installed
completely encased within a bentonite cement grout, or, they can be installed in sand
in a take zone with a bentonite seal. They are based on the vibrating wire theory
whereby tension in a wire is proportional to its natural frequency squared. The tension
on the wire is controlled by the external pressure acting on the diaphragm. The wire is
then excited causing it to vibrate at its natural frequency. This frequency is then
recorded and calibrated against pressure to produce pore water pressure readings.
Figure 17 A selection of Vibrating Wire Piezometers from Geokon
34
Advantages
Disadvantages
Quick response times.
Requires a data logger.
Suitable for automated logging.
Requires calibration.
Multiple piezometers can be grouted in

the same borehole.
The calibrated component is buried.
3.4
Negative Pore Water Pressures
3.4.1
Instrument: Tensiometer
Tensiometers consist of a porous ceramic cup attached to a tubular body of varied

length. Contained within the tubular body is a diaphragmatic pressure transducer. The
tube and body are filled with de-aired water. Tensiometers can be inserted directly into
the ground without the need for grout provided that the tip of the borehole augured is
slightly smaller in diameter than that of the tensiometer. This ensures a snug fit and
ensures good contact between the porous disk and the surrounding soil.
Water is able to flow through the ceramic disk when saturated while the flow of air is
prevented. This means that when equilibrium is reached between the soil and the
tensiometer, the pore-pressure in the soil will be the same as the pressure in the water
within the tensiometer. Modern tensiometers can measure negative pore water
pressures of approximately 90kPa. After this, the water within the tensiometer begins to
cavitate, making further measurements unreliable. There are several different types of
tensiometers on the market including; regular tensiometers, Jet-fill tensiometers,
miniature tensiometers, and self-refilling tensiometers.
Advantages
Disadvantages
Accurate to -90kPa.
High maintenance.
Affordable.
Can be damaged in dry or frozen soils.
Can refill without removing.
3.4.2
Instrument: Jet-Fill Tensiometers
A jet fill tensiometer has a water reservoir on top of the tensiometer which helps
remove air bubbles from the body of the tensiometer. This is done by pressing a button
35
which releases water into the body of the tensiometer from the reservoir, displacing air
as it does so. These air bubbles then move upwards accumulating at the top of the
reservoir.
Advantages
Easy to remove air from
3.4.3
Disadvantages
Expensive
Instrument: Automatic Fillling Tensiometers
Automatic filling tensiometers are highly specialised tensiometers suited to dry ground.
Normally when dry soil removes water from the porous cup, tensiometers need to be
refilled again which requires a site visit. However, these tensiometers will refill
themselves at the next rainfall event and will automatically de-aerate themselves.
Furthermore, tensiometers are usually irreparably damaged by frost. However, these
sensors will detect freezing conditions and purge the system of all water until after the
event.
Figure 18 A Selection of different tensiometers from left to right standard

tensiometer (http://www.decagon.com/),
jet fill tensiometer(http://www.soilmoisture.com),
Ts1 smart tensiometer(http://www.decagon.com/) and
miniature tensiometers(http://www.earthsystemssolutions.com).
36
Advantages
Accuracy.
Disadvantages
Expensive.
Automatic self-refilling and de-aerating .

Automatic emptying before frost.
Continuous fill level controlling.
Low maintenance.
3.4.4
Geotechnical Observations Flushable Piezometers
Geotechnical Observations flushable piezometers allow for the measurement of

positive and negative pore water pressures. They are suitable for use in any earthen
structure. They are of a similar construct to tensiometers in that they have a water
reservoir within a porous cup and the stress exhibited in this water is measured by an
attached pressure transducer. However, the flushable piezometers are connected to a
pumping system which can circulate de-aerated water around the system, flushing any
air which has built up in the system.
Figure 19 Cross-section of Flushable Piezometer (http://www.geoobservations.com/)
37
Figure 20 Piezometer (http://www.geo-observations.com/
Advantages
Accuracy.
Disadvantages
Only available to rent.
Measures positive and negative pore Requires trained personnel

water pressure.
for instalation.
Each sensor has an independent stand
alone data logger inbuilt.
The system removes air.
3.5
Soil Moisture
3.5.1
Instrument: Water Content Reflectometers
Water content reflectometers measure the volumetric water content of porous media
such as soil. They consist of a pair of stainless steel rods connected to a circuit board.
The water content is obtained from the probes sensitivity to the dielectric constant of
the soil in which it is embedded. They can measure volumetric soil moisture from 0% to
full saturation. Probes can be fully buried in the soil or they can be inserted from the
surface for near surface measurements.
38
SMARTRAILSmart maintenance analysis and rem ediation of transport infrastructure
Advantages
High accuracy and precision.
Disadvantages
Awkward to bury.
Fast response time.

