1

INFLUENCE OF GEOLOGICAL CONDITIONS ON DESIGN AND

CONSTRUCTION OF TUNNELS

Introduction
There are several particular geological features, however, which are commonly encounter
in the tunneling operations. These can gives rise to difficulties especially in impending
progress and\or increasing the hazardous nature of the operation.
Changes in geological conditions which decreased competence of the rocks
surrounding the excavation often results in increasing tunneling costs in addition to
affecting operational and safety aspects. Consequently, in depth appreciation of the
geological conditions plays an important role for design and planning, through to
construction and eventual commissioning and operation of the tunnel.
The first of the obvious geological conditions that are directly related to the tunnel
is :
A. The type of the rock and their strength and deformation behavior
B. Geological discontinuities and associated strength and deformation
behavior
C. Groundwater conditions
D. Squeezing and swelling rock conditions
E. Running Ground
F. Gases in rocks
G. Rock temperature
H. Topographic conditions.

A. The type of the rock and their strength and deformation behavior

The first basis of classification of rock is the geological classification according to

which rocks are divide into three classes i.e.
a) Igneous rock
b) Sedimentary rock
c) Metamorphic rock

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a) Igneous rock
The crystalline nature of the igneous rocks signifies high compressive strength
with potential difficulties in rock excavations process, but can also indicate the
mark competence with the advantages of decreased support needs to achieve an
acceptable degree of stability.

Localized and relatively thin intrusives are usually fine-grained and often possess
high strength and significant resistance to weathering by comparison to the
coarser grained igneous types with similar mineral constituents.

Igneous rocks consisting of volcanic tuff and pumice, can be particularly weak
and porous and whilst usually exhibiting low strength values with ease of
excavation, they can be subjected to rapid weathering with accompanying loss of
competency and can also give rise to the significant ground water problems.

b) Sedimentary rocks

The effects of stress and advanced weathering, and weakening by the action of
water can give rise to the problems especially where such rock type contains
appreciable clay minerals.

The banded characteristics are sometimes responsible for marked variation in

strength, deformation and permeability in different directions.

c) Metamorphic rocks

Rock types such as quartzite, marble, dolomite marble, and hornfels generally
exhibits random distribution of minerals and display minor foliation and are
relatively more competent.

Rock containing micaceous minerals have well defined planes of weakness

and can easily split along these planes of weakness and show very rather
properties in terms of both strength and deformation properties.
Rock alteration

The natural processes of weathering produce rock alteration which can be of

major importance to tunneling.

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B) Geological discontinuities and associated strength and deformation behavior

There are many discontinuities but among them followings are the major discontinuities
which affects the tunnel design are :
a) Folds
b) Faults
c) Joints.
a) Folds

Although folds occur in all types of rock but it is more conspicuous in

layered rock due to deformation of rock mass.

This of course depends on the degree of fracturing which is almost associated

with folding fractured and folded rock, therefore present more serious
problem in tunnels; particularly during excavation.

To overcome from this problem, it needs stronger supports and besides,

fractures rock pieces immediately surrounding excavation tend to dislodge
creating hazards.

The degree of fracturing is more in stronger rocks although this depends on

the depth of excavation and/or in situ stress condition.

Folds are sometimes the natural traps of natural gases, which might be
harmful to the persons working in tunnels.

Trough of fold accumulates water during excavations causing pumping

problems.

Figure below Presents example of the influence of folded rock masses on the
location of tunnel whilst excavation is in progress.
b) Faults

Are associated displacements along the plane of the rapture caused by

tectonic stresses.

The following points are based on the Wahlstrom who has discussed faults in
relation to tunneling.

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1

Repeated intermittent movements occur at several sites, particularly

where tectonic and igneous activities are still present.

2.

Faults are frequently preferred paths for groundwater movement but may
act as hydrological barriers of 7 below. Consequently internal erosion can
occur and is particularly pronounced with certain rock types, eg.
Limestone, whilst significant wall- rock alteration is likely with other rock
types, e.g. igneous, feldspathic, sandstones etc.

3.

Frictional effects of movement along the fault plane can induce wall- rock
alteration in addition to chemical reaction from water circulation.

4.

The width of the fault zone is related to the geological and tectonic history
and rock types. Fault zones can be tens of meters in width even where
relatively minor displacement has occurred between strata and is possibly
indicative of several reversals in movement over long periods of time.

5.

