Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Document Control
Author
Name:
Anthony Seneviratne
Digitally signed by
Anthony Seneviratne
Date: 2014.02.14
08:23:35 +08'00'
Name:
Justin Murphy
2014.02.17
11:55:29
+08'00'
Justin Murphy
Justin Murphy
2014.02.17
11:55:57
+08'00'
Justin Murphy
February 2014
Review Frequency **
3 yearly
February 2017
* Shall be the Process Owner and is the person assigned authority and responsibility for managing the whole
process, end-to-end, which may extend across more than one division and/or functions, in order to deliver agreed
business results.
** Frequency period is dependent upon circumstances maximum is 5 years from last issue, review, or revision
whichever is the latest. If left blank, the default shall be 1 year unless otherwise specified.
Revision Control
Revision
Date
Description
14/02/2013
Initial Document
STAKEHOLDERS
The following positions shall be consulted if an update or
review is required:
NOTIFICATION LIST
The following shall be notified if an update or review is
required
Operations
Page 2 of 139
TABLE OF CONTENTS
FOREWORD ............................................................................................................ 10
1
INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................ 11
1.1
General .................................................................................................................. 11
1.2
DESIGN PROCESS.................................................................................... 13
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
2.9.1
Ground Clearance................................................................................................................. 19
2.9.2
2.9.3
Uplift ...................................................................................................................................... 19
2.9.4
2.10
2.11
DESIGN PRINCIPLES................................................................................ 22
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.3.1
3.3.2
3.3.3
3.4
3.4.1
3.4.2
3.4.3
3.4.3.1
3.5
3.5.1
Page 3 of 139
3.5.2
3.5.2.1
3.5.2.2
3.5.3
3.5.4
3.5.5
3.5.6
Temperature ......................................................................................................................... 31
3.6
3.6.1
3.6.2
3.6.3
3.7
3.7.1
General ................................................................................................................................. 32
3.7.1.1
3.7.2
3.7.2.1
3.7.2.2
3.7.2.3
3.7.2.4
3.7.2.5
3.8
3.8.1
3.8.2
Angle Pole............................................................................................................................. 35
3.8.3
3.8.4
3.8.5
3.8.6
3.8.7
List of Symbols...................................................................................................................... 36
3.8.8
3.8.8.1
3.8.8.2
3.8.8.3
3.8.8.4
4.1
Guidelines .............................................................................................................. 44
4.2
4.3
4.3.1
Page 4 of 139
4.4
4.4.1
Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 46
4.4.2
4.4.3
4.4.3.1
4.4.3.2
4.4.3.3
4.4.3.4
4.4.3.5
4.4.3.6
4.4.3.7
4.4.3.8
4.4.3.9
4.4.3.10
Easements .......................................................................................................................................... 53
4.4.3.11
4.4.3.12
Stays ................................................................................................................................................... 53
4.4.3.13
STAYS ........................................................................................................ 55
5.1
General .................................................................................................................. 55
5.2
Stay Arrangements................................................................................................. 55
5.3
5.3.1
5.3.2
5.3.3
5.3.4
5.3.5
5.3.6
5.4
5.5
INSULATORS ............................................................................................ 58
6.1
6.1.1
6.1.2
Pins ....................................................................................................................................... 58
6.2
6.3
6.3.1
6.4
6.4.1
Example 1 ............................................................................................................................. 60
Page 5 of 139
6.4.2
Example 2 ............................................................................................................................. 61
CROSS-ARMS ........................................................................................... 63
7.1
7.1.1
7.1.2
7.1.3
7.2
7.2.1
Cross-arm Strength............................................................................................................... 63
7.2.1.1
7.2.1.2
Termination Cross-arm........................................................................................................................ 63
7.2.2
7.2.2.1
Intermediate ........................................................................................................................................ 64
7.2.2.2
Angle ................................................................................................................................................... 64
7.2.2.3
Termination ......................................................................................................................................... 65
7.3
7.4
7.4.1
7.4.2
Example 2 ............................................................................................................................. 68
CONDUCTORS .......................................................................................... 69
8.1
8.1.1
8.1.1.1
8.1.1.2
8.1.1.3
8.1.1.4
Temperature ........................................................................................................................................ 70
8.1.1.5
8.1.1.6
8.1.2
8.1.3
8.1.4
8.1.5
8.1.6
8.2
8.2.1
8.2.2
8.2.3
8.2.4
8.2.4.1
Page 6 of 139
8.2.4.2
8.3
Clearance Requirements........................................................................................ 77
8.3.1
8.3.2
8.3.3
8.3.4
8.3.5
8.3.6
Other Clearance.................................................................................................................... 87
8.4
Formulae ................................................................................................................ 87
8.4.1
8.4.2
Sag ........................................................................................................................................ 87
8.4.2.1
8.4.2.2
8.4.2.3
8.4.3
Tension ................................................................................................................................. 88
8.4.3.1
8.4.3.2
8.4.3.3
8.5
8.5.1
8.5.2
8.5.2.1
Annealing ............................................................................................................................................ 91
8.5.2.2
8.5.2.3
8.5.3
8.5.3.1
8.5.3.2
8.6
9.1
9.1.1
9.1.2
9.1.3
9.1.4
9.1.5
9.1.5.1
9.1.5.2
9.1.5.3
9.1.5.4
Page 7 of 139
9.1.5.5
9.2
10
10.1
10.1.1
10.1.2
10.1.3
10.1.4
10.1.5
10.2
10.2.1
10.2.2
10.2.3
10.2.4
10.2.5
10.2.6
10.2.7
10.2.8
10.2.9
10.3
10.3.1
10.3.2
10.3.3
11
11.1
11.2
11.3
11.4
11.4.1
11.4.2
Page 8 of 139
11.4.3
11.4.4
11.4.5
11.4.6
12
12.1
12.2
12.3
12.3.1
12.3.1.1
12.3.1.2
12.3.2
12.3.3
12.3.4
12.3.5
12.3.6
13
13.1
13.2
13.3
13.4
13.4.1
13.4.2
13.4.3
13.4.4
13.4.5
13.4.6
Page 9 of 139
FOREWORD
This volume is one in a series of five volumes, which together, form the Horizon Power
Distribution Design Manual. The DDM is intended to be a comprehensive reference manual
for distribution design work carried out by professional engineers and technical support staff.
The five volumes are:
Volume 1: Quality of Electricity Supply
Volume 2: Low Voltage Aerial Bundled Cable
Volume 3: Supply to Large Customer Installations
Volume 4: Underground Residential Distribution (URD)
Volume 5: Overhead Bare Conductor Distribution
The DDM will also serve to initiate "newcomers" to distribution work in Horizon Power without
them having to start from scratch. It serves to establish "standards" for design work to ensure
that we get the best value from our facilities - not only in terms of initial cost, but also in terms
of component availability, length of service life and cost-effective maintenance. In addition to
this, the DDM will also serve as a teaching aid for courses run by Horizon Power.
This volume describes the engineering process involved in designing and providing
electricity supplies using bare overhead conductor.
It describes the design process in detail, making use of standardised design information for
use with routine work.
Page 10 of 139
INTRODUCTION
1.1
General
This document describes the engineering process involved in designing
distribution overhead power lines. These lines typically originate from Zone
substations as Medium Voltage lines and are stepped down to Low Voltage
through distribution transformers. Low Voltage overhead power lines then
transmit power from transformers to customer installations. Some customers are
supplied directly from the Medium Voltage network.
Overhead Power lines account for a significant proportion of Horizon Power's
networks. These assets involve large amounts of capital expenditure, both by
Horizon Power and customers. Also, these lines need to be properly designed
and constructed and it is imperative that a high level of engineering input is put
into their designs, particularly because these lines may be built in cyclonic areas.
Effort expended here could avoid unnecessary expenses for Horizon Power and
customers and ensure that the customer's requirements and all of Horizon
Power's requirements are catered for.
Each overhead line requires different design considerations, configurations,
layouts, etc. As such, there may be many different ways to approach a design.
The information contained in this manual will assist the designer to develop a
structured design approach, and ensure that the optimum line configuration is
selected at all times.
1.2
When the requirement for a line has been established, the following factors need
to be considered before the design can commence. They are:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
h)
Page 11 of 139
The capacity (load) to be carried by the power line during its lifetime together with
voltage drop and fault rating considerations will dictate the size and type of
conductor to be used. The line design process is discussed in Chapter 2.
Page 12 of 139
DESIGN PROCESS
Typical steps in an overhead distribution line design are shown below. The actual
steps and their sequence will depend upon the individual project and the context
in which the design is performed.
The process is iterative, with the designer making some initial assumptions, e.g.
as to pole height and size, which may later need to be adjusted as the design is
checked and gradually refined. The optimum arrangement that meets all
constraints is required as the final outcome. Horizon Power uses overhead line
simulation software to aid the design process.
The generalised design process is shown in Figure 2.1.
2.1
The designer should take into consideration the environmental factors which
could influence the design of the supply arrangement, e.g. selection of and
location of equipment, etc.
For example, suppose an overhead MV line is to be constructed to supply a
customer remote from a zone substation, and the line route traverses an area of
high lightning activity. It would seem prudent for the designer to include an earthwire system to shield the conductors, in the line design, even though this is not
normal practice for distribution lines.
Similar considerations should apply for lines or installations close to the coast,
which are subjected to high salt-pollution levels. High pollution insulators may be
incorporated in the line design.
Consideration must be given to the location of the equipment or the environment
the equipment is to operate in. For example, a pole top transformer may not be
entirely suitable for use outside a cement plant or quarry, where the build up of
fly-ash or dust on insulators may lead to nuisance tripping or a disproportionately
high level of maintenance. Others include mines sites, with open air blasting, etc.
Page 13 of 139
b)
c)
d)
e)
Dust;
f)
Erosion;
g)
h)
Native title;
i)
Noise;
j)
Protected wetlands;
k)
l)
The design should be 'traceable' back to a set of design inputs. Persons other
than the original designer should be able to review the design and see why it was
done a certain way.
Page 14 of 139
Select Route
Design Satisfactory
NO
YES
Continue to Design Review/Approval Process
Page 15 of 139
2.2
Selection of Route
Ideally, the line route should be as short and straight as possible in order to
minimise costs, minimise stays and have a tidy appearance. However, some
other factors that need to be taken into account are:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
h)
i)
2.3
2.4
Ground line profiling may not be necessary for minor projects in urban areas
where the ground is reasonably level or has a consistent slope throughout and
there are no on site obstructions.
The designer can check worst case ground clearances by deducting the sag in
the span from the height of the supports at either end by taking the following
measurements:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
Conductor temperature
Conductor size/type
Ambient temperature
Conductor attachment point with respect to ground level
Strain points
Page 16 of 139
2.5
2.6
Horizontal (flat) construction has the advantage of reduced pole height at the
expense of a wider line and corresponding broader easement width.
Flat configurations are preferred in areas frequented by birds. For higher risk
spans increasing conductor separation can reduce conductor flashover due to
bird impact. Attaching bird diverters on conductors is also effective as a visual
warning to birds.
Delta pin configuration provides for both horizontal and vertical separation and
helps reduce conductor clashing.
Page 17 of 139
Overall, more compact pole top configurations are less visually obstructive. It is
best to keep to reasonably consistent configurations to maintain visual amenity
as well as maintain spanning capability and ease of conductor phasing.