Perfect for long term monitoring.
Compatible with a wide range of data
loggers and multiplexers.
Inexpensive.
Figure 21 Volumetric Soil Moisture probe from Campbell Scientific
3.6
Summary
Whilst major advances in monitoring slope movements using laser scanning techniques
have been made, such systems tend to be expensive and reactive. In the SMARTRAIL
project, the use of embedded sensors to measure suction and water contents will be
investigated. Such sensors measure the physical response of soil to rainfall infiltration and
have the potential to act as an early warning system for stability problems.
39
4 Laboratory Study
4.1
Overview
In order to assess the efficacy and to calibrate some of the chosen instruments,
laboratory studies were undertaken to examine whether the dynamic response of a
simple structure varied in response to the occurrence of scour in a sand stratum. In
addition, a laboratory study of the effect of rainfall on the suctions measured in glacial
till used to construct Irish railway embankments was undertaken.
4.2
Use of Accelerometers to investigate bridge scour
4.2.1
Background
Larger and more frequent flood flows expose foundation soils to stronger erosive
forces, thus increasing the likelihood that scour of piers (and abutments) will
compromise the structural integrity of some bridges. The development of low-cost, low
maintenance, non-destructive methods of bridge scour analysis is therefore becoming
increasingly more important in light of the current economic climate. The use of
embedded sensors that measure the vibration responses of a structure may offer the
potential to track changes in the foundation soil stiffness matrix caused by scour, and
may also inform engineers when implementing appropriate protection schemes. This
paper presents a laboratory investigation in which the dynamic response of a scaled
pier installed in a bed of sand and instrumented with an accelerometer is recorded for a
constant and repeatable excitation. Sand stiffness properties were manually altered by
increasing the scour depth in progressive experiments. For each experiment, a
vibration response was recorded and this was converted to a frequency response using
a fast Fourier transform (FFT). Differences between the dynamic signatures of the piers
for the different scour conditions investigated were analysed in order to explore
whether this type of non-destructive testing could provide a viable method of detecting
scour before the structural integrity of the bridge reaches a critical stage. Results
indicate that significantly different frequency responses are recorded for decreasing
elevations of bed material around the model pier. This indicates that the method may
provide the basis for a simple and effective means of monitoring scour around bridge
piers.
40
Scour can be defined as the excavation and removal of material from the bed and
banks of streams as a result of the erosive action of flowing water (Hamill 1999).
There are three main forms, namely; general scour, contraction scour, and local
scour. General scour includes the aggradation and degradation scour that may
result from changes in the fundamental parameters that control channel form such
as flow rate and changes in the sediment supply to the river system (Forde et al.
1999). Constriction scour occurs due to an increase in flow velocity and resulting
shear stresses caused by a decrease in the river cross-sectional area due to the
presence of a bridge. Local scour arises due to increased velocities and associated
vortices as water accelerates around the corner of abutments and piers, inducing
downward flow and subsequent scour of the riverbed (Hamill 1999). The scour hole
generated can reduce the carrying capacity of the foundation and can lead to
catastrophic structural collapse. Adverse hydraulic action, including scour, are
deemed to have accounted for over 53% of bridge failures in the United States
between 1989 and 2000 (Wandhanna and Hadpriono 2003). This work assesses
whether dynamic vibration signals can be used to detect changes in the
fundamental frequency of a pier arising from changes in the stiffness of the
foundation system from increased local scour. The assessment utilises a laboratory
arrangement in which a vertical pier installed in a sand matrix and instrumented with
an accelerometer is subjected to a constant and repeatable excitation for varying
scour condition.
Scour poses significant risks to bridges and can be difficult to detect, particularly for
situations where the scour hole fills after a flood has subsided. The concept of
instrumenting bridges and their foundations to detect changes in scour levels has
gained considerable interest in recent years. Many different methods have
developed over time, and these are employed to monitor scour around piers and
abutments. The use of Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) as outlined in Forde et al.
(1999) can be particularly effective in a freshwater environment as it can detect
geophysical subterranean changes that occur when a scour hole develops and
becomes filled in. It can prove difficult, however, to undertake these surveys during
flood conditions, as water flow rates can often be dangerously high. Other methods
such as the use of sonar detection systems mounted on bridge piers, together with
the installation of buried Sedimetri systems close to piers, can be quite promising.
These, however, require care in accurately interpreting the results (Falco and Mele
2003). Recently, the use of accelerometers on bridge piers to detect changes in
dynamic frequency has gained a high level of interest as a method of long-term,
non-intrusive monitoring of bridge stability. In one example, a field test is described
where a pair of bridge piers, instrumented with wireless accelerometers, were
subjected to free vibration before and after a simulated scour event with the aim of
detecting changes in their natural frequency (Lin et al. 2011). Another case outlines
a study of a road bridge in Turin, Italy, that was instrumented with accelerometers to
detect changes in dynamic signatures of different piers relative to one another
during the progression of scour as well as before and after the planned retrofitting of
one of the piers (Foti and Sabia 2011). Briaud et al. (2011) describes a major study
41
aimed at developing the correlations between different scour assessment

techniques with the change in acceleration profile and natural frequency as scour
holes develop both under laboratory schemes and on real bridges subjected to
traffic loading.
4.3
Experimental Apparatus
Soil Characteristics
Blessington sand (Co. Wicklow, Ireland) which has a bulk density in the region of 2.03Mg/m3 was
used in the experiments. A sieve analysis was undertaken on the soil in order to establish its
grading (Figure 22). Grading indicates that the sand is closely graded with 60% by weight, being
less than 0.3mm. The moisture content of the sand was calculated to be 13%, and this value
was taken as the matrix moisture content at the commencement of each experiment.
Figure 22 Sieve Analysis
4.3.1
Steel Container Set-up
The experiment was assembled in a bolted together steel box with dimensions of 1m x 1m x 1m
(Figure 23). The box housed the vertical pier installed in the bed of Blessington sand. The
significant mass of the box provided a rigid structural framework in which to conduct the dynamic
tests on the pier. It was also sufficiently strong to support the weight of soil to be placed in the
box.
42
Figure 23 Steel Box used in lab experiments
4.3.2 Upright Cantilever