Fault filling and gouge characteristics differ quite markedly and often
reflect the degree of influence of groundwater movement .

6.

Brescia filling is characterized by its fragmented nature derived from

relatively competent rocks,. Such filling can exhibit voids but often
contains fine materials. The breccias and in-filling materials can originate
from upper or lower horizons depending upon the motive force causing
movement of the fault filling.

7.

Rock in a crushed and comminuted state caused by the grinding action of

relative movement along the fault plane is commonly referred to as gouge.
Water assists in the breakdown of some rocks and the fault gouge can
often contain clay minerals which can give rise to plastic deformation in to
underground excavations by virtue of time dependent behavioral
properties and swelling pressure effects. Consequently humid conditions
and groundwater contact with fault gouge can initiate progressive collapse

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in to tunnel excavations. Fault gouge has minor or insignificant bonding
strength and exhibits poor stand up times. The fine- grained character of
fault gouge often gives it an essentially impermeable property, although
what might be regarded as insignificant seepage from gouge in to a tunnel
can in time lead to creating a flow path for water and water borne debris
in quantities of concern to the project . A tunnel intercepting a wide zone
of fault gouge beneath and in hydraulic contact with the water table can
experience inrush conditions. The width of fault gouge zones is difficult to
predict and calls for careful observation, investigation and monitoring
whilst tunneling is in progress. Effective support measures are called for to
achieve early control over the deterioration potential of fault gouge
properties.
8.

Relative movement of rock masses produces scratches, grooves and

polished interfaces. These can indicate movement direction, but they are
of special significance to tunneling in representing planes of very low
friction with ability to readily encourage detachment and sliding of rock
into tunnel excavations.

9.

Faults and interconnecting structures allow circulation of groundwater to

penetrate deep below the surface and laterally into the side walls. This can
be produce wall rock alteration and result in deep seated weathering with
consequent loss of competency of rocks appreciably below the surface.

10.

The orientation of the faults in relation to the tunnel line is vitally

important since this govern the length of tunnel affected by the faults and
its accompanying faults zone.

c) Joints and their relevance to tunneling

Are structural plane of weakness and greatly affect shear strength of properties
of rock and rock masses.

The presence of joints is responsible for a number of instability in the

underground excavations.

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The spacing and orientation of which with respect to excavation and tunnel
surface is of paramount importance. Joints pattern considerably affects the
mode of rock failure or collapse potential and the degree of over break during
the tunnel excavation. Therefore the joints properties and their patterns studied
with care and detail.

C) Groundwater aspects

The presence of groundwater is recognized as a major hazard in addition to

causing operational difficulties in respect of tunnel construction works.

Predicting with accuracy the likely water inflow qualities is however, difficult,
and detailed monitoring and regular reviews of conditions together with
adoption of special measures such as de- watering or injection programmes
need consideration.

Encountering large quantities of water in weak ground conditions can lead to

rapid formation of cavities around the tunnel excavation and can be produce
the potential for the significant quantities of wet and loose ground to flow the
tunnel.

Some tunnel projects have experienced problems from the relatively warm(
greater than 30-350c) groundwater which can impair the environmental
conditions within the tunnel.

So ground occurrence should be assessed during the site investigation stage.

There are some example of problem due to groundwater excavation during

tunnel design.

X The Thames tunnel :- flooding occurred five times and the tunnel
was reclaimed each time by dumping clay and gravel in the riverbed
and pumping out the water and digging out the dedris . what
happened was that water softened the silt and clay came in everincreasing volume and ultimately led to the flooding of tunnels. It
was accompanied by the methane causing minor explosion causing
illness and death of some tunnelers.

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X In Nepal :- removal of gauge material in fault led to serious flooding
of the tunnel.

X The seikan tunnel :- it experienced very large inflows, which

resulted worsening of the ground conditions and finally the TBM
method had to abandoned in favour of drill and blast method. The
inflows had to be controlled by grouting which took considerable
time. This reduced the rate of progress of tunneling. During mid
1981, grout consumption attained 98.2m3/m and this consumed 67%
of the total time. Total drivage amounted to 131m. In 1978 the
corresponding values were 5.7m3/m, 53% and the total tunnel
drivage was 1490m.

X Li (1987), China :- corrosive groundwater badly attacked concrete

linings in at least three tunnels i.e. Lousoi, Luduohu, and Gajialen
tunnels. He also mentions a number of cases where heavy
groundwater inflows through fault zones consisting of mud and fault
breccias destructed the support and seriously damaged the invert.

