Nuclear Power in India - Indian Nuclear Energy

18/02/2015
NuclearPowerinIndia|IndianNuclearEnergy
NuclearPowerinIndia
(Updated31December2014)
Indiahasaflourishingandlargelyindigenousnuclearpowerprogramandexpectstohave
14,600MWenuclearcapacityonlineby2020.Itaimstosupply25%ofelectricityfromnuclear
powerby2050.
BecauseIndiaisoutsidetheNuclearNonProliferationTreatyduetoitsweaponsprogram,it
wasfor34yearslargelyexcludedfromtradeinnuclearplantormaterials,whichhas
hampereditsdevelopmentofcivilnuclearenergyuntil2009.
Duetoearliertradebansandlackofindigenousuranium,Indiahasuniquelybeendeveloping
anuclearfuelcycletoexploititsreservesofthorium.
Since2010,afundamentalincompatibilitybetweenIndiascivilliabilitylawandinternational
conventionslimitsforeigntechnologyprovision.
Indiahasavisionofbecomingaworldleaderinnucleartechnologyduetoitsexpertisein
fastreactorsandthoriumfuelcycle.
Indiasprimaryenergyconsumptionmorethandoubledbetween1990and2011tonearly25,000PJ.India's
dependenceonimportedenergyresourcesandtheinconsistentreformoftheenergysectorarechallenges
tosatisfyingrisingdemand.
ElectricitydemandinIndiaisincreasingrapidly,andthe1128billionkilowatthours(TWh)grossproducedin
2012wasmorethantriplethe1990output,thoughstillrepresentedonlysome750kWhpercapitaforthe
year.Withlargetransmissionlosses193TWh(17%)in2012,thisresultedinonlyabout869billionkWh
consumption.Grossgenerationcomprised801TWhfromcoal,94TWhfromgas,23TWhfromoil,33TWh
fromnuclear,126TWhfromhydroand50TWhfromotherrenewables.Coalprovidesmorethantwothirds
oftheelectricityatpresent,butreservesareeffectivelylimited*in2013,159milliontonneswasimported,
and533milliontonnesproduceddomestically.Thepercapitaelectricityconsumptionfigureisexpectedto
doubleby2020,with6.3%annualgrowth,andreach50006000kWhby2050,requiringabout8000TWh/yr
then.Thereisanacutedemandformoreandmorereliablepowersupplies.Onethirdofthepopulationis
notconnectedtoanygrid.
*Quotedresourcesare293billiontonnes,butmuchofthisisinforestedareasofeasternIndiaJharkhand,Orissa,Chhattisgarh,andWest
Bengal.Whilethefirstthreeofthesearethemainproducingstates,neverthelesspermissiontomineisproblematicalandinfrastructurelimited.
Atmid2012,203GWewasonlinewith20.5GWehavingbeenaddedin12months.InSeptember2012it
had211GWe.Thegovernment's12thfiveyearplanfor201217istargetingtheadditionof94GWeover
theperiod,costing$247billion.Threequartersofthiswouldbecoalorlignitefired,andonly3.4GWe
nuclear,includingtwoimported1000MWeunitsplannedatonesiteandtwoindigenous700MWeunitsat
another.By2032totalinstalledcapacityof700GWeisplannedtomeet79%GDPgrowth,andthiswasto
include63GWenuclear.TheOECDsInternationalEnergyAgencypredictsthatIndiawillneedsome$1600
billioninvestmentinpowergeneration,transmissionanddistributionto2035.
IndiahasfiveelectricitygridsNorthern,Eastern,NorthEastern,SouthernandWestern.Allofthemare
interconnectedtosomeextent,excepttheSoutherngrid.AllarerunbythestateownedPowerGrid
CorporationofIndiaLtd(PGCI),whichoperatesmorethan95,000circuitkmoftransmissionlines.InJuly
2012theNortherngridfailedwith35,669MWeloadintheearlymorning,andthefollowingdayitplusparts
http://www.worldnuclear.org/info/CountryProfiles/CountriesGN/India/
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oftwoothergridsfailedagainsothatover600millionpeoplein22stateswerewithoutpowerforuptoa
day.
AKPMGreportin2007saidthattransmissionanddistribution(T&D)losseswereworthmorethan$6billion
peryear.A2012reportcostedthelossesas$12.6billionperyear.A2010estimateshowsbigdifferences
amongstates,withsomeveryhigh,andanationalaverageof27%T&Dloss,wellabovethetarget15%set
in2001whentheaveragefigurewas34%.Installedtransmissioncapacitywasonlyabout13%of
generationcapacity.
Indiaspriorityiseconomicgrowthandtoalleviatepoverty.TheimportanceofcoalmeansthatCO2
emissionreductionisnotahighpriority,andthegovernmenthasdeclinedtosettargetsaheadofthe21st
ConferenceofthePartiesonClimateChangetobeheldinParisin2015.Theenvironmentministerin
September2014saiditwouldbe30yearsbeforeIndiawouldbelikelytoseeadecreaseinCO2emissions.
Nuclearpower
NPCILsupplied35TWhofIndia'selectricityin201314from5.3GWenuclearcapacity,withoverall
capacityfactorof83%andavailabilityof88%.Some410reactoryearsofoperationhadbeenachievedto
December2014.India'sfuelsituation,withshortageoffossilfuels,isdrivingthenuclearinvestmentfor
electricity,and25%nuclearcontributionistheambitionfor2050,when1094GWeofbaseloadcapacityis
expectedtoberequired.Almostasmuchinvestmentinthegridsystemasinpowerplantsisnecessary.
Thetargetsinceabout2004hasbeenfornuclearpowertoprovide20GWeby2020,butin2007thePrime
Ministerreferredtothisas"modest"andcapableofbeing"doubledwiththeopeningupofinternational
cooperation."However,itisevidentthateventhe20GWetargetwouldrequiresubstantialuraniumimports.
InJune2009NPCILsaiditaimedfor60GWenuclearby2032,including40GWeofPWRcapacityand7
GWeofnewPHWRcapacity,allfuelledbyimporteduranium.This2032targetwasreiteratedlatein2010
andincreasedto63GWein2011.ButinDecember2011parliamentwastoldthatmorerealistictargets
were14,600MWeby202021and27,500MWeby2032,relativetopresent4780MWeand10,080MWe
whenreactorsunderconstructionwereonlinein2017.*
*theXIIPlan[201217]proposalsarebeingfinalizedwhichenvisagestartofworkoneightindigenous700MWPressurisedHeavyWater
Reactors(PHWRs),two500MWFastBreederReactors(FBRs),one300MWAdvancedHeavyWaterReactor(AHWR)andeightLightWater
Reactorsof1000MWorhighercapacitywithforeigntechnicalcooperation.Thesenuclearpowerreactorsareexpectedtobecompleted
progressivelyintheXIIIandXIVPlans.
The16PHWRSandLWRsareexpectedtocost$40billion.Theeight700MWePHWRswouldbebuiltat
KaigainKarnataka,GorakhpurinHaryanasFatehabadDistrict,BanswadainRajasthan,andChutka
in
MadhyaPradesh.
InJuly2014thenewPrimeMinisterurgedDAEtotriplethenuclearcapacityto17GWeby2024.He
praisedIndia'sselfrelianceinthenuclearfuelcycleandthecommercialsuccessoftheindigenous
reactors.Healsoemphasizedtheimportanceofmaintainingthecommercialviabilityandcompetitiveness
ofnuclearenergycomparedwithothercleanenergysources.
Afterliabilitylegislationstartedtodeterforeignreactorvendors,earlyin2102thegovernmentsaiditwanted
toseecoalproductionincreaseby150Mt/yr(from440Mt/yr)tosupport60GWenewcoalfiredcapacityto
bebuiltby2015.ThiswouldinvolveRs56billionnewinvestmentinrailinfrastructure.
Longerterm,theAtomicEnergyCommissionhoweverenvisagessome500GWenuclearonlineby2060,
andhassincespeculatedthattheamountmightbehigherstill:600700GWeby2050,providinghalfofall
electricity.Anotherprojectionisfornuclearsharetoriseto9%by2037.
OtherenergyinformationforIndia:USEnergyInformationAdministrationAnalysisBriefonIndia
Indiannuclearpowerindustrydevelopment
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NuclearpowerforciviluseiswellestablishedinIndia.Sincebuildingthetwosmallboilingwaterreactorsat
Tarapurinthe1960s,itscivilnuclearstrategyhasbeendirectedtowardscompleteindependenceinthe
nuclearfuelcycle,necessarybecauseitisexcludedfromthe1970NuclearNonProliferationTreaty(NPT)
duetoitacquiringnuclearweaponscapabilityafter1970.(Thosefivecountriesdoingsobefore1970were
accordedthestatusofNuclearWeaponsStatesundertheNPT.)
Asaresult,India'snuclearpowerprogramhasproceededlargelywithoutfuelortechnologicalassistance
fromothercountries(butseelatersection).Thepressurisedheavywaterreactor(PHWR)designwas
adoptedin1964,sinceitrequiredlessnaturaluraniumthantheBWRs,needednoenrichment,andcould
bebuiltwiththecountrysengineeringcapacityatthattimepressuretubesratherthanaheavypressure
vesselbeinginvolved.Itspowerreactorstothemid1990shadsomeoftheworld'slowestcapacityfactors,
reflectingthetechnicaldifficultiesofthecountry'sisolation,butroseimpressivelyfrom60%in1995to85%
in200102.Thenin200810theloadfactorsdroppedduetoshortageofuraniumfuel.
India'snuclearenergyselfsufficiencyextendedfromuraniumexplorationandminingthroughfuel
fabrication,heavywaterproduction,reactordesignandconstruction,toreprocessingandwaste
management.Ithasasmallfastbreederreactorandisbuildingamuchlargerone.Itisalsodeveloping
technologytoutiliseitsabundantresourcesofthoriumasanuclearfuel.
TheAtomicEnergyEstablishmentwassetupatTrombay,nearMumbai,in1957andrenamedasBhabha
AtomicResearchCentre(BARC)tenyearslater.PlansforbuildingthefirstPressurisedHeavyWater
Reactor(PHWR)werefinalisedin1964,andthisprototypeRajasthan1,whichhadCanada'sDouglas
Pointreactorasareferenceunit,wasbuiltasacollaborativeventurebetweenAtomicEnergyofCanadaLtd
(AECL)andNPCIL.Itstartedupin1972andwasduplicatedSubsequentindigenousPHWRdevelopment
hasbeenbasedontheseunits,thoughseveralstagesofevolutioncanbeidentified:PHWRswithdousing
andsinglecontainmentatRajasthan12,PHWRswithsuppressionpoolandpartialdoublecontainmentat
Madras,andlaterstandardizedPHWRsfromNaroraonwardshavingdoublecontainment,suppression
pool,andcalandriafilledwithheavywater,housedinawaterfilledcalandriavault.
TheIndianAtomicEnergyCommission(AEC)isthemainpolicybody.
TheNuclearPowerCorporationofIndiaLtd(NPCIL)isresponsiblefordesign,construction,commissioning
andoperationofthermalnuclearpowerplants.Atthestartof2010itsaidithadenoughcashonhandfor
10,000MWeofnewplant.Itsfundingmodelis70%equityand30%debtfinancing.However,itisaimingto
involveotherpublicsectorandprivatecorporationsinfuturenuclearpowerexpansion,notablyNational
ThermalPowerCorporation(NTPC)seesubsectionbelow.NTPCisverymuchlargerthanNPCILand
seesitselfasthemainpowerproducer.NTPCislargelygovernmentowned.The1962AtomicEnergyAct
prohibitsprivatecontrolofnuclearpowergeneration,thoughitallowsminorityinvestment.Asoflate2010
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thegovernmenthadnointentionofchangingthistoallowgreaterprivateequityinnuclearplants.
India'soperatingnuclearpowerreactors:
Tarapur1&2
Kaiga1&2
Kaiga3&4
MWenet,
each
Maharashtra GEBWR
150
Karnataka
PHWR
202
Karnataka
PHWR
202
Kakrapar1&2
Gujarat
PHWR
202
1993,1995
Madras1&2
(MAPS)
TamilNadu
PHWR
202
1984,1986
nil
Narora1&2
Uttar
Pradesh
PHWR
202
1991,1992
Duein2014undernew
agreement
Rajasthan1&2
Rajasthan
Candu
PHWR
90,187
1973,1981
Itemspecific,Oct2009
Rajasthan3&4
Rajasthan
PHWR
202
1999,2000
Rajasthan5&6
Rajasthan
PHWR
202
Feb&April2010
Tarapur3&4
Maharashtra
490
2006,2005
Kudankulam1
TamilNadu
PHWR
PWR
(VVER)
March2010undernew
agreement
Oct2009undernew
agreement
nil
917
December2014
Total(21)
Reactor
State
Type
Commercial
operation
1969
1999,2000
2007,2012
5302MWe
Safeguardsstatus*
nil
nil
December2010undernew
agreement
Madras(MAPS)alsoknownasKalpakkam
Rajasthan/RAPSislocatedatRawatbhataandsometimescalledthat
Kaiga=KGS,Kakrapar=KAPS,Narora=NAPS
*ThesafeguardedunitstoMarch2014arelistedintheAnnextoIndiasAdditionalProtocolwithIAEA.Tarapur1&2and
Rajasthan1&2haveINFCIRC/66type,theothersINFCIRC/754type.
NuclearreactorsdeployedinIndia
InDecember2014the40%ofnuclearcapacityundersafeguardswasoperatingonimporteduraniumat
ratedcapacity.Theremainder,whichreliesonindigenousuranium,wasoperatingbelowcapacity,though
thesupplysituationwassaidtobeimproving.
ThetwoTarapur150MWeBoilingWaterReactors(BWRs)builtbyGEonaturnkeycontractbeforethe
adventoftheNuclearNonProliferationTreatywereoriginally200MWe.Theyweredownrateddueto
recurrentproblemsbuthaverunwellsince.Theyhavebeenusingimportedenricheduranium(fromFrance
andChinain198090sandRussiasince2001)andareunderInternationalAtomicEnergyAgency(IAEA)
safeguards.However,latein2004RussiadeferredtotheNuclearSuppliers'Groupanddeclinedtosupply
furtheruraniumforthem.Theyunderwentsixmonthsrefurbishmentover200506,andinMarch2006
Russiaagreedtoresumefuelsupply.InDecember2008a$700millioncontractwithRosatomwas
announcedforcontinueduraniumsupplytothem.
ThetwosmallCanadian(Candu)PHWRsatRajasthannuclearpowerplantstartedupin1972&1980,and
arealsoundersafeguards.Rajasthan1wasdownratedearlyinitslifeandhasoperatedverylittlesince
2002duetoongoingproblemsandhasbeenshutdownsince2004asthegovernmentconsidersitsfuture.
Rajasthan2wasdownratedin1990.Ithadmajorrefurbishment200709andhasbeenrunningonimported
uraniumatfullcapacity.
The220MWePHWRs(202MWenet)wereindigenouslydesignedandconstructedbyNPCIL,basedona
Canadiandesign.TheonlyaccidenttoanIndiannuclearplantwasduetoaturbinehallfirein1993at
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Narora,whichresultedina17hourtotalstationblackout.Therewasnocoredamageorradiologicalimpact
anditwasrated3ontheINESscalea'seriousincident'.
TheMadras(MAPS)reactorswererefurbishedin200203and200405andtheircapacityrestoredto220
MWegross(from170).Muchofthecoreofeachreactorwasreplaced,andthelifespansextendedto
2033/36.
Kakraparunit1wasfullyrefurbishedandupgradedin200910,after16yearsoperation,aswasNarora2,
withcoolingchannel(calandriatube)replacement.
FollowingtheFukushimaaccidentinMarch2011,fourNPCILtaskforcesevaluatedthesituationinIndiaand
inaninterimreportinJulymaderecommendationsforsafetyimprovementsoftheTarapurBWRsandeach
PHWRtype.ThereportofahighlevelcommitteeappointedbytheAtomicEnergyRegulatoryBoard
(AERB)wassubmittedattheendofAugust2011,sayingthattheTarapurandMadrasplantsneededsome
supplementaryprovisionstocopewithmajordisasters.ThetwoTarapurBWRshavealreadybeen
upgradedtoensurecontinuouscoolingofthereactorduringprolongedstationblackoutsandtoprovide
nitrogeninjectiontocontainmentstructures,butfurtherworkisrecommended.Madrasneedsenhanced
flooddefencesincaseoftsunamishigherthanthatin2004.Theprototypefastbreederreactor(PFR)under
constructionnextdooratKalpakkamhasdefenceswhicharealreadysufficientlyhigh,followingsome
floodingofthesitein2004.