2.7
3)
4)
5)
6)
Page 18 of 139
2.8
2.9
Checking Clearances
2.9.1
Ground Clearance
If the line profile screen shows that there is insufficient ground clearance (refer to
clause 8.3.2) the designer may need to:
2.9.2
2.9.3
Uplift
Poles at the bottom of a hill or in a gully are prone to uplift. Under cold conditions,
the conductors heading up the slope will become tight and pull upward on
structures, causing damage.
Uplift is generally not a problem if it is on one side of the structure only and offset
on the opposite side by a downward force, as may occur with a line with
successive spans running down a steep slope. However, if on both sides of an
intermediate structure such as a suspension or pin construction, it needs to be
addressed. Possible solutions include:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
Page 19 of 139
2.9.4
Horizontal Clearances
The designer should check that there are adequate horizontal clearances
between the line and any nearby structures (e.g. flag poles, buildings, bridge
columns, streetlight columns) or embankments. (Refer to clause 8.3.3) These
clearances should be checked for both - (a) the no wind condition and (b) the
blowout conditions.
Ways of addressing horizontal clearance problems include:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
h)
2.10
Page 20 of 139
2.11
Optimisation of Design
The design process is iterative. The initial first-pass design is 'tweaked'
repeatedly until it complies with all technical (standards and regulations) and
stakeholder requirements and is optimal in terms of cost, reliability and
practicality for construction, maintenance and operations.
Page 21 of 139
DESIGN PRINCIPLES
3.1
Basic Methodology
The design methodology involves the development of a suite of appropriate
structures, insulation and constructions for use at the various voltage levels to
comply with AS 7000 - Overhead Line Design (Detailed Procedures). The
overhead line has to perform with suitable levels of reliability and security for the
weather related loads expected in the region it is installed for the entirety of its
intended life.
3.2
Security Levels
All overhead lines should be designed for a selected security level relevant to
the lines importance to the system (including consideration of system
redundancy), its location and exposure to climatic conditions, and with due
consideration for public safety and design working life.
AS 7000 (Chapter 6) provides a framework to evaluate and select standard
designs to suit a relevant security level appropriate to a particular line, line
construction class or line type.
The security levels are defined below:
3.3
Level 1
Level 2
Level 3
Page 22 of 139
3.3.1
Level 1
Level 2
Level
3polycarp3
10
20
< 5 years
10
20
40
25 years
25
50
100
50 years
50
100
200
100 years
100
200
400
Page 23 of 139
3.4
Design Principles
The main technical aspects in the design of overhead lines are ensuring that:
there are adequate clearances between the conductors and the ground
or from other objects in the vicinity of the line, as well as between the
various phase conductors and circuits themselves so that clashing does
not occur.
The line must comply with these requirements over the full design range of
weather and other load conditions that could reasonably encountered when the
line is cold and taut, when at its maximum design temperature and consequently
when conductor sag is at a maximum, and under maximum wind conditions. The
load conditions to be considered for Horizon Power lines are set out in the
following sections, where applicable wind pressures, temperatures and load
factors are provided.
Page 24 of 139
3.4.1
Loading on Structures
The loads on a structure consist of three mutually perpendicular systems of load
acting vertical, normal to the direction of line, and parallel to the direction of the
line. These loads can be described as:
Vertical load
Transverse load
Longitudinal load
Vertical loads
Vertical loads include the weight of conductors, earth wires, cross arms and pole
mounted plant such as transformers.
Transverse loads
Transverse loads are caused by wind on conductor and structure and horizontal
tension from deviation angle in the line.
Longitudinal loads
Longitudinal loads are caused by difference in conductor tension on either side of
termination structures, adjacent spans being of different lengths and an abnormal
(broken wire) load on the structure.
Page 25 of 139
3.4.2
3.4.3
3.4.3.1
Located on the opposite side of the road from areas such as schools,
kindergartens, child-care centres and the like.
Sited away from the walls of multi storey buildings or areas where children
congregate.
Located on the side of the road bordered by open spaces where
applicable.
Use of aerial bundled cables for low voltage reticulation to provide more
effective field cancellation
Balancing of load across all phases to reduce neutral currents
Adopt a low reactance (RWB/BWR) phasing when current flow in both
circuits is in the same direction for new double circuit lines,
For lines with both medium and low voltage conductors, the phasing on
existing circuits should be determined when building under/over existing
facilities to minimise combined magnetic field strength.
Page 26 of 139
3.5
Design Basis
The Limit State design approach uses a reliability based (risk of failure) approach
to match component strengths (modified by a factor to reflect strength variability)
to the effect of loads calculated on the basis of an acceptably low probability of
occurrence.
3.5.1
=
are load factors which take into account variability of loads, importance
of structure, stringing, maintenance and safety considerations etc.
Wn
=
the strength reduction factor which takes into account variability of
material, workmanship etc.
Rn
Limit States
To maintain structural integrity, the structure strength must always exceed the
applied mechanical load, otherwise the line passes beyond the limit of its intact
state to a damaged state or failed state. Beyond these limits, the line no longer
satisfies the design performance requirements. Limit state design principles will
be further discussed in clause 3.5.2 Limit State Design.
Intact state
Strength limits
Damaged state or
deflected state
Damage Limit
(serviceability limit state)
3.5.2
Failed state
Failure Limit
(ultimate limit state)
Page 27 of 139
3.5.2.1
3.5.2.2
3.5.3
V50 Md Mz,cat Ms Mt
where
Mz,cat =
gust winds speed multiplier for terrain category (From Table 3.4 ) based
on AS/NZS 1170.2
Md
Ms
Mt
V50
basic regional wind velocity for the region corresponding to the 50 year
return period. (39, 52 and 60 m/s for regions A, C and D respectively)
Please note that for V100 , the corresponding values are 41, 56 and 66
m/s. (Refer to Table 3.5 for wind regions)
Note: As per Appendix B3 of AS 7000, cyclonic wind amplification factors are not
applicable to Regions C & D.
The design pressure qz shall be calculated as follows:
qz
3.5.4
Wind Loads
Wind loads shall be applied to all elements of an overhead line.
The design wind pressure qz for different types of surfaces can be calculated
by multiplying with the drag force coefficient for that particular surface (Cd)
qz = 0.6 Vz2 x Cd x 10
-3
The drag force coefficient (Cd), for various equipment, is given in Table 3.2
below:
Page 28 of 139
Suggested Cd Factor
1.0
1.3
Octagonal pole
1.4
Transformers
1.5
Regulators
1.2
1.0
1.2/1.6
Insulators (post/pin/strain)
1.2
Category 1
Category 2
Category 3
Category 4
Region C, D
Region C, D
Region C, D
Region C, D
0.98
0.98
0.854
0.854
10
1.0
1.0
0.89
0.89
12
1.028
1.028
0.926
0.914
14
1.056
1.056
0.938
0.938
16
1.084
1.084
0.962
0.962
Page 29 of 139
Description
Exposed open terrain
3.5.5
Description
V50
V100
900
1000
1600
1900
2150
2600
Page 30 of 139
For Region A, SRF = 1, for spans up to 200 m and for spans > 200, calculate
SRF using the formula:
SRF = 1.0 {(span length - 200)/1000} x 0.3125
For Regions C and D, calculate SRF using the formula:
SRF = 0.59 + 0.41 e (- span length/210)
3.5.6
Temperature
Ambient temperature for Region A is 40 C (summer) and 15 C (winter) and for
Regions C & D 45 C (summer) and 35 C (winter).
Maximum conductor temperature must not exceed 75 C, to ensure that electrical
clearances are maintained.
3.6
3.6.1
3.6.2
3.6.3
Limit State
Strength
0.9
Strength
0.9
Strength
0.5
Page 31 of 139
Limit State
Serviceability
Strength
Serviceability
Fittings
and
fabricated/cast
pins,
forged
Strength
Reduction Factor
()
0.3
0.5 to 0.8
0.4
or Strength
0.95
Strength
0.9
0.95
0.8
0.5
Fittings, cast
Strength
Conductors
Serviceability
Stays
Strength
3.7
Load Combinations
3.7.1
General
Page 32 of 139
3.7.1.1
Permanent Loads
Self weight of structures, insulators, other fixed equipment and conductors
resulting from adjacent spans act as permanent loads.
Vertical loads on poles foundations, cross-arms, insulators and fittings is the
vertical force due to their own mass plus the mass of all ancillaries and
attachments. (Gs).
Vertical loads of conductors/cables and attachments such as marker balls,
spacers and dampers form the design weight span.(Gc)
3.7.2
3.7.2.2
3.7.2.3
3.7.2.4
3.7.2.5
Page 33 of 139
Page 34 of 139
3.8
3.8.1
Intermediate Pole
.
3.8.2
. 10 + . . . 10
. 0.5
. 10 + .
. 10
Angle Pole
15 ,
+wind on cross-arm +
wind on insulators
2
15, Pc sin
. . 0.5
10 . . . cos
. 10 + . . . 10
. 10 + .
. 10
,
,
3.8.3
Termination Pole
,
Note: See section on stays for crippling load formulae. If an object of significant
area (e.g. transformer, recloser, large insulator) is erected on any pole then the
wind load on that object must be included in the calculation.
3.8.4
Load Referral
Having calculated the loads, they are referred to the pole reference point and
then summed.
3.8.5
Bending Moment
If the pole diameter needs to be determined then the bending moment at groundline must first be calculated.
Bending moment at ground-line
= Load1xhact + Load2xhact + ...
Page 35 of 139
3.8.6
Pole Strength
The ultimate tip load capacity of a steel pole must be obtained from the
manufacturer of the steel pole. Poles used by Horizon Power on the distribution
network are provided in Table 4.7.
3.8.7
3.8.8
List of Symbols
A
DG
DT
Ch
Cw
Ih
Iw
hact
href
Pc
Px
Pi
Pp
T(X,Y)
Page 36 of 139
DESIGN DATA
11 kV Conductor type:
19/3.75 AAC (Pluto) to AS 1531 strung at 5% of CBL at 15C.
Dia
Mass
Area
(mm)
(kg/m)
(mm2 )
(MPa)
(/deg C)
(kN)
18.8
0.576
209.8
65000
0.000023
31.9
Conductor
Pluto
1200
CBL
1200
200
400
11 kV Conductor positions:
Conductor 1:
Conductor 2:
Conductor 3:
LV Bracket - ABC
Mass
Area
Conductor
4/95 ABC
8700
CBL
(mm)
(kg/m)
(mm )
(MPa)
(/deg C)
(kN)
38.4
1.35
380
56000
0.000023
53.2
CALCULATIONS
Page 37 of 139
102
Wind Pressure
Kununurra is in Region C and the wind non-directional. Use a wind return
period (RP) of 50 years (Security Level = 1 as per Table 3.1)
Use terrain category = 2.5, as the line is partly in category 2 and partly
category 3 (from Table 3.4)
Use mean conductor height = 10 m,
Height multiplier Mz,cat = 0.945 (use linear interpolation from Table 3.3)
Mt = 1, Md = 1, Ms = 0.85 (clause 3.5.3 note that this clause has since been
changed to M s = 1 following review, although in this example M s = 0.85 has not been
changed )
Regional wind speed V50 = 52 m/s (clause 3.5.3)
Design site wind speed = 52 0.945 0.85 = 41.77 m/s (clause 3.5.3)
Design wind pressure = 1.05 kPa
SRF = 0.92 (clause 3.5.5)
Conductor Loads
Conductor loads under the following conditions can be determined using the
Overhead line simulation program.