The upright pier structure was a hollow steel box-section with properties as defined in the Table
below.
Table Hollow Section Properties
Property:
Value:
Mass (kg):
31.182
Length (m):
1.260
X-Sectional
Width (m):
0.1
X-Sectional
Length (m):
0.1
Thickness (m):
0.008
X-Sectional Area
(m2)
2.944 x 10-3
Moment of Inertia
(m4):
4.181 x 10-6
Assumed Density
(kg/m3)
7850
43
Figure 24 Pier Structure used in lab experiment

The pier was placed on the bottom of the steel box in sand to a depth of 300mm. This distance
from the base should be enough to neglect the edge effects of the support condition here, i.e.
the zone of influence should be within this length. The pier was instrumented with an
accelerometer mounted on its top (the unrestrained end of the structure). The mass of the
accelerometer is negligible compared to the mass of the pier and its influence on the overall
vibration is therefore considered to be insignificant.
4.3.3 Accelerometer
The type of accelerometer used was a BDK3 model from Sensors UK1. It is a capacitive springmass accelerometer with integrated sensor electronics. The accelerometer has a bolt-like
appearance allowing for ease of installation onto the hollow section and has properties as
outlined in the Table below:
Accelerometer information available at: http://www.sensoruk.com/
44
Table Accelerometer Specifications

Property:
Measuring
Range:
4.3.4
Specification:
3g (ca.30ms)
Resolution:
< 10-3g
Frequency
Range:
1 - 300Hz
Sensitivity at
UB=5V:
Appr. 150mV/g
Temperature
Drift of
Sensitivity:
< + 6 x 10-2%/K
Temperature
Drift of zero
point:
< 0.1mV/K
Zero Offset:
(2.5 0.1) Volt
Output
Impedance:
Approx. 100
Ohm
Linearity
Deviation:
< 1%
Nominal Supply
Voltage:
UbN = 5V
Permissible
Supply Voltage:
UbZ = 2V 16V
Datalogger
The data-logger used was the CR9000x model from Campbell Scientific2. It is capable of
sampling at a frequency of 1000 Hz, a value that is ideal for observing the acceleration signal
from a vibrating structure. This high sampling rate allows for the reception of a relatively full
waveform, which can be analysed via a fast Fourier transform (FFT) to obtain the frequency of
the signal and hence the natural frequency of the structure. The data was acquired using
accompanying loggernet software, which stores the data in real-time.
Campbell Scientific, UK. Specification available at www.campbellsci.com/cr90000x
45
4.3.5
Excitation Device
In order to excite the hollow section in an appropriate manner, it was required to establish the
most likely mode shape that will result prior to deciding at which location to apply the force . Since
it is the first natural frequency that we will most likely obtain (other frequencies are also possible),
it is the first mode shape corresponding to this that we should aim to achieve. For an upright
cantilever, ignoring the self-weight (gravitational) on natural frequency, the mode shape in Figure
4 corresponds to the first natural frequency (Virgin et al. 2007). The equation shown in Figure 25
is true for a mass distributed over the entire length of the pier.
f =
1
(1.875)2 EI4
2
mL
Figure 25 Mode Shape at First Natural Frequency
In order to excite the hollow section appropriately, a load on a swinging arc was applied to the top
of the section as an impulse force. The swinging arc mechanism allowed for repeatability of the
same force to maintain consistency in the experiment. The subsequent excitation was at the first
natural frequency of vibration (Chopra 1981). The experimental configuration that consisted of a
pendulum device clamped into a supporting retort stand and allowed to swing through a fixed arc
is shown in Figure 26. By pulling back to a set point, repeatability of the impulse force can be
achieved. A small amount of cushioning material was placed around the top of the section to
prevent a high frequency ping from distorting the data. This ensured that the majority of the
kinetic energy is transferred into the pier.
46
Pendulum
Figure 26 Photograph of experimental set-up
4.4
EXPERIMENTAL METHODOLOGY
The first step was to assemble the steel box by bolting together the sides and fixing to the base.
Using the roof crane in the Civil Engineering laboratory, a bag of Blessington sand was lifted into
the air above the box and the box was filled to a level of approximately 100mm. Using a
compaction hammer the sand was compacted in order to create a stiffer base upon which to
found the model pier. It is important to compact in 100mm increments to ensure that adequate
compaction and uniformity of density is achieved. The sand was filled to an initial height of
300mm above the base. The model pier was placed vertically in the centre of the box equidistant
from all four. Sand was continually added in increments of 100mm until a final fill level of 700mm
had been achieved and a free space of approximately 300mm from the top remained.
Figure 27 Photograph of CR9000x Datalogger