X St. Gotthard tunnel :- it faced problems associated with high

temperature and hot springs up to 60oc.
Not always possible, potential groundwater problems can be predicted using
deep bore holes. It is difficult to predict the likely water inflow rates. The
problem becomes more serious as the thickness of overburden increases.

D) Squeezing and swelling rock conditions

Squeezing rocks

Squeezing is in the effect a type of displacement into an excavation due to

stress gradient created around the tunnel by excavation.

Squeezing the phenomenon that starts to show up, theoretically, as soon as

excavation is made. But it is time dependent phenomenon.

Stress released due to excavation may cause shear displacement to take place
of hundreds of meters beyond the excavation surfaces.

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Swelling rocks

Swelling is a time dependent process and involves physico-chemical

reactions with water.

Swelling is assisted by stress release or increase in water content or a

combination of both giving rise to time dependent process of swelling.

Swelling ground displaces into the tunnel opening as result of volume change
due to water adsorption and absorption effects.

Swelling behaviour denotes the response of rock to the presence of water.

A simple test is that of immersing a piece of rock in a vessel of water and

observing its response and whether it disintegrates.
Einstein and Bischoff (1975) suggest the following steps to contain or reduce swelling
effects in tunnels.

X Invert arch :- An arch invert to reduce the main zone of swelling. The
arched shaped invert was more effective than the invert slab.

X Invert slab anchored or bolted :- if the invert slab is to be used it should be

bolted down or anchored to contain inward heave.

X Trimming :- it is applicable only when the sidewall lining is not affected

by heaving.

X Backfilling with weak material or compressible support:- absorb swelling

pressure.

X Grouting :- effective in controlling the passage of water to swelling prone

materials.

X Drainage :- protect the swelling prone minerals ( iron) getting access to

water.
Example
The Belchen tunnel:- passes through swelling prone marl, anhydrite and clay
shale. Original design incorporated a 0.45 m thick concrete arch invert, which
was supposed to cope with the expected swelling. Two abutment drifts( 2.9 *
3.0 m) were driven to install the concrete invert so that full face excavation
could be carried out afterwards under a shield. Heaving occur after the
excavation. Rock bolts of 2.5m length was subsequently installed to shave the

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invert, but this measure could not contain swelling and the invert did finally
fail close to the abutments. On the basis of continuous monitoring of the
swelling pressure, reinforced concrete lining of thickness 0.60 to 0.85 m was
found suitable.
E) Running Ground
Is often saturated and the presence of water can encourage liquefaction when
disturbed by tunneling activities.

Can arise at a later stage due to the progressive collapse and formation of a
significant cavity tapping a major aquifer and overlying unconsolidated
saturated deposits.

F) Gases in rocks

Gases are frequently in the sedimentary rock.

Methane can move great distances laterally and vertically to accumulate in

unsuspected locations. It was released from shale during driving of the great
Apennine tunnel between italy and Switzerland which resulted in an
explosion by fire.

Carbon dioxide arise from carbonaceous materials.

Various gases encountered in tunnels are: carbon dioxide, methane, sulpher

dioxide, hydrogen sulphide and rarely hydrogen.

Sulpher dioxide is a product of oxidation of sulpher or sulphides and can

occur in sedimentary rock and hydrothermal deposits containing significant
sulphide concentrations.

Hydrogen sulphide is a product of decay of sulpher bearing compounds and

can be released from the thermal water to deep seated origins.

G) Rock temperature

Increase with depth.

Temperature increases about 10c for every 60-80metres in geologically stable

areas and 10c for 10-15 meters in volcanically active areas.

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The simplon tunnel experienced very high temperature i.e. 560c at a depth of
2134 meters.

Alpline tunnels, a sudden increase in temperature from 270c to 450c and even
630c occurred due to the sudden release of methane gases.

Effective ventilations is perhaps the only means which can alleviate the
problem.
H) Topographical conditions

Is responsible for modifying stress conditions at the surface. One principal

stress is zero at surface and other is parallel to it which is directly related to
the slope of the ground.

One obvious changes that tunnel construction may bring about is the change
in the situ stress conditions as well as ground water conditions.
KARST PROBLEMS

Are associated with limestone and carbon rocks and including crystalline
limestone and to lesser extent, dolomitic limestone dolomite conglomerates
and marl.