11 kV Conductor load
conditions (RS = 45 m)
Temp
5C
Ft =
1.78 kN
15C
Ft =
5.11 kN
15C
0.5 kPa
Ft =
2.94 kN
15C
Ft =
2.01 kN
5C
Ft =
4.16 kN
15C
Ft = 10.48
kN
15C
0.5 kPa
Ft = 6.23
kN
15C
Ft =
4.47 kN
Wind
Load
Page 38 of 139
3.8.8.1
This requirement must be satisfied for the pole as well as for individual
components such as conductors, cross-arms and insulators. In this example,
only the pole and conductors will be considered.
Gs and Gc are vertical loads. Wn and Ft are transverse loads.
Capacity of 11 kV Conductor
The capacity of the 11 kV conductor must be determined.
Strength factor = 0.5 from Table 3.6, to satisfy serviceability condition
Rn
Rn
15.95 kN
Conductor short duration load of 1.25 x 5.11 = 6.4 kN, is the highest tension
that the conductor would be subject to, therefore for each 11 kV conductor,
capacity: 15.95 > 6.4, i.e. Rn > load is satisfied.
Capacity of 415 V Cable
The capacity of the 11 kV conductor must be determined.
Strength factor = 0.5 from Table 3.6, to satisfy serviceability condition
Rn
Rn
26.6 kN
Conductor short duration load of 1.25 x 10.48 = 13.1 kN, is the highest
tension that the conductor would be subject to, therefore for each 415 V
conductor, capacity: 26.6 > 13.1, i.e. Rn > load is satisfied.
Pole Capacity
Ultimate transverse wind load Wn will comprise wind loads on pole,
conductor/cable and hardware:
wind on pole = 1.3 x 1.05 = 1.4 kPa (Table 3.2)
pole wind load = 1.4 0.5 (0.125 + 0.395) 10.2 = 3.71 kN
acting 4.8 m above ground
wind on cross-arm = 1.4 x 1.05 = 1.47 kPa (Table 3.2)
cross-arm load = 0.1 0.15 1.47 = 0.022 kN acting at 10 m above
ground
Page 39 of 139
=
(3.71 4.8) + (0.022 10 + (2 0.026 10.2)
+ (0.026 10.6) + (2 0.86 10.2) +(0.86 10.6) + (1.76 8.7)
=
60.8 kNm
Gc
Transverse
load
due
to
Ft
for
each
11 kV
2 T15C,1.05kPa sin(15/2) = 2 x 5.11 x 0.13 = 1.33 kN
conductor
158.35 kNm
Page 40 of 139
3.8.8.2
(clause 3.7.2.3)
23.6 kNm
3.8.8.3
(clause 3.7.2.4)
This requirement must be satisfied for the pole as well as for individual
components such as conductors, cross-arms and insulators. In this assessment,
only the pole is considered.
Gs and Gc are vertical loads. Ft is a transverse load.
Transverse load due to Ft for each 11 kV conductor = 2 T15C,0.5 kPa sin(15/2) = 2
x 2.94 x 0.13 = 0.77 kN
Transverse load due to Ft for 415 V cable = 2 T15C,0.5 kPa sin(15/2) = 2 x 6.23 x
0.13 = 1.62 kN
The wind load on the pole, cross arm, insulators and conductors can be
determined similar to under ultimate strength limit state assessment using a wind
pressure of 0.5 kPa.
This value = 28.50 kNm (approximately 0.5/0.95 times 54.16 kNm calculated for
ultimate strength limit state).
Page 41 of 139
The total pole base moment can now be calculated as shown below:
The equivalent serviceability load at the top of pole:
=
28.50 + (1.25 0.225 0.63) + 1.1
BMtot
(0.77 10.6) + 1.62 8.7)
=
70.44 kNm
The equivalent serviceability pole tip load = 70.44 / 10.2 = 6.9 kNm
If the pole in example is an untreated wood pole, strength factor = 0.3
(Table 3.6)
Strength factor = 0.3 for untreated wood poles with respect to
serviceability.
Capacity of required pole 6.9/ 0.3 = 23.0 kN must be satisfied.
A minimum capacity 23.1 kN pole is required.
However, in the case of a steel pole, a minimum capacity 7.67 kN (6.9/0.9)
pole is required
3.8.8.4
Page 42 of 139
The total pole base moment can now be calculated as shown below:
Gs and Gc are assumed to be the same as they are small.
The equivalent failure containment load at the top of pole, in the direction
transverse to the line direction:
BMtot =
40.31 kNm
The equivalent failure containment load at the top of pole, in the horizontal
line direction:
BMtot =
=
Everyday load
Serviceability
Failure
Containment
24 kN
Transverse
2.6 kN
Transverse
7.7 kN
Transverse
4.4 kN
Transverse
A 24 kN / 12.5 m steel pole would suffice for all limit state conditions
Page 43 of 139
SUPPORT DESIGN
4.1
Guidelines
a)
b)
Intermediate (in line) poles must consider wind loads on the conductors,
pole and all attachments.
c)
Angle poles shall consider wind loads on the pole and all fittings plus
tension loads in the conductors. When designing for the maximum wind
load condition the tension used shall be the tension which is developed in
the conductors under maximum wind load conditions. Also, the pole shall
be designed to withstand sustained tension loads in the conductors under
everyday (still air) conditions.
d)
e)
4.2
I.
in the line direction - the maximum wind loads and sustained load in
the conductors; and
II.
Pole Selection
A range of pole sizes is available for use. Each has a specific maximum load
rating as given in Table 4.7. The rating refers to the maximum load that can be
applied at a point 300 mm below the crown of the pole.
Once the total load of the conductor plus equipment (refer to load combinations
in section 3.7) is known then a suitable size pole can be chosen, with a load
rating equal to or in excess of the total load.
Care must be taken to include anticipated (future) additions or modifications that
maybe carried out to the pole structure, to ensure that the correct load rating is
selected.
When selecting a pole of the required size (rating) the following steps must be
taken:
1)
Determine:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
Page 44 of 139
2)
3)
4)
5)
Determine pole capacity required for each condition required in step 4).
6)
If the total load exceeds the strength of the chosen pole, re-estimate
required pole size and repeat from step 3.
Length (m)
4.3
Ultimate Tip
Load (kN)
Pole
Diameter
Pole
Diameter
(mm) Top
(mm) Base
Nominal In
Ground
Depth (mm)
9.5
16
125
330
1.55
11.0
16
125
362
1.70
11.0
24
155
440
1.70
12.5
16
125
395
1.85
12.5
24
155
479
1.85
14.0
16
135
413
2.00
14.0
24
160
517
2.00
Foundation Design
The foundation is called upon to resist the following types of forces:
Uplift
Down thrust
Lateral load
Overturning moment
Foundations for supports may take the form of single foundations in the case of
pole type structures and stay anchors or separate footings for each leg of towers.
The loading on single footings is predominantly in the form of overturning
moment, which is usually resisted by lateral soil pressure, together with
additional shear and vertical forces resisted by upwards soil pressure.
Page 45 of 139
Common types of single foundations are direct buried poles, bored caissons,
mono-bloc footings, pad or raft footings, bored pier foundations, and single pile or
pile group foundations.
When separate footings are provided for each leg the predominant loadings are
compression and uplift forces, however, shear forces should be considered.
Uplift and compression forces are usually resisted by combinations of dead
weight of the foundation bulk, earth surcharges, shear forces and bearing in the
soil. This also applies to guy foundations.
4.3.1
4.4
4.4.1
Introduction
These guidelines on pole positions are applicable for average sized, medium
density residential subdivisions (e.g. with average pole spans of 35 to 40
metres).
The guidelines are intended for the positioning of LV (240/415 V), MV (11, 22
and 33 kV) and street lighting poles.
Pole locations in traffic corridors are influenced by factors including traffic speed,
traffic volume, road deviation and traffic calming devices (roundabouts, chicanes,
etc.), embankments (cut or fill slopes) next to the road, frangibility of the pole,
road kerbing and parking.
Poles can be positioned closer to the road where there is a permanent barrier
between the poles and the road. Barriers can take the form of natural items such
as kerbs, trees, rocks and crash barriers such as walls, wire rope, etc.
Frangible poles can typically be positioned closer to the road because they
absorb the impact of the vehicle to a greater extent than non-frangible poles.
4.4.2
AS/NZS 1158.1.2
Austroads publications and guidelines for rural and urban road design
AS/NZS 3845
Page 46 of 139
4.4.3
4.4.3.1
4.4.3.2
Street Lighting
Distribution poles should, whenever possible, be positioned to take into account
the street lighting design requirements so that an acceptable level of street
lighting can be achieved.
Location and spacing of street lighting poles and luminaries to achieve the
acceptable level of street lighting must be part of the overall design process.
Refer to Chapter 15 for street lighting requirements.
4.4.3.3
Future Extensions
Consideration should be given to the likelihood/possibility of future extensions to
the existing/proposed distribution network (e.g. requirements for tee-offs,
ground/aerial stays). Figure 4.3 shows an example of how the positioning of the
pole can facilitate the easy construction of the tee-off in future.
Page 47 of 139
Advantages by Positioning
Consideration should be given to any advantages that could be achieved by
positioning poles on one side of a street as opposed to the other (e.g. elimination
of customer service poles, reducing likelihood of outages caused by trees in
mains. Figure 4.4 shows the advantage of positioning the poles on the right hand
side of the street to reduce the customer service poles.
Page 48 of 139
4.4.3.5
Earthed Poles
Earthed poles such as MV conductive poles, Pole-Top-Switch or Transformer
poles must NOT be located in close proximity to telecommunication assets (e.g.
jointing pits, pillars, man-holes, telephone cabinets) and metallic pipelines
carrying water and gas, unless in accordance with Horizon Powers Standard on
Distribution Lines in the Vicinity of Conductive assets. A Dial Before You Dig
(DBYD) enquiry must therefore be submitted as part of the design process
With earth faults, high step and touch potentials can arise in the immediate
vicinity of earthed distribution structures as the fault current passes through the
earth electrode (particularly those with deeply driven earth electrodes). These
potentials may be of sufficient magnitude to endanger the life of persons or
damage communications equipment near the earthed structure, unless
precautions are taken.
The minimum allowable distances for earthed distribution structures to Telecoms
assets are as recommended in Table A 2 of AS 3835.2:2006 and summarised in
Table 4.3.
Table 4.3: - Minimum Distances to Telecom Assets
Voltage
66 kV
33 kV
Earthing Requirements
No aerial earth wire
With aerial earth wire
No aerial earth wire
With aerial earth wire
Minimum Allowable
Distance
40 m
15 m
15 m
5m
Earthed poles must also not be located close to driveways, frequented public
access ways, etc. A minimum separation of 2 m is recommended to minimise the
risk of damage to the earthing system installed that will lead to the reduction of its
effectiveness.
An example of this is shown in Figure 4.5
Page 49 of 139
4.4.3.6
Page 50 of 139
4.4.3.7
Road Intersections
Pole positions at road intersections should be carefully selected to minimise the
reduced visibility to the road users entering or exiting the intersections. This can
easily be achieved by placing poles at the point where the property lot boundary
(not the actual edge of the road) and the pole offset line intersect. This is shown
in Figure 4.8.