The accelerometer was placed on the top of the pier, ensuring that it was orientated correctly and
fixed in place. The datalogger (Figure 27) was connected and programmed accordingly using the
loggernet software to take readings at a frequency of 1000 Hz. The free acceleration of the pier
was measured after subjecting it to an impulse force at the free end in order to infer initial
displacement Chopra (1981).This step was repeated a number of times to ensure a consistency
of data. To emulate the effects of scour, it was decided to add sand to the box in 100mm
increments. This is in essence the reverse of a scour process, but it allows for re-testing by
47
removing the sand layers thereafter. The sand was re-compacted after each fill event. A new
acceleration signal was obtained at each new level to display a static scheme of signals as a
scour process develops over time. The acceleration signal for these steps should be different
from those found previously.
For continuity of data purposes, a normal scour process was also emulated upon reaching the fill
capacity, whereby sand was removed from around the pier in increments of 50mm and the
acceleration signals obtained at each level. The purpose of re-testing was to offset the effects of
placing new sand on top of existing layers and the associated loss of homogeneity in soil
conditions associated with this. For instance, the new soil that was added may have had a
different moisture content to that of the existing sand in the box, and the effects of this may have
gone un-noticed. For this reason, it was imperative to leave the latter testing phase until some
time had passed, where the soil could gain a more uniform constitution. Moisture contents were
assessed over a number of days before re-testing.
Once all the data had been obtained, an FFT analysis was undertaken in MATLAB to ascertain
the natural frequency peaks at each bed level.
Figure 28 Photogaph showing accelerometer attachment
48
4.5
Results
The levels at which scour emulation takes place are divided up as base level 0, level 1, level 2
and level 3. These correspond to the fill levels for initial scour testing and represent sand depths
along the pier separated by 100mm intervals. At each bed level, an acceleration signal was
obtained in the form of a voltage readout vs. time from the datalogger. This was then converted to
acceleration in terms of gravity (g) using the conversion factors specified by the manufacturer.
The signal obtained varies as the pier vibrates. A typical example is displayed in Figure 29. The
time period is normalised for the purpose of graphical representation.
Figure 29 Typical Acceleration Signal

This signal was then fed through an FFT in MATLAB, where it was converted into a frequency
plot, the magnitude of which is displayed on the vertical axis. The plot corresponding to the signal
in Figure 29 is shown in Figure 30.
Figure 30 Typical Frequency Plot
49
The actual signal obtained can be compared to the theoretical signal for an upright cantilever with
simplified lumped mass at the top founded on an infinitely stiff base as calculated using Eqn. 1;
f =
1
2
3EI
AL4
Where f is the frequency (Hz), E is the Youngs Modulus (GPa); I is the moment of inertia (m4),
is the density (kg/m3) and A is the Area (m2) and L = Length (m). Values from this Equation show
the upper bound obtainable solution. The table below sets out the pier properties during the fill
testing phase.
Table Bed Levels Modelled

Level:
Pier
Length
(m):
Theoretical
Frequency
(Hz)
Measured
Response
(Hz)
Level
0
0.968
56.0
29.58
Level
1
0.868
69.6
42.82
Level
2
0.768
88.9
60.22
Level
3
0.668
117.5
73.89
Figure 31 Frequency Change with Scour Level
50
Once the fill testing phase has been completed, actual scour emulation may take place by
manually removing sand from around the base in the reverse sequence of the original testing
regime. The benefit of this is that soil properties (such as moisture content) will remain constant
throughout the experiment duration (which is short). Thus, the only factor affecting stiffness
changes is the level of sand on the pier itself. Sand is removed to level 2 and removed in 50mm
increments thereafter. The results of this are set out below.
Table Measured and Predicted frequencies

Level:
Pier
Length
(m):
Theoretical
Frequency
(Hz)
Measured
Response
(Hz)
Level 2
0.768
88.9
68.36
Level
2-1
0.818
78.4
59.9
Level 1
0.868
69.6
49.16
Level
1-0
0.918
62.2
41.83
Level 0
0.968
56
34.18
Figure 32 Frequency Change with Scour Level

The purpose of removing the top layer of sand from level 3 to level 2 is to offset the fact that
surface sand may exhibit different properties to other sand at greater depths. For reasons of
homogeneity, the results from level 3 to level 2 are omitted. In-situ sand properties should be
more homogeneous at levels below these.
51
Level 3
Level 2
Level 1
Level 0
Figure 33 Illustration of bed Levels considered in experiment
4.6
Discussion
As is evident, changes in the natural frequency can be detected by changing the level of the sand
around the pier in the box test. It must be noted, however, that the conditions in which this
experiment was undertaken are highly idealised. An actual bridge pier does not have a free end,
thus placement of accelerometers on real bridges would require a more detailed primary analysis
of where the maximum oscillations are likely to occur. In reality, it is assumed that train loading
will provide the impulse force required for the bridge to oscillate and that changes in frequency
will relate to compromised support due to scour, amongst other causes.
The results displayed here are in line with physical expectations. A decrease in frequency is
noted as the effective length of the pier increases. The fact that this change is measurable at this
laboratory scale is encouraging, and further research at larger scales is planned. It must be
noted, however, that larger structures will undergo much smaller frequency variations upon
changes to effective lengths. Therefore, accurate measuring equipment is vital at these scales.
The results obtained here also lie below the theoretical upper bound that an infinitely stiff
foundation would provide. Although this is based on some simplifying assumptions, it shows that
the results are realistic in this light.
An issue that arises with this test is that the steel box in which the pier is placed is subject to
vibration as the pier is excited. It was initially intended that the mass of the box would be such
that the effects of vibrating the pier would not transfer into the box itself. This may lead to skewed
results being obtained and therefore research in the free field is required to offset the effects of
this.
Another point of note is that the sampling rate of 1000Hz may not be adequate in determining the
exact frequency of this structure since the period of vibration is in the region of fractions of a
second. Upon close analysis, only a small sample length is obtained during the actual vibration,
since it dampens quite rapidly. Further research at higher sample rates would be of help in
determining more exact solutions of fundamental frequencies at this scale.
52
Attempts were made to make correlations between the damping ratios of the signals at different
bed levels. No consistent trend was observed when using the logarithmic decrement method
(Chopra, 1981; Gutenbrunner, 2007). This is most probably due to the small scale of the
experiment. Therefore, the results of this have been omitted and research on larger structures is
recommended.
4.7
Conclusions and Recommendations
Frequency changes are shown to have potential in detecting scour around the base of an upright
cantilever pier structure. The measured responses are shown to follow reasoned logic. This
experiment has yielded interesting results and expansion of this data is required. The authors feel
that some of the issues encountered at this scale may not occur at larger scales, such as the
issue of low sampling in the vicinity of the vibration and poor correlation of damping ratios. These
issues may simply be due to the scale of the experiment. Larger structures will have lower
fundamental frequencies and damping estimation may be more accurate as higher relative
sampling rates will yield more accurate acceleration curves. Conversely, frequency changes at
larger scales will be more difficult to detect as only minor variations will exist as bed levels vary.
For both of these reasons, it is recommended that this analysis be expanded to larger structures
and undertaken in the free field. This work is currently in progress.
53
5 Laboratory measurement of soil suction

