The Basics

These lessons introduce you to the building blocks of Spanish.

The Spanish Alphabet

Pronunciation: The Easy Consonants
Pronunciation: Vowels
Pronunciation: Difficult Consonants
Greetings
Plurals
Gender
Noun-Adjective Agreement

Introduction to the Definite Article

Introduction to Pronouns
Subject Pronouns
Formal and Informal You ('Usted' and 'T')
Capitalization
Stress and Accent Marks
Introduction to Conjugation

Lesson I The Spanish Alphabet

If you know the alphabet in English, you can easily learn it in Spanish. That is because
the Spanish alphabet is very similar to the alphabets of most other western European languages,
including English. According to the Real Academia Espaola, which is considered the arbiter of
what's official Spanish, the following letters make up the Spanish alphabet:
a, b, c, ch, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, ll, m, n, , o, p, q, r, s, t, u, v, w, x, y, z
The following chart shows the capital letters along with name of each letter.
A: a
B: be
C: ce
CH: che
D: de
E: e
F: efe
G: ge
H: hache
I: i
J: jota
K: ka
L: ele
LL: elle
M: eme
N: ene
: ee
O: o
P: pe
Q: cu
R: ere
S: ese
T: te
U: u
V: ve
W: uve doble
X: equis
Y: i griega
Z: zeta
It may interest you to know that not all authorities (or at least not all textbooks) agree on
which letters make up the alphabet. Some lists don't include W (sometimes referred to as doble
ve) and K, which exist almost exclusively in words of foreign origin, such as kilowatt. And some
lists count RR (erre), which isn't pronounced the same as R.

It used to be that dictionaries would place ch after c, so, for example, the word achatar
would be listed after acordar. But that is no longer the case. In most modern dictionaries, the
words are alphabetized as they would be in English (except that the comes after the N).
Note also that the letters B and V have exactly the same pronunciation, and their names
are pronounced exactly alike. Some colorful expressions are used to indicate which letter is
being used, such as B de burro and V de vaca (roughly, "B as in burro" and "V as in vaca").
Sometimes B is referred to as be grande ("big B") and the V as uve or ve chica ("little V").
You will find as you learn Spanish that vowels are often written with accents, as in
tabln, and the U is sometimes topped with a dieresis or umlaut, as in vergenza. However,
vowels with such diacritical marks are not considered separate letters as they can be in some
other languages.
Note also that the letters of the alphabet are feminine: la a,

Lesson 2 - Pronouncing the Easy Consonants of Spanish

One factor that makes Spanish pronunciation fairly easy for English speakers is that
many of the consonants are pronounced almost like their English equivalents. Although there are
some subtle differences in a few cases, generally you can pronounce the consonants covered in
this lesson as you would in English and be easily understood - provided you're doing OK on your
other letters, of course!
One thing to keep in mind about Spanish consonants is that they're generally softer and
somewhat less distinct than their English equivalents (the most notable exceptions are the r and
rr). Although their vowel sounds may be distinct, some hispanohablantes may sound to the
untrained ear like they're mumbling. Keep in mind that there are some regional variations as
well, although if you follow the descriptions in these lessons you will be understood.
Here are the pronunciations of the consonants with sounds most like English's:

CH is pronounced the same as the "ch" in "church." Examples: chico, machismo, Chile.
Learn more details in the lesson on pronouncing the CH.
F is pronounced like the "f" in "fox." Examples: eficaz, fro, frenes. Learn more in the
lesson on pronouncing the F.
K has basically the same sound in Spanish, although somewhat softer. It is found
primarily in words of foreign origin. Examples: kilmetro, Irak. Learn more in the lesson
on pronouncing the K and Q.
M is pronounced like the "m" in "mother." Examples: madre, msica, embajada. See our
lesson on pronouncing the M.
P is pronounced like the "p" in "spot." Note that the "p" in "spot" is softer and less
explosive than the "p" in "pot." Examples: papas, padre, suponer. Learn more in the
lesson on pronouncing the P.