Page 51 of 139
4.4.3.9
Driveway Crossovers
Poles (including stay poles) should not be located within 1 metre of an existing
driveway crossover .This is shown in Figure 4.9.
Page 52 of 139
4.4.3.10
Easements
Poles (including stay poles) should not be located within the projection of
sewerage, drainage and gas pipe easements existing on a property. This is
shown in Figure 4.10.
4.4.3.11
Circuit Overhang
Wherever possible, poles should be located in positions that will avoid circuit
overhang of lot boundaries. If unavoidable, circuit overhang should be kept to an
absolute minimum. This is shown in Figure 4.11.
Stays
Stay (other than aerial stays ) should not bridge existing or likely driveway
crossovers. This is shown in Figure 4.12.
Page 53 of 139
4.4.3.13
Page 54 of 139
STAYS
5.1
General
5.2
1)
2)
The designer should take into account the flexibility of the stays and ground
anchors and the effects of the likely deformation of the pole structure.
3)
A rigid stay is one which will hold the load without allowing the stayed pole
to move sufficiently enough for the pole to carry a significant portion of the
load. A ground stay is considered to be rigid when connected to a steel or
wood pole.
4)
Rigid stays shall be designed to take the full stay load without assistance
from the stayed pole.
5)
6)
Stay Arrangements
A stay angle to ground of 45 is recommended
However, where space is limited, the angle to ground may be increased to a
maximum of 60. This will increase tension in the stay wire and increase the
downward compressive forces on the pole and its foundation.
Where practicable, ground stays should not be used in frequented areas such as
public roadside footpaths, bicycle ways and livestock forcing areas near
stockyard access ways.
Horizon Power uses two standard stay wires (SC/GZ) 19/2.00 (70 kN CBL) and
19/2.75 (141 kN CBL) in stay assemblies.
5.3
Stay Formulae
5.3.1
Single Stay
5.3.2
5.3.3
Page 55 of 139
5.3.4
Outrigger Stay
Outrigger stays are generally not recommended and shall not be used on
termination poles. For the design of the outrigger stays, refer to DM# 3739641.
5.3.5
Loads on Poles
Refer to section 3.8 for calculation of bending moment for loads on poles.
The minimum embedment depth for poles with stays should be at least 2 m.
5.3.6
Stay Anchorage
Ground anchors will move to develop the full passive pressure wedge. If the
amount of soil movement has not been specifically determined, a value of
200 mm should be assumed.
It is recommended that ground holding strengths are based on test results rather
than calculations. The standard stay design in the Distribution Construction
Manual includes anchors with holding strengths equal to or greater than the rest
of the stay assembly .
In difficult terrain, such as swampy or marshy ground conditions, special
provision needs to be made for anchoring. A swamp type anchor which provides
a large cross sectional area should be used. Alternatively, where this does not
provide sufficient ground area, stay rods with reinforced concrete block and bulk
concrete should be employed.
5.4
List of Symbols
RMstay
Hs
hs1,hs2
Ts
AH
AV
Page 56 of 139
5.5
Worked Example
In the example in clause 3.8.8.1, determine the size of ground stay required if the
ultimate strength requirement is 24 kN and only a 16 kN/12.5 m steel pole is
available.
The pole is self supporting for everyday, serviceability and failure containment
load conditions without stay. (Pole should not fail due to loss of stay under
everyday load)
If ground stay used and attached to the top of pole,
Load required to be supported by stay = 24 kN
Angle of stay = 45transverse and opposing conductor tension loads)
Tension in stay = 24 x 1.414 =34 kN
Component strength factor for distribution stay = 0.8 (Table 3.6)
Ultimate strength of stay = 34 / 0.8 = 42.5 kN select SC/GZ stay wire 19/2.0
(CBL = 70 kN)
Compressive load in pole due to stay = 24 kN
The compressive strength of 300 mm diameter wood poles is typically around
250 kN with higher strength for steel poles. Hence, the compressive load is
generally tolerable. For stayed poles with long length and small diameter, the
buckling failure mode of the pole should be considered.
Page 57 of 139
INSULATORS
6.1
Insulator Design
Insulators are required to meet electrical, mechanical and pollution withstand
requirements during their lifetime. Electrical stresses include power frequency,
switching and lightning over voltages and mechanical stresses include the
tensile, compressive or cantilever loadings from conductor tension and weight.
Air gap clearance refers to the minimum distance which should be maintained
between the live conductor and earthed metal parts of the support to avoid
flashover. The minimum air gap clearance (refer to table) has to be maintained
even under the conditions of system over-voltages with the insulator strings in
the deflected position due to the action of wind pressure. Two types of over
voltages which can occur on a distribution overhead line are:
6.1.1
The basic concept is to increase the surface creepage distance so that it is long
enough to prevent a pollution flashover across the surface of the insulator.
Experience has shown that an insulator with an open aerodynamic profile
combined with adequate creepage length will give satisfactory service in most
locations in Western Australia. Details of a suitable profile are shown in
Figure 6.1. Currently polymeric insulators are predominantly used in new
installations due their superior performance in polluted environments. Details
about insulation co-ordination including design for power frequency and impulse
voltages are covered in Chapter 11.
In locations where rainfall is spread throughout the year and aerodynamic profile
insulators are not performing satisfactorily fog profile insulators may be
considered.
6.1.2
Pins
Although pin length may affect electrical characteristics of lines, pins
principally required to meet only mechanical requirements.
Page 58 of 139
are
6.2
6.3
Page 59 of 139
Suspension
Everyday
Serviceability
Resultant load at
serviceability wind
Resultant load at
serviceability wind +
longitudinal unbalance
load
Ultimate
6.3.1
Tension
Ultimate
Standard Insulators
Horizon Power uses Strain and Stand-off Insulators:
Strain 70 kN Strength Rating (creepage -1372 mm and 838 mm options)
Stand-off 6 kN Strength Rating (creepage -1000 mm)
6.4
6.4.1
Example 1
Determine the strength requirement of a tension ceramic disc insulator used on a
33 kV overhead line with 7/4.75 AAC conductor strung at 20% CBL and 15C.
Assume that the span concerned is a termination span in Esperance.
Tension load (ultimate) is the limiting load condition.
Using the limit state strength condition from clause 3.7.3.1 and
900 kPA is the design wind speed for Esperance (Table 3.5)
Maximum conductor tension at 900 kPA = 8.61 kN (from Overhead line
simulation program)
Longitudinal (tension) limit state load = 8.61 x 1.25 = 10.77 kN
Component strength factor for ceramic insulator = 0.8 (Table 3.6)
Minimum required insulator ultimate strength = 10.77 / 0.8 = 13.46 kN
Minimum insulator rating is generally 70 kN, hence disc insulator is suitable.
Page 60 of 139
6.4.2
Example 2
Determine whether the strength of 11 kV insulators (ALP 11/275) in the example
in clause 3.9.3 is adequate to support the overhead line conductors, installed in
Esperance.
Using the ultimate limit state strength condition (clause 3.7.2.1)
Rn > Wn + 1.1Gs + 1.25Gc + 1.25Ft
Design wind speed for Esperance = 0.9 kPA (Table 3.5)
Wind span = 47.5 m
Line deviation angle = 15C
Insulator estimated projected area = 0.02 m2
Insulator drag coefficient = 1.2 (Table 1.6)
Maximum conductor tension at 0.9 kPA = 4.56 kN (from overhead line simulation
software)
Conductor weight = 0.576 x 47.5 x 9.8/1000 = 0.27 kN
Conductor weight multiplier = 1.25
Transverse load on insulator
= (1.0 x wind span x SRF x diameter x 0.9) + (1.0 x 0.9 x insulator projected area
x insulator drag coefficient) + [1.25 x 2 x 4.56 x sin (15/2)]
= (1.0 x 47.5 x 0.92 x 0.0188 x 0.9) + (1.0 x 0.9 x 0.02 x 1.2) + (1.25 x 2 x 4.56 x
0.13)
= 2.22 kN (This is shown in Figure 6.2)
Everyday Load condition check:
Everyday load on insulator
= 1.25 X (No wind tension @ 5 C) X sin (15/2)
= 1.25 x 1.76 x 0.13
= 0.286 kN
Component strength factor for ceramic insulator = 0.8 (Table 3.6)
Minimum required insulator ultimate strength = 2.22 / 0.8 = 2.8 kN
Insulator rating is 6 kN, hence the pin insulator is suitable
Page 61 of 139
Figure 6.2
Page 62 of 139
CROSS-ARMS
7.1
7.1.1
Wood Cross-arms
The allowable stress for seasoned wood cross-arms for in service loads shall be
calculated using the value of Modulus of rupture for dry wood. However,
reference shall be made to AS 1720 for derating factors if the cross-arm has a
higher annual average moisture content than 15%.
For green or partially seasoned cross-arms the allowable stress shall be
calculated using the value of modulus of rupture for green wood in the former
case and an adjusted value in the latter case. Construction loads shall be directly
catered for. To calculate in service loads during the period in which the cross-arm
is seasoning the return periods specified in AS 1170 Wind Loading may be
taken into account and the wind pressure reduced accordingly.
Horizon Power uses the following wood cross-arms as standard:
1)
2)
7.1.2
Steel Cross-arms
Horizon Power uses the following cross-arms as standard:
1)
2)
3)
7.1.3
Standard Cross-arms
Wood cross-arms are used for low voltage only and steel cross-arms for medium
voltages.
7.2
Cross-arm Formulae
7.2.1
Cross-arm Strength
7.2.1.1
10
7.2.1.2
Termination Cross-arm
Note: Holes only need to be accounted for if they are between the resisting point
and the point of application of the load.
Page 63 of 139
7.2.2
Loads on Cross-arms
7.2.2.1
Intermediate
1)
,
2)
, .
Case 2: 15C, 0.15 kPa wind, pole top rescue (LV cross-arm only)
, .
7.2.2.2
Angle
1)
,
,
2)
, .
, .
Case 2: 15C, 0.15 kPa wind, pole top rescue (LV cross-arm only)
Page 64 of 139
, .
, .
7.2.2.3
Termination
1)
2)
Note: If the termination cross-arm has smaller dimensions than the intermediate
cross-arm then it should be checked for bending moment in the vertical plane.
7.3
List of Symbols
a
A1, A2
Pc
PEc
T(X,Y)
WI
WMG
Page 65 of 139
XPTR
(mm)
Distance of rope or pulley from centre of pole during pole top rescue
7.4
7.4.1
Calculating Forces
For the cross-arm in Figure 7.2, using the same conductors and insulators as the
example in clause 6.4.2, analyse the forces on the cross-arm in order to
determine the cross-arm strength requirements.
Using the ultimate limit state strength condition (clause 3.7.2.1)
Rn > Wn + 1.1Gs + 1.25Gc + 1.25Ft
Page 66 of 139
Page 67 of 139
7.4.2
Example 2
Determine the axial forces, bending moments and shear forces within the crossarm so that a suitable cross-arm can be selected.
