I.

Introduction
Biotechnology is the application of scientific techniques to modify and
improve plants, animals, and microorganisms to enhance their value (Ania
Wieczorek, 2003). Biotechnology has applications in four major industrial areas,
including health care (medical), crop production and agriculture, non food
(industrial) uses of crops and other products (e.g. biodegradable plastics,
vegetable oil, biofuels), and environmental uses. For example, one application of
biotechnology is the directed use of organisms for the manufacture of organic
products (examples include beer and milk products). Another example is using
naturally present bacteria by the mining industry in bioleaching. Biotechnology
is also used to recycle, treat waste, cleanup sites contaminated by industrial
activities (bioremediation) removal heavy metal by exopolymeric substances
produced by resistant purple nonsulfur bacteria isolated from contaminated
shrimp ponds , and also to produce biological weapons.
A series of derived terms have been coined to identify several branches
of biotechnology; for example:

Bioinformatics is an interdisciplinary field which addresses biological problems

using computational techniques, and makes the rapid organization and analysis
of biological data possible. The field may also be referred to as computational
biology, and can be defined as, "conceptualizing biology in terms of molecules
and then applying informatics techniques to understand and organize the
information associated with these molecules, on a large scale. Bioinformatics
plays a key role in various areas, such as functional genomics, structural
genomics, and proteomics, and forms a key component in the biotechnology and
pharmaceutical sector.

Blue biotechnology is a term that has been used to describe the marine and
aquatic applications of biotechnology, but its use is relatively rare.

Red biotechnology is applied to medical processes. Some examples are the

designing of organisms to produce antibiotics, and the engineering of genetic
cures through genetic manipulation.

White biotechnology, also known as industrial biotechnology, is biotechnology

applied to industrial processes. An example is the designing of an organism to
produce a useful chemical. Another example is the using of enzymes as
industrial catalysts to either produce valuable chemicals or destroy
hazardous/polluting chemicals. White biotechnology tends to consume less in
resources than traditional processes used to produce industrial goods.

Green biotechnology is biotechnology applied to agricultural processes. An

example would be the selection and domestication of plants via
micropropagation. Another example is the designing of transgenic plants to grow
under specific environments in the presence (or absence) of chemicals. One hope
is that green biotechnology might produce more environmentally friendly
solutions than traditional industrial agriculture. An example of this is the
engineering of a plant to express a pesticide, thereby ending the need of external
application of pesticides. An example of this would be Bt corn. Whether or not
green biotechnology products such as this are ultimately more environmentally
friendly is a topic of considerable debate.

II.

Biotechnology Techniques and Applications

The development of biotechnology may be the beginning of a new
agricultural revolution. Biotechnology can be broadly defined as the use of
living organisms to solve problems or make useful products. This definition
includes traditional plant and animal breeding methods, and bioprocessing, such
as fermentation. The new biotechnology is the application of cellular and
molecular biology to meet human needs, a definition that includes the use of
monoclonal antibodies, cell culture, biosensors, and genetic engineering
technologies.
Many biotechnology applications are an extension of traditional plant and
animal breeding techniques. Biotechnology tools are often complements of
traditional methods rather than replacements. The traditional methods are
limited, however, to species that are sexually compatible. Biotechnology can
expand the range of traits beyond those found in compatible species, but the use
of genetic engineering is limited to materials that can be biologically

manipulated. Current biotechnology techniques are most effective when applied

to one gene at a time. However, many of the more important economic traits in
plants are controlled by multiple genes.
The term biotechnology refers to all parts of an industry that creates,
develops, and markets a variety of products using monoclonal antibodies, cell
culture, biosensors, and genetic engineering techniques.

Monoclonal antibodies are identical antibodies that recognize a single, specific

antigen (substance that elicits an immune response) and are produced in batches
by fusing tumor cells with the antibody-producing cells. This technique is a
diagnostic tool that detects cell proteins and is being used commercially for
improved diagnostics and vaccines in human health care. In agriculture,
monoclonal antibodies can be used for the diagnosis of plant diseases or the

detection of pesticides in foods, and for developing animal vaccines.