TheTarapur3&4reactorsof540MWegross(490MWenet)weredevelopedindigenouslyfromthe220
MWe(gross)modelPHWRandwerebuiltbyNPCIL.ThefirstTarapur4wasconnectedtothegridin
June2005andstartedcommercialoperationinSeptember.Tarapur4'scriticalitycamefiveyearsafter
pouringfirstconcreteandsevenmonthsaheadofschedule.Itstwinunit3wasaboutayearbehindit
andwasconnectedtothegridinJune2006withcommercialoperationinAugust,fivemonthsaheadof
schedule.Tarapur3&4costabout$1200/kW,andarecompetitivewithimportedcoal.
FutureindigenousPHWRreactorswillbe700MWegross(640MWenet).Thefirstfourarebeingbuiltat
KakraparandRajasthan.Theyaredueonlineby2017after60monthsconstructionfromfirstconcreteto
criticality.CostisquotedataboutRs12,000crore(120billionrupees)each,or$1700/kW.Upto40%ofthe
fueltheyusewillbeslightlyenricheduranium(SEU)about1.1%U235,toachievehigherfuelburnup
about21,000MWd/tinsteadofonethirdofthis.InitiallythisfuelwillbeimportedasSEU.
Kudankulam1&2:Russia'sAtomstroyexportissupplyingthecountry'sfirstlargenuclearpowerplant,
comprisingtwoVVER1000(V412)reactors,underaRussianfinancedUS$3billioncontract.Alongterm
creditfacilitycoversabouthalfthecostoftheplant.TheAES92unitsatKudankulaminTamilNadustate
havebeenbuiltbyNPCILandalsocommissionedandoperatedbyNPCILunderIAEAsafeguards.The
turbinesaremadebySilmashinStPetersburg.UnlikeotherAtomstroyexportprojectssuchasinIran,there
havebeenonlyabout80Russiansupervisorystaffonthejob.ConstructionstartedinMarch2002.
Russiaissupplyingalltheenrichedfuelthroughthelifeoftheplant,thoughIndiawillreprocessitandkeep
theplutonium*.ThefirstunitwasduetostartsupplyingpowerinMarch2008andgointocommercial
operationlatein2008,butthisscheduleslippedbysixyears.Inthelatterpartof2011andinto2012
completionandfuelloadingwasdelayedbypublicprotests,butinMarch2012thestategovernment
approvedtheplant'scommissioningandsaiditwoulddealwithanyobstruction.Unit1startedupinmid
July2013,wasconnectedtothegridinOctober2013andenteredcommercialoperationattheendof
December2014.Ithadreachedfullpowerinmidyearbutthenrequiredturbinerepairs,thoughitgenerated
2.8TWhinitsfirstyear.Unit2isexpectedtostartupinApril2015.Eachis917MWenet.
*Theoriginalagreementin1988specifiedreturnofusedfueltoRussia,buta1998supplementalagreementallowedIndiatoretainand
reprocessit.
Whilethefirstcoreloadoffuelwasdeliveredearlyin2008therehavebeendelaysinsupplyofsome
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equipmentanddocumentation.Controlsystemdocumentationwasdeliveredlate,andwhenreviewedby
NPCILitshoweduptheneedforsignificantrefiningandevenreworkingsomeaspects.Thedesignbasis
floodlevelis5.44m,andtheturbinehallflooris8.1mabovemeansealevel.The2004tsunamiwasunder
3m.
AsmalldesalinationplantisassociatedwiththeKudankulamplanttoproduce426m3/hrforitusingfour
stagemultivacuumcompression(MVC)technology.Anotherreverseosmosis(RO)plantisinoperationto
supplylocaltownshipneeds.
Kaiga3startedupinFebruary,wasconnectedtothegridinAprilandwentintocommercialoperationin
May2007.Unit4startedupinNovember2010andwasgridconnectedinJanuary2011,butisabout30
monthsbehindoriginalscheduleduetoshortageofuranium.TheKaigaunitsarenotunderUNsafeguards,
socannotuseimporteduranium.
Rajasthan5startedupinNovember2009,usingimportedRussianfuel,andinDecemberitwasconnected
tothenortherngrid.RAPP6startedupinJanuary2010andwasgridconnectedattheendofMarch.Both
arenowincommercialoperation.
UnderplansfortheIndiaspecificsafeguardstobeadministeredbytheIAEAinrelationtothecivilmilitary
separationplan,eightfurtherreactorsweretobesafeguarded(beyondTarapur1&2,Rajasthan1&2,and
Kudankulam1&2):Rajasthan3&4from2010,Rajasthan5&6from2008,Kakrapar1&2by2012andNarora
1&2by2014.
India'snuclearpowerreactorsunderconstruction:
Reactor
Kudankulam
2
Kalpakkam
PFBR
Kakrapar3
Type
MWegross,
Project
net,
control
each
Construction Commercial
start
operationdue
Safeguards
status
PWR
(VVER)
1000,917
NPCIL
July2002
2015
itemspecific,
Oct2009
FBR
500,470
Bhavini
Oct2004
2015
PHWR
700,630
NPCIL
Nov2010
June2015
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Kakrapar4
Rajasthan7
Rajasthan8
Total(6)
PHWR
PHWR
PHWR
700,630
NPCIL
700,630
NPCIL
700,630
NPCIL
4300MWe
gross
March2011
July2011
Sept2011
Dec2015
June2016
Dec2016
Rajasthan/RAPSalsoknownasRawatbhata
Inmid2008Indiannuclearpowerplantswererunningatabouthalfofcapacityduetoachronicshortageof
fuel.AverageloadfactorforIndiaspowerreactorsdippedbelow60%over20062010,reachingonly40%
in2008.Someeasingafter2008wasduetothenewTuramdihmillinJharkhandstatecomingonline(the
minetherewasalreadyoperating).PoliticaloppositionhasdelayednewminesinJharkhand,Meghalaya
andTelengana.
A500MWeprototypefastbreederreactor(PFBR)startedconstructionin2004atKalpakkamnear
Madras.Itwasexpectedtostartupabouttheendof2010andproducepowerin2011,butthisscheduleis
delayedsignificantly.Constructionwasreported94%completeinFebruary2013,and1750tonnesof
sodiumcoolantwasbeingloadedinJune2014.
Incontrasttothesituationinthe1990s,mostreactorsunderconstructionmorerecentlyhavebeenon
schedule(apartfromfuelshortages200709),andthefirsttwoTarapur3&4wereslightlyincreasedin
capacity.Theseandfutureplannedoneswere450(now490)MWeversionsofthe202MWedomestic
products.Beyondthemandthelastofthe202MWeunits,futurePHWRunitswillbenominal700MWe.
In2005foursiteswereapprovedforeightnewreactors.TwoofthesitesKakraparandRajasthanwould
have700MWeindigenousPHWRunits,Kudankulamwouldhaveimported1000MWeVVERlightwater
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reactorsalongsidethetwobeingbuilttherebyRussia,andthefourthsitewasgreenfieldfortwo1000MWe
LWRunitsJaitapur(Jaithalpur)intheRatnagiridistrictofMaharashtrastate,onthewestcoast.Theplan
hassinceexpandedtosix1600MWeEPRunitshere.
InApril2007thegovernmentgaveapprovalforthefirstfourofeightplanned700MWePHWRunits:
Kakrapar3&4andRajasthan7&8,usingindigenoustechnology.Inmid2009constructionapprovalwas
confirmed,andlatein2009thefinanceforthemwasapproved.SiteworksatKakraparwerecompletedby
August2010.FirstconcreteforKakrapar3&4wasinNovember2010andMarch2011respectively,after
AtomicEnergyRegulatoryBoard(AERB)approval.TheAERBapprovedRajasthan7&8inAugust2010,
andsiteworksthenbegan.FirstconcretewasinJuly2011.Constructionisthenexpectedtotake66
monthstocommercialoperation.TheirestimatedcostisRs123.2billion($2.6billion).InSeptember2009
L&TsecuredanorderforfoursteamgeneratorsforRajasthan7&8,havingalreadysuppliedsimilaronesfor
Kakrapar3&4.InDecember2012L&Twasawardedthe$135millioncontractforbalanceofturbineisland
forRajasthan7&8.
ConstructioncostsofreactorsasreportedbyAECareabout$1200perkilowattforTarapur3&4(540
MWe),$1300/kWforKaiga3&4(220MWe)andexpected$1700/kWforthe700MWePHWRswith60year
lifeexpectancy.
NuclearindustrydevelopmentsinIndiabeyondthetraderestrictions
FollowingtheNuclearSuppliers'GroupagreementwhichwasachievedinSeptember2008,thescopefor
supplyofbothreactorsandfuelfromsuppliersinothercountriesopenedup.Civilnuclearcooperation
agreementshavebeensignedwiththeUSA,Russia,France,UK,SouthKorea,CzechRepublicand
Canada,aswellasArgentina,Kazakhstan,MongoliaandNamibia.Onthebasisofthe2010cooperation
agreementwithCanada,inApril2013abilateralsafeguardsagreementwassignedbetweenthe
DepartmentofAtomicEnergy(DAE)andtheCanadianNuclearSafetyCommission(CNSC),allowingtrade
innuclearmaterialsandtechnologyforfacilitieswhichareunderIAEAsafeguards.Asimilarbilateral
agreementwithAustraliawassignedin2014.Bothwillapplyessentiallytouraniumsupply.
TheinitialtwoRussianPWRtypesattheKudankulamsitewereapartfromIndia'sthreestageplanfor
nuclearpowerandweresimplytoincreasegeneratingcapacitymorerapidly.Nowthereareplansforeight
1000MWeunitsatthatsite,andinJanuary2007amemorandumofunderstandingwassignedforRussia
tobuildthenextfourthere,aswellasotherselsewhereinIndia.Afurthersuchagreementwassignedin
December2010,andRosatomannouncedthatitexpectedtobuildnolessthan18reactorsinIndia.Thenin
December2014anotherhighlevelnuclearcooperationagreementwassignedwithaviewtoRussia
building20morereactorspluscooperationinbuildingRussiandesignednuclearpowerplantsinthird
countries,inuraniummining,productionofnuclearfuel,andwastemanagement.Indiawasalsotoconfirm
asecondlocationforaRussianplantHaripurinWestBengalbeinginsomedoubt.Mostofthenewunits
areexpectedtobethelarger1200MWeAES2006designs.Russiaisreportedtohaveoffereda30%
discountonthe$2billionpricetagforeachofthephase2Kudankulamreactors.Thisisbasedonplansto
startserialproductionofreactorsfortheIndiannuclearindustry,withmuchoftheequipmentand
componentsproposedtobemanufacturedinIndia,therebybringingdowncosts.
Between2010and2020,furthernuclearplantconstructionisexpectedtotaketotalgrosscapacityto
21,180MWe.Thenuclearcapacitytargetispartofnationalenergypolicy.Thisplannedincrementincludes
thosesetoutintheTablebelowincludingtheinitial300MWeAdvancedHeavyWaterReactor(AHWR).
LookingbeyondtheRussianlightwaterreactors,NPCILhadmeetingsandtechnicaldiscussionswiththree
majorreactorsuppliersArevaofFrance,GEHitachiandWestinghouseElectricCorporationoftheUSA
forsupplyofreactorsfortheseprojectsandfornewunitsatKaiga.Theseresultedinmoreformal
agreementswitheachreactorsupplierearlyin2009,asdescribedintheNuclearEnergyParkssubsection
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below.ThebenchmarkcapitalcostsanctionedbyDAEforimportedunitswasquotedat$1600perkilowatt.
Animportantaspectofalltheseagreementsisthat,aswithKudankulam,Indiawillreprocesstheusedfuel
torecoverplutoniumforitsindigenousthreestageprogram,usingapurposebuiltandsafeguarded
IntegratedNuclearRecyclePlant.
Inlate2008NPCILannouncedthataspartoftheEleventhFiveYearPlan(200712),itwouldstartsitework
for12reactorsincludingtherestoftheeight700MWePHWRs,threeorfourfastbreederreactorsandone
300MWeadvancedheavywaterreactor(AHWR)in2009.NPCILsaidthat"Indiaisnowfocusingon
capacityadditionthroughindigenisation"withprogressivelyhigherlocalcontentforimporteddesigns,upto
80%.Lookingfurtheraheaditsaugmentationplanincludedconstructionof2530lightwaterreactorsofat
least1000MWeby2030.Intheeventonlyfour700MWePHWRunitsstartedconstructionover200712.
Earlyin2012NPCILprojectionshadthefollowingadditionstothe10.08GWeanticipatedin2017as
"possible":4.2GWePHWR,7.0GWePHWR(basedonrecycledU),40GWeLWR,2.0GWeFBR.
InJune2012NPCILannouncedfournewsitesfortwinPHWRunits:atGorakhpur/Kumbariyanear
FatehabaddistrictinHaryana,atBanswadainRajasthan,atChutkainMandladistrictandatBheempur
alsoinMadhyaPradesh.Initiallythesewouldadd2800MWe,followedbyafurther2800.Siteworkhas
startedatGorakhpurwithHaryanastategovernmentsupport.
TheEIAreportforChutkaMadhyaPradeshpowerplantwasreleasedinMarch2013,theexpectedcostfor
twounitsisRs16550crores($2.78billion).ConstructionstartisplannedforJuneandDecember2015,with
completioninDecember2020andJune2021.
NPCILisalsoplanningtobuildanindigenous900MWePWR,theIndianPressurisedWaterReactor
(IPWR),designedbyBARCinconnectionwithitsworkonsubmarinepowerplants.Asiteforthefirstplant
isbeingsought,auraniumenrichmentplantisplanned,thereactorpressurevesselforgingwillbecarried
outbyLarsen&Toubro(L&T)andNPCIL'snewjointventureplantatHazira,andtheturbinewillcomefrom
BharatHeavyElectricalsLimited(BHEL).
Meanwhile,NPCILisofferingboth220and540MWePHWRsforexport,inmarketsrequiringsmallto
mediumsizedreactors.
Powerreactorsplannedorproposed
Reactor
State
Kudankulam
3
Kudankulam
4
Jaitapur1&2
TamilNadu
AES92
MWe
gross,
each
1050
TamilNadu
AES92
Ratnagiri,
Maharashtra
Gorakhpur
Haryana(Fatehabad
1&2
district)
Chutka1&2
MadhyaPradesh
Bhimpur1&2 MadhyaPradesh
Mahi
Rajasthan
Banswara
1&2
Kaiga5&6
Karnataka
Kovvada12 Srikakulam,Andhra
Type
Project
control
Start
Start
construction operation
NPCIL
Jan2016
2022
1050
NPCIL
2017?
2023
EPRx2
1700
NPCIL
201516?
PHWRx2
700
NPCIL
June2015
2021,22
PHWRx2
PHWRx2
PHWRx2
700
700
700
NPCIL
NPCIL
NPCIL
PHWRx2
ESBWRx2
700
1600
NPCIL
NPCIL
6&12/2015 2020,21
2014?
by2017
by2017
siteworks,
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MithiVirdi
1&2
Kudankulam
5&6
Kalpakkam
2&3
Subtotal
planned
Pradesh
Bhavnagar,Gujarat
AP1000x2
1250
NPCIL
TamilNadu
AES92x2
1050
NPCIL
TamilNadu
FBRx2
500
Bhavini
2014?
22units
21,300
MWe
Kudankulam
7&8
TamilNadu
Gorakhpur
3&4
Haryana(Fatehabad
district)
Rajouli,
Nawada
Bihar
?
Jaitapur3&4
Ratnagiri,
Maharashtra
?
Ratnagiri,
Maharashtra
Orissa
?
?