The axial forces, bending moments and shear forces are depicted in Figure 7.3
Page 68 of 139
CONDUCTORS
8.1
Selection of Conductor
Conductor costs amount to between 20 to 40% of the total cost of an overhead
line, hence their selection is very important. Bare conductors must be selected
considering wire size, shape and material and the following factors:
8.1.1
Electrical Requirements
The most important parameter affecting the choice of conductor is its resistance,
as it influences voltage regulation, power loss and current rating. The diameter of
the conductor affects its inductance and thus its capacity.
The steady state thermal current rating of a conductor is the maximum current
inducing the maximum steady state temperature for a given ambient condition
and is based on the conductor heat balance equation: Pj + Ps = Pr + Pc
Where Pj = heating due to conductor resistance
Ps = solar heat gain
Pr = radiant cooling
Pc = natural and forced convective cooling
The steady state thermal current rating must be determined for coincident wind
velocity and incident angle, daily solar radiation, ambient temperature and
conductor surface condition.
The normal (steady state) and short time (emergency) rating of conductors for
summer day and night, winter day and night can be determined by using the
overhead line simulation program. (Refer to Tables 8.13 and 8.14 for standard
conductor ratings).
The emergency rating of a conductor is the maximum current inducing the
maximum steady state temperature for a given ambient condition and occurs
when a step change in current flow results in a short term conductor temperature
change and the
Conductor stored heat = heat gain heat loss
The conductor maximum operating temperature is limited by required minimum
electrical clearances. The time constant for short time ratings is less than 20
minutes.
Factors affecting conductor rating are described below:
Page 69 of 139
8.1.1.1
8.1.1.2
Wind Velocity
The rate at which heat dissipates from a conductor is directly proportional to the
wind velocity applied to the conductor. As a standard, a wind velocity of 1 m/s
shall be used to determine the current carrying capacity of a particular conductor.
Increase in wind velocity affects conductor rating significantly.
8.1.1.3
8.1.1.4
Temperature
Ambient temperature for Region A is 40 C (summer) and 15 C (winter) and for
Regions C & D 45 C (summer) and 35 C (winter).
Maximum conductor temperature must not exceed 75 C, to ensure that electrical
clearances are maintained.
8.1.1.5
8.1.1.6
8.1.2
Mechanical Requirements
When subject to increasing loads, conductors and /or tension fittings may exhibit
at some level, permanent deformation particularly if the failure mode is ductile; or
for wind induced Aeolian vibration, conductors may exhibit wire and/or whole
conductor fracture. This level is called the damage limit and conductors and/or
tension fittings will be in the damaged state if the conductors and/or tension
fittings have exceeded the damage limit.
If the load is further increased, failure of the conductor and/or tension fittings
occurs at a level called the failure limit. The conductors and/or tension fittings will
be in a failed state if the conductors and/or tension fittings have exceeded the
failure limit. These failure limits are illustrated in Figure 8.1 below.
Page 70 of 139
Figure 8.1 Limit States for conductor design (from AS 7000 Figure 4.2)
For bare conductors, the linear model shall be applied by Horizon Power and
accordingly must not exceed 0.5 times conductor CBL for determination of
serviceability. Hence, this will govern the strength limit in distribution line design
(refer also to Table 3.6).
In order to prevent annealing affecting aluminium conductor strength, conductors
must not be operated at a temperature higher than 75C. (Clause 4.2.5 of
AS 7000)
Conductor needs to be erected to an appropriate tension. Higher tensions may
require stronger and more expensive fittings. They may also result in reduced life
of the conductor and its associated fittings due to vibration. Lower tensions result
in lower clearances or the need for taller poles or larger conductor spacing to
enable clearances to be maintained.
On longer spans the tension is normally set at the maximum allowable value in
order to maximise span length and hence realise the lowest cost.
In urban areas spans are limited by the need for service take off points. High
tensions are not required and therefore lower tensions are used in order to
minimise material costs and make construction easier. More information on
applicable conductor tensions is covered in clause 8.4.3.
8.1.3
Environmental Requirements
Table provides guidance on the selection of conductors for differing
environments based on Appendix Y of AS 7000, which should be modified when
required by local experience. For example, for salt spray pollution the relative
distances from the source depend upon the prevailing winds and the terrain.
Generally, a distance of 3-5 km from the sea and salt lakes shall be considered
to be polluted.
Special circumstances such as crop dusting, which has been known to create
adverse effects, should also be taken into account. Crop dusting causes pollution
by foreign particles, which reduces insulation levels that may lead to flashover.
Page 71 of 139
Industrial Pollution
Open Ocean
Bays, inlets
and salt lakes
Acidic
Alkaline
AAC
Good
Good
Good
Poor
AAAC/6201
Good
Good
Average
Poor
AAAC/1120
Good
Good
Good
Poor
ACSR/GZ
Poor
Poor
Average
Poor
ACSR/AZ
Average
Good
Average
Poor
ACSR/AC
Good
Good
Average
Poor
SC/GZ
Poor
Poor
Poor
Average
SC/AC
Good
Good
Good
Poor
When selecting a conductor for a hostile environment, the following factors should
be considered:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
8.1.4
Economic Requirements
As energy is lost when current passes through a conductor, there is an optimum
conductor size to minimise the capital costs and energy loss costs associated
with load transfer.
The challenge is selecting conductors is to avoid over/under design of the
network. Over design is costly in terms of capital investment and is not looked at
favourably by the Economic Regulation Authority (ERA). Under design leads to
high losses, costly investigation and high replacement costs.
Page 72 of 139
8.1.5
AAAC
FEAC
FEGZ
ACSR/GZ
ACSR/AZ
HDBC
ACSR/AZ
Current carrying
capacity
Notes:
AAC
AAAC
FEGZ
Has a high strength to weight ratio and is used for very long
bays. Due to the comparatively high resistance used only to
feed small loads at end of lines.
FEAC
ACSR/AZ
ACSR/GZ
Page 73 of 139
8.1.6
Standard Conductors
Only AAC, AAAC, SC/GZ and SC/AC are now purchased as standard
conductors.
ACSR/AZ is also used for special applications. The particular conductor sizes
are;
*Spans greater than 60 m are considered long spans. Armour rods are to be
used on all spans greater than 80 m.
8.2
8.2.1
L2
8T
Where S = mid span sag
= conductor weight (N/m2)
L = horizontal span length (m)
T = conductor tension (N)
Factors that affect conductor tension are:
1)
2)
3)
4)
8.2.2
Tension Limits
Under the limit state load conditions specified in clause 3.7.2, the tension in a
conductor must not exceed 50% of its ultimate strength (in Table 3.6), under the
temperature and wind conditions specified in Table 8.3.
Page 74 of 139
Table 8.3 - Temperature and Wind Conditions for Limit State Loads
Conductor load conditions
8.2.3
Temp
Wind
5C
15C
15C
0.5 kPa
15C
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
Page 75 of 139
Table 8.4 Conductor Everyday Load Horizontal Tension (based on Table Z1,
AS 7000)
Conductor
Type
Base
Case
tension
(% of
CBL)
Static Stress
Consideratio
ns
Clamp
Category*
Dynamic Stress
Considerations
Damping/Terrain Category
No Dampers
Clamp
Category
A
3,4
Fully
damped all
categories
AAC
18
1.5
2.5
6.5
27
AAAC
15
1.5
2.5
6.5
24
ACSR
17
1.5
2.5
7.5
27
10
2.5
5.0
10
16
31
SC/GZ
SC/AC
Clamp
Category
Terrain
Category
8.2.4
Terrain
Category
Recommended
maximum
horizontal
tension (% of
CBL)
Type A
Short trunnion clamp, post or pin insulator with ties ( without armour rods)
Type B
Post or pin insulator ( clamped or tied) with armour rods or shaped trunnion
clamps with armour rods
Type C
Helically formed armour grip with elastomer insert or helically formed ties
with armour rods
As per Table 3.4
Span Ratios
Large differences in span lengths of adjacent spans can result in significant
tension differences across intermediate structures, which may not be able to be
equalised by the movement of the pole top and may cause ties or pins to fail. In
rural situations adjacent spans are generally limited to a ratio of 1:2. This is not
necessary in shorter urban spans.
8.2.4.1
Wind span
The wind span at a particular structure is the length of span that determines the
transverse load on the structure due to wind action and is defined as one half
the sum of the length of adjacent spans.
Page 76 of 139
8.2.4.2
Weight span
The weight span at a structure is the length of span between the catenary low
points on either side of the particular structure and determines the vertical load
due to the weight of conductor at the structure.
8.3
Clearance Requirements
8.3.1
Page 77 of 139
High wind
11
160
100
22
280
130
33
380
180
Notes:
1) For structures with line post or pin insulators, the moderate wind distances
recommended can be used to establish structure clearances.
2) Clearance must be increased in locations where bridging of insulators by
birds or animals is experienced or probable.
3) Moderate wind condition relates to lightning impulse distance and high wind
condition relate to power frequency flashover distance.
8.3.2
Over
roads
Over other
than roads
5.5 m
6.7 m
5.5 m
5.5 m
Notes:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Page 78 of 139
5.
6.
8.3.3
For the purpose of this clause, the term ground includes any unroofed
elevated area accessible to plant or vehicles and the term over means
across and along.
The above values are based on vehicles with a maximum height of 4.6 m.
Type of Clearance
Voltage not
exceeding
1000 V
Voltage
exceeding
1000 V but
not
exceeding
33 kV
Insulated
Service
Cable
3.7 m
4.5 m
2.7 m
2.7 m
3.7 m
0.1 m
1.5 m
2.1 m
0.1 m
0.6 m
1.5 m
0.1 m *
Note: * This clearance may be reduced to allow for termination at the point of
attachment.
Page 79 of 139
Page 80 of 139
8.3.4
Upper Circuit
Not
exceeding
1000 V bare,
covered and
insulated
No
wind
wind
Lower Circuit
Above 1000 V Above 1000 V
and not
and not
exceeding
exceeding
33 kV
33 kV bare or
insulated
covered
No
No
wind
wind
wind
wind
Above 33 kV
and not
exceeding
66 kV bare
No
wind
wind
Not exceeding
1000 V bare, covered
and insulated
0.6 m
0.4 m
0.6 m
0.4 m
0.6 m
0.4 m
1.2 m
0.5 m
1.2 m
0.5 m
1.2 m
0.5 m
1.8 m
0.8 m
1.8 m
0.8 m
1.8 m
0.8 m
1.8 m
0.8 m
2.4 m
1.5 m
2.4 m
1.5 m
2.4 m
1.5 m
2.4 m
1.5 m
The above clearances are based may need to be increased due to local factors,
if required. Moreover, the clearances may need to be increased to account for
safe approach distances required for construction, operation and maintenance
and for blowout on large spans. The wind condition corresponds to serviceability
load condition.
Page 81 of 139
Upper Circuit
Not exceeding
1000 V bare and
covered
Not exceeding
1000 V insulated
Above 1000 V and
not exceeding 33 kV
insulated
Above 1000 V and
not exceeding 33 kV
bare or covered
Above 33 kV and
not exceeding 66 kV
bare
Above 66 kV and
not exceeding
132 kV bare
Not
exceeding
1 kV bare
and
covered
Lower Circuit
Not
Above 1 kV
exceeding
and not
1 kV
exceeding
insulated
33 kV
insulated
Above 1 kV
and not
exceeding
33 kV bare
or covered
Above
33 kV and
not
exceeding
66 kV bare
0.3 m
0.3 m
0.3 m
0.2 m
0.6 m
0.6 m
0.2 m
0.9 m
1.2 m
1.2 m
0.9 m
0.9 m
1.8 m
1.8 m
1.5 m
1.5 m
1.5 m
2.4 m
2.4 m
2.4 m
2.4 m
2.4 m
Page 82 of 139
8.3.5
Page 83 of 139
Where
X = is the projected horizontal distance in metres between the conductors at mid span;
(X= (X1+X2)/2 where X1 is the projected horizontal distance between the conductors at
one support and X2 is the projected horizontal distance between the conductors at the
other support in the same span.
