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Environmental Science
Whereas the disciplines of biology, chemistry, and physics (and their sub
disciplines of microbiology, organic chemistry, nuclear physics, etc.) are focused on
a particular aspect of natural science, environmental science in its broadest sense
encompasses all the fields of natural science. The historical focus of study for
environmental scientists has been, of course, the natural environment.
Environmental Engineering
Environmental engineering is the application of science and engineering
principles to improve the natural environment to provide healthy water, air and land
for human habitation and for other organisms and to remediate polluted sites.
Although most environmental engineers are concerned in general with the outdoor
environment, their work also may concern the interiors of buildings and other
structures.
Most environmental engineers perform work in one or a combination of basic
specialty areas, namely:
1. Domestic and/or industrial waste collection, treatment and disposal facilities
2. Water supply, purification and distribution systems
3. Refuse and solid waste collection and disposal systems
4. Air pollution control systems
5. Layout of facilities and systems to obtain use of land and resources
6. Radiological health, control of insects and rodents, control of hazardous wastes
or toxic substances
Mechanical engineering is concerned with (a) heating, ventilating and airconditioning systems (b) mechanical aspects of water supply systems such as
pumps, plumbing and boiler water treatment systems and (c) automotive and
other power plants affecting air pollution.
6. Biomedical Engineers
Biomedical engineering is a specialty field which requires the application of
engineering concepts and methodology to investigate problems and phenomena
of living systems to advance the understanding of these systems and improve
medical practices.
7. Mining Engineers
They are concerned with work involving the application of mining engineering
principles and practices dealing with mining health and safety, mine water
control and drainage and control of mine atmospheres.
8. Health Physicists
They detect, monitor and measure the exposure of persons to ionizing
radiation and prescribe procedures and precautionary measures for protection of
persons working in laboratories, industrial facilities or nuclear power plant.
MATERIAL BALANCE
Introductory Concepts
Dimensions are the general expression of a characteristic of measurement such
as length, time, mass, temperature, and so on. Units are the means of explicitly
expressing the dimensions, such as feet or centimeters for length, or hours or
seconds for time.
2 Types of Units:
1. SI (formally Le Systme Internationale dUnits)
Fundamental or Derived
SI Units
Exercises:
3
to cm /min .
molecular weight ( MW ) =
mass
mole
Time as a Factor
Rate of Accumulation=Rate of InputRate of Output
Rate is used to mean per unit of time. In calculus, this may be written as:
dM d () d (out)
=
dt
dt
dt
Where M is the mass accumulated and (in) and (out) refer to the mass flowing in or
out of the control volume.
Exercise:
1. Truly Clearwater is filling her bathtub but she forgot to put the plug in. If the
volume of water for both is 0.350 m3 and the tap is flowing at 1.32 Lmin -1
and the drain is running at 0.32 Lmin -1, how long will it take to fill the tub to
bath level? Assuming Truly shuts off the water when the tub is full and does
not flood the house, how much water will be wasted? Assume the density of
water remains constant throughout the control volume.
2. Consider the storage tank shown in the figure. Over a 3 h period, the
accumulation of water in the tank was determined to be 6000 kg. Assuming
that the feed and removal rates remain constant during the 3 h period of
F 1 is
P
, is 12,000 kg/h.
Efficiency
The effectiveness of an environmental process in removing a contaminant can be
determined using the mass balance technique.
The mass flow rate can be expressed as
Mass
=( concentration) ( flow rate)
Time
For example:
Mass
=( mg m3 )( m3 s1) =mg s1
Time
In concentration and flow rate terms, the mass balance equation is
dM
=C Q C out Qout
dt
Where: C stands for concentration and Q stands for flow rate
The ratio of the mass that is accumulated in the process to the incoming mass is a
measure of how effective the process is in removing the contaminant.
mass(100 )
massmass out
=
Exercise:
The air pollution control equipment on a municipal waste incinerator includes a
fabric filter particle collector (known as a baghouse). The baghouse contains 424
cloth bags arranged in parallel, that is 1/424 of the flow goes through each bag. The
3
. During preventive
Exercise:
1
a small stream. The stream has a naturally occurring sodium chloride concentration
1
of 20 mg L
rate is 2.0 m s
discharge point? Assume that the sewer flow and the stream flow are completely
mixed, that the salt is a conservative substance (it does not react), and that the
system is at steady state.
dM d () d (out)
=
+r
dt
dt
dt
Where r is the reaction rate
r=k C n
Where k is the reaction rate constant, C is the concentration of substance and n is
the reaction order
For a first-order reaction:
r=kC=
dC
dt
Exercise:
3
of untreated
sewage. The lagoon has a surface area of 10 ha and a depth of 1.0 m. The pollutant
1
. The
organic matter in the sewage degrades biologically (decays) in the lagoon according
1
Assuming no other water losses or gains (evaporation, seepage, or rainfall) and that
the lagoon is completely mixed, find the steady-state concentration of the pollutant
4
Nonpoint Sources
Nonpoint sources are characterized by multiple discharge points.
Examples: Urban and agricultural runoff
Nonpoint pollution sometimes requires major engineering work to correct.