Accessibility of water to these rock is the major factor leading to the karst.

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GROUTING
Definition

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3. Categories of Grouting

Grouting for ground engineering can be subdivided into: permeation grouting,

displacement grouting, compaction grouting, grouting of voids, jet grouting, Special
grouting applications and techniques, including electro grouting.

Penetration
(Intrusion)
replacement)

Displacement
(Compaction grouting)

Penetration
(permeation)

Jet grouting
(displacement,

I. Permeation grouting

This method describes the process of filling joints or fractures in rock or pore spaces in
soil with a grout without disturbing the formation. More specifically, permeation
grouting refers to the replacement of water in voids between soil particles with a grout
fluid at low injection pressure so as to prevent fracturing. It is a technique that is
generally used to reduce ground permeability and control ground water flow, but it also
can be used to strengthen and stiffen the ground.

II.

Displacement Grouting

Displacement grouting is the injection of grout into a formation in such a manner as to

move the formation; it may be controlled, as in compaction grouting, or uncontrolled,
as in high-pressure soil or rock grouting which leads to splitting of the ground, also
called hydrofracture.

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III.

Hydro fracture grouting

Hydro fracture grouting is the deliberate fracturing of the ground (soil or rock) using
grout under pressure. Typically it is used to compact and stiffen the ground or to access
otherwise inaccessible voids, thus reducing the mass permeability of the ground and
produced the controlled uplift of structures. If the grouting pressure is increased
sufficiently, a soil mass may split and artificial grout-filled fissures are formed; in rock,
existing fissures may enlarge and new breaks may occur. This also referred to as
claquage by French engineers.

IV.

Compaction grouting
In this method, grout mix is specifically designed so as not to permeate the soil voids or
mix with the soil. Instead, it displaces the soil into which it is injected. In granular
deposits not at their maximum density, the volumes of voids are reduced and the
deposit is locally densified. In Compaction grouting a very stiff (say 25-mm slump)
mortar is injected into loose soils, forming grout bulbs which displace and densify the
surrounding ground, without penetrating the soil pores.

V. Grouting of voids

Grout may also be used simply to fill voids, such as may develop below the joints in a
concrete pavement through pumping. Special terms have evolved for the grouting
behind the lining of a tunnel due to over break: Backpack grouting, contact grouting, or
more especially crown grouting are found in the relevant literature, in addition to
interface and gap grouting.

VI.

Jet grouting

The high-pressure water or grout is used to physically disrupt the ground, in the process
modifying it and thereby improving it. In normal operation the drill string is advanced

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to the required depth and then the high-pressure water or grout is introduced while
withdrawing the rods.

VII.

Deep Mixing Methods (DMM)

The Deep Mixing Method (DMM) is today accepted world-wide as a soil improvement
method which is performed to improve the strength, deformation properties and
permeability of the soil. It is based on mixing binders, such as cement, lime, fly ash and
other additives, with the soil by the use of rotating mixing tools in order to form
columns of a hardening material since pozzolanic reactions between the binder and the
soil grains are developed. In Sweden and Finland, deep stabilization techniques are
quite popularly used for stabilization of soft soil.

Based on design requirements, site conditions, soil and rock layers, restraints and
economic, the use of deep mixing methods (DMM) is increasingly spreading. These
methods have been suggested and applied for soil and rock stabilizing, slope stability,
liquefaction mitigation, vibration reduction (along the railway), road and railroad and
bridge foundations and embankments, construction of excavation support systems or
protection of structure close to excavation sites, solidification and stabilization of
contaminated soils etc. The demand for improving and stabilizing land for different
purposes is expected to increase in the future and the best way to fulfill it is by using
deep mixing methods (DMM). It is strongly suggested that, where sufficient space is
unavailable, sliding and overturning stability be augmented using soil anchors. The
main advantage of these methods is long term increasing in strength especially for some
of the binders used. Pozzolanic reaction can continue for months or even years after
mixing, resulting in the increase in strength of cement stabilized clay with the increase
in curing time.

VIII.