Y = is the projected horizontal distance in metres between the conductors at mid span;
(Y= (Y1+Y2)/2 where Y1 is the projected horizontal distance between the conductors at
one support and Y2 is the projected horizontal distance between the conductors at the
other support in the same span.
U = is the r.m.s vector difference in potential (kV) between the two conductors when each
is operating at its nominal voltage. In determining the potential between conductors of
different circuits or between an earth wire and an aerial phase conductor, regard
should be paid to any phase differences in the nominal voltages.
k = is a constant, normally equal to 0.4.
D = is the greater of the two conductor sags in metres at the centre of an equivalent level
span and at an average conductor operating temperature with electrical load (50 C in
still air). This may be higher for high temperature conductors.
l = is the length in metres of any free swing suspension insulator associated with either
conductor. Zero for pin and post insulators.
Page 84 of 139
For the purposes of this clause an equivalent level span shall mean a
span:
a)
which has the same span length in the horizontal projection as the original span;
b)
c)
2)
Notes:
1)
When conductors of different circuits are located vertically one above the
other, consideration should be given to the need to prevent clashing of
conductors of different circuits under the influence of load current in one or
both circuits.
2)
3)
The spacing for covered conductors may be reduced provided the covering
is adequate to prevent electrical breakdown of the covering when the
conductors clash and a risk management strategy is in place to ensure that
conductors do not remain entangled for periods beyond what the covering
can withstand.
4)
Where spacers are used, separation may be less than those specified. It is
suggested that the spacer be taken to be a conductor support for the
purpose of calculating conductor spacing.
5)
b)
c)
The following k factors are recommended for overhead power lines which
have phase to phase clearances of 1200 mm or less at mid span:
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
Page 85 of 139
7)
b)
Large birds which may collide with conductors, causing them to come
together, or whose wingspan is such as to make contact between
bare conductors and conducting cross arms.
c)
d)
e)
f)
Safety approach
maintenance
clearances
for
construction,
operation
and
Page 86 of 139
8.3.6
Other Clearance
For clearances to the equipment of other authorities and waterways, refer to
Appendix A Clearance to other Authorities and Waterways.
8.4
Formulae
8.4.1
Ruling Span
8.4.2
Sag
8.4.2.1
8.4.2.2
8.4.2.3
At any Point X:
(refer to Figure 8.9)
Page 87 of 139
8.4.3
Tension
8.4.3.1
Set Conditions:
(refer to Figure 8.9)
8.4.3.2
Varying Conditions:
(refer to Figure 8.9)
8.4.3.3
Page 88 of 139
Page 89 of 139
8.5
Conductor Ratings
There are three primary requirements which must be considered when
determining conductor size:
Thermal rating
Voltage drop limitation
Fault capacity
These are covered individually in this section. For ease of reference, LV network
design is covered separately in Chapter 10.
8.5.1
2)
3)
Page 90 of 139
8.5.2.1
Annealing
Excessive heating of conductors during a short circuit can cause a reduction in
tensile strength and permanent elongation. The permanent reduction in electrical
clearance can reduce the reliability of the line. Failure of the conductor during the
fault or subsequently during adverse weather can cause an outage as well as
damage to the support structures. In the case of steel strands, any loss of
protective zinc coating can lead to corrosion.
8.5.2.2
Cross-sectional
area (mm2)
100
100
300-500
60
Page 91 of 139
Maximum
Temperature
160C
160C
150C
200C
400C
8.5.2.3
Design Issues
a)
b)
c)
Structure design
By taking these criteria and the degree of reliability required into account a
suitable compromise on structure design, conductor configuration and
economics can be achieved.
8.5.3
Sag/Tension Calculations
There is a separate Sag tension module in the overhead line simulation
software program that can be used for calculations for a particular case.
For the bare overhead conductor system, the standard tensions used for
standard designs are as follows:
8.5.3.1
8.5.3.2
Long Spans(Rural)
AAC conductor with nominal tension 18% of CBL is recommended for spans in
the 60 m to 105 m range in outer urban areas.
AAAC conductor with nominal tension 18% of CBL is recommended for spans in
the 60 m to 135 m range in rural areas.
For very long spans up to 250 m in rural areas, SC/GZ or SC/AC conductor with
nominal tension 25% of CBL is recommended.
Page 92 of 139
ACSR/AZ
ACSR/AZ
ACSR/AZ
ACSR/AZ
AAC
AAC
AAC
AAC
AAC
AAC
AAAC TYPE 1120
AAAC TYPE 1120
AAAC TYPE 1120
AAAC TYPE 1120
AAAC TYPE 6201
AAAC TYPE 6201
AAAC TYPE 6201
AAAC TYPE 6201
HDBC
HDBC
HDBC
HDBC
HDBC
HDBC
HDBC
SC/GZ
SC/GZ
SC/AC
Diameter
(mm)
Summer
Rating
(amps)
7.50
9.00
11.30
14.30
7.50
9.00
11.30
13.50
14.25
16.30
7.50
9.00
13.50
16.30
7.50
9.00
13.50
16.30
4.89
6.00
7.92
8.15
10.35
10.55
13.00
4.88
5.93
5.93
158
196
254
334
172
215
281
348
371
428
171
217
366
422
166
207
356
415
134
171
241
245
332
334
430
42
45
70
Winter
Rating
(amps)
218
272
354
471
237
297
392
489
522
606
235
301
516
598
228
286
500
588
183
235
333
338
462
465
603
58
62
96
Page 93 of 139
Diameter
(mm)
Summer
Rating
(amps)
7.50
9.00
11.30
14.30
7.50
9.00
11.30
13.50
14.30
16.30
7.50
9.00
14.30
16.30
7.50
9.00
14.30
16.30
4.89
6.00
7.92
8.15
10.35
10.55
13.00
4.88
5.93
5.93
145
179
230
303
161
201
263
326
332
382
159
198
340
395
151
188
323
376
123
157
220
223
302
304
390
38
41
62
ACSR/AZ
ACSR/AZ
ACSR/AZ
ACSR/AZ
AAC
AAC
AAC
AAC
AAC
AAC
AAAC TYPE 1120
AAAC TYPE 1120
AAAC TYPE 1120
AAAC TYPE 1120
AAAC TYPE 6201
AAAC TYPE 6201
AAAC TYPE 6201
AAAC TYPE 6201
HDBC
HDBC
HDBC
HDBC
HDBC
HDBC
HDBC
SC/GZ
SC/GZ
SC/AC
Winter
Rating
(amps)
177
220
286
380
197
247
326
406
406
470
194
243
424
497
184
231
403
464
148
190
269
273
373
375
486
46
50
74
Page 94 of 139
8.6
List of Symbols
a
greater of the two conductor sags at the centre of an equivalent level span
and at a conductor operating temperature of 50C in still air (m)
hA
hC
LT
LA
LC
sag at mid-span
SX
vertical distance below top support and any point 'X' (m)
TA
TC
t1
t2
T1
T2
r.m.s vector difference in potential between the two conductors when each
is ting at its nominal voltage (kV). In determining the potential between
conductors of different circuits, regard should be paid to any phase
difference in the nominal voltages
WA
Page 95 of 139
WC
W1
W2
Page 96 of 139
VOLTAGE REGULATION
9.1
9.1.1
9.1.2
2)
Distribution Transformer;
3)
4)
After a distribution system has been constructed, there are only two locations
where voltage levels can be adjusted:
1)
at the zone substation (bus-bar voltage set-point and the use of Line Drop
Compensators), and
2)
Page 97 of 139
Thus to compensate for voltage drops caused by components in Table 9.1, the
Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR), Line Drop Compensator (LDC) and
distribution transformer taps are set accordingly.
With a 2% voltage drop assumed for customer service cables, coincident
voltage drops, when taken together with zone substation LDC Buck/Boost and
distribution transformer tap options are considered a reasonable balance to
achieve a customers voltage at the meter panel between 6% of the nominal
240 V.
Maintenance and Emergency Voltage Limits are shown in Table 9.2.
9.1.3
9.1.4
Page 98 of 139
9.1.5
MV Voltage Regulation
9.1.5.1
Design Approach
The design approach is generally as follows:
9.1.5.2
(a)
(b)
For least cost option, check that voltage remains within limits for the
various loads.
(c)
(d)
Computer Modelling
In many instances the line electrical data is entered into a suitable computer
program for analysis such as Horizon Powers Power Factory (Digsilent)
program. This calculates the voltage variations for each option. The designer still
needs to compare the options.
9.1.5.3
Distribution Transformers:
Out of service manual tap changes of 2.5% and 5%.
(b)
In urban areas it has been standard practice to utilise the above two measures
only and choose appropriate conductor sizes and distribution transformer
location/quantity to provide satisfactory voltage regulation. These are covered in
the Chapter 10 on LV Network Design.
Where longer lines are used it can become uneconomic to increase the
conductor size. Additional forms of MV voltage control may become the lowest
cost option.
The three options usually considered are as follows:
a)
b)
c)
Page 99 of 139
9.1.5.4
Short line method which is much simpler than the long line method
because it ignores capacitance.
Long line method which takes the capacitance of the line into account.
For MV lines 33 kV or below and less than about 80 km in length, the effect of
capacitance is negligible and the short line method for calculating voltage drop is
generally applied as in the example below.
When determining the relationship between voltages and currents on a threephase system, it is convenient to treat them on an equivalent single phase basis
for simplicity. The voltages are given from line to neutral, the current for one
phase, the impedances for one conductor and the equations written for one
phase.
The three phase system is reduced to an equivalent single phase circuit as
shown below.
Vs
Vr
9.1.5.5
Worked Example
A three phase 22 kV line, 80 km long is required to deliver a load of 630 kVA with
a 0.8 p.f. (lagging). The conductor to be used is 7/4.75 AAAC. Determine the
regulation of the line
Ip = P (3 Vs cos ); i.e.
Ip = 630,000 (3 22,000 0.8) = 20.7 A
Resistance per conductor:
RA = 0.3210 /km 80 km = 25.68 ohm (from conductor manufacturer tables)
Reactance per conductor:
XL = XA + XD
XA = 0.2898 /km (from conductor manufacturer tables)
For a 22 kV country line, the spacing factor (XD) = 0.0857 ohm/km.
Hence, XL = (0.2898 + 0.0857) /km 80 km = 30.04 ohm.
Receiving end phase voltage:
Vr = Vs - (Ip RA cos + Ip XL sin ), i.e.
Vr = 22 3 - (20.7 25.68 0.8 + 20.7 30.04 0.6) 1000
i.e. Vr = 11.9 kV (phase to neutral); or
i.e. Vr = 3 11.9 = 20.61 kV (phase to phase)
9.2
The voltage drops across the LDCs resistor and reactor are added to the voltage
on the output side of the voltage regulating transformer with the correct phasing.