Jaitapur5&6
Markandi
(Pati
Sonapur)
MithiVirdi
Bhavnagar,Gujarat
3&4
Kovvada3&4 Srikakulam,Andhra
Pradesh
Nizampatnam Guntur,Andhra
16
Pradesh
Haripur1&2 WestBengal(but
likelyrelocated,
maybetoOrissa)
Haripur3&4 WestBengal
PWRAES
92orAES
2006
PHWRx2
201920
1050
1200
NPCIL
700
NPCIL
2019
PHWRx2
700
NPCIL
PWRx2
PWREPR
1000
1700
NPCIL/NTPC
NPCIL
2016
202122
FBRx2
AHWR
500
300
Bhavini
NPCIL
201617
2017
2022
PWREPR
1600
NPCIL
PWR6000
MWe
2xAP1000
1250
NPCIL
2xESBWR
1600
NPCIL
6x?
1400
NPCIL
PWRx4
VVER1200
1200
1200
1000?
700?
Pulivendula
Kadapa,Andhra
Pradesh
PWRx4
VVER1200
PWR?
PHWR?
Chutka3&4
MadhyaPradesh
PHWRx2
1400
AP1000x2
MithiVirdi
Bhavnagar,Gujarat
5&6
Kovvada5&6 Srikakulam,Andhra
Pradesh
Subtotal
proposed
2016?
2016?
2015
202021
2014?
201921
2017
202223
1250
NPCIL51%,
APGenco
49%
BHELNPCIL
GE?
202324
ESBWRx2
1600
approx35
40,000
MWe
approx
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ForWNAreactortable:first22units'planned',next(estimated)35'proposed'.
NuclearEnergyParks
InlinewithpastpracticesuchasattheeightunitRajasthannuclearplant,NPCILintendstosetupfive
further"NuclearEnergyParks",eachwithacapacityforuptoeightnewgenerationreactorsof1,000MWe,
sixreactorsof1600MWeorsimply10,000MWeatasinglelocation.By2032,4045GWewouldbe
providedfromthesefive.NPCILwashopingtobeabletostartworkby2012onatleastfournewreactorsat
allfoursitesdesignatedforimportedplants,butthisdidnothappen.
Thenewenergyparksaretobe:
Kudankulam(KKNPP)inTamilNadu:threemorepairsofRussianVVERunits,making9200MWe.
Environmentalapprovalhasbeengivenforthefirstfour.Ageneralframeworkagreementforconstructionof
units3&4wastobesignedinmid2010,withequipmentsupplyandservicecontractssoonafter,butthese
weredelayedonaccountofsupplierliabilityquestions,withIndiawantingtheunitstocomeunderits2010
vendorliabilitylaw.InJuly2012Russiaagreedto$3.5billioninexportfinancingforunits3&4,tocover85%
oftheircost.Afurthercreditlineof$800millionisavailabletocoverfuelsupplies.Thecreditlinescarry
interestat4%paandwouldberepayableover14yearsand4yearsrespectively,fromoneyearafterthe
startofpowergeneration.TheIndiangovernmentsaiditexpectedtotakeupthecreditofferstothevalueof
$3.06billion,about53%ofthe$5.78billionestimatedtotalprojectcost.
InJuly2012coastalregulationzoneclearancewasobtainedforunits36of1000MWeeachfromthe
MinistryofEnvironment&Forests,mainlyrelatedtoseawatercooling.Environmentalapprovalforunits36
hadbeenobtainedearlier.InMarch2013cabinetapprovedconstructionofunits3&4,andsiteworkbegan.
InApril2014NPCILsignedaRs33,000crore($5.47billion)agreementwithRosatomforunits3&4,having
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apparentlyresolvedtheliabilityquestion(butseesectionbelow).InMayageneralframeworkagreementto
buildtheplantswassigned,andinDecembercontractswithRosatomforthesupplyofmajorcomponents
forthetwounitsweresigned.DAEsaidthatalleffortsarebeingmadetolaunchthesereactorsinFY
201415.MajorsiteworksarenowscheduledforMarch2015,withconstructionstartearlyin2016,and72
monthconstructionperiodunderNIAEPASEsupervision.
Jaitapur(JNPP)inMaharashtra'sRatnagiridistrict:A7billionframeworkagreementwithArevawas
signedinDecember2010forthefirsttwoEPRreactors,alongwith25yearssupplyoffuel.Environmental
approvalhasbeengivenforthese,withcoastalzoneclearances,andsiteworkwastostartin2011witha
viewto2013constructionstart,butearlyin2014theapplicationforsitingconsentwasstillunderreviewby
AERB.InJuly2009ArevasubmittedabidtoNPCILtobuildthefirsttwoEPRunits,whichwillhaveAlstom
turbinegenerators,accountingforabout30%ofthetotalEUR7billionplantcost.Thesitewillhostsixunits,
providing9600MWe.Arevanowhopestoobtainexportcreditfinancingandsignacontractbytheendof
2012,whichwouldputthefirsttwounitsonlinein2020and2021.In2013negotiationscontinuedandthe
governmentsaiditexpectedthecostofthefirsttwounitstobe1,20,000crore($21billion).Francehas
agreedtoa25yearloanfortheprojectat4.8%.
InMarch2014ArevaandDAEwithNPCILwerereportedtohaveagreedonapowerpriceofRs6.5/kWh
(10.6UScents,$106/MWh),thoughArevahadbeenaimingforRs9.18.However,inJune2014itwas
reportedthattherewasasyetnoagreementandthatDAEwasadamantthatthecostcouldnotbemore
thanRs6.5/kWh.Arevawasholdingoutforthehigherprice.
GorakhpurHaryanaAnuVidyutPariyojana(GHAVP)intheFatehabaddistrictofHaryanaisaproject
withfourindigenous700MWePHWRunitsintwophases,andtheAEChasapprovedthestate'sproposal
forthe2800MWeplant.TheinlandnorthernstateofHaryanaisoneofthecountry'smostindustrializedand
hasademandof8900MWe,butcurrentlygenerateslessthan2000MWeandimports4000MWe.The
GorakhpurplantmaybepaidforbythestategovernmentortheHaryanaPowerGenerationCorp.
NPCILisundertakingsiteinfrastructureworksnearthevillagesofKumhariaandGorakhpur,andtheofficial
groundbreakingwasinJanuary2014.Afinalenvironmentalassessmentfortheprojectwasapprovedin
December2013,andgovernmentapprovalforGorakhpurphase1wasinFebruary2014.Constructionis
duetobegininJune2015,withthefirstunitonlinein2021after63months'construction.Costofthefirst
twounitsisputatINR210or235billion($3.4or3.8billion).
ChhayaMithiVirdiinGujarat'sBhavnagardistirctwillhostuptosixWestinghouseAP1000unitsbuiltin
threestagesonthecoast.NPCILsaysithasinitiatedpreprojectactivitieshere,withgroundbreakingin
2012.ApreliminaryenvironmentalassessmentforthewholeprojectwascompletedinJanuary2013.State
andlocalgovernmentandcoastalzoneclearanceshavebeenobtained.Westinghousesignedan
agreementwithNPCILinJune2012tolaunchnegotiationsforanearlyworksagreementwhichwas
expectedinafewmonths.ApreliminarycommercialcontractbetweenNPCILandWestinghousewas
signedinSeptember2013alongwithanagreementtocarryoutatwoyearpreliminarysafetyanalysisfor
theproject.NPCILsaidthatitmustlayemphasisonstrongpublicacceptanceoutreachandproject
planning.''InOctober2014theMinistryofEnvironment&ForestsaskedNPCILforfurtherassessmentof
environmentalandlandacquisitionmattersinitsenvironmentimpactassessment(EIA).NPCILwasthenin
theprocessofobtainingsiteclearanceformtheAtomicEnergyRegulatoryBoard(AERB).Thefirststageof
twounitsisdueonlinein201920,theothersto2024.
KovvadainAndhraPradesh'snortherncoastalSrikakulamdistrictwillhostsixGEHitachiESBWRunits.
GEHitachisaidinJune2012thatitexpectedsoontocompleteanearlyworksagreementwithNPCILtoset
termsforobtainingapprovalfromtheGovernmentfortheproject.Sitepreparationisunderway,anda
preliminaryenvironmentalassessmentisbeingprepared.InFebruary2014NPCILsaidithopedtopourfirst
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concretebyearly2015forthefirst1594MWereactor.Compensationforlandacquisitionwasbeing
organised.
Inadditiontotheoriginalfiveenergyparks:
Chutka(CNPP)ininlandMadhyaPradeshisalsodesignatedfortwoindigenous700MWePHWRunits.
NPCILhasinitiatedpreprojectactivitieshere,andapublichearingatChutkawasinFebruary2014.A
preliminaryenvironmentalassessmentisbeingprepared.
MahiBanswarainRajasthanisanewsitefor700MWePHWRs.Landacquisition,governmentapproval
andenvironmentalassessmentareintrain.
HaripurinWestBengal:tohostfourorsixfurtherRussianVVER1200units,making4800MWe.NPCIL
hasinitiatedpreprojectactivitieshere,andgroundbreakingwasplannedfor2012.However,stronglocal
oppositionledtheWestBengalgovernmenttorejecttheproposalinAugust2011,andchangeofsiteto
Orissastatehasbeensuggested.CertainlyRosatomexpectstobuildsixfurtherRussianVVERreactorsat
afurthersite,notyetidentified.
AtMarkandi(PatiSonapur)inOrissathereareplansforupto6000MWeofPWRcapacity.Majorindustrial
developmentsareplannedinthatareaandOrissawasthefirstIndianstatetoprivatiseelectricitygeneration
andtransmission.Statedemandisexpectedtoreach20billionkWh/yrby2010.
BhimpurinMadhyaPradeshhasinprinciplegovernmentapprovalfortwo700MWePHWRs,accordingto
theDAEannualreport201314.
TheAEChasalsomentionedpossiblenewnuclearpowerplantsinBiharandJharkhand.
In2014theChinesepresidentinitiateddiscussionswithhisIndiancounterpartaboutbuildingnuclearpower
plants,raisinghepossibilitythatChinacouldcompetewithFrance,Russia,JapanandtheUSA.
NTPCPlans
India'slargestpowercompany,NationalThermalPowerCorporation(NTPC)in2007proposedbuildinga
2000MWenuclearpowerplanttobeinoperationby2017.Itwouldbetheutility'sfirstnuclearplantand
alsothefirstconventionalnuclearplantnotbuiltbythegovernmentownedNPCIL.Thisproposalbecamea
jointventuresetupinApril2010withNPCILholding51%,andpossiblyextendingtomultipleprojects
utilisinglocalandimportedtechnology.Oneofthesitesearmarkedforapairof700MWePHWRunitsin
HaryanaorMadhyaPradeshmaybeallocatedtothejointventure.
NTPCsaiditaimedby2014tohavedemonstratedprogressin"settingupnuclearpowergeneration
capacity",andthattheinitial"plannednuclearportfolioof2000MWeby2017"maybegreater.Howeverin
2012itindicatedadowngradingofitsnuclearplans.NTPC,now89.5%governmentowned,plannedto
increaseitstotalinstalledcapacityfrom30GWeinabout2007to50GWeby2012(72%ofitcoal)and75
GWeby2017.Itisalsoformingjointventuresinheavyengineering.
NTPCisreportedtobeestablishingajointventurewithNPCILandBHELtosellIndia'slargelyindigenous
220MWeheavywaterpowerreactorunitsabroad,possiblyincontradealsinvolvinguraniumsupplyfrom
countriessuchasNamibiaandMongolia.
Otherindigenousarrangements
The87%stateownedNationalAluminiumCompany(Nalco)hassignedanagreementwithNPCILrelevant
toitshopesofbuildinga1400MWenuclearpowerplantontheeastcoast,inOrissa'sGanjamdistrict.A
morespecificagreementwassignedinNovember2011tosetupajointventurewithNPCILNPCILNalco
PowerCoLtdgivingit29%equityinKakrapar3&4(total1300MWenet)underconstructioninGujarat
onthewestcoastforRs1700crore($285million).ThetotalprojectsizeisRs11,500crorewiththetotal
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debtrequirementatRs7,000crore.Nalcoisseekinggovernmentpermissiontoincreasethisshareto49%.
ItisalsoseekingtobuyuraniumassetsinAfrica.Nalcoalreadyhasitsown1200MWecoalfiredpower
plantinOrissastateatAngul,beingexpandedto1200MWe,toserveitsrefineryanditsAngulsmelterof
345,000tpa,beingexpandedto460,000tpa(requiringabout1GWeofconstantsupply).
India'snationaloilcompany,IndianOilCorporationLtd(IOC),inNovember2009joinedwithNPCILinan
agreement"forpartnershipinsettingupnuclearpowerplantsinIndia."Theinitialplantenvisagedwastobe
atleast1000MWe,andNPCILwouldbetheoperatorandatleast51%owner.InNovember2010IOC
agreedtotakea26%stakeinRajasthan7&8(2x700MWe)asajointventure,withtheoptiontoincrease
thisto49%.TheestimatedprojectcostisRs12,320crore(123billionrupees,$2.1billion),andthe26%will
representonly2%ofIOC'scapitalbudgetinthe11thplanto2012.TheformalJVagreementwassignedin
January2011.
ThecashrichOilandNaturalGasCorporation(ONGC),which(upstreamofIOC)providessome80%ofthe
country'scrudeoilandnaturalgasandis84%governmentowned,ishavingformaltalkswithAECabout
becomingaminoritypartnerwithNPCILonpresentorplanned700MWePHWRprojects.Itwaslater
reportedthatONGCintendedtobuild2000MWeinjointventurewithNPCIL(51%).
IndianRailways,withpowerrequirementof3000MWenowandrisingto5000MWeabout2022,hasalso
approachedNPCILtosetupajointventuretobuildtwo500MWePHWRnuclearplantsonrailwaylandor
existingnuclearsitesforitsownpowerrequirements.TheRailwaysalreadyhasajointventurewithNTPC
BhartiyaRailBijleeCompanytobuilda1000MWecoalfiredpowerplantatNabiNagarinAurangabad
districtofBihar,withthe250MWeunitscomingonline201415.TheRailwaysalsoplanstosetupanother
2x660MWesupercriticalthermalpowerplantatAdrainPuruliadistrictofWestBengalfortractionsupply
ateconomicaltariff.Some23,500kmofits65,000kmlinesareelectrified,anditspends8000crore($1.34
billion)peryearonpower,atINR5.4/kWhwhichitexpectstoreducetoINR4.0/kWh(9centsto6.6c).
TheSteelAuthorityofIndiaLtd(SAIL)andNPCILarediscussingajointventuretobuilda700MWePHWR
plant.ThesitewillbechosenbyNPCIL,inGujaratofelsewhereinwesternIndia.
Thegovernmenthasannouncedthatitintendstoamendthelawtoallowprivatecompaniestobeinvolved
innuclearpowergenerationandpossiblyotheraspectsofthefuelcycle,butwithoutdirectforeign
investment.Inanticipationofthis,ReliancePowerLtd,GVKPower&InfrastructureLtdandGMREnergy
LtdarereportedtobeindiscussionwithoverseasnuclearvendorsincludingAreva,GEHitachi,
WestinghouseandAtomstroyexport.
InSeptember2009theAECannouncedaversionofitsplannedAdvancedHeavyWaterReactor(the
AHWR300LEU)designedforexport.
InAugustandSeptember2009theAECreaffirmeditscommitmenttothethoriumfuelcycle,particularly
thoriumbasedFBRs,tomakethecountryatechnologicalleader.
Overseasreactorvendors
Asdescribedabove,therehavebeenasuccessionofagreementswithRussia'sAtomstroyexporttobuild
furtherVVERreactors.InMarch2010a'roadmap'forbuildingsixmorereactorsatKudankulamby2017
andfourmoreatHaripurafter2017wasagreed,bringingthetotalto12.Thenumbermaybeincreased
after2017,inIndia's13thfiveyearplan.AssociatecompanyAtomenergomash(AEM)issettingupanoffice
inIndiawithaviewtobiddingforfutureworkthereandinVietnam,andfinalizingapartnershipwithan
Indianheavymanufacturer,eitherL&T(seebelow)oranother.ARussianfuelfabricationplantisalsounder
consideration.
InFebruary2009ArevasignedamemorandumofunderstandingwithNPCILtobuildtwo,andlaterfour
more,EPRunitsatJaitapur,andaformalcontractwasexpected.Thisfollowedthegovernmentsigninga
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nuclearcooperationagreementwithFranceinSeptember2008.ArevasaysthattheEPRhasachieved
DesignAcceptanceCertificationinIndia.