Electro grouting

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Electro grouting is a term used for promoting electrochemical hardening during electro
osmosis by adding chemicals, such as sodium silicate or calcium chloride, at the anode.
Under the influence of the electric field, these chemicals permeate the ground, flowing
in the direction of the cathode, while the anode becomes a grout injection pipe.
Grouting as an art
The largest quantities of grout (usually cement-based) are used in creating more or less
impervious curtains below dams in order to reduce water losses, uplift pressures, and
reduce the potential for hydraulic fracturing( leading to piping failures) under operating
conditions. Foundation grouting for increased stability and reduced compressibility is
probably next in importance. It may serve a permanent or temporary function: only a
temporary increase in strength may be required for surface or underground excavations.
In some cases, grouting may provide an elegant, if not the only way, of repairing existing
structures or making up for inaccurate or imperfect construction procedures.

For many engineers, grouting is still considered an art rather than science. Its successful
application requires a great deal of experience, thorough knowledge of geological
conditions, and an awareness of equipment capabilities and limitations. Houlsby (1982)
went even further in saying that grouting requires an intuitive perception of just what the
liquid grout does as it flows through the open joints and cracks hidden away down there
underground.

4 GROUT MATERIALS
Classification of Grout materials
Three basic types of grout are differentiated according to composition:
Suspensions: Small particles of solids are distributed in a liquid dispersion medium.
Examples: cement and clay in water.
Emulsions: A two phase system containing minute (colloidal) droplets of liquid in a
disperse phase. Example: bitumen and water. Also in this category are foams, organic
chemical. Foaming agents, such as additives which increase surface tension, assist in

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forming bubbles by agitation; alternatively, they may induce gas- forming chemical
reactions.
Solutions: Liquid homogeneous molecular mixtures of two or more substances.
Examples: sodium silicate, organic resigns, and a wide variety of other so called chemical
grouts. A difference may be made between colloidal solutions (e.g. silica or lignochrome
gels) and pure solutions(e.g., phenolic and acrylic resins, aminoplasts). (Note: A cement
grout is not commonly classified as a chemical grout; it is usually classified as a
suspension grout.)
Principal types of grouts as distinguished by cambefort( 1987) are listed in following
table which also gives an indication of appropriate uses, construction controls, and
relative costs.
Cambefort (1977) characterizes foam grouts by the following parameters:
Expansion coefficient, eg =
= 1 + eg

Bulking coefficient, Cb =
Air Ratio, ng =

State
Suspensions

Liquids
Aerated emulsions
Unstable
Stable
Chemical Products
Sodium
Sodium
silicate Organic Cement Organic
Grout
Bentonite Deflocculated
silicate
Cement
resins
foams
foams
diluted
Type
+ cement
bentonite
hard gels
gels
High
Range of
Sands and gravels, k m/s
Fissures
Cavities
water
uses
> 5 X 10
> 10-4
> 10-4
> 10-5
> 10-6
flows
-4
Grouting
Refusal
Limited quantities
Control
Pressure
Relative
1
4.2
cost for the (deposit (cement
products to
200kg;
0.8-1
6
2-4
10-500
1.2
10
fill 1 - m3 with
bentonite
=1.5)
voids
30 kg)

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The relationship between the expansion coefficient eg and the air ratio ng is analogous to
that of the void ratio and porosity in a soil.
The rhelogical properties and ground penetrability of foams are not only related to the
expansion coefficient, which could vary from less than 3 for cement based foams up to 50
for organic foams, but also on the bubble size distribution. The latter can be controlled, to
a degree, by the choice of foaming agent and the method of bubble formation.

5 GROUTING TECHNIQUE AND CONTROLS

Cement clay and cement started to be used to repair masonry walls, fill cracks in load
bearing structures and seal off water flow in rock
fissures around 300 years ago.
Initially grout consisted only of single or multi
component material mixed with a reactant before
injection (one slot technique) to set with in few
minutes or hours. Improvement in the grouting
methods depends to a large extent on development of
an efficient mixing and pumping technology. A two
set grouting technique suitable for stabilizing soil as small grained as fine sans was
invented around 1925 by HJ Joosten. In this two shot grouting sodium silicate and
calcium chloride in to the ground from two separate pipes, these chemicals reacted
instantly
in the soil mixed.
Fig: Equipment employed in modern grouting
Grout could be injected as drilling proceeds but it
is preferable to organize drilling and grouting as
separate phases e.g. with grouting commencing
once the borehole is compacted, or alternating
with drilling in stages.

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In order to treat a particular ground stratum the corresponding length of bore hole is
isolated by expanding rubber Packer built in to the drilling rods grout is then only
allowed to flow in to soil or rock from between two packers or, if a single packer is used,
between it and the bottom of the whole.
Packers in contact with the ground are only feasible in rock grouting, for stage grouting
in soils the sleeve tube has been developed.
The procedure is as follows:
- The hole is drilled and cased.
-

A steel or plastic tube, slotted at regular intervals, is inserted. The vertical slots
are covered with rubber sleeve.