5.1
Background
Soil suction plays a vital role in maintaining the stability of unsaturated slopes (Gavin and Xue
2008, Jotisankasa and Maircaing 2010). In soils above the water table, physio-chemical and
molecular forces exist between the soil and water particles combine to create a slight vacuum
within the soil (Ridley et al. 2004). This attraction that the soil exerts on the water is known as soil
suction and acts as a tensile hydraulic stress in the soil. This tensile stress has a capillary effect
within the soil, drawing water up from the water table to fill empty void spaces. It also acts as an
impediment to water infiltrating through the soil as it draws the infiltrating water into empty pore
spaces near the soil surface and holds it there thus preventing further infiltration.
The magnitude of the soil suction is a function of the moisture content of the soil as well as its
pore size. The pore size is of vital importance as smaller pores will result in greater capillarity.
The lower the moisture content, the higher the soil suction necessary to remove the remaining
moisture. This is because it is more difficult to remove water from smaller pores. Because the exit
points are smaller and as there is also a greater percentage of water in direct contact with the soil
due to the decreased pore space, more bonds are formed and hence greater energy is needed to
remove the water from the pore space.
Rainfall infiltration causes a decrease in matric suction which in turn reduces the shear strength
of the soil (Rahardjo et al. 2003, Xue and Gavin 2007). As a result, rainfall infiltration is one of the
leading causes of slope failure. This report proposes a method of monitoring soil suction under an
applied rainfall within a laboratory environment.
In soils compacted dry of optimum, large interconnected pores form between clods of clay which
causes the soil to have large pore spaces. These relatively large pore spaces allow for fast
drainage under matric suction. Therefore, this macrostructure controls the rate of de-saturation in
clay dry of optimum. When soils have large interconnected pores they are said to have an open
structure (Vannapalli et al. 1996).
In soils wet of optimum, interconnected pores are rarer and therefore the de-saturation process is
more reliant on the microstructure of the specimen in question. For clays, this results in a much
slower rate of de-saturation as the microscopic pores within clay clods offer much greater
resistance to flow than the interconnected pores between clods. When pore spaces are like this
they are said to be in an occluded state. Therefore, the rate of de-saturation of the soil is
dependent on both the compaction and initial water content of the soil, which in turn controls the
aggregation of the soil.
54
5.2
5.2.1
Experimental Procedure
Soil Properties
All samples used were glacial till samples taken from a depth of 1m at a railway embankment in
Nobber, Co. Meath. The samples had an approximate dry density of 1.8Mg/m3. A particle size
distribution analysis was carried out in accordance with BS1377:Part2:1990 (figure 34). The soil
was found to consist of 50.35% gravel, 29.45% sand, 12.9% silt and 7.3% clay. Several moisture
content samples were taken over a period of three months with insitu moisture contents falling
within the range of 17.4% to 23.5%.
100
90
Percentage Passing
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.0001
0.001
0.01
0.1
10
100
Sieve Size (mm)
Figure 34: Combination of sieving and sedimentation curves for glacial till sample
from Nobber Co. Meath.
5.2.2
Experimental Apparatus
Minor modifications were made to the baseplate of a California Bearing Ratio mould to allow for
the insertion of a porous disk and a small reservoir. This was in turn connected to a pressure
transducer to measure the stress. (Figures 35 and 36). This enabled direct suction
measurements to be made through the use of a high air entry ceramic disk. This disk allows both
air and water to flow through it under normal conditions. However, when fully saturated, the
contractile skin that forms on its surface prevents air from entering the disk until the matric
suction exceeds the disks air entry value (Fredlund and Rahardjo 1993). The tensiometer works
on the premise that if the porous disk is above the prevailing water table, water will be drawn from
the tensiometer into the soil. This will then create a tensile hydraulic stress within the tensiometer
which can be measured by means of a pressure transducer or a bourdon gauge(Alessandro
Tarantino, Ridley, & Toll, 2008). The air entry value for the pressed kaolin disk used was 152kPa.
55
Figure 36: Experimental Apparatus including CBR mould (left), Tensiometer in the far
right of picture and ammeter in the foreground.
Table. Tensiometer Specifications