InMarch2009GEHitachiNuclearEnergysignedagreementswithNPCILandBharatHeavyElectricalsLtd
(BHEL)tobeginplanningtobuildamultiunitpowerplantusing1350MWeAdvancedBoilingWater
Reactors(ABWR).InMay2009L&Twasbroughtintothepicture.InApril2010itwasannouncedthatthe
BHELNPCILjointventurewasstillindiscussionwithanunnamedtechnologypartnertobuilda1400MWe
nuclearplantatChutkainMadhyaPradeshstate,withMadhyaPradeshPowerGeneratingCompany
Limited(MPPGCL)thenodalagencytofacilitatetheexecutionoftheproject.
InMay2009WestinghousesignedamemorandumofunderstandingwithNPCILregardingdeploymentof
itsAP1000reactors,usinglocalcomponents(probablyfromL&T).
Afterabreakofthreedecades,AtomicEnergyofCanadaLtd(AECL)waskeentoresumetechnical
cooperation,especiallyinrelationtoservicingIndia'sPHWRs(thoughthiswouldnowbeundertakenby
CanduEnergy),andtherewerepreliminarydiscussionsregardingthesaleofanACR1000.
InAugust2009NPCILsignedagreementswithKoreaElectricPowerCo(KEPCO)tostudytheprospects
forbuildingKoreanAPR1400reactorsinIndia.Thiscouldproceedfollowingbilateralnuclearcooperation
agreementssignedinOctober2010andJuly2011.
TheLWRstobesetupbytheseforeigncompaniesarereportedtohavealifetimeguaranteeoffuelsupply.
Fastneutronreactors
Longerterm,theAECenvisagesitsfastreactorprogrambeing30to40timesbiggerthanthePHWR
program,andinitiallyatleast,largelyinthemilitarysphereuntilits"synchronisedworking"withthe
reprocessingplantisprovenonan18to24monthcycle.Thiswillbelinkedwithupto40,000MWeoflight
waterreactorcapacity,theusedfuelfeedingtentimesthatfastbreedercapacity,thus"derivingmuchlarger
benefitoutoftheexternalacquisitionintermsoflightwaterreactorsandtheirassociatedfuel".This40
GWeofimportedLWRcapacitymultipliedto400GWeviaFBRwouldcomplement200250GWebasedon
theindigenousthreestageprogramofPHWRFBRAHWR(seeThoriumcyclesectionbelow).ThusAECis
"talkingabout500to600GWenuclearoverthenext50yearsorso"inIndia,plusexportopportunities.
In2002theregulatoryauthorityissuedapprovaltostartconstructionofa500MWeprototypefastbreeder
reactor(PFBR)atKalpakkamandthishasbeenbuiltbyBHAVINI(BharatiyaNabhikiyaVidyutNigamLtd),a
governmententerprisesetupunderDAEtofocusonFBRs.ItwasexpectedtostartupinSeptember2014,
fuelledwithMOX(mixeduraniumplutoniumoxide,the30%ofreactorgradePubeingfromitsexisting
PHWRs)madeatTarapurbyBARC.Ithasablanketwithuraniumandthoriumtobreedfissileplutonium
andU233respectively,takingthethoriumprogramtostagetwo,andsettingthesceneforeventualfull
utilisationofthecountry'sabundantthoriumtofuelreactors.Itisasodiumcooledpooltypereactorhaving
twoprimaryandtwosecondaryloops,withfoursteamgeneratorsperloop.Itisdesignedfora40year
operatinglifeat75%loadfactor.Twomoresuch500MWefastreactorshavebeenannouncedfor
constructionatKalpakkam,butslightlyredesignedbytheIndiraGandhiCentretoreducecapitalcost.Then
fourmoreareplannedatanothersite.
InitialFBRswillhavemixedoxidefuelorcarbidefuel,butthesewillbefollowedbymetallicfuelledonesto
enableshorterdoublingtime.Oneofthelastoftheabovesix,orpossiblythefourthoneoverall,istohave
theflexibilitytoconvertfromMOXtometallicfuel(ieadualfuelunit),anditisplannedtoconvertthesmall
FBTRtometallicfuelabout2013(seeR&Dsectionbelow).Withmetalfuel,a500MWeunitisexpectedto
produce2tonnesofreactorgradeplutoniumin810years.
Followingthesewillbea1000MWefastreactorusingmetallicfuel,andconstructionofthefirstisexpected
tostartabout2020.ThisdesignisintendedtobethemainpartoftheIndiannuclearfleetfromthe2020s.A
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fuelfabricationplantandareprocessingplantformetalfuelsareplannedforKalpakkam,astheFast
ReactorFuelCycleFacilityapprovedforconstructionin2013.
ADecember2010scientificandtechnicalcooperationagreementbetweenAECandRosatomisfocusedon
"jointdevelopmentofanewgenerationoffastreactors".
HeavyengineeringinIndia
India'slargestengineeringgroup,Larsen&Toubro(L&T)announcedinJuly2008thatitwaspreparingto
ventureintointernationalmarketsforsupplyofheavyengineeringcomponentsfornuclearreactors.It
formeda20billionrupee(US$463million)venturewithNPCILtobuildanewplantfordomesticandexport
nuclearforgingsatitsHazira,SuratcoastalsiteinGujaratstate.Thisisnowunderconstruction.Itwill
produce600tonneingotsinitssteelmeltshopandhaveaverylargeforgingpresstosupplyfinished
forgingsfornuclearreactors,pressurizersandsteamgenerators,andalsoheavyforgingsforcritical
equipmentinthehydrocarbonsectorandforthermalpowerplants.
InthecontextofIndia'stradeisolationoverthreedecadesL&Thasproducedheavycomponentsfor17of
India'spressurizedheavywaterreactors(PHWRs)andhasalsosecuredcontractsfor80%ofthe
componentsforthefastbreederreactoratKalpakkam.ItisqualifiedbytheAmericanSocietyofMechanical
Engineerstofabricatenucleargradepressurevesselsandcoresupportstructures,achievingthis
internationallyrecognisedqualitystandardin2007,andfurtherASMEaccreditationin2010.Itisoneof
abouttenmajornuclearqualifiedheavyengineeringenterprisesworldwide.
Earlyin2009,L&Tsignedfouragreementswithforeignnuclearpowerreactorvendors.Thefirst,with
Westinghouse,setsupL&TtoproducecomponentmodulesforWestinghouse'sAP1000reactor.The
secondagreementwaswithAtomicEnergyofCanadaLtd(AECL)"todevelopacompetitivecost/scope
modelfortheACR1000"(thoughthiswouldhavelapsed).InAprilitsignedanagreementwith
AtomstroyexportprimarilyfocusedoncomponentsforthenextfourVVERreactorsatKudankulam,but
extendingbeyondthattootherRussianVVERplantsinIndiaandinternationally.TheninMay2009itsigned
anagreementwithGEHitachitoproducemajorcomponentsforABWRsfromitsnewHaziraJVplant.The
twocompanieshopetoutilizeindigenousIndiancapabilitiesforthecompleteconstructionofnuclearpower
plantsincludingthesupplyofreactorequipmentandsystems,valves,electricalandinstrumentation
productsforABWRplantstobebuiltinIndia.L&T"willcollaboratewithGEHtoengineer,manufacture,
constructandprovidecertainconstructionmanagementservices"fortheABWRproject.Earlyin2010L&T
signedanagreementwithRollsRoycetoproducetechnologyandcomponentsforlightwaterreactorsin
Indiaandinternationally.
Followingthe2008removaloftraderestrictions,IndiancompaniesledbyReliancePower(RPower),
NPCIL,andBharatHeavyElectricalsLtd(BHEL)saidthattheyplantoinvestoverUS$50billioninthenext
fiveyearstoexpandtheirmanufacturingbaseinthenuclearenergysector.BHELplannedtospend$7.5
billionintwoyearsbuildingplantstosupplycomponentsforreactorsof1,600MWe.Italsoplanstosetupa
tripartitejointventurewithNPCILandAlstomtosupplyturbinesfornuclearplantsof700MWe,1,000MWe
and1,600MWe.InJune2010AlstomconfirmedthattheequaljointventurewithNPCILandBHELwould
becapitalizedtoEUR25million,toprovideturbinesinitiallyforeight700MWePHWRunits,thenfor
importedlargeunits.AnotherjointventureiswithNPCILandaforeignpartnertomakesteamgeneratorsfor
10001600MWeplants.
TwocontractsawardedbyNPCILtoaconsortiumofBHELandAlstomcoverthesupplyandinstallationof
turbogeneratorpackagesforKakrapar3and4,thefirstindigenouslydesigned700MWepressurisedheavy
waterreactors.ThecontractsareworthoverINR16,000million($360million),withBHEL'sshare
representingaroundINR8000million($198million).Thefirstcontractcoversthesupplyoftheactual
turbinegeneratorpackages,whilethesecondcoversassociatedservices.BHELandAlstomwilljointly
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manufactureandsupplythesteamturbines,whileBHELwillmanufactureandsupplythegenerator,
moistureseparatorreheaterandcondenser,aswellasundertakingthecompleteerectionand
commissioningoftheturbinegeneratorpackage.InAugust2012NPCILawardedanINR19,060million
($343million)contracttoBHELAlstomforturbinegeneratorsforRajasthan7&8.Underthecontract,
BHELandAlstomwilltogethermanufactureandsupplythesteamturbines,whilethemanufactureand
supplyofthecompletegenerator,moistureseparatorreheaterandcondenserincludingtheerectionand
commissioningoftheturbinegeneratorpackagewillbeundertakenbyBHEL.
BHELisalsosupplyingsteamgeneratorsforoneKakraparunitandRajasthan7&8.Itwillalsosupplyand
installtheinstrumentationandcontrolsfortheturbineislandsecondarycircuitforRajasthan7&8.BHELis
alsosupplying,constructingandcommissioningthecompleteconventionalislandforthe500MWe
prototypefastbreederreactorbeingbuiltatKalpakkam.
HCC(HindustanConstructionCo.)hasbuiltmorethanhalfofIndia'snuclearpowercapacity,notablyall6
unitsoftheRajasthanAtomicPowerProjectandalsoKudankulam.IthasanINR8880million($160million)
contractforthemaincivilworksforRajasthan7&8.Itspecializesinprestressedcontainmentstructuresfor
reactorbuildings.InSeptember2009itformedajointventurewithUKbasedengineeringandproject
managementfirmAMECPLCtoundertakeconsultingservicesandnuclearpowerplantconstruction.HCC
hasanorderbacklogworth10.5billionrupees($220million)fornuclearprojectsfromNPCILandexpects
sixnuclearreactorstobetenderedbytheendof2010.
ArevasignedanagreementwithBharatForgeinJanuary2009tosetupajointventureincastingand
forgingnuclearcomponentsforbothexportandthedomesticmarket,by2012.BHELexpectstojointhis,
andinJune2010theUK'sSheffieldForgemastersbecameatechnicalpartnerwithBHELina30million
deal.ThepartnershaveshortlistedDahejinGujarat,andKrishnapatnamandVisakhapatnaminAndhra
Pradeshaspossiblesites.
InAugust2010GEHitachiNuclearEnergy(GEH)signedapreliminaryagreementwithIndiasTata
ConsultingEngineers,Ltd.toexplorepotentialprojectdesignandworkforcedevelopmentopportunitiesin
supportofGEHsfuturenuclearprojectsinIndianotablytheproposalsforsixESBWRunitsandaround
theworld.
InApril2012AtomenergomashwasnegotiatingwithpotentialIndianpartnersonlocalizationofsome
productionsanddesignofequipmentfornuclearpowerplantsbeingbuilttotheRussiantechnologybothin
IndiaandotherAsiancountriessuchasBangladeshandVietnam.In2010aMemorandumof
UnderstandingwithWalchandnagarIndustriesLtd(India)wassignedbyAtomenergomash.
SeealsoIndiasectionofHeavyManufacturingpaper.
UraniumresourcesandmininginIndia
India'suraniumresourcesaremodest,with102,600tonnesUasreasonablyassuredresources(RAR)and
37,200tonnesasinferredresourcesinsitu(to$260/kgU)atJanuary2011.InDecember2014,181,600tU
'resources'wasclaimedbyDAE.Accordingly,Indiaexpectstoimportanincreasingproportionofits
uraniumfuelneeds.In2013itwasimportingabout40%ofuraniumrequirements.
*38%veintypedeposits,12%sandstone(Meghalaya),12%unconformity(LambapurPeddagattuinAP),and37%other'stratabound'
(Cuddapahbasin,includingTummalapalle).
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ExplorationiscarriedoutbytheAtomicMineralsDirectorateforExplorationandResearch(AMD).Mining
andprocessingofuraniumiscarriedoutbyUraniumCorporationofIndiaLtd(UCIL),alsoasubsidiaryof
theDepartmentofAtomicEnergy(DAE),inJharkhandnearCalcutta.CommonmillsarenearJaduguda
(2500t/day)andTuramdih(3000t/day,expandingto4500t/day).Jadugudaoreisreportedtograde0.05
0.06%U.AllJharkhandminesareundergroundexceptBanduhurang.AnothermillisatTummalapalleinAP,
expandingfrom3000to4500t/day.
In2005and2006planswereannouncedtoinvestalmostUS$700milliontoopenfurthermines:in
JharkandatBanduhurang,BagjataandMohuldihinMeghalayaatDomiasiatMawthabah(withamill)and
inTelenganaatLambapurPeddagattu(withmill50kmawayatSeripally),bothinNalgondadistrict.
TheJaduguda/JadugoraminewasclosedinSeptember2014duetoexpiryofitsmininglicence,butthis
wasrenewedafewweekslaterbythestategovernment,andinDecembertheEastSinghbhum
governmentgaveapprovaltoresumemining.AMDquotesresourcesas6816tU(March2014).
InJharkand,BanduhurangisIndia'sfirstopencutmineandwascommissionedin2007.Bagjatais
undergroundandwasopenedinDecember2008,thoughtherehadbeenearliersmalloperations198691.
TheMohuldihundergroundminewascommissionedinApril2012.ThenewmillatTuramdihservingthese
mineswascommissionedin2008.Itis7kmfromMohuldih.
InAndhraPradeshandTelenganatherearethreekindsofuraniummineralisationintheCuddapahBasin,
includingunconformityrelateddepositsinthenorthofit.TheTummalapallebeltwithlowgradestrata
bounduraniummineralisationis160kmlong,andappearsincreasinglyprospectiveAMDreports37,000
tUin15kmofit.
InTelengana,thenewnortherninlandstatesubdividedfromAndhraPradeshin2013,theLambapur
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PeddagattuprojectinNalgondadistrict110kmsoutheastofHyderabadhasenvironmentalclearancefor
oneopencutandthreesmallundergroundmines(basedonsome6000tUresourcesatabout0.1%U)but
faceslocalopposition.ThecentralgovernmenthadapprovedRs637crorefortheproject,withprocessing
tobeatSeripally,54kmawayinNalgondadistrict.In2014UCILwaspreparingtoapproachthestate
governmentandrenewitsfederalapprovalsfortheproject.AfurtherdepositnearLambapurPeddagattuis
Koppunuru,inGunturdistrictofAP,nowunderevaluation,andChitrial.
InAugust2007thegovernmentapprovedanewUS$270millionundergroundmineandmillat
TummalapallenearPulivendulainKadapadistrictofAndhraPradesh,atthesouthendoftheBasinand
300kmsouthofHyderabad.ItsresourceshavebeenrevisedupwardsbyAMDto71,690tU(March2014)
anditscosttoRs19billion($430million),andtotheendof2012expenditurewasRs11billion($202
million).TheprojectwasopenedinAprilandfirstcommercialproductionwasinJune2012,usingan
innovativepressurisedalkalineleachingprocess(thisbeingthefirsttimealkalineleachingisusedinIndia).
Productionisexpectedtoreach220tU/yr,andin2013millcapacitywasbeingdoubledatacostofRs8
billion($147million).AnexpansionoforfromtheTummalapalleprojectistheKanampalleUproject,with
38,000tUreserves.FurthersouthernmineralisationnearTummalapalleareMotuntulapalle,Muthanapalle,
andRachakuntapalle.