Cell culture is used to rapidly propagate cells isolated from living organisms to
produce near-identical clones. The new organism is grown in vitro (literally in
glass) from a single cell, embryo, or plant part. This technique gives the ability to

screen a large number of individual cells for a trait at a relatively small cost.
Biosensors can detect and measure the presence of specific biomolecules.
Chemical biosensors consist of an immobilized enzyme that binds to the target
chemical. Often a color reagent is included to visually indicate the presence of the
trace chemical. Electronic biosensors are created by fusing organic matter to
electrodes to convert chemical reactions to electric currents that can then be

monitored.
Genetic engineering is the selective, deliberate alteration in the genetic material of
organisms. It is the use of genetic engineering to create transgenic organisms that
has engendered the most discussion among scientists and members of the public. A
transgenic organism is one whose hereditary DNA has been augmented by the
addition of DNA from a source other than parental germplasm using genetic
engineering techniques. In current usage, the term genetic engineering is
synonymous with gene splicing and recombinant DNA (rDNA). The key
components of genetic engineering techniques are to isolate the desired gene, to use
a delivery system to introduce the gene into the recipient cells, and then to detect
the expression of the new genetic information in the recipient cells. The gene

transfer systems currently being used are: (1) Ti-plasmids of Agrobucterium

tumefaciens; (2) plant viruses; and (3) direct DNA systems such as protoplast
transformations and microinjection ( Margriet F. et all, Agricultural Biotechnology
An Economic Perspective, 1994).
III.

Scope and limitation

Bioteknologi merupakan penerapan ilmu- ilmu biologi untuk
kepentingan umat manusia.karena luasnya ilmu biologi itu maka tidak ada
kesatuan definisi untuk bioteknologi. Setiap negara mempunyai definisi
tersendiri.perbedaan definisi ini disebabkan perbedaan batasan sistem biologi
yang dipergunakan untuk bioteknologi itu. Ada yang membatasi sistim biologi
itu hanya pada tingkat sel (Pakar biomolekuler, mikrobiologi ) ada yang pada
tingkat organ dan tanaman (pakar agronami, horticultural, kehutanan). Sebagai
seorang biologi (pertanian) kami mendefinisikan bioteknologi itu sebagai
berikut Bioteknologi adalah pemanfaatan sistem biologi secara aseptik dan
non aseptik untuk kepentingan umat manusia.
Bioteknologi tanaman adalah bagian dari bioteknologi dan didalam
tulisan ini bioteknologi tanaman adalah sama dengan kultur jaringan tanaman.
Ruang lingkup dari kultur jaringan tanaman meliputi: (1) pelestarian plasma
nutfah (2) Pembebasan penyakit sistematik (3) Perbanyakan tanaman (4)
Perbaikan jenis tanaman dan (5) produksi bahan metabolit sekunder. Kelima
ruang lingkup itu akan mendapat sorotan lebih mendalam didalam pemanfaatan
bioteknologi dalam agribisnis.
Pada petani tradisional fungsi produksi dan fungsi pemasaran dilakukan
oleh petani itu sendiri. Pada pertanian modern dengan adanya teknologi
teknologi baru fungsi produksi dan pemasaran itu sudah dilakukan oleh badan
badan khusus. Komponen- komponen produksi dan pemasaran merupakan
komponen yang bebas dan dengan peran khusus. Tetapi perkembangan masing
masing komponen sebagian besar juga dipengaruhi oleh komponen lain.
seluruh mata rantai itu disebut sebagai agribisnis. Secara sektoral agribisnis itu
terdiri dari sektor pertanian dan sektor industri. Sektor industri ini terdiri
dari industri pengolahan hasil produksi pertanian. Dengan istilah seakarang lebih
dikenal dengan istilah agro- industri hulu dan agro- industri hilir. Secara