Model No. 2100F soil moisture
probe
Power
Requirement
12-40 VDC
at 50mA
Operating Range
0-100kPa
Temperature
Range
0-60oC
Linearity
.25% full
scale max
Output
4 to 20mA
Hysteresis
Less than
1%
Maximum
Pressure Diff
200kPa
In order to measure the suctions accurately, a small tip tensiometer with flexible coaxial tubing
(Soilmoisture Equipment Corporation) was modified by removing the porous ceramic cup
supplied and attaching the free end to a quick release fitting. This quick release fitting was then
threaded into the baseplate underneath the reservoir. The tensiometer had a pressure transducer
attached to it which was in turn connected to an ammeter. This allowed suction readings to be
taken in terms of milli-Amps. This was easily converted to kPa by using a suction pump and a
56
bourdon gauge to calibrate the instrument. From this calibration a linear relationship was
established which allowed conversion between kPa and mA.
The response time of the instrument was difficult to gauge, as all samples were reconstituted.
This meant that the pore pressures were equalising during the first 24-48 hours before eventually
stabilising.
Figure 36: Small tip tensiometer with coaxial cabling from Soilmoisture Equipment
Corporation.
5.2.3
Experimental method
The tensiometer was connected to the base of the CBR mould by means of the coaxial cable and
tap. The tensiometer was then filled with de-aired water and any remaining air was removed by
means of a vacuum pump. This is a critical point as tension in the water will remove air from
imperfections in the equipment which will affect readings. Therefore, a tension needs to be
applied to the water beforehand to remove such air deposits. The base of the CBR mould was
flooded with water, and left to stand overnight, to ensure full saturation of the porous disk. The
water was then removed from the mould and a base reading of 4mA was recorded which
corresponds to a pore pressure of 0kPa.
The soil sample was dried overnight in an oven at 105o and weighed. The sample was then dry
sieved and all particles greater than 20mm were removed and weighed. Water was then added to
generate the predefined gravimetric water content for each sample. When the soil was
adequately mixed the sample was compacted into the CBR mould in three layers each layer
received 62 blows of a 2.5kg rammer. When the sample was compacted, a plastic sheet was
placed on top of the mould preventing moisture loss to the atmosphere and the sample was left to
stand until pore pressures equalised.
When pore pressures equalised, the collar of the CBR mould was screwed on and sealed. A
layer of water was then applied to the top of the sample and allowed to pond. Readings were
then taken at regular time intervals. The suction was deemed to be at a minimum when no
variation in readings was witnessed for more than ten hours. Samples were then cored and
57
moisture content tests were performed on these cores to develop a moisture content profile of the
sample. The procedure was then repeated for differing initial moisture content values.
5.3
Test Results
An initial moisture content of 15% was chosen for sample no. 1. A maximum suction value of
56kPa was reached before the initial suction in sample 1 stabilized at 40kPa (see figure 37). The
sample was then flooded with water so that ponding would occur. No change in pore pressure
was witnessed over the first two hours of ponding. This was due to the relatively high initial
suction holding the infiltrating water in place near the soil surface thus preventing further
infiltration. However, shortly after three hours, a significant drop-off in suction was recorded. This
decline eventually leveled out approximately 24hours into the experiment. A relatively constant
suction measurement of 2kPa was achieved after 40 hours (Figure 39). This value, which will
henceforth be called its residual value, underwent no appreciable change over the next ten hours
and hence was taken as being constant.
60.00
20% MC
50.00
15% MC
Suction (kPa)
40.00
30.00
20.00
10.00
0.00
0
10
20
30
40
50
Time (hours)
Figure 37: Pore pressure build up from compaction to equalisation.
The second sample had an initial moisture content of 20%. It reached a maximum suction value
of 20kPa and stabilized at that value (Figure 4). After the sample was ponded there was a small
but immediate decrease in suction. This downward trend continued before eventually reaching a
minimum value of 3.81kPa (Figure 37).
The moisture content profiles were taken from the centre of each mould after the experiment had
ended. The core was then divided into smaller samples to develop a profile. The moisture content
results for sample no. 1 varied from 29.9% to 17.3%. The moisture contents were arranged in
58
order of the depth the sample was taken from. A linear regression analysis was performed on the
data and a R2 value of .66 was achieved.
The moisture contents from sample no. 2 varied from a maximum of 24.5% to a minimum of
18.8% when linear regression analysis no relationship of note was observed.
0.35
Moisture Content %
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
4
Sample No.
Figure 38: Moisture content profile of sample no 1. Initial moisture content of the
sample was a15%.
Suction (kPa)
45
40
20% MC
35
15% MC
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
0
10
20
30
40
Time (hours)
50
60
Figure 39 Variation of suction due to infiltration.
59
Table 2. Summary
5.4
Sample no:
Initial
Moisture
Content
15%
20%
17.5%
Dry Density
1.8Mg/m
1.80Mg/m
Bulk Density
2.07Mg/m3
2.13Mg/m3
Residual
Suction
value
2kPa
3.81kPa
Max Suction
56.06kPa
19.82kPa
Discussion
Both samples demonstrated significant decreases in soil suction when water was applied to the
soil surface. However, the rate of decrease differed greatly between samples. The downward
trend in sample no.2 due to infiltration was immediate and relatively constant. This is in sharp
contrast to the trend in sample no.1 where no change in suction was witnessed over the first
three hours until a sudden and sharp decline was seen during hour four (Figure 39). This can be
attributed to the high initial suctions displayed in sample no. 1. These suctions would have acted
as an impediment to infiltration as they would have held the infiltrating water in place essentially
clogging the pore space.
Both samples approached their minimum suction values after approximately 24 hours, with
sample no. 1 showing some minor fluctuations until approximately 40 hours. This minimum
suction value is important as it provides additional stability to partially saturated slopes even
during heavy rainfall events. Both samples appeared to follow an exponential decay in the form
of:
Where is soil matric suction, A and B are constants, and t represents time in hours. Both
samples followed this function with varying degrees of accuracy. A regression coefficient of R2
=.83 was obtained for sample 1 whereas a R2 value of .99 was achieved for sample 2.
Sample no. 1 achieved a much higher initial suction figure of 40kPa as opposed to 20kPa in
sample no. 2. This correlated well with expected results given that sample no.1 had a lower initial
moisture content and numerous studies have shown that suction increases with decreasing
moisture content (Gavin and Xue 2008).
60
The moisture content profile obtained from sample 1 was as expected, showing a marked
decrease in moisture content with depth. This correlates well with the development of a wetting
front near the soil surface. There were small fluctuations in the moisture contents with depth
(Figure 5). However, due to the high gravel content in the soil this is to be expected. The moisture
content profile from sample 2 did not give satisfactory results as when the sample was cored, the
core underwent significant deformation. This resulted in substantial moisture loss from the
sample. As a result, the data is deemed to be inaccurate.
Interestingly, significant swelling was noted for sample no. 1 but no volume change was detected
for sample no. 2.
5.5
Summary
The aforementioned apparatus works well for measuring suctions in a laboratory environment.
Suctions measured were in line with expectations. Both samples tested showed a marked
decrease in soil suction with infiltration. Furthermore, a correlation between increased moisture
content and decreased soil suction was observed. A faster initial decrease in negative pore water
pressure was observed in sample 2. However, after 3-4 hours, the rate of decrease of sample 1
increased significantly. Moisture contents of both samples increased but neither sample
achieved full saturation before negative pore water pressures stabilized. The initial moisture
content has an enormous effect on both the soil suction and the rate of change of soil suction.
This experiment is ongoing and further results will be published for a wider range of initial soil
moisture contents.
61
Conclusions
A review of instruments which could be used to monitor bridge scour and rainfall induced landslides
in the SMARTRAIL project was presented. The instruments which best met the specifications and
budget of the project were selected and procured. Preliminary laboratory studies of the instruments
performance suggested that the chosen systems would be efficient in providing real-time data of the
in-situ response of major infrastructure along rail networks. Such data will help infrastructure
managers to deal efficiently, safely and cost-effectively with the challenges of climate change.
This report deals only with the specification of the instruments to be used within the SMARTRAIL
projects. Later reports of the Work Package 1 group will present data on the initial performance of
the instruments in full-scale experiments and the development of a sensor network for railway
infrastructure managers.
62
References
Scour. Environmental & Engineering Geoscience, XIII(1), 1-10.