InKarnataka,UCILisplanningasmalluraniummineintheBhimabasinatGogiinGulbargaareafrom
2014,afterundertakingafeasibilitystudy,andgettingcentralgovernmentapprovalinmid2011,state
approvalinNovember2011andexplicitstatesupportinJune2012.AportablemillisplannedforDiggior
Saidpurnearby,usingconventionalalkalineleaching.Totalcostisabout$135million.Resourcesare4250
tUat0.1%(seenasrelativelyhighgrade)including2600tUreserves,sufficientfor15yearsminelife,at
127tU/yr,fromfracture/faultcontrolleduraniummineralisation.UCILplansalsotoutilisetheuranium
depositsintheBhimabeltfromSedaminGulbargatoMuddebihalinBijapur.
InMeghalaya,closetotheBangladeshborderintheWestKhasiHills,theDomiasiatMawthabahmine
project(nearNongbahJynrin)isinahighrainfallareaandhasalsofacedlongstandinglocalopposition
partlyrelatedtolandacquisitionissuesbutalsofannedbyacampaignoffearmongering.Forthisreason,
anddespiteclearstategovernmentsupportinprinciple,UCILdoesnotyethaveapprovalfromthestate
governmentfortheopencutmineatKyllengPyndengsohiongMawthabahKPM(formerlyknownas
Domiasiat)thoughpreprojectdevelopmenthasbeenauthorisedon422ha.However,federal
environmentalapprovalinDecember2007foraproposeduraniummineandprocessingplanthereandfor
theNongstinminehasbeenreported.ThereissometimesviolentoppositionbyNGOstouraniummine
developmentintheWestKhasiHills,includingatKPM/DomiasiatandWakhyn,whichhaveestimated
resourcesof9500tUand8000tUrespectively.Tyrnaiisasmallerdepositinthearea.Thestatusand
geographyofalltheseisnotknown,beyondAMDbeingreportedassayingthatUCILis"unabletomine
thembecauseofsocioeconomicproblems".Miningisnotexpectedbefore2017.
Fracture/faultcontrolleduraniummineralisationsimilartothatinKarnatakaisreportedinthe130kmlong
RohilbeltinSikardistrictinRajasthan,with6133tUidentified(March2014).
AMDreportsfurtheruraniumresourcesinChattisgarhstate(3380tU),HimachalPradesh(665tU),
Maharashtra(300tU),andUttarPradesh(750tU).
India'suraniumminesandmillsexistingandplanned
State,district
Jharkhand
Mine
Mill
Jaduguda
Jaduguda
Operating
from
1967
(mine)
1968(mill)
tUper
year
200total
frommill
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Jharkhand,EastSinghbum
dist.
Bhatin
Narwapahar
Bagjata
Turamdih
Jaduguda
Jaduguda
Jaduguda
Turamdih
1967
1995
2008
2003(u/g
mine)
2008(mill)
190total
frommill
Banduhurang
Turamdih
2007
(openpit)
AndhraPradesh,Kadapa/
YSRdistrict
Mohuldih
Tummalapalle
Turamdih
Tummalapalle
2012
2012
AndhraPradesh,Kadapa/
YSRdistrict
Telengana,Nalgondadist.
Karnataka,Gulbargadist.
Meghalaya
Kanampalle
Kanampalle?
2017
LambapurPeddagattu
Gogi
KyllengPyndengSohiong
Mawthabah(KPM),
(Domiasiat),Wakhyn
Seripally/Mallapuram
Diggi/Saidpur
Mawthabah
220
increasing
to330
2016?
130
2014
130
2017
340
(openpit)
However,Indiahasreasonablyassuredresouircesof319,000tonnesofthoriumabout13%oftheworld
total,andtheseareintendedtofuelitsnuclearpowerprogramlongerterm(seebelow).AMDclaimsalmost
12milliontonnesofmonazitewhichmightcontain700,000tonnesofthorium.
InSeptember2009largelystateownedOil&NaturalGasCorporationONCCproposedtoformajoint
venturewithUCILtoexploreforuraniuminAssam,andwaslaterreportedtobemininguraniumin
partnershipwithUCILintheCauveryareaofTamilNadu.
Uraniumimports
FollowinganIAEAsafeguardsagreement,anNSGresolutionandfinallyUSCongressapprovalofa
bilateraltradeagreementinOctober2008,twomonthslaterRussia'sRosatomandArevafromFrancehad
contractedtosupplyuraniumforpowergeneration,whileKazakhstan,BrazilandSouthAfricawere
preparingtodoso.TheRussianagreementwastoprovidefuelforPHWRsaswellasthetwosmallTarapur
reactors.
InFebruary2009theactualRussiancontractwassignedwithTVELtosupply2000tonnesofnatural
uraniumfuelpelletsforPHWRsovertenyears,costing$780million,and58tonnesoflowenrichedfuel
pelletsfortheTarapurreactors.The300tUArevashipmentarrivedinJune2009.RAPS2becamethefirst
PHWRtobefuelledwithimporteduranium,followedbyunits5&6there.
InJanuary2009NPCILsignedamemorandumofunderstandingwithKazatompromforsupplyof2100
tonnesofuraniumconcentrateoversixyearsandafeasibilitystudyonbuildingIndianPHWRreactorsin
Kazakhstan.NPCILsaidthatitrepresented"amutualcommitmenttobeginthoroughdiscussionsonlong
termstrategicrelationship."TheactualagreementinApril2011covered2100tonnesby2014.InMarch
2013bothcountriesagreedtoextendthecivilnuclearcooperationagreementpast2014.
InSeptember2009IndiasigneduraniumsupplyandnuclearcooperationagreementswithNamibiaand
Mongolia.InMarch2010RussiaofferedIndiaastakeintheElkonuraniumminingdevelopmentinitsSakha
Republic,andagreedonajointventurewithARMZUraniumHoldingCo.InAugust2014NavoiMiningand
MetallurgicalCombine(NMMC)inUzbekistansignedacontractforsupplyof2000tonnesofU3O8toIndia
duringthefouryearsto2018,itsfirstexporttoIndia.InSeptember2014abilateralsafeguardsagreement
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withAustraliawassigned,enablingsupplyfromthere.
InAugust2014NavoiMiningandMetallurgicalCombine(NMMC)inUzbekistansignedacontractforsupply
of2000tonnesofU3O8toIndiaduringthefouryearsto2018,itsfirstexporttoIndia.
AsofAugust2010theDAEsaidthatsevenreactors(1400MWe)wereusingimportedfuelandworkingat
fullpower,ninereactors(2630MWe)useddomesticuranium.
In2014theDAEreportedthatIndiahadimported4458tonnesofuraniumsince2008,2058tfromTVEL,
2100tfromKazatomprom,and300tfromAreva.
Uraniumfuelcycle
India'smainnuclearfuelcyclecomplexisatHyderabadinTelengana,establishedin1971.Itplanstosetup
threemoretoservetheplannedexpansionofnuclearpowerandbringrelevantactivitiesunderinternational
safeguards.ThefirstofthethreewillbeatKotainRajasthan,supplyingfuelforthe700MWePHWRsat
RawatbhataandKakraparby2016.Capacitywillbe500t/yrplus65tofzirconiumcladding.Thesecond
newcomplexwillsupplyfueltoten700MWePHWRsplannedinHaryana,KarnatakaandMadhya
Pradesh,butitssiteisnotannounced.ThethirdwillbeatChitradurgainthesouthofKarnatakastateona
sitewithothersciencebasedestablishments,startingwithaBARCenrichmentplant,tosupplyfuelforlight
waterreactors(seebelow).
DAE'sNuclearFuelComplex(NFC)atHyderabadhassixfacilitiesundersafeguards,listedintheAnnexto
IndiasAdditionalProtocolwithIAEA.Thisincludesseveralfacilitiesrelatedtofuelfabrication,aspartofthe
civilmilitaryseparation.
TheNFCundertakesrefiningandconversionofuranium,whichisreceivedasmagnesiumdiuranate
(yellowcake)andrefinedtoUO2.Themain600t/yrplantfabricatesPHWRfuel(whichisunenriched).A
small(25t/yr)fabricationplantmakesfuelfortheTarapurBWRsfromimportedenriched(2.66%U235)
uranium.Depleteduraniumoxidefuelpellets(fromreprocesseduranium)andthoriumoxidepelletsarealso
madeforPHWRfuelbundles.MixedcarbidefuelforFBTRwasfirstfabricatedbyBhabhaAtomicResearch
Centre(BARC)in1979.
HeavywaterissuppliedbyDAE'sHeavyWaterBoard,andthesevenplantshavebeenworkingatcapacity
duetothecurrentbuildingprogram.Some$16millionworthofheavywaterwasexportedtoUSAand
Francein201314.
AverysmallcentrifugeenrichmentplantinsufficientevenfortheTarapurreactorsisoperatedbyDAE's
RareMaterialsPlant(RMP)atRatnahallinearMysore,primarilyformilitarypurposesincludingsubmarine
fuel,butalsosupplyingresearchreactors.Itstartedupabout1992asaunitofBARC,andisapparently
beingexpandedtosome25,000SWU/yr.AconversionplantisalsobeingbuiltthereatRMP.
DAEin2011announcedthatitwouldbuildanindustrialscalecentrifugecomplex,theSpecialMaterial
EnrichmentFacility(SMEF),inChitradurgadistrict,Karnataka,alsoaspartofBARCandhavingbothcivil
andnavalpurposes.Constructionhadnotstartedinmid2014.Indiasenrichmentplantsarenotunder
internationalsafeguards.SomecentrifugeR&DisundertakenbyBARCatTrombay.
Fuelfabricationatupto900t/yrisbyDAE'sNuclearFuelComplexinHyderabad.DAEissettingupa
secondNuclearFuelComplex(NFC)aPHWRfuelplantatKotainRajasthan,nexttotheRawatbhata
powerplanttoservethelargernewreactorsandthoseinnorthernIndia.Itwillhave500t/yrcapacity,
from2017,andgovernmentapprovalofRs2400crore(24billionrupees,$393million)forthiswasinMarch
2014.Each700MWereactorissaidtoneed125t/yroffuel.Athirdfuelfabricationplantisplanned,with
1250t/yrcapacity,inTelengana,RajasthanorMadhyaPradesh.Thecompanyisproposingjointventures
withUS,FrenchandRussiancompaniestoproducefuelforthosereactors.
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Reprocessing:UsedfuelfromthecivilPHWRsisreprocessedbyBhabhaAtomicResearchCentre
(BARC)atTrombay,TarapurandKalpakkamtoextractreactorgradeplutoniumforuseinthefastbreeder
reactors.Thefirstplutoniumplantwascommissionedin1964.Smallplantsateachsitewere
supplementedbyanewKalpakkamplantofsome100t/yrcommissionedin1998inconnectionwithIndira
GandhiCentreforAtomicResearch(IGCAR),andthisisbeingextendedtoreprocessFBTRcarbidefuel.
ApartfromthisallreprocessingusesthePurexprocess.Anew100t/yrplantatTarapurwasopenedin
January2011,andfurthercapacityisbeingbuiltatKalpakkam.
PartitioningofPurexproductinamultistepsolventextractionprocessisbeingundertakenina
demonstrationfacilityatTarapur.
Reprocessingcapacityearlyin2011wasunderstoodtobe200t/yratTarapur,100t/yratKalpakkamand
30t/yratTrombay,total330t/yr,allrelatedtotheindigenousPHWRprogramandnotunderinternational
safeguards.Anawayfromreactor(AFR)fuelstorageandanotherstoreatTarapurareundersafeguards
from2012and2014andarelistedintheAPAnnex.
ThePowerReactorThoriaReprocessingFacility(PRTRF)wasunderconstructionatBARCinOctober
2013,andisdesignedtocopewithhighgammalevelsfromU232.TherecoveredU233willbeusedinthe
AHWRCriticalFacility.
IndiawillreprocesstheusedPWRfuelfromtheKudankulamandotherimportedreactorsandwillkeepthe
plutonium.ThiswillbeunderIAEAsafeguards,innewplants.
InApril2010itwasannouncedthat18monthsofnegotiationswiththeUSAhadresultedinagreementto
buildtwonewreprocessingplantstobeunderIAEAsafeguards,likelylocatednearKalpakkamandnear
MumbaipossiblyTrombay.InJuly2010anagreementwassignedwiththeUSAtoallowreprocessingof
USoriginfuelatoneofthesefacilities.Laterin2010theAECsaidthatIndiahascommencedengineering
activitiesforsettingupofanIntegratedNuclearRecyclePlantwithfacilitiesforbothreprocessingofused
lightwaterreactorfuelofforeignorigin,andwastemanagement.
FastReactorFuelCycleFacility(FRFCF)
ToclosetheFBRfuelcycleaFastReactorFuelCycleFacilityhaslongbeenplanned,withconstruction
originallytobeginin2008andoperationtocoincidewiththeneedtoreprocessthefirstPFBRfuel.The
PFBRandthenextfourFBRstobecommissionedby2020willuseoxidefuel.Afterthatitisexpectedthat
metalfuelwithhigherbreedingcapabilitywillbeintroducedandburnupisintendedtoincreasefrom100to
200GWd/t.
In2003afacilitywascommissionedatKalpakkamtoreprocessmixedcarbidefuelusinganadvanced
Purexprocess.In2010theAECsaidthatusedmixedcarbidefuelfromtheFastBreederTestReactor
(FBTR)withaburnupof155GWd/twasreprocessedintheCompactReprocessingfacilityforAdvanced
fuelsinLeadcells(CORAL).Thereafter,thefissilematerialwasrefabricatedasfuelandloadedbackinto
thereactor,thus'closing'thefastreactorfuelcycle.
InJuly2013thegovernmentapprovedconstructionoftheRs9,600crore(96billionrupees,$1.61billion)
FRFCFatKalpakkam.Workwasexpectedtostartin2013,initiallyundertheauspicesoftheIndiraGandhi
CentreforAtomicResearch(IGCAR).ItwillservethePFBRnearby,andwillhavecapacitytocaterforthree
suchreactors.
ThoriumfuelcycledevelopmentinIndia
ThelongtermgoalofIndia'snuclearprogramhasbeentodevelopanadvancedheavywaterthorium
cycle.ThefirststageofthisemploysthePHWRsfuelledbynaturaluranium,andlightwaterreactors,which
produceplutoniumincidentallytotheirprimepurposeofelectricitygeneration.
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Stage2usesfastneutronreactorsburningtheplutoniumwiththeblanketaroundthecorehavinguranium
aswellasthorium,sothatfurtherplutonium(ideallyhighfissilePu)isproducedaswellasU233.
AMDhasidentifiedalmost12milliontonnesofmonaziteresources(typicallywith67%thorium)and33.7
milliontonnesofzircon.
Theninstage3,AdvancedHeavyWaterReactors(AHWRs)willburnthoriumplutoniumfuelsinsucha
mannerthatbreedsU233whichcaneventuallybeusedasaselfsustainingfissiledriverforafleetof
breedingAHWRs.Analternativestage3ismoltensaltbreederreactors(MSBR),whicharefirmingupasan
optionforeventuallargescaledeployment.SeeR&DsectionunderIGCAR.
In2002theregulatoryauthorityissuedapprovaltostartconstructionofa500MWeprototypefastbreeder
reactoratKalpakkamandthisisnowunderconstructionbyBHAVINI.Itisexpectedtobeoperatingin2015,
fuelledwithuraniumplutoniumoxide(MOX,thereactorgradePubeingfromitsexistingPHWRs).Itwill
haveablanketwiththoriumanduraniumtobreedfissileU233andplutoniumrespectively.Thiswilltake
India'sambitiousthoriumprogramtostage2,andsetthesceneforeventualfullutilisationofthecountry's
abundantthoriumtofuelreactors.Sixmoresuch500MWefastreactorshavebeenannouncedfor
construction,fourofthemby2020.Thisfleetoffastreactorswillbreedtherequiredplutoniumwhichisthe
keytounlockingtheenergypotentialofthoriuminAHWRs.Thiswilltakeanother1520years,andsoitwill
stillbesometimebeforeIndiaisusingthoriumenergytoanyextent.