As the casing is withdrawn, the space between sleeve tube and borehole wall is
sealed with cement- bentonite groute inserting bentonite pallets or cement bentonite slurry.

After the seal has set, the grouting tube is inserted. Grout exists between two
packers allowing injection through selected slots. With increasing pressure, the
rubber sleeves burst and grout flows in to the soil.

With sleeve tube technique, grouting can be repeated in the same hole using different
viscosity grouts or different chemicals in planned sequence. Flexibility is important
where permeability of ground vary significantly from point to point.
Grouting in stages may proceed in descending (down hole down stage) or ascending
upstage direction. In descending method, impregnation of the grounds occurs in advance
of the borehole, which could be advantageous
in loose soil or rock. In the ascending
technique grouting follows drilling as separate
phase, a benefit would be that water pressure
testing is possible immediately prior to
grouting allowing for a choice of most suitable
grout type, pressure and quantity of for that
particular stratum.
Experience and intuitive judgement are used in
deciding which includes:

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-

the pattern of boreholes.

the sequence of grouting holes with in a group

the stages of injection along a single hole.

the pressures.

the viscosities.

quantities to be used in each phase of operation

All above mentioned points are aimed to:

- minimum wastage of grout
-

least damage to the ground

maximum gain in strength and

reduction of seepage.

The successful grouting can only be assessed after job is completed, when seepage
measurements or settlement observation for the structure under operating conditions are
available. However some controls are possible, if not vital during the actual grouting
process or at intervals during construction. This may include:
-

monitoring the grout taken as a function of pressure.

observing ground heave.

recording piezometre levels.

digging inspection pits.

Retrieving core samples for examination and laboratory testing.

Photographing walls of boreholes for visual inspection (particularly effective if

grout has been dyed.)

conduting pressuremetre tests, possibly penetration tests

conducting borehole permeability tests

Obviously the better the site investigation before grouting, the better is the chance of
selecting a successful grouting strategy.

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6 PERMEATION GROUTING OF SOILS
Grout permeation through soil is generally related to the grouts permeability, measured
in terms of the coefficient of permeability k according to Darcys law(Q=k/A). For a
particular fluid, k is primarily a function of the void ratio (or corresponding porosity or
density), but particle size distribution, soil structure, saturation, and other factors also
influence its value.
If soil voids are represented by a system of tubes with equal permeability, then the
Hagen- Poiseuille equation for the viscous and visco-plastic flow in pipes could be used
to estimate grout take and reach. A spherical or cylindrical flow model for a porous
medium is however more appropriate for permeation grouting of souls from boreholes.
Using basic well hydraulics , the distance traveled by the grout can be related to the
grouting rate and time.
Spherical Flow Model for Porous Media (Newtonian fluid)
Imagine that grout permeates soil from a spherical cavity of radius Ro under the influence
of a net pressure po (in excess of local hydrostatic pressure). Then, for laminar
Newtonian flow, the following relationship holds:

Where, Q = grouting rate, m3/s

= unit weight of grout, kN/m3
= permeability of soil to grout, m/s
k = permeability of soil to water, m/s
=

viscousity of grout, Pa . s
= viscosity of water, Pa . s

During spherical grout permeation in time dt the grout travels a distance dr. The grout
taken in time t can be found by integration from

Where,

is the porosity of the soil (volume of voids/ total volume)

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The time required to travel a distance R from a spherical cavity with radius R0 can be
computed by
t=

4 . .( R 3 R0 )
3Q
3

Theoretically, a Newtonian grout will be continue to travel outward,as long as

excess head (pe / ) exists or until it sets or gels.
Radical flow from a cylindrical cavity .(Newtonian fluid)
Equation equivalent to above but for horizontal cylindrical flow as from a section
of a bore hole
Q
pe =
4 .m.k w * ln(R/R0)
where,
pe = excess pressure necessary to maintain flow Q when grout has reached
distance R from the injection point.
R0 = radius of borehole
m = thickness of layer being grouted
t=

.m. .( R 2 R0 2 )
Q

As for a confined aquifer being recharged the pressure p(R) of the grout diminishes
with distance R from the borehole according to
pr = pe

2 .m.k w * ln(R/R0)

Groutability of soil based on permeability.