Briaud, J.-louis, Hurlebaus, S., Chang, K.-an, Yao, C., Sharma, H., Yu, O.-youn, Darby,
C., et al. (2011). Realtime monitoring of bridge scour using remote monitoring
technology. Security (Vol. 7).
Chopra, A.K. Dynamics of Structures. A Primer. Earthquake Engineering Research
Institute, 1981.
De Falco, F and Mele, R The monitoring of bridges for scour by sonar and sedimetri,
NDT&E International, vol. 35, pp. 117-123, 2002.
Fredlund, D.G. and Rahardjo, H. Soil Mechanics for Unsaturated Soils. John Wiley and
Sons, INC., 1993.
Forde, M.C. Mccann, D.M, Clark, M.R. Broughton, K.J. Fenning, P.J. and Brown, B
Radar measurement of bridge scour, NDT&E International, vol. 32, pp. 481-492,
1999.
Fredlund, D and Xing, A. Equations for the soil-water characteristic curve, Canadian
Geotechnical Journal, vol. 31, no. 3, pp. 521-532, 1994.
Fredlund, D. Xing, A. and Huang, S. Predicting the permeability function for
unsaturated soils using the soil-water characteristic curve, Canadian Geotechnical
Journal, vol. 31, no. 4, pp. 533546, 1994.
Foti, S and Sabia, D. Influence of Foundation Scour on the Dynamic Response of an
Existing Bridge, Journal Of Bridge Engineering, no. April, pp. 295-304, 2011.
Gavin. K and Xue, J. A simple method to analyze infiltration into unsaturated soil
slopes, Computers and Geotechnics, vol. 35, no. 2, pp. 223-230, Mar. 2008.
Gavin, K., & Xue, J. (2009). Design Charts for the Stability Analysis of Unsaturated Soil
Slopes. Geotechnical and Geological Engineering, 28(1), 79-90. doi:10.1007/s10706009-9282-z
Gutenbrunner, G Sensitivity Studies on Damping Estimation, vce.at, 2007.
Hamill, L. Bridge Hydraulics. 1999.
Hussein, E. A. (2012). Vibration Based Damage Detection of Scour in Coastal Bridges.
North Carolina State University.
Hsuan Lin, T., Chi Lu, Y. and Lin Hung, S. Field Study of Bridge Scour Using Imote2 .
NET-Based Wireless Monitoring System, 2011.
63
Jotisankasa, A and Mairaing, W. Suction-monitored direct shear testing of residual