SofaraboutonetonneofthoriumoxidefuelhasbeenirradiatedexperimentallyinPHWRreactors*andhas
reprocessedandsomeofthishasbeenreprocessed,accordingtoBARC.Areprocessingcentreforthorium
fuelsisbeingsetupatKalpakkaminconnectionwithIndiraGandhiCentreforAtomicResearch(IGCAR).
*NotablyKakrapar1&2,Rajasthan24,Kaiga1&2haveirradiated232fuelbundlestomaximumburnupof14GWd/t.
InOctober2013BARCsaidthatprematuredeploymentofthoriumwouldleadtosuboptimaluseof
indigenousenergyresources,andthatitwouldbenecessarytobuildupasignificantamountoffissile
materialbeforelaunchingthethoriumcycleinabigwayforthethirdstage(thoughthedemonstration
AHWRshouldbeoperatingby2022).Incorporationofthoriumintheblanketsofmetalfuelledfastbreeder
reactorswouldbeaftersignificantFBRcapacitywasoperating.Hencethoriumbasedreactordeploymentis
expectedtobebeyond2070.SurplusU233fromFBRblanketscouldbeusedinHTRsincludingmolten
saltbreederreactors.SeeR&DsectionunderIGCAR.
Designofthefirst300MWeAHWR(920MWt,284MWenet)wascompletedearlyin2014atBARC.Itis
mainlyathoriumfuelledreactorbutisversatileregardingfuel.Constructionofthefirstoneisduetostartin
the12thplanperiodto2017,possibly2016,foroperationabout2022,thoughnositehasyetbeen
announced.Bymid2010aprelicensingsafetyappraisalhadbeencompletedbytheAERBandsite
selectionwasinprogress.TheAHWRcanbeconfiguredtoacceptarangeoffueltypesincludingUPu
MOX,ThPuMOX,andThU233MOXinfullcore,theU233comingfromreprocessinginclosedfuel
cycle.Acolocatedfuelcyclefacilityisplanned,withremotehandlingforthehighlyradioactivefreshfuel.*
*In2008anAHWRcriticalfacilitywascommissionedatBARC"toconductawiderangeofexperiments,tohelpvalidatethereactorphysicsofthe
AHWRthroughcomputercodesandingeneratingnucleardataaboutmaterials,suchasthorium/uranium233basedfuel,whichhavenotbeen
extensivelyusedinthepast."IthasallthecomponentsoftheAHWRscoreincludingfuelandheavywatermoderator,andcanbeoperatedin
differentmodeswithvariouskindsoffuelindifferentconfigurations.
The300MWeAHWRwillhaveverticalpressuretubesinwhichthelightwatercoolantunderhighpressure
willboilat285C,circulationbeingbyconvection.Thermalefficiencyis30.9%.Itismoderatedbyheavy
water.Thereare452fuelassemblies,withburnupof38GWd/t.Alargeheatsinkor"gravitydrivenwater
pool"with7000cubicmetresofwaterisnearthetopofthereactorbuildingandhasasafetyfunction.Ithas
aslightlynegativevoidcoefficientofreactivityandseveraladvancedpassivesafetyfeaturestoenable
meetingnextgenerationsafetyrequirementssuchas72hourgraceperiodforoperatorresponse,
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eliminationoftheneedforexclusionzonebeyondtheplantboundary,100yeardesignlife,andhighlevelof
faulttolerance.Theadvancedsafetycharacteristicshavebeenverifiedinaseriesofexperimentscarried
outinfullscaletestfacilities.Itisclaimedthatperunitofenergyproduced,theamountoflonglivedminor
actinidesgeneratedisnearlyhalfofthatproducedincurrentgenerationlightwaterreactors.Ahighlevelof
radioactivityinthefissileandfertilematerialsrecoveredfromtheusedfueloftheAHWR,andtheirisotopic
composition,precludetheuseofthesematerialsfornuclearweapons*.
*9.5%oftheplutoniumisPu238.
In2009theAECalsoannouncedanexportversionoftheAHWR,theAHWR300LEU.Thiswilluselow
enricheduraniumplusthorium(ThLEUMOX)asafuel,dispensingwiththeplutoniuminput.About39%of
thepowerwillcomefromthorium(viainsituconversiontoU233,cftwothirdsinAHWR),andburnupwill
be61GWd/t.Uraniumenrichmentlevelwillbe19.75%,giving4.21%averagefissilecontentoftheUTh
fuel.Thedesignisbasedononcethroughfuelcycleduringitslifetime.Whileclosedfuelcycleispossible,
thisisnotrequiredorenvisaged,andtheusedfuel,withabout8%fissileisotopescanbeusedinlightwater
reactors.Plutoniumproductionwillbelessthaninlightwaterreactors,thefissileproportionwillbelessand
thePu238portionthreetimesashigh.WithalsoasignificantlevelofgammaemittingU232intheused
fuel,thereisinherentproliferationresistance.Thedesignisintendedforoverseassales,andtheAECsays
that"thereactorismanageablewithmodestindustrialinfrastructurewithinthereachofdeveloping
countries".
AthirdvarietyistheAHWRPu,whichwillhavePuThMOXandThU233MOXfuel.
AnNPCILpresentationearlyin2012hadLEUAHWRsbeingfueledwithLEUthorium,whileU233and
thoriumfromfastreactors,alongwithusedfuelfromthoseAHWRs,fueledacceleratordrivensubcritical
moltensaltreactors.Thoriumwasevidentlythemainfuelforboththesetypes.AlsoAHWRLEUproduces
halfasmuchminoractinidesasLWR.
RadioactiveWasteManagementinIndia
InOctober2013BARCstressedtheroleofacceleratordrivensubcriticalmoltensaltreactorsystems(ADS)
burningminoractinidesarisingfrompartitioningofPHWRandLWRPurexoutput.Theseworkingintandem
wouldaddresswasteissuesmoreeffectivelyandsafelythanusingcriticalfastreactorstoburnminor
actinides.Pyroprocessingwouldtreatthesewastes.
Radioactivewastesfromthenuclearreactorsandreprocessingplantsaretreatedandstoredateachsite.
Wasteimmobilisationplants(WIP)areinoperationatTarapurandTrombayandanothervitrificationplant
wascommissionedbyBARCin2013atKalpakkamforwastesfromreprocessingMadras(MAPS)used
fuel.TheWIPsuseborosilicateglass,asinEurope.
Researchonfinaldisposalofhighlevelandlonglivedwastesinageologicalrepositoryisinprogressat
BARC.
Regulationandsafety
TheAtomicEnergyCommission(AEC)wasestablishedin1948undertheAtomicEnergyActasapolicy
body.Thenin1954theDepartmentofAtomicEnergy(DAE)wassetuptoencompassresearch,technology
developmentandcommercialreactoroperation.ThecurrentAtomicEnergyActis1962,anditpermitsonly
governmentownedenterprisestobeinvolvedinnuclearpower.
TheDAEincludesNPCIL,UraniumCorporationofIndiaLtd(UCIL,miningandprocessing),AtomicMinerals
DirectorateforExplorationandResearch(AMD,exploration),ElectronicsCorporationofIndiaLtd(reactor
controlandinstrumentation)andBHAVINI*(forsettingupfastreactors).TheDAEalsocontrolstheHeavy
WaterBoardforproductionofheavywaterandtheNuclearFuelComplexforfuelandcomponent
manufacture.
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*BhartiyaNabhikiyaVidyutNigamLtd
TheAtomicEnergyRegulatoryBoard(AERB)wasformedin1983andcomesundertheAECbutis
independentofDAE.Itisresponsiblefortheregulationandlicensingofallnuclearfacilities,andtheirsafety
andcarriesauthorityconferredbytheAtomicEnergyActforradiationsafetyandbytheFactoriesActfor
industrialsafetyinnuclearplants.However,itisnotanindependentstatutoryauthority,andits1995report
onasafetyassessmentofDAE'splantsandfacilitieswasreportedlyshelvedbytheAEC.InApril2011the
governmentannouncedthatitwouldlegislatetosetupanewindependentandautonomousNuclear
RegulatoryAuthorityofIndiathatwillsubsumetheAERB,andthatprevioussafetyassessmentsofIndian
plantswouldbemadepublic.
InAugust2012aparliamentaryreportfromtheComptrollerandAuditorGeneral(CAG)ontheAERB
pointedoutseriousorganisationalflawsandnumerousfailingsrelativetointernationalnorms.Themost
fundamentalissuehighlightedbythereportwastheunsatisfactorylegalstatusandauthorityoftheAERB.
DespiteIndia'sinternationalcommitments,awarenessofbestpracticeandinternalexpert
recommendations,thereportsaid,"thelegalstatusofAERBcontinuedtobethatofanauthority
subordinatetothecentralgovernment,withpowersdelegatedtoitbythelatter."TheCAGreport
emphasizedtheneedtomaketheregulatorindependentofindustryandgovernmentandinsulatedfrom
commercialorpoliticalinterference.TheAERBhadfailedtoprepareanoverallnuclearradiationsafety
planningpolicyasrequiredin1983,andhadfailedtosetupradiationsafetydirectoratesin35
administrativeareastoensurethesafeuseofradiationinmedicalandindustrialfacilities,asrequiredbya
2001SupremeCourtorder.Ithadundertakenonly15%oftherecommendedlevelofinspectionsat
industrialradiographyandradiotherapyunits,relativetoIAEAnorms,andhadnotachievedcostrecovery
fromlicensees.Therewasnodetailedinventoryofradioactivesourcestohelpensuresafedisposal,andno
"propermechanism"tocheckthesafedisposalofradioactivewastes.
ThiswaslargelyanticipatedandinSeptember2011abilltosetupnewstrongerandmoreindependent
nationalnuclearregulatoryauthoritiestooverseeradiationandnuclearsafetywasintroducedtoIndia's
lowerhouse,theLokSabha.TheNuclearSafetyRegulatoryAuthorityBillwasdrawnupinresponseto
eventsatFukushimaandaimstoestablishseveralnewregulatorybodies.AnewseniorCouncilof
NuclearSafety(CNS)chairedbytheprimeministerwilloverseeandreviewpoliciesonradiationsafety,
nuclearsafetyandotherconnectedmatters.Itwillincludevariousgovernmentministers,withthecabinet
secretaryandheadoftheIndianAtomicEnergyCommission,plusgovernmentnominated"eminent
experts".
ThesecondmajorbodytobeestablishedistheNuclearSafetyRegulatoryAuthority(NSRA)andwillbe
responsibleforensuringradiationsafetyandnuclearsafetyinallciviliansectoractivities.TheNSRAwill
takeoverthefunctionsoftheexistingAERB.Thegovernmentexpectedtointroducethebillina2013
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sessionofparliament,butitwasstillpendinginmid2014.TheAECispreparingtoinvitetheInternational
AtomicEnergyAgency's(IAEA)IntegratedRegulatoryReviewService(IRRS)toexaminethenew
regulatorysystem,whichwillgetstatutorystatusafterthepassageoftheNuclearSafetyRegulatory
Authority(NSRA)BillbyParliament.In2012anIAEAOperationalSafetyReviewTeam(OSART)reviewed
theRajasthannuclearpowerplant,notablyunits3&4,andreportedfavourably.
InApril2012IndiasAERBjoinedtheOECDNuclearEnergyAgencysMultinationalDesignEvaluation
Program(MDEP)asitseleventhmember,andfirstnewmembersincetheprogramsinception.TheNEA
saidthatitwouldbeactivelyinvolvedintheCodesandStandardsWorkingGroup,theDigital
InstrumentationandControlWorkingGroup,theVendorInspectionCooperationWorkingGroupand,
"eventually,oneofthespecificreactordesignworkinggroups."MDEPwaslaunchedin2006bytheUS
NRCandFrancesASNwiththeaimofcoordinatingnationalnuclearregulatoryreviewsofnewpower
reactordesigns.
NPCILisanactiveparticipantintheprogrammesoftheWorldAssociationofNuclearOperators(WANO).
Nuclearliability
India's1962AtomicEnergyActsaysnothingaboutliabilityorcompensationintheeventofanaccident.
Also,Indiaisnotapartytotherelevantinternationalnuclearliabilityconventions(theIAEA's1997Amended
ViennaConventionand1997ConventiononSupplementaryCompensationforNuclearDamageCSC).
SinceallcivilnuclearfacilitiesareownedandmustbemajorityownedbytheCentralGovernment(NPCIL
andBHAVINI,bothpublicsectorenterprises),theliabilityissuesarisingfromtheseinstallationsareits
responsibility.Followinginternaldiscussiononwhichmightbethemostappropriateinternationalliability
convention,on10September2008thegovernmentassuredtheUSAthatIndia"shalltakeallsteps
necessarytoadheretotheConventiononSupplementaryCompensation(CSC)".Thisrequiresdomestic
legislationwhichisconsistentwithit,butunderexistingIndianlegislation,foreignsuppliersfacedpotentially
unlimitedliability,whichpreventedthemfromtakinginsurancecover,thoughcontractsforKudankulam1&2
excludedthissupplierliability.
TheCivilLiabilityforNuclearDamageActrelatedtothirdpartyliabilitywaspassedbybothhousesof
parliamentinAugust2010.Thisisframedandwasdebatedinthecontextofstrongnationalawarenessof
theBhopaldisasterin1984,probablytheworld'sworstindustrialaccident.(AUnionCarbide(51%US
owned)chemicalplantinthecentralMadhyaPradeshstatereleasedadeadlymixofmethylisocyanateand
othergasesduetooperatorerrorandpoorplantdesign,killingsome15,000peopleandbadlyaffecting
some100,000others.ThecompanypaidoutsomeUS$1billionincompensationwidelyconsidered
inadequate.)
The2010Actplacesresponsibilityforanynuclearaccidentwiththeoperator,asisstandardinternationally,
andlimitstotalliabilityto300millionSDR(aboutUS$450million)"orsuchhigheramountthattheCentral
Governmentmayspecifybynotification".OperatorliabilityiscappedatRs1500crore(15billionrupees,
aboutUS$285million)orsuchhigheramountthattheCentralGovernmentmaynotify,beyondwhichthe
CentralGovernmentisliable.
However,aftercompensationhasbeenpaidbytheoperator(oritsinsurers),clause17(b)ofthebillallows
theoperatortohavelegalrecoursetothesupplierforupto80yearsaftertheplantstartsupifintheopinion
ofanIndiancourtthe"nuclearincidenthasresultedasaconsequenceofanactofsupplierorhisemployee,
whichincludessupplyofequipmentormaterialwithpatentorlatentdefectsorsubstandardservices."This
clausegivingrecoursetothesupplierforanoperationalplantiscontrarytointernationalconventionsand
underminesthechannelingprinciplefundamentaltonuclearliability.Also,nolimitissetonsuppliers'
liability.
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InNovember2011theDAEpublishedanotificationthatclaimsbyplantoperatorsagainstcomponent
suppliers"shallinnocaseexceedtheactualamountofcompensation"paidbyutilities.ThenewCivil
LiabilityforNuclearDamageRulesgiveplantoperatorstherightofrecourseagainstequipmentsuppliers
relatedto"theextentoftheoperator'sliability"or"thevalueofthecontractitself,whicheverisless."They
alsolimitittothedurationoftheinitialplantlicence"ortheproductliabilityperiod,whicheverislonger."This
isgenerallyseenasconfusing,andisnotsatisfactorytomajorsuppliers,includingIndianonessuchas
Larsen&Toubro.
ItwasreportedthatnegotiationswithRussiaforadditionalnuclearreactorsatKudankulamwereproceeding
withanescalationofpricebecauseofthisvendorliabilitysubclause,inthiscaseinvolvingAtomstroyexport.
TheoriginalKudankulamagreementsaidthatsupplierliabilityendedwithdeliveryoftheplant.US
diplomaticsourcesaresimilarlyopposedtosupplierliabilityafterdelivery,andGEH,Westinghouseand
Arevasoughtchangestothelawallowingvendorliability.WestinghousesaysitwillawaitIndia'sratification
oftheCSCbeforeofferingtosupplyequipmenttoIndia.Basically,plansforbuildingreactorsfromRussian,
FrenchandUSsupplierswereatastandstillasoflate2013,andIndiasprivatesectorsuppliersarealso
affected.PlansforFrenchandUSreactorsremainedstalledthrough2014.