Groutability of soil/rock is their ability to accept grout.

Groutability depends on the properties both of the ground and the grouting
material.

Prepared By : Arvind Kumar Jha ( 065/MsG/R/801)

26
Granular structure, permeability of the ground, rheological properties of the
grout mixture, become more important in the relation to the groutability.

Groutability criteria is that the size of grout particles must be small enough so
that they can penetrate the soil or rock formations. So
D85 (grout)< 1/3 B ( fissure)
D85 (grout) < 1/15 (soil)

The ratio of D15 (soil) to D85( grout) is also called groutability ratio.
D15s / D85g = Rg ( groutability ratio)

The groutability ratio should be exceed 15, but in some cases has been
carried out successfully with this ratio of 5 to 10.
Groutability of granular soils

Determined by the permeability of the medium and/ or its particle size

distribution. Figure ..

Groutability also depends on the injection pressure and the degree of dilution
of the grout.

Tubular

flow

analysis teaches us
that the resistance to
the

penetration

decreases

with

fourth power of the

diameter

of

opening.
permeability

the
The
of

granular soils can

easily be found by
the
dewatering by wells.

Prepared By : Arvind Kumar Jha ( 065/MsG/R/801)

relation

to

27

Comparison of the permeation of grouts

The table above gives a general overview of applications of various suspensions and
liquid grouts in soils; the latter rated according to their coefficient of permeability
k (m/s)

Relationship between water/cement ratio and viscosity for different types of cement
Above figure shows the comparison of the viscosity of microfine cement with that of
colloidal and ordinary Portland cement. Increasing the water/cement ratio does
decrease the viscosity but also increases the gel time and reduces the strength of the
grouted soil.

7 HYDRAULIC FRACTURING OF SOILS AND ROCKS

Hydraulic fracturing or hydro fracture is splitting of soil mass, formation of artificial
grout filled fissures (in rock), enlarge of existing fissures and occurrences of new breaks
when the grouting pressure is increased sufficiently.
Identification of hydraulic fracturing
-

ground heave in a granular ground and at shallow depths in rock.

Surface heave in slab jacking or lifting of building foundation.

Prepared By : Arvind Kumar Jha ( 065/MsG/R/801)

28
-

Backflow of liquid grouts as soon as the injection stops.

For suspension grouts, backflow is inhibited by partial sedimentation. The expansion of

fissures during grouting of fractured rock may have a positive result. Amore complete
filling of the fissures is achieved after elastic rebound of the enclosing ground mass, in
extreme case, the deposited grout is compressed by the closing fissure and some of the
grouting pressure is locked in a pre stressing effect.
Besides causing ground heave and back flow hydrofracture they also be apparent from a
Lugeon bar plot or flow rate/ pressure diagram. In addition, acoustic emissions
monitoring appears to have the potential to identify the occurrence of hydraulic fracturing
in the ground.

Fig:Interpretation of flow
pressure diagrams

In soils, overburden pressure would be a reasonable conservation guide for predicting the
danger of hydrofracture. Unless the soil is overconsolidated, initial cracks could well run
vertically along boreholes (even to the surface) rather than along weaker layers of soil in
a horizontal direction.
The existing tectonic stress state, redistribution of stresses due to mining and
construction activities could be very important when it comes to predicting or interpreting
the effect of high grouting pressures on the ground.
Whether the (low pressure) penetration or (high pressure) displacement grouting
techniques are to be used on a particular job may not only depend on the prevailing
Prepared By : Arvind Kumar Jha ( 065/MsG/R/801)

29
geological conditions and the particular type of grout used, but also on the local
experience, design philosophy and construction practice. Some experts maintain that
penetration grouting is adequate for the treatment of most foundations ;others see the
occurrence of hydraulic fracturing of the ground not only as inevitable but necessary for
thorough impregnation.

References :
1) Underground excavation in rock by E. HOEK AND ET. BROWN
2) Engineering principle of Ground modification by HAUSSMAN
3) Tunnel engineering hand book by BICKEL, KUESEL AND KING
4) Tunneling and tunnel mechanics by DIMITRIOS KOLYMBAS
5) Class note in underground excavation 2009/10 by Prof. Dr. AKAL BR. SINGH
6) Internet collection.

Prepared By : Arvind Kumar Jha ( 065/MsG/R/801)