sederhana dapat kita definisikan bahwa : Agrobisnis itu adalah semua kegiatan
pada tingkat agro-industri hilir dan mekanisme pasar yang memungkinkan
produk- produk tersebut mencapai sipemakai (konsumen).Dari uraian tersebut
kita dapat melihat bahwa ciri agribisnis itu multi sektoral, bebas tetapi saling
ketergantungan dan ciri lain yang penting bahwa agribisnis itu adalah
berorientasi pada pasar keuntungan.
Dalam agribisnis terdapat istilah pertanian ( Agriculture ). Pertanian
dapat diartikan secara luas atau secara sempit. Pertanian dalam arti luas
termasuk pertanian dalam arti sempit , perikanan dan peternakan. Pertanian
dalam arti luas termasuk semua usaha pertanian yang berhubungan dengan
tanaman, yaitu perkebunan, kehutanan, pertanian tanaman pangan, tanaman
obat-obatan dan industry, tanaman holtikultura dan lain-lain. Agribisnis dibatasi
dalam pengertian yang sempit ( pra produksi tanaman produksi tanaman-pasca
produksi tanaman), tidak termasuk agribisnis yang berhubungan dengan usaha
perikanan dan peternakan.
So, as describe above that Green biotechnology is biotechnology applied
to agricultural processes. In agriculture, known agribusiness. Agribusiness is a
generic term for the various businesses involved in food production, including
farming and contract farming, seed supply, agrichemicals, farm machinery,
wholesale and distribution, processing, marketing, and retail sales.
Within the agriculture industry, agribusiness is widely used simply as a
convenient portmanteau of agriculture and business, referring to the range of
activities and disciplines encompassed by modern food production. There are
academic degrees in and departments of agribusiness, agribusiness trade
associations, agribusiness publications, and so forth, worldwide. Here, the term
is only descriptive, and is synonymous in the broadest sense with food industry.
The UN's Food and Agriculture Organization, for example, operates a section
devoted to Agribusiness Development, which seeks to promote food industry
growth in the Third World. Examples of agribusinesses include Monsanto, seed
and agrichemical producer; ADM, grain transport and processing; John Deere,
farm machinery producer; Ocean Spray, farmer's cooperative; and Purina Farms,
agritourism farm.

To promote exports of food products, many government agencies publish

on the web economic studies and reports categorized by product and country.
Among these agencies include four of the largest exporters of food products,
such as the FAS of the United States Department of Agriculture, Agriculture and
Agri-Food Canada (AAFC), Austrade, and NZTE . The Federation of
International Trade Associations publishes studies and reports by FAS and
AAFC, as well as other non-governmental organizations on its website
GlobalTrade.net.
One of application of Biotechnology is agricultural process ( green
biotechnology which involve crop production and agriculture, known as
Agricultural Biotechnology.

IV.

Agricultural Biotechnology
Agricultural biotechnology is the area of biotechnology involving
applications to agriculture. In Brief of U.S. Agency for International
Development, Agricultural Biotechnology Support Project II, and the Program
for Biosafety Systems, Agricultural biotechnology is a collection of scientific
techniques used to improve plants, animals and microorganisms. Based on an
understanding of DNA, scientists have developed solutions to increase
agricultural productivity. Starting from the ability to identify genes that may
confer advantages on certain crops, and the ability to work with such
characteristics very precisely, biotechnology enhances breeders ability to make
improvements in crops and livestock. Biotechnology enables improvements that
are not possible with traditional crossing of related species alone.
Agricultural biotechnology has been practiced for a long time, as people
have sought to improve agriculturally important organisms by selection and
breeding. An example of traditional agricultural biotechnology is the
development of disease-resistant wheat varieties by cross-breeding different
wheat types until the desired disease resistance was present in a resulting new
variety.
History of Agricultural Biotechnology

The first food product of biotechnology (an enzyme used in cheese

production and a yeast used for baking) appeared on the market in 1990. The
first genetically engineered food product to enter the market was recombinant
chymosin, which replaces the enzyme rennet in the production of cheese and
other processed dairy products. The FDA declared recombinant chymosin as
generally regarded as safe (GRAS) in March 1990.
Since 1995, farmers have been growing GE crops. In 2003, 7 million farmers
in 18 countriesmore than 85 percent of them resource-poor farmers in the
developing worldwere planting biotech crops. Almost one third of the global
biotech crop area was grown in developing countries. Table 1 presents selected
milestones in the development of commercial agricultural biotechnology
Table 1. Selected milestones in the development of agricultural biotechnology

 Application of agricultural Biotechnology

1. Genetic Engineering ( GE )
Genetic Engineering is the introduction of a specific gene into the
DNA of a plant to obtain a desired trait. The gene introduced may come
not only from another plant species, but also from other organisms.
While traditional plant breeding involves crossing related plants,
biotechnology is a new tool that enhances the capability of breeders tobe
more precise.
In the 1970s, advances in the field of molecular biology provided
scientists with the ability to manipulate DNAthe chemical building
blocks that specify the characteristics of living organismsat the
molecular level. This technology is called genetic engineering. It also