Q is pronounced the same as the k. Note that the u following a q is not pronounced.
Examples: quetzal, siquiatra, que. Learn more in the lesson on pronouncing the K and Q.
S is pronounced like the "s" in "simple." You do not give it the "z" sound heard in
"wears" and many other English plural words, although it can be slightly voiced (like a
soft "z") when it comes before an m, b, d, v, g, l, n or r. Examples: Susana, seres
humanos, sencillo, fantasma. Learn more in the lesson on pronouncing the S.
T is pronounced like the "t" in "stop." Note that the "t" of "stop" is softer and less
explosive than the "t" of "top." Examples: todo, yate, temer. Learn more details in our
lesson on pronouncing the T.
W can usually be pronounced like the "w" in "water." It is found primarily in words of
foreign origin. Examples: web, Zimbabwe. Learn about variations in our lesson on
pronouncing the W.
Y is generally pronounced the same as in English. See the lesson on vowels for a more
thorough explanation.

Lesson 3 Pronouncing Spanish Vowels

English speakers generally find the pronunciation of Spanish vowels fairly easy. Close
approximations of all their sounds exist in English, and, with the exception of the E and the
sometimes silent U, each of the vowels have basically one sound.
The main thing to keep in mind is that in Spanish the vowels' sounds are generally more
distinct than they are in English. In English, any vowel can be represented by what's known as
the schwa, an unstressed vowel sound such as the "a" in "about," the "ai" in "mountain," and the
"u" in "pablum." But in Spanish, such an indistinct sound isn't used. Although, as in most
languages, the sounds of the vowels can vary slightly with the letters before and after them, in
general the sound remains the same regardless of the word it's in.
First, the more or less invariable sounds:

A is pronounced similarly to the "a" in "father" or the "o" in "loft." Examples: madre,
ambos, mapa. There are some speakers who sometimes pronounce the a something
halfway between the "a" in "father" and the "a" in "mat," but in most areas the first sound
given is standard. See also the lesson on pronouncing the a.
I is pronounced similarly to the "ee" in "feet" and the "e" in "me," although usually a
little briefer. Examples: finca, timbre, mi. This letter is covered in more detail in the
lesson on pronouncing the i.
O is pronounced like the "oa" in "boat" or the "o" in "bone," although usually a little
briefer. Example: telfono, amo, foco. See the lesson on pronouncing the o for more
information.

Now, the two vowels whose sound can change:

E is generally pronounced like the "e" in "met" when it is at the beginning or within a
word. It is pronounced similarly to the Canadian "eh," kind of a shortened version of the

"" in the English "caf," when it is at the end of the word. Sometimes it can be
somewhere between those two sounds. It's not quite the sound of the English letter "A,"
which if pronounced slowly often has an "ee" sound at the end, but closer to the "e" of
"met." Keep in mind that even when it's at the end of the word, in a sentence it may
sound more like the "e" of met. For example, in a phrase such as de vez en cuando, each
e has approximately the same sound. Examples: caf, compadre, embarcar, enero. See
also the lesson on pronouncing the e.
U is generally pronounced like the "oo" in "boot" or the "u" in "tune." Do not pronounced
it like the "u" in "uniform." Examples: universo, reunin, unidos. In the combinations gui
and gue, as well as after q, the u is silent. Examples: gua, guerra, quizs. If the u should
be pronounced between a g and i or e, an umlaut (also called a dieresis) is placed over it.
Examples: vergenza, lingista. This letter is covered in more detail in the lesson on
pronouncing the u.

Diphthongs and triphthongs: As in English, two or three vowels in Spanish can blend
together to form a sound. The sound is basically the sound of the two or three vowels rapidly
pronounced. For example, the u when followed by an a, e, i or o ends up sounding something
like the "w" in "water." Examples: cuaderno, cuerpo, cuota. The ai combination sounds
something like the sound of "eye." Examples: hay, airear. The i when followed by an a, e, i or u
sounds kind of like the "y" in "yellow.": hierba, bien, siete. And other combinations are possible
as well: miau, Uruguay, caudillo.
Y: Generally, the y is pronounced the same as it would if it were an i, as part of a diphthong.
Examples: rey, soy, yacer. In some words that are derived from English and have a y at the end
often retain the English pronunciation. For example, in popular songs you may hear words such
as sexy and phrases such as oh baby. This letter is covered in more detail in the lesson on
pronouncing the y.

Lesson 4 Pronouncing the Difficult Consonants of Spanish

While many of the Spanish consonants have sounds that are similar to those in English,
many are distinctly different. These are listed below.
One thing to keep in mind about Spanish consonants is that they're generally softer and
somewhat less distinct than their English equivalents (the most notable exceptions are the r and
rr). Although their vowel sounds may be distinct, some hispanohablantes may sound to the
untrained ear like they're mumbling. Keep in mind that there are some regional variations as
well, although if you follow the descriptions in these lessons you will be understood.
Note the differences between the sounds of these consonants and their English counterparts
in the following examples. Note also that these pronunciations are a guide only, as there are
many subtle variations that can vary with locality.

