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R=
V
where V = voltage (volts); I = current flow (amps)
I
Current density = J =
I
A
Resistance of cylinder, R
L L
=
A
A
where is the electrical resistivity of the material (ohm-m). This is the resistance per
unit volume and is an inherent property of the material.
RA
L
If we were to examine two cylinders made of the same material, but with different
dimensions, they would have the same electrical resistivity, but different electrical
resistances. Often it is more convenient to discuss the conductivity () which is
measured in Siemens per metre.
= 1/
1
x
A
V
I
=
V
I
Rearranging gives
V I
=
A
x
Taking limits
dV
I
=E=
= J
dx
A
J = E where E is the
The ease with which the charge carrier can move is described by the mobility, , which is
defined as the drift velocity per unit electric field = v/E
In a time t, the electric charges will move a distance x
= vt.
= Avt
= nqAvt
q nqAvt
=
= nqAv
t
t
I
= nqv = nqE
A
1
1
=
nq
3
Thus a material will have a low electrical resistivity (high conductivity) if it has many,
highly mobile, charge carriers.
If several types of charge carriers are present, then the contribution from each charge
carrier must be summed.
http://www.kentchemistry.com/links/bonding/metallic.htm
B2.2 Semiconductors
Semi conduction occurs in minerals such as sulphides. Here the charge carriers are
electrons, ions or holes. Compared to metals, the and n are lower, and thus the
resistivity is higher (typically 10-3 to 10-5 m). This type of conduction occurs in
igneous rocks and usually shows a temperature dependence of the form
E
kT
Note that if the carbon atoms are rearranged, they form graphite (right). The 3-fold covalent bonding leaves free electrons that can easily move along the sheets of linked
hexagons.
The electrons cannot move across the sheets, giving a very low resistivity parallel to the
sheets. However the resistivity is higher in a direction orthogonal the sheets. This is an
example of electrical anisotropy (more later!)
B2.3 Ionic conduction in brines
In liquids the ions can freely move. As
the salinity of a brine increases, the
resistivity decreases as more charge
carriers become available. Empirical
studies (Block, 2001) show that the
resistivity of brines (w ) in the Alberta
Basin varies as:
w = 4.5 TDS-0.85
where TDS is the amount of total
dissolved solids in g/litre.
For more details about the resistivity of aqueous fluids, see my recent review article
(Unsworth and Rondenay, 2013). This book chapter can be downloaded at :
http://www.ualberta.ca/~unsworth/recent_papers.html
If the pore fluid is saline water, then the resistivity of the pore fluid (w) will be much
lower than the resistivity of the mineral grains (r). In this scenario, Archie (1942)
discovered an empirical relationship for the resistivity of a completely saturated whole
rock (o) is given by
o
= F = m
w
where F is called the formation factor.
Note that the elongated pores will connect to form an interconnected electrical network at
a lower porosity than the spherical pores. Is the permeability of the two cases different?
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Partial saturation
The analysis above assumes that all the pore space is filled with the low resistivity water.
Archies study was motivated by the application to hydrocarbon reservoirs, and thus
partial saturation must be considered. Typically oil and gas in the pore spaces will be
resistive. Additional experiments by Archie showed that the bulk resistivity () is given
by
= S n
o
where S is the saturation, defined as the fraction of pore space filled with fluid and n is
(another) empirical constant.
What value of n is implied in the figure
on the left that shows S (vertical axis) as
a function of /o (horizontal axis)?
Figure 3, Archie (1942)
Combining the above equations gives the general form of Archies Law
= w S n m
Archies Law can also be extended to include the case where some conduction occurs
through the solid phase (Ussher et al, 2000; Glover et al, 2000).
This is important when studying partially molten rocks, since the temperature is high
enough for some conduction to occur through the unmolten grains (minerals with highest
melting points)
This illustrates that the anisotropy of rock can be an important factor in determining the
overall resistivity.
The resistivity can also be defined for intermediate values of fluid fraction (porosity) and
details will be investigated on Assignment 1 in Geophysics 424. The results are sketched
below for the case of rock = 1000 m and f = 0.3 m.
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Note that at low porosity (low fluid fraction) Archies Law for m =2 predicts a resistivity
greater than 1000 m. This is clearly impossible, and shows that Archies Law can be
invalid at low porosity, with poorly connected pore fluids. With limited fluid present,
conduction through the mineral grains will be significant.
We can also define the Hashin-Shtrikman bounds that are closely related to the above
example. These are (approximately) the maximum (HS +) and minimum (HS -) possible
resistivities for a given amount of fluid in a rock.
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http://faculty.plattsburgh.edu/robert.fuller/370%20Files/Week5Ion%20Exchange/Electricdoublelayer.htm
Waxman and Smits (1968) developed an equation for the resistivity due to conduction
through both the liquid and the double layer
F
( BQv +
where B is the equivalent conductance of the ions in solution and F is the formation
factor and
Qv = CEC (1 ) m
with m the matrix grain density and CEC the cation exchange capacity of the clay.
Thus the term BQv is a measure of how much the clay contributes to conduction.
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Lithosphere-asthenosphere
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