Oxygen-Demanding Material
An oxygen-demanding material is anything that can be oxidized in the receiving
water resulting in the consumption of dissolved molecular oxygen. This material is
usually biodegradable organic matter.
The consumption of dissolved oxygen (DO) poses a threat to aquatic life that must
have oxygen to live.
Examples: Domestic sewage (human waste and food residue), food-processing and
paper industries
Hypoxia is the condition of a body of water that has DO concentrations lower than
1.0 mg/L.
Nutrient
Nitrogen and phosphorus are considered pollutants when they become too much of
a good thing.
The loss of nutrients in runoff or seepage from croplands is the major source of
nutrient release from agricultural operations.
The most widely used fertilizers are line (to maintain a proper soil pH), nitrogen (N),
phosphorus (P), and potassium (K).
Pathogenic Organisms
These include bacteria, viruses and protozoa excreted by diseased persons or
animals.
Suspended Solids
Suspended solids are organic and inorganic particles that are carried by wastewater
into receiving water. When the speed of the water is reduced by flow into a pool or a
lake, many of these particles settle to the bottom as sediment.
Sediment also includes eroded soil particles that are being carried by water even if
they have not yet settled. Colloidal particles, which do not settle readily, cause the
turbidity found in many surface waters.
Organic suspended solids may also exert an oxygen demand.
Result: increase turbidity, decrease light penetration, increase bacterial population
and solids deposit on the bottom of the water body destroying the habitat of benthic
organisms.
Salts
Total dissolved solids (TDS) are the salts and other matter that do not evaporate
from a filtered water sample.
Salt accumulation can lead to a reduction in crop yield, particularly crops that are
sensitive to salinity (e.g. corn, soybeans, rice, lettuce, squash). Saline soils can be
reclaimed by applying sufficient water to the soil to leach the solutes from the root
zone.
Pesticides
Pesticides are chemicals used by farmers, households, or industry to regulate and
control various types of pests or weeds. The major types are herbicides,
insecticides, and fungicides.
Herbicides are used to kill unwanted plants (i.e. weeds).
Insecticides are used to kill insects that would otherwise destroy crops.
Fungicides are used to control the growth of fungi, many of which cause plant
diseases.
Endocrine-Disrupting Chemicals
Toxic Metals
Most commonly occurring heavy metals are arsenic, cadmium, chromium, copper,
nickel, lead, and mercury. They persist in the environment; they tend to accumulate
in soils, sediments and biota. They can also bioaccumulate and biomagnify.
Heat
Increased temperature results in a decrease in the solubility of oxygen and carbon
dioxide.
To measure BOD, a water sample is inoculated with bacteria that consume the
biodegradable organic matter to obtain energy for their life processes.
kt
Converting seawater to freshwater is costly (2-5 times higher than treating fresh
water).
Desalination is the general term for the removal of dissolved salts from water.
Examples:
1. Distillation depends on the evaporation and condensation of water. But this is
energy intensive.
2. Freezing. Lowering of water temperature until pure ice crystals can be
separated.
3. Electrodialysis. Forced migration of charged ions through cation-permeable or
anion-permeable membrans applying an electric potential across a cell
containing mineralized water.
4. Reverse osmosis. Uses membranes that are permeable only to water (but
driving force is pressure from pumps). Costs are well below than the other
methods.
This is normally seen in the Middle East.
Reclaimed Wastewater
It is water that has been treated sufficiently for direct reuse in industry and
agriculture and for limited municipal applications. This can be the only option for
those areas without freshwater.
This can remove suspended solids, biodegradable organics and bacteria. But color,
inorganic salts of Mg, Na, Ca, synthetic organics like pesticides can only be removed
by advanced techniques.
Activated carbon can remove many organic pollutants due to its large surface area
(1000 square meter per gram). It can trap and adsorb water impurities.
This can normally be seen in the Middle East, South Africa and arid parts of the US.
3. Sedimentation
4. Filtration: (no prior sedimentation is effective for 5-20 turbidity units)
5. Disinfection: usually with chlorine. Fluoride may also be added to retard tooth
decay
Key tasks in water treatment:
1. Removal of particulate substances (e.g. sand and clay, organic matter,
bacteria)
2. Removal of dissolved substances (causing color and harness)
3. Killing of pathogenic bacteria or viruses
Removal of Particulate Matter
Screening is used to remove large solids such as logs, branches, rags, and small fish
in the first stage of treatment. These could damage pumps and clog pipes and
channels.
Coarse screens are vertical bars spaces 25 mm (1 in) or more apart. These are
placed at the intake point.
Fine screens with 6 mm (0.25 in) spacing are placed just ahead the low-lift pumps to
raise water to the plant level.
Sedimentation uses gravity settling to remove particles from water. It is simple and
inexpensive. This may also follow coagulation and flocculation or omitted entirely
(for moderately turbid water). Turbidity is caused by particles larger than 10 -4 mm,
while particles smaller than this contribute to water and taste. Particles that settled
to the bottom is removed manually or by mechanical scrapers and discharged to
the sewers, returned to the water source or stored in store for disposal. Detention
time is 3 h in tanks 3-5 m deep.