allows transfer of DNA between more distantly related organisms than

was possible with traditional breeding techniques. Today, this technology
has reached a stage where scientists can take one or more specific genes
from nearly any organism, including plants, animals, bacteria, or viruses,
and introduce those genes into another organism. An organism that has
been transformed using genetic engineering techniques is referred to as a
transgenic organism, or a genetically engineered organism.
Scientists have learned how to move genes from one organism to
another. This has been called genetic modification (GM), genetic
engineering (GE) or genetic improvement (GI). Regardless of the name,
the process allows the transfer of useful characteristics (such as
resistance to a disease) into a plant, animal or microorganism by
inserting genes (DNA) from another organism. Virtually all crops
improved with transferred DNA (often called GM crops or GMOs) to
date have been developed to aid farmers to increase productivity by
reducing crop damage from weeds, diseases or insects.
The term genetically modified organism or GMO is widely
used, although genetic modification has been around for hundreds if not
thousands of years, since deliberate crosses of one variety or breed with
another result in offspring that are genetically modified compared to the
parents. Similarly, foods derived from transgenic plants have been called
GMO foods, GMPs (genetically modified products), and biotech
foods. While some refer to foods developed from genetic engineering
technology as biotechnology-enhanced foods, others call them
frankenfoods. For the reasons discussed later in this publication,
controversy affects various issues related to the growing of genetically
engineered organisms and their use as foods and feeds.
Genetic Engineering differ from Traditional Biotechnology
In traditional breeding, crosses are made in a relatively
uncontrolled manner. The breeder chooses the parents to cross, but at the
genetic level, the results are unpredictable. DNA from the parents

recombines randomly, and desirable traits such as pest resistance are

bundled with undesirable traits, such as lower yield or poor quality.
Traditional breeding programs are time-consuming and labor-intensive.
A great deal of effort is required to separate undesirable from desirable
traits, and this is not always economically practical. For example, plants
must be back-crossed again and again over many growing seasons to
breed out undesirable characteristics produced by random mixing of
genomes.
Current genetic engineering techniques allow segments of DNA
that code genes for a specific characteristic to be selected and
individually recombined in the new organism. Once the code of the gene
that determines the desirable trait is identified, it can be selected and
transferred. Similarly, genes that code for unwanted traits can be
removed. Through this technology, changes in a desirable variety may be
achieved more rapidly than with traditional breeding techniques. The
presence of the desired gene controlling the trait can be tested for at any
stage of growth, such as in small seedlings in a greenhouse tray. The
precision and versatility of todays biotechnology enable improvements
in food quality and production to take place more rapidly than when
using traditional breeding.
The Goals and Benefits Of Genetic Engineering in Agriculture
The goals of genetic engineering are the same as with traditional
breeding. They may aim to improve crop performance in the field by
conferring pest and disease resistance, herbicide resistance, or tolerance
to environmental stresses (such as drought or flooding). They may also
aim to develop products with enhanced value, such as improved postharvest life, nutritional value, or other health benefits. Following are a
few examples of benefits resulting from applying currently available
genetic engineering techniques to agricultural biotechnology
a. Enhanced crop protection

Farmers use crop-protection technologies because they provide costeffective solutions to pest problems which, if left uncontrolled, would
severely lower yields. Some crop protection technologies, are :
Insect resistance
In the last few years, several crops have been genetically
engineered to produce their own Bt proteins, making them resistant
to specific groups of insects. Bt is short for Bacillus
thuringiensis, a soil bacterium that contains a protein that is toxic to
a narrow range of insects, but not harmful to animals or humans.
Applications of Bt bacteria have been used to control insect pests for
many years, before the advent of the current Bt crops made using
biotechnology. Varieties of Bt insect-resistant corn and cotton are
now in commercial production. Other crops being investigated
include cowpeas, sunflower, soybeans, tomatoes, tobacco, walnut,
sugar cane, and rice.

Herbicide tolerance
Chemical herbicides are frequently used to control weeds. Weeds

growing in the same field with crop plants can significantly reduce
crop yields because the weeds compete for soil nutrients, water, and
sunlight. Many farmers now control weeds by spraying herbicides
directly onto the crop plants. Because these herbicides generally kill
only a narrow spectrum of plants (if they didnt, they would kill the
crop plants, too), farmers apply mixtures of multiple herbicides to
control weeds after the crop has started to grow.
Researchers realized that if a crop plant is genetically engineered
to be resistant to a broad-spectrum herbicide, weed management
could be simplified and safer chemicals could be used. It is often
argued that such GE varieties reduce soil erosion, because they make
adoption of soil-conserving practices such as no-till easier.
Resistance to synthetic herbicides has been genetically engineered
into corn, soybeans, cotton, canola, sugar beets, rice, and flax. Some
of these varieties are commercialized in several countries. Research

is ongoing on many other crops. One application of this technology is

that herbicide could be coated on seed from an herbicide resistant
variety (for example, maize) and while the maize would germinate
and thrive, weeds and parasites such as Striga would be killed.