soils from landslide-prone areas, Journal of geotechnical and geoenvironmental
engineering, vol. 136, no. 3, p. 533, 2010.
May, R. W. P., Ackers, J. C., & Kirby, A. M. (2002). Manual on scour at bridges and
other hydraulic structures.Monitoring Scour Critical Bridges, A Synthesis of Highway
Practice. (n.d.).Traffic Safety.
Rahardjo, H. Leong, E.and Rezaur, R. Instrumented slopes for the study of rainfallinduced slope failures, Geotechnical Engineering, Swets & Zeitlinger, Lisse, vol. 3, no.
December, pp. 307312, 2003.
Ridley, A., McGinnity, B., & Vaughan, P. (2004). Role of pore water pressures in
embankment stability. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers-Geotechnical
engineering, 157(4), 193198. Telford. Retrieved from
http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=16283232
Tarantino, A., Ridley, A. M., & Toll, D. G. (2008). Field measurement of suction, water
content, and water permeability. Geotechnical and Geological Engineering, 26(6), 751
782. Springer. Retrieved from
http://www.springerlink.com/index/C67834K30GM11VP7.pdf
VANAPALLI, S.K. FREDLUND, D.G. and PUFAHL, D.E. The relationship between the
soil-water characteristic curve and the unsaturated shear strength of a compacted
glacial till, ASTM geotechnical testing journal, vol. 19, no. 3, pp. 259-268.
Vanapalli, S.K. Sillers, W.S. and Fredlund, M.D. THE MEANING AND RELEVANCE
OF RESIDUAL STATE TO UNSATURATED SOILS, in Construction, 1998, pp. 1-8.
Virgin, L.N, Santillan, S.T. and Holland, D.B. Effect of gravity on the vibration of
vertical cantilevers, Mechanics Research Communications, vol. 34, no. 3, pp. 312-317,
Apr. 2007.
Wardhana, K., & Hadipriono, F. C. (2003). Analysis of Recent Bridge Failures in the
United States. Journal of Performance of Constructed Facilities, 144-151.
Xue, J., & Gavin, K. (2007). Effect of Rainfall Intensity on Infiltration into Partly
Saturated Slopes. Geotechnical and Geological Engineering, 26(2), 199-209.
doi:10.1007/s10706-007-9157-0
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Ventajas e Inconvenientes Sistemas de Monitorización Puentes

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Smart Maintenance, Analysis

Deliverable 1.1 Selection of Sensors to be

Project funded by the EU 7th Framework Programme under call

(c) The SMARTRAIL Consortium 2012

(c) The SMARTRAIL Consortium 2012

SMARTRAILSmart maintenance analysis and remediation of transport infrastructure

SMARTRAIL DEL 1.1 Specification of Sensors to be used at SMART

The SMARTRAIL Consortium

Kenneth Gavin (UCD)

Copyright 2011 2014. The SMARTRAIL Consortium

(c) The SMARTRAIL Consortium 2012

SMARTRAILSmart maintenance analysis and remediation of transport infrastructure

Bridge Scour ............................................................................................................. 9

Instrumentation used to monitor bridge scour ........................................... 9

Single use Buried Devices / Float-Out Devices ............................................ 9

Pulse / Radar Devices:.............................................................................. 12

Piezo-electric Film Sensor Devices............................................................ 15

Buried / Driven Rods: ............................................................................... 15

Superstructure Monitoring ...................................................................... 19

Sound Wave Monitoring .......................................................................... 21

Electrical Conductivity Devices ................................................................. 23

Discussion on Scour Monitoring Equipment ............................................. 24

Instrumentation of choice for Scour ......................................................... 25

Slope Monitoring ................................................................................................... 26

Slope Monitoring Instrumentation ........................................................... 26

Positive Pore Water Pressures ................................................................. 33

Negative Pore Water Pressures................................................................ 35

Soil Moisture ........................................................................................... 38

Laboratory Study ................................................................................................... 40

Use of Accelerometers to investigate bridge scour ................................... 40

EXPERIMENTAL METHODOLOGY .............................................................. 47

(c) The SMARTRAIL Consortium 2012

SMARTRAILSmart maintenance analysis and remediation of transport infrastructure

Conclusions and Recommendations ......................................................... 53

Laboratory measurement of soil suction ............................................................... 54

Experimental Procedure .......................................................................... 55

Test Results ............................................................................................. 58

(c) The SMARTRAIL Consortium 2012

SMARTRAILSmart maintenance analysis and remediation of transport infrastructure

(c) The SMARTRAIL Consortium 2012

SMARTRAILSmart maintenance analysis and remediation of transport infrastructure

SMARTRAILSmart maintenance analysis and remediation of transport infrastructure

Investigate Techniques to measure a bridges response to scour. Modern

(c) The SMARTRAIL Consortium 2012

SMARTRAILSmart maintenance analysis and remediation of transport infrastructure

Instrumentation used to monitor bridge scour

Single use Buried Devices / Float-Out Devices

(c) The SMARTRAIL Consortium 2012

SMARTRAILSmart maintenance analysis and remediation of transport infrastructure

Figure 1 Positioning Float-Out Devices (Monitoring Scour Critical Bridges,

Tethered Buried Switch

SMARTRAILSmart maintenance analysis and remediation of transport infrastructure

Figure 2 Tethered Buried Switch (TBS) (Briaud et al., 2011)

They provide an easy method of The system is costly, both to purchase

(c) The SMARTRAIL Consortium 2012

SMARTRAILSmart maintenance analysis and remediation of transport infrastructure

Figure 3 Typical Float-Out Device (Monitoring Scour Critical Bridges, A

Pulse / Radar Devices:

These devices utilize radar signals or electromagnetic pulses to determine changes in

This method was originally developed by electrical engineers interested in detecting

(c) The SMARTRAIL Consortium 2012

SMARTRAILSmart maintenance analysis and remediation of transport infrastructure

Figure 4 Time-Domain Reflectometer (Briaud et al., 2011)