The voltage regulating relay balances at one voltage only (the setpoint voltage).
The LDC is configured and adjusted so that an increase of load current causes a
lowering of the voltage across the voltage regulating relay (VRR). The voltage
regulating relay in turn then impulses the tap changer to raise the transformers
output voltage until VRR is again equal to the setpoint voltage.
In order to adjust the LDC, the ratio of the main CT and VT as well as the specific
feeder impedance must be known. In practice, the settings of the LDC are
usually compromise values since most voltage regulating transformers are
connected to several outgoing feeders, each with different load characteristics,
conductor types, line constructions and line lengths.
The instruction manual pertaining to the particular LDC concerned should be
referred to for more detailed information on the operation and adjustment of the
LDC.
10
LV NETWORK DESIGN
10.1
Introduction
10.1.1
General
The LV (240/415 V) distribution system is really the business end of Horizon
Powers operations. It is the point in Horizon Powers electricity system where the
majority of customers receive their supply.
10.1.2
Primary Aim
The primary aim when designing a LV residential distribution network is to
ensure that it will adequately service the estimated customer loads both now and
in the future. This must be done for the minimum economic cost, while ensuring
the network satisfies both reliability and quality of supply standards that are
governed by the Electricity Industry (Network Quality and Reliability of Supply)
Code 2005.
10.1.3
10.1.4
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
Selection of LV conductor sizes to satisfy the voltage drop and line current
requirements; and
7)
10.2
10.2.1
Introduction
The current or power flowing from the electricity supply system to an installation
at a particular time is known as the electrical demand . Variations of demand
occur frequently in domestic installations as individual loads are switched on and
off. In a given period, say 24 hours, there will be one value of demand that is
higher that all others - this is the maximum demand for that period.
Maximum demand is the all important parameter in system design because this
value directly determines component sizes (e.g. conductors, transformers),
voltage drops, line currents and ultimately the cost of servicing the loads.
The fluctuating nature of electrical loads, particularly that of residential peaks,
makes the measurement of instantaneous demand difficult, and sometimes,
undesirable. System components are rated in terms of their thermal (overload)
capacity and thus their average demand over a period of, say, 15 minutes is far
more meaningful than the moment by moment fluctuations which actually occur.
For this reason the demand on electrical equipment is often obtained by the use
of special instruments (e.g. load data-loggers) which can provide an average
reading for a certain period. The information provided by this type of meter is
often employed in system design.
10.2.3
Among the factors influencing the choice of the ultimate design ADMD values
are:
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
Tariff structure.
Whatever the ultimate design ADMD figures are, the designer must endeavour to
ensure that the system is not under/over designed for the reasons given in
clause 10.1.3.
Optimum design requires optimum choice of ADMD. In most cases, a designer
has to make a value-judgement as to what value of ADMD is most appropriate
for the particular distribution system, after having considered all relevant issues.
For most instances, the load demand can be estimated based simply on the
designers previous experience with similar developments. However, careful
thought must still be given to this crucial design parameter for each residential
development, rather than simply using highly conservative standard values.
It is not uncommon for a designer to find himself/herself in the position of having
to be a mixture of an engineer, an economist and even a prophet at the same
time!
10.2.4
10.2.5
10.2.6
2)
3)
4)
5)
Pumps and other large 3-phase fixed equipment: obtain full load kVA from
equipment name-plate or specifications;
6)
7)
More information is available in Horizon Power document HPC-5DC-07-0032012 (Distribution Design Manual Volume 3 Supply to Large Customer
Installations).
10.2.7
10.2.9
1)
Voltage drops during peak network load times being within maximum
allowable limits (and during minimum load times being within minimum
allowable limits);
2)
3)
Other conductor current ratings (e.g. summer, winter) not being exceeded,
wherever applicable;
4)
10.2.10
10.2.10.2 Utilisation/Loading
Pole Top Transformers in the overhead system are usually located on in-line
poles, rather than on corner poles to avoid complications during installation,
maintenance and operation (switching etc.). At the same time, present policy
disallows the running of more than one feeder (or circuit) in parallel (e.g. having
two LV circuits on the same bay), unless one or both are ABC.
To overcome this limitation, the designer should ensure that the LV feeder is
sufficiently branched, i.e. provided with as many tee-offs as necessary to
service the number of loads.
In general, the LV feeder routes must be chosen such that the transformer will
service the required number of loads determined on the basis of design load
demand values (refer to clause 10.2.3 and HPC-3DC-07-0001-2012 Electrical
Design for Distribution Networks: After Diversity Maximum Demand).
10.2.10.3 Typical Lengths
The length of a LV feeder affects the:
1)
2)
Very long LV feeders should generally be avoided since this would only result in
higher voltage drops than necessary, cause improper operation and lead to
possible conductor burnouts.
10.2.10.4 Interconnection with Other Feeders
If a transformer becomes unserviceable, its LV network has to be supplied by
adjacent transformers until repairs can be effected or a replacement put into
service. As such, the LV network should be provided with sufficient numbers of
interconnecting points (e.g. via the use of removable solid links, fuse switches)
to allow lateral interconnections between LV networks of adjacent transformers.
When selecting LV routes, the designer should select routes which can assist in
the provision and location of these interconnecting points, if possible.
The interconnection criteria generally used by Horizon Power is to ensure that
the backbone feeder of any transformer can be interconnected with other LV
feeders from adjacent transformers, at least twice.
If the number of interconnections cannot be provided due to certain constraints,
the designer should consider using a smaller transformer size instead.
10.2.10.5 Pole Positioning and Alignment
When selecting the LV feeder route, the designer must also give consideration to
the positioning of poles adjacent to property boundaries and within the
designated pole alignment. Refer to section 4.4 - Pole Position Guidelines.
10.3
10.3.1
General
A three phase, four wire distribution system servicing a large proportion of single
phase residential loads together with three phase commercial/industrial loads is
subject to rapidly fluctuating currents. These currents produce corresponding
rapidly fluctuating voltages on the system.
10.3.2
10.3.3
11
FAULT LEVEL
11.1
Introduction
Fault levels have an effect in three areas of design
1)
protection
2)
3)
quality of supply
This section details the calculation of fault levels but for their application to
protection design, refer to Chapter 14.
11.2
Equipment Rating
Distribution network fault levels are specified in Horizon Powers Technical Rules
and are provided in Table 11.1.
Table 11.1 Distribution Fault levels
Voltage level
Fault level
Fault level
33 kV
13.1 kA
750 MVA
22 kV
13.1 kA
500 MVA
11 kV
18.1 kA
350 MVA
6.6 kV
18.1 kA
200 MVA
The low voltage network fault level is 31.5 kA where supplied from one
transformer and 63.0 kA where supplied from two transformers in parallel.
Equipment selected must have an equal or higher rating to those values provided
in Table 11.1 . When selecting equipment , care must be taken that the
manufacturers information refers to the same conditions. Fault levels specified in
Table 11.1 are steady state symmetrical values.
Equipment purchased in bulk as standard equipment to be installed on the
network is typically designed to meet the highest possible fault level or a wide
range of fault levels. In some instances, to reduce cost, an item of equipment
may be selected with a fault rating closer to the maximum fault level. However,
the designer must then consider the risks associated with:
a)
b)
c)
11.3
Fault Calculation
Unless otherwise noted all fault currents are "steady state" symmetrical values.
When calculating maximum fault levels, fault resistance should not normally be
included.
When calculating minimum fault levels, a suitable fault resistance should be
included.
The following indicates the four main kinds of faults which occur in a power
system.
Other fault conditions which may require consideration are short circuits within
distribution transformers, conductor open circuits, cross country faults (i.e.
simultaneous faults at different points on the system) and system instability.
The magnitude and distribution of fault currents are influenced by the following
factors :
a)
b)
c)
d)
11.4
The driving voltage remains constant during the fault. (Usually taken as
being 100% of nominal system voltage).
The effects of load current on the system prior to the fault are ignored as it
is small in comparison with the fault currents.
Formulae
Formulae are given below for calculation of the fault level on a per unit basis.
The fault level is converted to a current (kA) which is the standard method for
specifying equipment fault rating.
Several items of plant which make up the power system will not necessarily all be
operating at the same voltage level, it is therefore necessary to express their
impedance values in a form which they can be quickly combined directly in the
network reduction calculations without reference to the system voltage. The three
methods of expressing plant impedances so that they can be directly combined
are in:
a)
b)
c)
11.4.1
Ohmic Impedance
If Zp is the impedance in ohm per phase of an item of plant operating at a
nominal voltage Vp, its impedance ZB converted to a common voltage base VB is:
11.4.2
Where
- phase to phase voltage in volts
- phase to neutral impedance in ohms
- current in amps corresponding to the
Plant impedance values are usually given in per cent on their own MVA rating
and conversion of these values to a common MVA base is achieved by the
formula:
%
It is usual when doing fault calculations to use per cent impedance on 100 MVA
base. It is therefore necessary to convert all the plant impedances to a 100 MVA
base when preparing the equivalent network diagram.
11.4.3
11.4.4
The first part of this example will calculate the three phase fault level at the 22 kV
terminals of the distribution transformer. The second part will calculate the phase
to earth fault level on the low voltage network at a distance from the transformer.
For the purpose of this calculation the impedances are expressed in percentage
values on 100 MVA base.
The Zone Substation Source Fault Level, is required and
The maximum value is used, say, 240 MVA for this example.
From the table of conductor parameters for Standard Distribution Overhead Lines
in Appendix C, the values of RA and XA for 6/1/3.00 ACSR conductor and the
spacing factor XD are:
RA = 0.8930 ohm/km;
XA = 0.3208 ohm/km; and
XD = 0.0857 ohm/km.
Calculation:
Assume system base MVAB = 100 MVA
Base voltage (phase to phase), VB = 22 kV
Base impedance:
22
100
4.84
Source impedance:
100
240
0.417
Line impedance:
3.5
0.8930
3.1255
0.3208
0.0857
1.4228
1.4228
4.84
0.417
0.711
0.646
0.711
0.960
Fault level at the 22 kV terminals of the distribution transformer:
100
0.96
104
10
22
10
2730
2.7
For the second part of the example, the single phase to earth fault is taken to be
at 320 m from the transformer. A simplified method is used for LV side
calculations using whole impedance values instead of resistive and reactive
components.
From the table of conductor parameters for Standard Distribution Overhead Lines
in Appendix C, the values of RA and XA for 7/4.50 AAC conductors are:
RA = 0.315 ohm/km;
XA = 0.260 ohm/km
ZA = ( R2A + X2A) ohm/km
ZA = 0.41 ohm/km
Base impedance:
0.415
100
0.00172
Transformer impedance:
0.044
100
0.315
0.044
100
0.315
13.96
Line impedance:
ZA
0.32
0.41
0.128
0.128
0.00172 pu
76.2
The above constitutes the positive, negative and zero sequence line impedance
values up to the point of the fault.
Fault Impedance:
3
0.32
ZA
00172pu
= 229
The LV side impedances are much larger than the MV side impedances and
transformer impedance are therefore neglected in the calculations.