Virus resistance
Many plants are susceptible to diseases caused by viruses, which

are often spread by insects (such as aphids) from plant to plant across
a field. The spread of viral diseases can be very difficult to control
and crop damage can be severe. Insecticides are sometimes applied to
control populations of transmitting insects, but often have little
impact on the spread of the disease. Often the most effective methods
against viral diseases are cultural controls (such as removing diseased
plants) or plant varieties bred to be resistant (or tolerant) to the virus,
but such strategies may not always be practical or available.
Scientists have discovered new genetic engineering methods that
provide resistance to viral disease where options were limited before.
In the US, several varieties of squash and zucchini resistant
to three important viral diseases have been developed and

commercialized.
Beginning in 1992, a devastating outbreak of Papaya Ring
Spot Virus (PRSV) swept through the papaya plantations of
Hawaiipapaya production dropped 40% in the course of 5
years. Researchers in Hawaii and at Cornell University
developed two GE varieties of papaya resistant to PRSV.
Papaya growers in Hawaii have been able to grow GE virus

resistant papaya since 1998.

Scientists are currently developing virus-resistant crops for

Africa, including cassava, maize and sweet potato.

b. Delayed fruit ripening
Delaying the ripening process in fruit is of interest to producers
because it allows more time for shipment of fruit from the farmers fields
to the grocers shelf, and increases the shelf life of the fruit for
consumers. Fruit that is genetically engineered to delay ripening can be

left to mature on the plant longer, will have longer shelf-life in shipping,
and may last longer for consumers.
c. Foods with improved nutritional value
Genetic engineering has allowed new options for improving the
nutritional value, flavor, and texture of foods. Transgenic crops in
development include soybeans with higher protein content, potatoes
with more nutritionally available starch and an improved amino acid
content, beans with more essential amino acids, and golden rice
with the ability produce beta-carotene, a precursor of vitamin A, to
help prevent blindness in people who have nutritionally inadequate
diets.
Biotechnology has also been used to alter the content of many oil
crops, either to increase the amount of oil or to alter the types of oils
they produce. Reducing toxicity of certain foods is also a goal of
biotechnology. For example, reduction of the toxic cyanogens in
cassava has been shown to be possible and could be produced in the
future.
d. Increased crop productivity
Biotechnology has helped to increase crop productivity by
introducing such qualities as disease resistance and increased drought
tolerance to the crops. Now, researchers can select genes for disease
resistance from other species and transfer them to important crops.
For example, researchers from the University of Hawaii and Cornell
University developed two varieties of papaya resistant to papaya
ringspot virus by transferring one of the virus genes to papaya to
create resistance in the plants. Seeds of the two varieties, named
SunUp and Rainbow, have been distributed under licensing
agreements to papaya growers since 1998. Further examples come
from dry climates, where crops must use water as efficiently as
possible. Genes from naturally drought-resistant plants can be used to
increase drought tolerance in many crop varieties.

 Industri penunjang Bioteknologi pertanian

Pengembangan Biotenologi tanaman di Indonesia baik pada
pemerintahan, universitas dan swasta masih banyak kendala karena kurang
tersedia sarana produksi dan peralatan secara mudah dan murah.banyak alat
dan sarana produksi yang sebenarnya dapat dibuat di Indonesia dengan harga
yang jauh lebih murah dari pada alat dan sarana produksi impor. Beberapa
contoh yang dapat dikemukakan sebagai berikut:
1. Wadah/ botol tempat tanaman
Wadah tanaman untuk kultur jaringan dieropa atau di USA dapat
dipesan dalam berbagai macam ukuran dan bentuk. Semua wadah itu
sudah dibuat khusus untuk kultur jaringan termasuk penutupnya. Di
Indonesia mencari wadah untuk kultur jaringan harus dicari pada
pemulung yang kalau dapatpun jumlahnya sedikit dan bentuknya
bermacam- macam. Disampng itu harus ditambah ekstra biaya untuk
membeli aluminium foil sebagai penutup botol.
Di Jepang, pemikiran sudah lebih praktis lagi, mereka telah
mengembangkan wadah tanaman itu dari kantung plastik yang dapat di
ovenkan. Pemakaian wadah plastik ini jauh lebih menguntungkan dari
pada wadah botol dan membantu proses adaptasi planlet untuk
penanaman di lapangan. Bagi Indonesia hal ini pun dapat digunakan .
apakah pabrik gelas dan pabrik plastik di indonesia tidak dapat
mendiverfikasikan produknya demi memperluas usahanya dan
membantu usaha bioteknologi tanaman.
2. Kotak Pindah dan Shaker
Kotak pemindah, shaker dan beberapa peralatan lainnya
merupakan peralatan standar didalam lab kultur jaringan.kotak pemindah
(transfer/ laminar flow) yang berasal dari luar negeri harganya berkisar
antara RP. 10-15 Juta perbuah tergantung jenis dan besarnya.Transfer
box ini prinsipnya sederhana dan dapat dibuat di indonesia. Salah satu
pemasok yang membuat alat transfer box diindonesia dapat membuatnya
dengan harga RP.1.5 Juta perbuah. Demikian pun dengan alat shaker
yang dapat dibuat dengan harga jauh lebih murah daripada alat impor.
Transfer box buatan Indonesia ini walaupun kualitas bahan mungkin