ThebilldoesnotmakeanymentionofIndiaratifyingtheCSCoranyinternationaltreatyorframework
governingnuclearliabilityunderwhichthesuppliercannotbesuedintheirhomecountry.TheCSCisnot
yetinforceinternationally,butIndianratificationwouldbringitclosertobeingso,andwaspartofthe
September2008agreementwithUSA.InOctober2010IndiasignedtheCSC.Inmid2011andagainin
SeptembertheUSSecretaryforStatesaidsheexpectedIndiatoratifytheCSCbyyearend,"andwewould
encourageengagementwiththeInternationalAtomicEnergyAgencytoensurethattheliabilityregimethat
Indiaadoptsbylawfullyconformswiththeinternationalrequirementsundertheconvention."Asof
December2014,IndiahadnotyetratifiedtheCSC.
InOctober2010itwasreportedthatNPCILproposedtosetupafundofRs1500crore($250million)for
nuclearliability"withtheCentreaddressinganythingoverthislevel".
InOctober2013itwasreportedthatDAEhadsetuptwocommitteestofindamiddlepath,withamore
scientificandrationalapproachtotheissue."Thecommitteeswillassesstheprobabilisticsafetyanalysis
toidentifyamodelthatwillassessprobabilitiesofparticularequipmentorasetofsystemtofailinamanner
thatcanleadtoanaccident.Basedonthestudytherewouldbearationalbasisforworkingoutanactuarial
approvaltodecideonthequantumofliability,accordingtoDAE.Themaincommitteecomprises
representativesfromBARC,IGCARandNPCIL(2).AttheendofOctober2013thePlanningCommission
saidthatunderthe2010lawthedomesticplantoperatorcouldlimittheamountaswellasdurationofthe
liabilitythataccruestoforeignsuppliers,sothattheliabilityislimitedandthereforeinsurable.Howeverthis
interpretationisviewedwithsomescepticism.
InMarch2014thegovernmentreachedsomesortofagreementwithRussiatoprovideliabilityinsurance
throughthegovernmentownedGeneralInsuranceCorporationofIndia(GIC),thoughtheactual
arrangementsforanuclearliabilityinsuranceproducthadyettobeworkedout.GICapparentlydiscussed
reinsurancewithinternationalcompanies,butwithoutanyagreement,duepartlytotheunlimitedprovisions
ofthe2010Act,sowasunabletoproceed.
InApril2014DAEapproachedtheMinistryofFinancetourgethesettingupofanuclearinsurancepoolas
ahighpriority,sinceinsurancerisksforthirdpartyliabilityaloneamounttoRs1500crore.NIAEPASE,
contractedtosupplyKudankulamunits3&4,hasinsistedonthegovernmentprovidingreinsurance.In
September2014theDAEandMinistryofFinanceaskedtheGICagaintocontriveamodelfor
circumventingtherightofrecourseundertheCivilLiabilityAct.InDecember2014GICRewasreportedto
beworkingwiththeAECtoprepareaproposalforanuclearinsurancepool,witheitherthebuilding
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contractorortheoperatortakingoutinsurancetocoverthesuppliers.
ThereisnonuclearinsurancepoolinIndia,eitherfordirectdamageorforthirdpartyliability,apparentlydue
torestrictionsoninspectionoffacilitiesbyinternationalpools.
Research&Development
AnearlyAECdecisionwastosetuptheBhabhaAtomicResearchCentre(BARC)atTrombaynear
Mumbai.Aseriesof'research'reactorsandcriticalfacilitieswasbuilthere:APSARA(pooltype,1MW,
operatingfrom1956)wasthefirstresearchreactorinAsia,CIRUS(40MW,1960)builtundertheColombo
Plan,andDhruva(100MW,1985)followeditalongwithfuelcyclefacilities.CIRUSusednaturaluranium
fuel,wasmoderatedbyheavywaterandcooledbylightwater.Itwasextensivelyrefurbishedandthen
recommissionedin2002,andranto2010.Dhruvawasfullydesignedandbuiltindigenously,anduses
metallicuraniumfuelwithheavywaterasmoderatorandcoolant.Dhruvaisextensivelyusedinneutron
beamresearchstudiesinvolvingmaterialscienceandnuclearfissionprocesses.Aswellasresearchuses,
theCIRUSandDhruvaunitsareassumedtobelargelyformilitarypurposes,asistheplutoniumplant
commissionedin1965.Inlinewithinternationalagreement,thegovernmentshutdownCIRUSattheendof
2010.
ReprocessingofusedfuelwasfirstundertakenatTrombayin1964.Whenopeningthenewreprocessing
plantatTarapurin2011,theprimeministerremindedlistenersthat"Therecyclingandoptimalutilizationof
uraniumisessentialtomeetourcurrentandfutureenergysecurityneeds."AnActinideSeparation
DemonstrationFacilityisoperatedbyBARCatTarapur,topreparethewayforfissioningminoractinidesin
thefastreactors.
BARCisalsoresponsibleforthetransitiontothoriumbasedsystemsandinparticularisdevelopingthe300
MWeAHWRasatechnologydemonstrationproject.Thiswillbeaverticalpressuretubedesignwithheavy
watermoderator,boilinglightwatercoolingwithpassivesafetydesignandthoriumplutoniumbasedfuel
(describedmorefullyabove).AlargeCriticalFacilitytovalidatethereactorphysicsoftheAHWRcorehas
beencommissionedatBARC,andBARC'sresearchlaboratoryatTarapurtestsvariousAHWRsystems.
BARCisresponsibleforIndiasuraniumenrichmentprojects,thepilotRareMaterialsPlant(RMP)at
RatnahallinearMysore,andtheplannedSpecialMaterialEnrichmentFacility(SMEF)atKarnataka.
Zerlinawasanexperimentalreactorrunning196183usingnaturaluraniumfuelandheavywatermoderator
totestconceptsforPHWRs.
AseriesofthreePurnimaresearchreactorshaveexploredthethoriumcycle,thefirst(1971)runningon
plutoniumfuelfabricatedatBARC,thesecondandthird(1984&1990)onU233fuelmadefromthorium
U233havingbeenfirstseparatedin1970.Allthreearenowdecommissioned.Thoriafuelrodsirradiatedin
CIRUShavebeenreprocessedattheUraniumThoriumSeparationFacility(UTSF)atBARCwiththe
recoveredU233beingfabricatedasfuelfortheKaminireactoratIGCAR.
BARChasalsodesignedanindigenous900MWePWR,theIndianPressurisedWaterReactor(IPWR),
whichistobedeployedincollaborationwithNPCIL.Thisfollowsitsworkbuildingan83MWPWRat
KalpakkamfortheINSArihantsubmarine,whichachievedcriticalityinmid2013,using40%enrichedfuel.
A20MWprototypesubmarinereactoroperatedatKalpakkamfrom2003forseveralyears.Asecond
nuclearsubmarine,theINSAridaman,isunderconstruction.
In1998a500keVacceleratorwascommissionedatBARCforresearchonacceleratordrivensubcritical
systems(ADS)asanoptionforstagethreeofthethoriumcycle.
TheRajaRamannaCentreforAdvancedTechnology(RRCAT)hasIndus1&2synchrotronsoperating
Indus1at450MeVand100mA,Indus2at2.5GeVand150mAthoughithasreached200mA.
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Thereareplansforanew2030MWtmultipurposeresearchreactor(MPRR)forradioisotopeproduction,
testingnuclearfuelandreactormaterials,andbasicresearch.Itwillusefuelenrichedto19.9%U235and
istobecapableofconversiontoanacceleratordrivensystemlater.
Designstudiesareproceedingfora200MWePHWRacceleratordrivensystem(ADS)fuelledbynatural
uraniumandthorium.Uraniumfuelbundleswouldbechangedafterabout7GWd/tburnup,butthorium
bundleswouldstaylonger,withtheU233formedaddingreactivity.Thiswouldbecompensatedforby
progressivelyreplacingsomeuraniumwiththorium,sothatultimatelythereisafullythoriumcorewithin
situbreedingandburningofthorium.Thisisexpectedtomeanthatthereactorneedsonly140tUthrough
itslifeandachievesahighburnupofthoriumabout100GWd/t.Thedisadvantageisthata30MW
acceleratorisrequiredtorunit.
TheIndiraGandhiCentreforAtomicResearch(IGCAR)atKalpakkamwassetupin1971.Twocivil
researchreactorsherearepreparingforstagetwoofthethoriumcycle.BHAVINIislocatedhereanddraws
uponthecentre'sexpertiseandthatofNPCILinestablishingthefastreactorprogram,includingtheFast
ReactorFuelCycleFacility.
The40MWtfastbreedertestreactor(FBTR)basedontheFrenchRapsodieFBRdesignhasbeen
operatingsince1985.Ithasachieved165GWday/tonneburnupwithitscarbidefuel(70%PuC+30%UC)
withoutanyfuelfailure.In2005theFBTRfuelcyclewasclosed,withthereprocessingof100GWd/tfuel
claimedasaworldfirst.ThishasbeenmadeintonewmixedcarbidefuelforFBTR.PrototypeFBRfuel
whichisunderirradiationtestinginFBTRhasreachedaburnupof90GWd/tonne.Aspartofdeveloping
higherburnupfuelforPHWRs,mixedoxide(MOX)fuelisbeingusedexperimentallyinFBTR,whichhas
beenoperatingwithahybridcoreofmixedcarbideandmixedoxidefuel(thehighPuMOXforming20%of
thecore).
In2011FBTRwasgivena20yearlifeextension,to2030,andIGCARsaidthatitsmajortaskoverthis
periodwouldbelargescaleirradiationoftheadvancedmetallicfuelsandcorestructuralmaterialsrequired
forthenextgenerationfastreactorswithhighbreedingratios(thePFBRusesMOXfuel,butlaterversions
willusemetal.).
A300MWt,150MWefastbreederreactorasatestbedforusingmetallicfuelisenvisagedonceseveral
MOXfuelledfastreactorsareinoperation.ThissuccessortoFBTRwilluseUPualloyorUPuZr,with
electrometallurgicalreprocessing.Itsdesignistobecompletedby2017.
AlsoatIGCAR,thetinyKamini(Kalpakkammini)reactorisexploringtheuseofthoriumasnuclearfuel,by
breedingfissileU233.ItistheonlyreactorintheworldrunningonU233fuel,accordingtoDAE.
ACompactHighTemperatureReactor(CHTR)of100kWtisbeingdesignedtohavelong(15year)corelife
andemployliquidmetal(PbBieutectic)coolant.ItusesTRISOfuelintubesandblocksandisdesignedto
operateat1000Cforlongperiodsgivinghighburnup.IthasaceramiccorewithBeOandgraphite
moderator.Ithasseveralpassivesystemsforheatremoval.Itisenvisagedasanuclearbatteryinremote
areaswithnogrid.
TheInnovativeHTR(IHTR)of600MWtisenvisagedforhydrogenproduction.ItalsousesTRISOfuel,with
7.3%U233at1000C,butinsome150,000pebbles,henceonlinerefuelling.Ithasactiveandpassive
systemsforcontrolandcooling.Themoltensaltcoolantcirculatesbyconvectionduringnormaloperation.It
isexpectedtoproduce18MWeand80,000m3/hrofhydrogen.
AlsointheHTRareaisconceptualdesignofanIndianMoltenSaltBreederReactor(MSBR)of1000MWe
whichhaspotentialtobeusedinstage3ofthethoriumprogram.Itwouldhaveabreedingratioof1.06to
1.14whileoperatinginthermalorepithermalspectrum.Thefissileinventoryina1000MWereactorwould
beabout1tonne,comparedwith6tonnesformetalfuelledFBR,assumingonlinereprocessing.Ithas
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emphasisonpassivesystemsforreactorheatremovalunderallscenariosandconditions.
TheBoardofRadiation&IsotopeTechnology(BRIT)wasseparatedfromBARCin1989andisresponsible
forradioisotopeproduction.TheresearchreactorsAPSARA,CIRUSandDhruvaareused,alongwith
RAPSforcobalt60.Aregularsupplyofisotopesforvarioususescommencedinearly1960safterCIRUS
becameoperational.Atpresentthereactorssupplysome1250userinstitutionswithpreparationsofMo99,
I131,I125,P32,S35,Cr51,Co60,Au198,Br82,Ir192andothers.
BARChasusednucleartechniquestodevelop37geneticallymodifiedcropvarietiesforcommercial
cultivation.Atotalof15sterilisingfacilities,particularlyforpreservingfood,arenowoperationalwithmore
underconstruction.RadiationtechnologyhasalsohelpedIndiaincreaseitsexportsoffooditems,including
tothemostdevelopedmarketsintheworld.
India'shybridNuclearDesalinationDemonstrationPlant(NDDP)atKalpakkam,comprisesaReverse
Osmosis(RO)unitof1.8millionlitresperdaycommissionedin2002andaMultiStageFlash(MSF)
desalinationunitof4.5millionlitresperday,aswellasabargemountedROunitcommissionedrecently,to
helpaddresstheshortageofwaterinwaterstressedcoastalareas.Itusesabout4MWefromtheMadras
nuclearpowerstation.
TheRajaRamannaCentreforAdvancedTechnologyisaDAEunitengagedinR&Dinnonnuclearfrontline
researchareasoflasers,particleaccelerators&relatedtechnologies.ItrunstheIndus1and2beamlines.
TheVariableEnergyCyclotronCentreisanotherDAEunit,specializinginacceleratorscienceand
technology,associatedwithBARC.
AnewGlobalCentreforNuclearEnergyPartnership(GCNEP)wasinauguratedinJanuary2014,
pursuanttoaSeptember2010governmentapproval.ItwillbetheDAEssixthR&Dfacility.Itisbeingbuilt
nearBahadurgarhinHaryanastate,45kmfromDelhiairport,anddesignedtostrengthenIndias
collaborationinternationally.Itwillhousefiveschoolstoconductresearchintoadvancednuclearenergy
systems,nuclearsecurity,radiologicalsafety,aswellasapplicationsforradioisotopesandradiation
technologies.RussiaistohelpsetupfouroftheGCNEPschools.
TheDAEsAtomicMineralsDirectorateforExplorationandResearch(AMD)isfocusedonmineral
explorationforuraniumandthorium.Itwassetupin1949,andisbasedinHyderabad,withover2700staff.
SeealsoMiningsectionabove.
Nonproliferation,USIndiaagreementandNuclearSuppliers'Group
India'snuclearindustryhasbeenlargelywithoutIAEAsafeguards,thoughfournuclearpowerplants(see
above)havebeenunderfacilityspecificarrangementsrelatedtoIndia'sINFCIRC/66safeguardsagreement
withIAEA.However,inOctober2009India'ssafeguardsagreementwiththeIAEAbecameoperational,with
thegovernmentconfirmingthat14reactorswouldbeputundertheIndiaSpecificSafeguardsAgreementby
theendof2014.
India'ssituationasanucleararmedcountryexcludeditfromtheNuclearNonProliferationTreaty(NPT)*so
thisandtherelatedlackoffullscopeIAEAsafeguardsmeantthatIndiawasisolatedfromworldtradebythe
NuclearSuppliers'Group.AcleanwaivertothetradeembargowasagreedinSeptember2008in
recognitionofthecountry'simpeccablenonproliferationcredentials.Indiahasalwaysbeenscrupulousin
ensuringthatitsweaponsmaterialandtechnologyareguardedagainstcommercialorillicitexporttoother
countries.
*IndiacouldonlyjointheNPTifitdisarmedandjoinedasaNonNuclearWeaponsState,whichispoliticallyimpossible.SeeAppendix.
Followingthe2005agreementbetweenUSandIndianheadsofstateonnuclearenergycooperation,the
UKindicateditsstrongsupportforgreatercooperationandFrancethenCanadathenmovedinthesame
direction.TheUSDepartmentofCommerce,theUKandCanadarelaxedcontrolsonexportoftechnology
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toIndia,thoughstayingwithintheNuclearSuppliersGroupguidelines.TheFrenchgovernmentsaidit
wouldseekanuclearcooperationagreement,andCanadaagreedto"pursuefurtheropportunitiesforthe
developmentofthepeacefulusesofatomicenergy"withIndia.