Total impedance to fault: (
= Positive sequence impedance + Negative sequence impedance + Zero
sequence impedance + Fault Impedance
= (3 X 74.42) + 229 pu
= 457
Fault MVA:
3
3 100
457
0.67M
Fault Current:
0.67
11.4.5
3 415
913 A
= 141 MVA
Fault Level on 22 kV Line:
= 89 MVA
(Figure 8.2)
Fault Current:
= (89 (3 x 22) A
= 2.4 kA
Transformer:
= 0.315 0.044
= 7.2 MVA
LV Line:
= (0.4152 0.13) MVA
= 1.3 MVA
Fault Impedance:
= (0.4152 0.4) MVA
= 0.4 MVA
Fault Level at Fault location
= 3 x 0.2 MVA
= 0.6 MVA
Fault Current:
= (0.6 (3 x 0.415) A
= 836 A
From the above calculations it can be seen that the fault currents at both 22 kV
and Low Voltage are slightly lower when using the MVA method than when using
the Per Unit method. However, the MVA method is much easier to use
particularly when there are many network components.
11.4.6
Figure 11.2
12
INSULATION COORDINATION
12.1
Introduction
Insulation coordination refers to the electrical design of a system to ensure the
satisfactory performance of the system with respect to over voltages.
Coordination involves determination of possible over voltages followed by the
selection of suitably rated equipment and the design of protection schemes to
limit the impact over voltages on the system. The latter two steps are an iterative
process, however it is normal to select equipment with standard insulation
withstand levels. Protection is then selected which is a balance of economics and
satisfactory performance (i.e. acceptable equipment failure rates and system
outage rates).
The ability of insulation to withstand overvoltage depends on the rate of rise and
duration of the overvoltage. Consequently two voltage withstand levels are
specified for equipment:
power frequency overvoltage; and
impulse overvoltage
Impulse over voltage is usually the critical factor for distribution line design. It is
referred to as the Basic Insulation Level (BIL). The values of BIL for standard
overhead distribution equipment are listed in Table 12.1.
Table 12.1: - BIL for Distribution Equipment
BIL (kV) Peak
40
60
95
150
200(170)(150)*
Power frequency flashovers can occur under wet or high humidity conditions. An
overhead line must be designed to avoid such flashovers. Even if the insulation is
able to withstand an initial withstand without damage, due to recloses there is a
likelihood of a subsequent flashovers when the wet or polluted conditions exist.
Where wood is used in distribution structures it provides an increase in BIL. Due
to the variable nature of wood and given that its electrical withstand strength
varies with moisture content only indicative values can be stated. The flashover
voltage of a distribution pole is between 1500 2500 kV. For a 1 m length of
cross-arm with a pin insulator it is approximately 300 kV.
12.2
12.3
12.3.1
Lightning
Lightning can cause over voltages in two ways:
Direct strikes
Induced strokes
12.3.1.1
Direct Strikes
Direct strikes inject very high currents which coupled with the surge impedance
of the line produce over voltages in the mega volt range.
Since lightning tends to strike the highest object, earthed wires installed above
the line can provide protection. (Natural protection is provided where surrounding
vegetation or buildings are higher than the line).
The degree of protection depends on the shielding angle of the overhead earth
wire, as shown in Figure 12.1.
An angle of 30 degrees has been found to give good protection. On very flat
ground this angle could be increased up to 40 degrees.
The average probability of a direct strike to a line can be calculated as follows:
4
For example, 100 km of 9 m high line in an area of ground flash density of 12
flashes/km2/year would have an expected strike rate of
0.2
100
10
A map of the Average Annual Number of Thunder Days is shown in Figure 11.2.
The relationship between thunder days and ground flash density (Ng) is
approximately.
0.0025
12.3.1.2
Induced Strokes
Lightning striking the ground in the proximity of an overhead line can induce over
voltages in the line.
The number of induced surges of a significant magnitude occurring on a given
section of line can be estimated as follows:
0.3
Where:
number of induced voltage surges
line height (m)
ground flash density (flashes/km2/year)
0.2
100
12.3.2
Current
Each of the above circumstances induces surges of different magnitude and
wave shape. Lightning stroke current usually varies from 3 A to 200 kA, however
the average stroke current is 30 kA. The typical lightning flash is usually made up
of 3 or 4 strokes, with intervals of 15 to 150 ms between strokes.
12.3.3
Surge Impedance
The surge impedance of a 3 phase distribution line is approximately 200 ohms.
An average lightning surge of 30 kA would then produce an overvoltage of
6,000 kV.
This is high enough to flashover the full length of a wood pole.
12.3.4
12.3.5
BIL
Vtot
Select the Rated Voltage for the arrester based on the continuous
operating voltage
Determine the lightning discharge current. At voltages below 36 kV, 5 kA or
10 kA ratings are specified, however, for Horizon Powers areas 10 kA is
more appropriate.
Select the creepage distance (refer to clause 6.1.1)
Surge arrester earth leads must be as short and straight as possible in all surge
arrester applications. The primary reason is inductive surge impedance. The
selection of an appropriate surge arrester for a given application can be negated
by poor installation practices. The length and configuration of the line and earth
leads connecting the arrester to the apparatus being protected is critical in the
determination of the arrester protective levels and margins.
Surge arresters are designed to protect equipment from impulse over voltages
that could cause flashover or damage to the insulation that is in parallel with the
arrester. For distribution class arresters the primary impulse overvoltage is
lightning and switching surges are neglected.
When an overvoltage surge is impressed across the arrester terminals, the
arrester begins to conduct the resulting discharge current to ground. The flow of
discharge current through the arrester causes a discharge voltage to appear
across the terminals of the arrester. If the arrester line and ground leads are also
installed in parallel with the insulation being protected, the combined lead
inductive voltage drop is additive to the arrester discharge voltage.
The inductive voltage drop in the line and ground leads is a function of the lead
inductance, current rate of rise and time according to the formula: V = L di/dt .
For a straight lead wire, the inductance (L) can be assumed to be 1.3 H/meter.
If the lead wires are coiled the inductance will be significantly greater.
Arrester manufacturers catalogs, drawings, and data will usually provide
protective characteristics of their arresters, including maximum discharge
voltages for several discharge currents and voltage times to crest from steep
wave through switching surge. Those arrester discharge voltages plus lead
inductive voltage (if appropriate) are usually plotted and compared to the
corresponding insulation characteristics to determine the protective margins on
insulation coordination curves similar to Figure 12.5. Figure 12.5 also illustrates
the typical volt-time characteristic of most insulation. That is, the shorter the time
the greater the insulation or dielectric strength.
The residual voltage for a suitable arrester with continuous operating voltage
22 kV and rated voltage for a standard 8/20 s wave is 77 kV (from a
manufacturers catalogue)
Assuming line and ground lead impedance of 1.3 H/ft, the resulting inductive
voltage developed across the leads = 1.3 x 10 x (10 x 103 A / 0.5 x 10 sec) =
26 kV/m. (Assuming a 10 kA discharge current cresting at 0.5 s which is more
conservative than a standard 8/20 s wave) Thus, for every meter length of line
and ground lead, 26 kV must be added to the arrester residual voltage when
calculating the overvoltage protective margins provided by the arrester and its
connections.
If the arrester is not directly connected on to the transformer tank, the ground
lead distance d2 comes into play.
Therefore:
Vtotal
= (100 - 77) 26
= 0.9 m
The maximum lead distance of (d1 + d2) is 0.9 m in order to provide a margin of
protection of 50%.
In this example, if the lead distance is 2.8 m, the MOP is zero, and for higher
lead distances the MOP is negative.
13
STREET LIGHTING
13.1
Policy
Street Lighting is an essential service for the community with importance focused
upon safety, security and amenity aspects. As such, Street lighting needs to be
provided and maintained to a reasonable standard and with appropriate levels of
public accountability.
Effective Street Light operation is best managed through a combination of bulk
Street Light replacement, regular night patrols, and response to reports of street
light failure from the public in accordance with the published Horizon Power
Customer Charter.
13.2
Asset Hierarchy
The Street Lighting asset family includes:
13.3
Street Light Control Boxes and its associated accessories and spares
Table 13.1 indicates the lighting category, typical spacing, pole heights and lamp
types used in Horizon Power.
Lighting
Category
Type of
Public
Spacing /
Roadways
P4
40 - 65
15 - 20
6.5
CF, LED
V3
65 - 100
30 - 40
10.5 or 12.5
HPS, MH,
MH/LED,
LED
SubArterial/Princi
pal
V4
65 - 100
30 - 40
10.5 or 12.5
HPS, MH,
MH/LED,
LED
Cycleway/Footpath
P3
(40 - 65)* or
(65 - 100)**
Any***
All
CF, LED
Cul-de-sacs
P4
40 - 65
15 - 20
6.5
CF, LED
Commercial
and Industrial
precinct
V3
65 - 80
30 - 40
10.5 or 12.5
HPS, MH,
MH/LED,
LED
Open Car
Park
P11
20-40
Any***
6.5 or 10.5
CF, LED
Mall
P7
20-40
Any***
6.5 or 10.5
CF, LED
Civic square
or Retail
precinct
P7
20-40
30 - 40
6.5 or 10.5
CF, LED
Transport
Interchange
P7
20-40
N/A
6.5 or 10.5
CF, LED
Residential or
Local road
Typical
Possible
Road Width Pole Height
(m)
(m)
Arterial
Lamp Type
Notes:
* For Footpath with Residential or Local road
** For Footpath with Arterial roads
*** Could be any width
13.4
13.4.1
13.4.3
Design Considerations
Selection of an efficient luminaire is one thing, however, an efficient design has
then to be produced
The following factors should be considered in the design:
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
13.4.4
13.4.5
Lamp Poles
Lamp poles currently used by Horizon Power are limited to concrete, steel or
suitable mono or blended materials, expected to have a minimum life span of 40
years. Only circular or eight side polygonal poles are used. Some of the critical
characteristics of the poles are:
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
End of Life
value
(lumens)
Approx. Ave.
Operating
hours
3850
2310
16000
6300
3780
16000
14000
10500
15500
26000
18200
25000
7700
4620
20000
3200
1920
20000
LED (56 W)
5000
4600
50000
LED (112 W)
10000
9300
50000
Lamp Type
13.4.6
2)
3)
4)
* HRC fuses cannot be relied upon to operate rapidly enough to prevent risk of
injury/death should a conductor fall to ground. Normally the resistance to ground
of a fallen wire is too high to allow the fuse to detect and clear the fault. However
the smallest possible fuse size should always be used in order to maximise the
probability of the fuse operating if a fault does occurs.
Table 13.5 shows the maximum number of lamps or watts that should be placed
on a switchwire protected with the fuse sizes shown.
Table 13.5 -Table Allowable Number of Lamps/Watts Per Street light Fuse
Fuse Rating
16 amp
32 amp
63 amp
80 watt lamps
30
60
120
50 watt lamps
50
100
200
20
40
80
17
34
68
10
20
40
2,400
4,800
9,600
Watts
Date
01/02/2014
Rev No.
1
Notes
First Issue
Standard Distribution Design for Power Lines and Cables in the vicinity of
Conductive Structures HPC-9DC-07-0001-2013
Standard Distribution Design for Railway Crossings HPC-9DC-07-0002-2013
Standard Distribution Design for Water Crossings HPC-9DC-07-0003-2013
Standard Distribution Line Earthing HPC-9DC-08-0001-2012
Standard Distribution Electrical Protection HPC-9DC-19-0001- 2013
Information Essential Distribution Overhead Line Design HPC-3DC-08-0002-2013