kalah dengan buatan luar negri tetapi tidak didalam fungsinya. Bagi
pemasok transfer box indonesia ini harus mampu meningkatkan produksi
dan ragam transfer box dengan membuat berbagai tipe transfer box.
Selain itu menyediakan fungsi filter yang dapat dibeli untuk
menggantikan filter dari transfer box yang sudah berfungsi diatas satu
lahan.
3. Agar
Agar merupakan suatu bahan kultur jaringan yang utama. Harga
bacto agar di indonesia sangat mahal sekitar RP. 180.000 per 450 gram.
Disini apakah perusahaan agar yang membuat agar swallow untuk kue
tidak dapat membuat agar untuk kultur jaringan. Agar kukltur jaringan
yang sudah dilengkapi dengan mineral dan vitamin yang dibutuhkan
untuk kultur jaringan . Hal serupa juga telah diproduksi di Amerka
Serikat. Eropa dan Jepang sehingga lebih memudahkan sipemakai. Di
Thailand oleh universitas Srinakharinwiroj sedang dirintis pembuatan
agar untuk berbagai keperluan termasuk keperluan laboraturium dari
bahan dasar Algae Gracilaria,sp yang mereka buat sendiri.
4. Gambut
Tanah gambut di Indonesia kurang lebih 17 juta hektar. Hasil
survei puslittan bogor didaerah kalimantan batan dan Riau terdapat
73.439 hektar yang memenuhi persyaratan untuk dipakai pada berbagai
keperluan bahan baku jiffy (pot, pelet, media) yang berguna untuk
pemindahan pellet dari botol ke persemaian (dari in vitro ke ex vitro).
Kelihatan sudah ada perusahaan swasta yang telah mulai bergerak kearah
tersebut dan ini merupakan suatu tanda positive dan menggembirakan
bagi mereka yang bergerak dalam bisnis bioteknologi tanaman. Harga
bahan bakar gambut jiffy yang dijual sekarang terlampau mahal dan
bentuknya disesuaikan untuk keperluan kultur jaringan tanaman. Contohcontoh bahan dan alat yang disebut itu merupakan beberapa sarana
pokok yang harus dapat dihasilkan di Indonesia sehingga mudah
terjagkau dengan harga yang lebih murah oleh mereka yang bergerak
dalam bidang bioteknologi tanaman. Ketersediaan sarana- sarana

tersebut juga mempercepat pertumbuhan bisnis kultur jaringan tanaman

yang menopang agribisnis hilirnya.
The biotechnology tools that are important for agricultural biotechnology
include:

Conventional plant breeding

Tissue culture and micropropagation
Molecular breeding or marker assisted selection
Genetic engineering and GM crops
Molecular Diagnostic Tools

Conventional Plant Breeding

Since the beginning of agriculture eight to ten thousand years ago, farmers have been
altering the genetic makeup of the crops they grow. Early farmers selected the best
looking plants and seeds and saved them to plant for the next year. The selection for
features such as faster growth, higher yields, pest and disease resistance, larger seeds,
or sweeter fruits has dramatically changed domesticated plant species compared to their
wild relatives. Plant breeding came into being when man learned that crop plants could
be artificially mated or cross-pollinated to be able to improve the characters of the plant.
Desirable characteristics from different parent plants could be combined in the
offspring. When the science of plant breeding was further developed in the 20th century,
plant breeders understood better how to select superior plants and breed them to create
new and improved varieties of different crops. This has dramatically increased the
productivity and quality of the plants we grow for food, feed and fiber.
Conventional plant breeding has been the method used to develop new varieties
of crops for hundreds of years. However, conventional plant breeding can no longer
sustain the global demand with the increasing population, decline in agricultural
resources such as land and water, and the apparent plateauing of the yield curve of the
staple crops. Thus, new crop improvement technologies should be developed and
utilized.