InDecember2006theUSCongresspassedlegislationtoenablenucleartradewithIndia.TheninJuly2007
anuclearcooperationagreementwithIndiawasfinalized,openingthewayforIndia'sparticipationin
internationalcommerceinnuclearfuelandequipmentandrequiringIndiatoputmostofthecountry's
nuclearpowerreactorsunderIAEAsafeguardsandclosedowntheCIRUSresearchreactorattheendof
2010.ItwouldallowIndiatoreprocessUSoriginandotherforeignsourcednuclearfuelatanewnational
plantunderIAEAsafeguards.Thiswouldbeusedforfuelarisingfromthose14reactorsdesignatedas
unambiguouslycivilianandunderfullIAEAsafeguards.
TheIAEAgreetedthedealasbeing"acreativebreakwiththepast"whereIndiawasexcludedfromthe
NPT.AftermuchdelayinIndia'sparliament,itthensetupanewandcomprehensivesafeguardsagreement
withtheIAEA,plusanAdditionalProtocol.TheIAEAboardapprovedthisinJuly2008,aftertheagreement
hadthreatenedtobringdowntheIndiangovernment.TheagreementissimilartothosebetweenIAEAand
nonnuclearweaponsstates,notablyInfcirc66,theIAEA'sinformationcircularthatlaysoutproceduresfor
applyingfacilityspecificsafeguards,hencemuchmorerestrictivethanmanyinIndia'sparliamentwanted.
ThenextstepinbringingIndiaintothefoldwastheconsensusresolutionofthe45memberNuclear
SuppliersGroup(NSG)inSeptember2008toexemptIndiafromitsruleofprohibitingtradewithnon
membersoftheNPT.AbilateraltradeagreementthenwenttoUSCongressforfinalapproval,andwas
signedintolawon8October2008.SimilaragreementsapplywithRussiaandFrance.Theultimate
objectiveistoputIndiaonthesamefootingasChinainrespecttoresponsibilitiesandtradeopportunities,
thoughithashadtoacceptmuchtighterinternationalcontrolsthanothernucleararmedcountries.
TheintroductiontoIndia'ssafeguardsagreementsaysthatIndia'saccesstoassuredsuppliesoffreshfuel
isan"essentialbasis"forNewDelhi'sacceptanceofIAEAsafeguardsonsomeofitsreactorsandthatIndia
hasarighttotake"correctivemeasurestoensureuninterruptedoperationofitsciviliannuclearreactorsin
theeventofdisruptionofforeignfuelsupplies."ButtheintroductionalsosaysthatIndiawill"provide
assuranceagainstwithdrawalofsafeguardednuclearmaterialfromcivilianuseatanytime."Inthecourse
ofNSGdeliberationsIndiaalsogaveassurancesregardingweaponstesting.
InOctober2008USCongresspassedthebillallowingcivilnucleartradewithIndia,andanucleartrade
agreementwassignedwithFrance.The2008agreementsended34yearsoftradeisolationinrelationto
nuclearmaterialsandtechnology.TheCIRUSresearchreactorwasshutdownon31December2010.
India'ssafeguardsagreementwassignedearlyin2009,thoughthetimeframeforbringingtheextrareactors
(Kakrapar1&2andNarora1&2,beyondTarapur1&2,Rawatbhata16andKudankulam1&2)under
safeguardsstillhadtobefinalised.TheAdditionalProtocoltothesafeguardsagreementwasagreedbythe
IAEABoardinMarchandsignedinMay2009byIndia.Thedecisiontoratifywasannouncedunderthenew
governmentinJune2014,with20facilitieslisted,includingsixattheNuclearFuelComplex,Hyderabadand
twostoresatTarapur,plus12reactors.Narora1&2werenotlistedbythen.TheAdditionalProtocolcame
intoforceon25July2014,givingtheIAEAenhancedaccesstoIndiascivilpowerfacilities.
InApril2012IndiatoldtheUNSecurityCouncilthatgivenitsabilityandwillingnesstopromoteglobalnon
proliferationobjectives,andthatitalreadyadheredtotheguidelinesoftheNuclearSuppliersGroup(NSG)
andtheMissileTechnologyControlRegime(MTCR),"asacountrywiththeabilityandwillingnessto
promoteglobalnonproliferationobjectives,webelievethatthenextlogicalstepisIndia'smembershipof
thefourexportcontrolregimes."TheothertworegimesaretheinformalAustraliaGroup(rechemicaland
biologicalweapons)andtheWassenaarArrangementonexportcontrolforconventionalarmsanddualuse
goodsandtechnologies.IndiaalsosupportstheearlycommencementofnegotiationsintheConferenceof
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DisarmamentinGenevaonaFissileMaterialCutoffTreaty.FollowingratificationoftheAdditionalProtocol,
Indiawillpursuemembershipofthesefourexportcontrolregimes.
Appendix
BACKGROUNDTONUCLEARPROLIFERATIONISSUES
India(alongwithPakistanandIsrael)wasoriginallya'threshold'countryintermsoftheinternationalnon
proliferationregime,possessing,orquicklycapableofassemblingoneormorenuclearweapons:Their
nuclearweaponscapabilityatthetechnologicallevelwasrecognised(allhaveresearchreactorsatleast)
alongwiththeirmilitaryambitions.Thenin1998IndiaandPakistan'smilitarycapabilitybecamemoreovert.
Allthreeremainedremainedoutsidethe1970NuclearNonProliferationTreaty(NPT),which186nations
havenowsigned.Thisledtotheirbeinglargelyexcludedfromtradeinnuclearplantormaterials,exceptfor
safetyrelateddevicesforafewsafeguardedfacilities.
IndiaisopposedtotheNPTasitnowstands,sinceitisexcludedasaNuclearWeaponsState,andhas
consistentlycriticisedthisaspectoftheTreatysinceitsinceptionin1970.
Regionalrivalry
RelationsbetweenIndiaandPakistanaretenseandhostile,andtherisksofnuclearconflictbetweenthem
havelongbeenconsideredquitehigh.
In1974Indiaexplodeda"peaceful"nucleardeviceatPokhranandtheninMay1998IndiaandPakistan
eachexplodedseveralnucleardevicesunderground.Thisheightenedconcernsregardinganarmsrace
betweenthem.
Kashmirisaprimecauseofbilateraltension,itssovereigntyhasbeenindisputesince1948.Thereis
persistentlowlevelmilitaryconflictduetoPakistanbackingaMuslimrebellionthere.
Bothcountriesengagedinaconventionalarmsraceinthe1980s,includingsophisticatedtechnologyand
equipmentcapableofdeliveringnuclearweapons.Inthe1990sthearmsracequickened.In1994India
reversedafouryeartrendofreducedallocationsfordefence,anddespiteitsmuchsmallereconomy,
Pakistanpusheditsownexpendituresyethigher.Boththenlosttheirpatrons:India,theformerUSSRand
Pakistan,theUSA.
In1997Indiadeployedamediumrangemissileandisnowdevelopingalongrangemissilecapableof
reachingtargetsinChina'sindustrialheartland.
In1995theUSAquietlyintervenedtoheadoffaproposednucleartest.The1998testswereunambiguously
military,includingoneclaimedtobeofasophisticatedthermonucleardevice.Theirdeclaredpurposewas
"tohelpinthedesignofnuclearweaponsofdifferentyieldsanddifferentdeliverysystems".
ItisthegrowthandmodernisationofChina'snucleararsenalanditsassistancewithPakistan'snuclear
powerprogramand,reportedly,withmissiletechnology,whichnowexacerbatesIndianconcerns.In
particular,China'sPeople'sLiberationArmyoperatessomewhatautonomouslywithinPakistanasan
exporterofmilitarymaterial.
Indiansecuritypoliciesaredrivenby:
itsdesiretoberecognisedasthedominantpowerintheregion
itsincreasingconcernwithChina'sexpandingnuclearweaponsandmissiledeliveryprogramsand
itsenduringconcernaboutPakistan,withitsnuclearweaponscapabilityandnowtheclearcapability
todeliversuchweaponsdeepintoIndia.
ItperceivesnuclearweaponsasacosteffectivepoliticalcountertoChina'snuclearandconventional
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weaponry,andtheeffectsofitsnuclearweaponspolicyinprovokingPakistanis,bysomeaccounts,
consideredincidental.
IndiahashadanunhappyrelationshipwithChina.SoundlydefeatedbyChinainthe1962war,relations
werefrozenuntil1998.Sincethenadegreeofhighlevelcontacthasbeenestablishedandafew
elementaryconfidencebuildingmeasuresputinplace.ChinastilloccupiessomeIndianterritory.Itsnuclear
andmissilesupportforPakistanishoweveramajorboneofcontention.
India'sweaponsmaterialinitiallycamefromtheCanadiandesigned40MWtCIRUS"research"reactor
whichstartedupin1960(wellbeforetheNPT),andthe100MWtDhruvaindigenousunitinoperationsince
1985,usinglocaluranium.CIRUSwassuppliedwithheavywaterfromtheUSAanditwasprobablyonly
afterthe1962warthatitwasemployedlargelytomakeweaponsgradeplutonium.*Developmentofnuclear
weaponsapparentlybeganinearnestin1967.ItisestimatedthatIndiamayhavebuiltupenoughweapons
gradeplutoniumforonehundrednuclearwarheads.
*ArticleIIIofthe1956IndiaCanadaAgreement:TheGovernmentofIndiawillensurethatthereactorandanyproductsresultingfromitsusewill
beemployedforpeacefulpurposesonly.Clause9oftheIndiaUSHeavyWaterAgreement:Theheavywatersoldhereundershallbeforuse
onlyinIndiabytheGovernmentinconnectionwithresearchintoandtheuseatomicenergyforpeacefulpurposes.
InresponsetoIndia's1974nucleartestexplosionusingplutoniumfromCIRUS,demonstratingthatnuclear
technologytransferredtononnuclearweaponsstatesforpeacefulpurposescouldbemisused,theNuclear
SuppliersGroupwasformedandbeganregulatingnucleartrade,particularlywithIndia.Thisisonereason
whytheclosureofCIRUSisaconditionoftheNSGwaiverin2008.
Nucleararmscontrolintheregion
ThepublicstanceofIndiaandPakistanonnonproliferationdiffersmarkedly.
Pakistanhasinitiatedaseriesofregionalsecurityproposals.Ithasrepeatedlyproposedanuclearfreezone
inSouthAsiaandhasproclaimeditswillingnesstoengageinnucleardisarmamentandtosigntheNPTif
Indiawoulddoso.Thiswouldinvolvedisarmingandjoiningasnonweaponstates.IthasendorsedaUS
proposalforaregionalfivepowerconferencetoconsidernonproliferationinSouthAsia.
Indiahastakentheviewthatsolutionstoregionalsecurityissuesshouldbefoundattheinternationalrather
thantheregionallevel,sinceitschiefconcerniswithChina.ItthereforerejectsPakistan'sproposals.
Instead,the'GandhiPlan',putforwardin1988,proposedtherevisionoftheNPT,whichitregardsas
inherentlydiscriminatoryinfavouroftheNuclearWeaponsStates,andatimetableforcompletenuclear
weaponsdisarmament.ItendorsedearlyproposalsforaComprehensiveTestBanTreaty(CTBT)andfor
aninternationalconventiontobantheproductionofhighlyenricheduraniumandplutoniumforweapons
purposes,knownasthe'cutoff'convention.
TheUSAhas,forsomeyearspursuedavarietyofinitiativestopersuadeIndiaandPakistantoabandon
theirnuclearweaponsprogramsandtoacceptcomprehensiveinternationalsafeguardsonalltheirnuclear
activities.TothisendtheClintonadministrationproposedaconferenceofninestates,comprisingthefive
establishednuclearweaponstates,alongwithJapan,Germany,IndiaandPakistan.
ThisandprevioussimilarproposalshavebeenrejectedbyIndia,whichcounteredwithdemandsthatother
potentialweaponsstates,suchasIranandNorthKorea,shouldbeinvited,andthatregionallimitations
wouldonlybeacceptableiftheywereacceptedequallybyChina.TheUSAwouldnotacceptthe
participationofIranandNorthKoreaandsuchinitiativeslapsed.
Another,morerecentapproach,centresontheconceptofcontainment,designedto'cap'theproductionof
fissilematerialforweaponspurposes,whichwouldhopefullybefollowedby'rollback'.TothisendIndiaand
theUSAjointlysponsoredaUNGeneralAssemblyresolutionin1993callingfornegotiationsfora'cutoff'
convention,theFissileMaterialCutoffTreaty(FMCT).ShouldIndiaandPakistanjoinsuchaconvention,
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theywouldhavetoagreetohalttheproductionoffissilematerialsforweaponsandtoacceptinternational
verificationontheirrelevantnuclearfacilities(enrichmentandreprocessing).Inshort,theirweapons
programswouldbethus'capped'.ItappearedthatIndiawaspreparedtojoinnegotiationsregardingsucha
FMCTunderthe1995UNConferenceonDisarmament(UNCD).
However,despitethewidespreadinternationalsupportforaFMCT,formalnegotiationsoncutoffhaveyet
tobegin.TheUNCDcanonlyapprovedecisionsbyconsensusandsincethesummerof1995,the
insistenceofafewstatestolinkFMCTnegotiationstoothernucleardisarmamentissueshasbrought
progressonthecutofftreatytheretoastandstill.Inconnectionwithits2006agreementwiththeUSA,India
hasreiterateditssupportforaFMCT.
BilateralconfidencebuildingmeasuresbetweenIndiaandPakistantoreducetheprospectsofconfrontation
havebeenlimited.In1990eachsideratifiedatreatynottoattacktheother'snuclearinstallations,andat
theendof1991theyprovidedoneanotherwithalistshowingthelocationofalltheirnuclearplants,even
thoughtherespectivelistswereregardedasnotbeingwhollyaccurate.Earlyin1994Indiaproposeda
bilateralagreementfora'nofirstuse'ofnuclearweaponsandanextensionofthe'noattack'treatytocover
civilianandindustrialtargetsaswellasnuclearinstallations.
HavingpromotedtheCTBTsince1954,Indiadroppeditssupportin1995andin1996attemptedtoblock
theTreaty.Followingthe1998teststhequestionhasbeenreopenedandbothPakistanandIndiahave
indicatedtheirintentiontosigntheCTBT.Indianratificationmaybeconditionaluponthefiveweapons
statesagreeingtospecificreductionsinnucleararsenals.
Seealso:India,ChinaandNPT
Sources:
LastsectionbasedonpaperbyMichaelWilson,1995,TheNuclearFuture:AsiaandAustraliaandthe1995
ConferenceonNonProliferation,publishedbyGriffithUniversity.Usedwiththeauthor'spermission
PPNNNewsbriefs199598,IssueReview#5,1995
AustralianSafeguardsOffice
A.Gopalakrishnan,2002,EvolutionoftheIndianNuclearPowerProgram,AnnReviewEnergyEnvironment
27:369395
A.Kakodkar&R.Grover,2004,NuclearEnergyinIndia,TheNuclearEngineer45,2
NuclearPowerCorporationofIndiaLtd
NuPower18,23,2004
A.Kakodkar2007,statementtoIAEAGeneralConference,Sept2007
A.Kakodkar2008,Managingnewnuclearpowerparadigm,IAIFAugust2008
S.Banerjee2010,TowardsaSustainableNuclearEnergyFuture,WNASymposium2010
NPCIL2011,FactsonKudankulamNPP,21pp
IAEA,AHWRStatusReport,Dec2010
CivilLiabilityforNuclearDamageRules2011(notablyclause24),GazetteofIndia11/11/11.
OECD/IEAElectricityInformation2012orlater
Vijayan,I.V.etal,BARC,OverviewoftheThoriumPrograminIndia,ThEC2013presentation
Kakodkar,A,2013,Leveragingopportunitieswiththorium,ThEC2013presentation
Wattal,P.K.2013,RecyclingchallengesofThoriumfuels,ThEC2013presentation
SauravJha,ComingofAgein2014,reviewofIndiasNuclearEnergyProgram,NuclearEngineering
International,August2014
DeptofAtomicEnergy,AnnualReport201314
2015WorldNuclearAssociation,registeredinEnglandand
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Wales,number01215741.
Registeredoffice:TowerHouse,10SouthamptonStreet,London,
WC2E7HA,UnitedKingdom
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