Conventional breeding entails sexual hybridization followed by careful selection

Mutation breeding
The art of recognizing desirable traits and incorporating them into future generations is
very important in plant breeding. Breeders inspect their fields and travel long distances
in search of individual plants that exhibit desirable traits. A few of these traits
occasionally arise spontaneously through a process called mutation, but the natural rate
of mutation is very slow and unreliable to produce plants that breeders would like to
see. In the late 1920s, researchers discovered that they could greatly increase the
number of these variations or mutations by exposing plants to X-rays and mutationinducing chemicals. Mutation breeding accelerated after World War II, when the
techniques of the nuclear age became widely available. Plants were exposed to gamma
rays, protons, neutrons, alpha particles, and beta particles to see if these would induce
useful mutations. Chemicals such as sodium azide and ethyl methanesulphonate, were
also used to cause mutations. Mutation breeding efforts continue around the world
today. Of the 2,252 officially released mutation-derived varieties, 1,019 or almost half
have been released during the last 15 years. Some varieties of wheat, barley, rice,
potatoes, soybeans, onions and others were produced via mutation breeding with
agronomically-desirable characteristics.

Pure line and hybrid seed technology

The end result of plant breeding is either an open-pollinated (OP for corn) or inbred (for
rice) varieties or an F1 (first filial generation) hybrid variety. OP and inbred varieties,
when maintained and properly selected and produced, retain the same characteristics
when multiplied. Hybrid seeds are an improvement over OP and inbred seeds in terms
of yield, resistance to pests and diseases, and time to maturity. Hybrid seeds are
developed by the hybridization or crossing of diverselyrelated parent lines. Pure lines
are offsprings of several cycles of repeated selfpollination that breed true or produce
sexual offspring that closely resemble their parents.
Pure line development involves firstly, the selection of lines in the existing germplasm
which express the desired characteristics such as resistance to pest and diseases, early
maturity, yield, and others. These traits may not be present in only one line, thus
selected lines are bred together by hand. In self-pollinated plants, flowers are
emasculated by removing the anthers or the male part of the flower by hand, and are
pollinated by pollen from another line. The female parent is usually the line that
possesses the desired agronomic trait while the male parent is the donor of the new trait.
F1 (first filial generation) offsprings are planted and selfed, as well as the F2 generation.
Breeders then select in the F3 and F4 generation the lines which exhibit their desired
agronomic characteristics and the added trait. Testing for resistances to pests and abiotic
stresses are conducted also at this time. Lines with desired traits and are rated
intermediate to resistant/tolerant to the pests and abiotic stresses are selected and selfed
in two to three more generations. Lines which do not lose the new traits and are stable
are termed pure lines and are stable. In hybrid seed technology, two pure lines with
complementing traits and are derived from diversely related parents are bred together by
hand. F1 hybrids are tested for hybrid vigor in all agronomic and yield parameters and
compared to both parents. The resulting offsprings will usually perform more
vigorously than either parents.

Since the technology has been developed, it has brought tremendous impact in major
crops including rice, corn, wheat, cotton, and other crops including many vegetables. In
the USA, the widespread use of corn hybrids, coupled with improved cultural practices
by farmers, has more than tripled corn grain yields over the past 50 years from an
average of 35 bushels per acre in the 1930s to 115 bushels per acre in the 1990s. No
other major crop anywhere in the world even comes close to equaling that sort of
success story.
Hybrid rice technology helped China to increase its rice production from 140 million
tons in 1978 to 188 million tons in 1990. Research at the International Rice Research
Institute (IRRI) and in other countries indicates that hybrid rice technology offers
opportunities for increasing rice yields by 15-20% beyond those achievable with
improved, semi-dwarf, inbred varieties. With the proven impact of hybrid seed
technology, new tools for hybrid breeding were discovered and utilized for selfpollinating crops including cytoplasmic male sterility (cms). Cytoplasmic male sterility
is a condition where the plant is unable to produce functional pollen and would rely on
other pollen source to produce seeds. This greatly facilitates large scale hybrid seed
production, by-passing hand pollination. Current hybrid seed technology uses three
lines in order to produce the hybrid seed: a) the A line which contains a defective
mitochondrial genome in the cytoplasm and a suppressed restorer gene, b) the B line
which is genetically similar to the A line but contains a normal cytoplasm and a
suppressed restorer gene, and c) the restorer line, a distinctly unrelated line which
contains normal cytoplasm and an active restorer gene (dominant). The two line hybrid
system, another hybrid seed technology relies on temperature and geographic location
affecting the nuclear genome of the plant, manifested as male sterile. Hybrid seed
technology assures hybrid vigor in the progenies but discovery and development of cms
lines requires a lot of work and time.

Tissue Culture and Micropropagation

Plants usually reproduce through sexual means they have flowers and seeds to create
the next generation. Egg cells in the flowers are fertilized by pollen from the stamens
(male part) of the flower of the same plant (self-pollination) or another plant (cross).
Each of these sexual cells contains genetic material in the form of DNA. During sexual
reproduction, DNA from both parents is combined creating offsprings similar to the
parents (in self-pollinated crops), or in new and unpredictable ways, creating unique
organisms (in cross-pollinated crops). Some plants and trees on the other hand need
several years before they flower and set seeds, making plant improvement difficult.
Plant scientists have developed the science and art of tissue culture to assist breeders in
this task.
Tissue culture is the cultivation of plant cells, tissues, or organs on specially formulated
nutrient media. Under the right conditions, an entire plant can be regenerated from a
single cell. Plant tissue culture is a technique that has been around for more than 30
years. There are several types of tissue culture depending on the part of the plant
(explant) used.

Anther culture (Figure 3) is a tissue culture method used to develop improved varieties
in a short time. Pollen within an anther contains half dose of the genome (haploid)
which spontaneously double (diploid) during culture. In some species however,
colchicine treatment is necessary to induce doubling.
Doubling of the genome will allow the expression of recessive traits which were
suppressed, masked or undetected in routine plant breeding. Anthers are placed in a
special medium, and immature pollen within the anther divide and produce a mass of
dividing cells termed as callus. Healthy calli (plural of callus) are picked and placed in
another medium to produce shoots and roots (regeneration). Stable plantlets are allowed
to grow and mature in the greenhouse. Plant breeders can then select the desired plants
from among the regenerated plants.
Anther culture of F1 plants which are progenies in a specific breeding objective would
allow many more different types of regenerants. This is because the genetic constitution
of the pollen will be more varied than those from the inbred, thus breeders will have a
wider range of traits to choose from. This technology has been employed in the
successful development of doubled haploid lines of rice, wheat, sorghum, barley, and
other field crops.
Anther culture of rice

Micropopagation is a tissue culture method developed for the production of diseasefree, high quality planting material and for rapid production of 10 many uniform plants.

Actively-dividing young cells (meristem) are placed in a special medium and treated
with plant hormones to produce many similar sister plantlets. Since the meristem
divides faster than disease-causing virus, clean materials are propagated and hundreds
of uniform plantlets are produced in a short time. Through micropropagation, it is now
possible to provide clean and uniform planting materials in plantations oil palm,
plantain, pine, banana, abaca, date, rubber tree; field crops eggplant, jojoba, pineapple,
tomato; root crops cassava, yam, sweet potato; and many ornamental plants such as
orchids and anthuriums. Micropropagated plants were found to establish more quickly,
grow more vigorously and taller, have a shorter and more uniform production cycle, and
produce higher yields than conventional propagules.
Embryo rescue

Embryo rescue involves the culture of immature embryos of plants in a special

medium to prevent abortion of the young embryo and to support its germination (Figure
above ). This is used routinely in breeding parental lines having different or
incompatible genome such as in introducing important traits of wild relatives into
cultivated crops.
http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-fermentation.htm
http://indonesia.usaid.gov/en/USAID/Activity/328/Agricultural_Biotechnology

TUGAS ku :
1.

membuat contoh2 penerapan biotechnology dalam food production, proses2nya,

produk2 nya, Old biotechnology ( fermentasi ) and new ( recombinant DNA ) /

2.

genetic engineering more complete ),

mencari video2 proses2 penerapan biotechnology dalam agriculture and food

3.

production )
apa itu pertanian, peternakan, kehutanan, perikanan,