C, at least in most of Latin America, is pronounced like the "c" in "cereal" when it comes
before an e or an i, and like the "c" in "car" when it is other positions. Examples:
complacer, hacer, cido, carro, acabar, crimen. Note: Although you will be understood
if you use the Latin American pronunciation, in parts of Spain the c sounds like the "th"
in "thin" when it comes before an e or i. Learn more details in the lesson on pronouncing
the C.
B and V are pronounced exactly the same. In fact, one of the few spelling problems that
many Spanish speakers have is with these two letters, because they don't distinguish them
at all from their sound. Generally, the b and v are pronounced like the "b" in "beach."
When either of the letters is between two vowels, the sound is formed kind of like the
English "v," except that the sound is made by touching the lips together instead of the
upper teeth and lower lip. See our lesson on pronouncing the B and V for more details and
a brief audio lesson.
D generally is pronounced somewhat like the "d" in "diet," although often the tongue
touches the bottom of the teeth instead of the top. But when d comes between vowels, it
has a much softer sound, kind of like the "th" in "that." Examples: derecho, helado,
diablo. See our lesson on pronouncing the D for more details.
G is pronounced much like the English "g" in "go," although softer, except when it
precedes an i or e. In those cases, it is pronounced like the Spanish j. Examples: gordo,
gritar, gigante, mgico. See the lesson on pronouncing the G.
H is always silent. Examples: hermano, hacer, deshacer. See also the lesson on the silent
H.
J (and the g when before an e or i) can be difficult, as its sound, that of the German ch, is
absent in English except for a few foreign words where it is sometimes retained, as in the
final sound of loch or the initial sound of Channukah. The sound is sometimes described
as a heavily aspirated "h," made by expelling air between the back of the tongue and the
soft palate. If you can't pronounce it well, you'll be understood by using the "h" sound of
"house," but it's worthwhile to work on the correct pronunciation. Examples: garaje,
juego, jardn. See the lesson on pronouncing the J.
L is always pronounced like the first "l" in "little," never like the second one. Examples:
los, helado, pastel. See the lesson on pronouncing the L.
LL is usually pronounced like the "y" in "yellow." There are some regional variations,
however. In parts of Spain it has the sound of the "ll" in "million," and in parts of
Argentina it has the "zh" sound of "azure." Examples: llama, calle, Hermosillo. See the
lesson on pronouncing the LL.
N usually has the sound of the "n" in "nice." If it is followed by a b, v, f or p, it has the
sound of "m" in "empathy." Examples: no, en, en vez de, andar. Learn more in our lesson
on the N.
is pronounced like the "ny" in "canyon." Examples: oo, can, campaa. See the
lesson on pronouncing the .
R and RR are formed by a flap of the tongue against the roof of the mouth, or a trill. See
the R and RR "how to" guides for these letters.
X varies in sound, depending on the origin of the word. It is often pronounced like the "x"
in "example" or "exit," but it also may be pronounced like the s or the Spanish j. In words
of Mayan origin it can even have the English "sh" sound. Examples: xito, experiencia,
Mxico, Xela. See also our explanation of the Spanish X.

Z generally sounds like the "s" in "simple." In Spain it is often pronounced like the "th" in
"thin." Examples: zeta, zorro, vez. See our lesson on pronoun

Lesson 5 Greetings
First impressions count. That's one reason you should learn some of these common
greetings before visiting an area where Spanish is spoken. Even if your knowledge of Spanish is
rudimentary, it can make your conversation a bit smoother to know some of these statements or
questions of common courtesy.
Phrases in common use can vary with location and sometimes with age or social status. But
except where indicated, those listed on the page can be used appropriately in almost any
situation:

Hola Hello, hi This greeting is suitable in both formal and informal contexts.
Hola, al, jal, bueno, al, diga Hello (on the telephone) The choice of telephone
greeting varies from location to location. Hola would be understood anywhere but is not
customary in many places.
Adis Goodbye An informal alternative in many areas is chau (sometimes spelled
ciao, from Italian).
Cmo ests? Cmo est? How are you? The first form (which is informal)
normally would be used with someone you know on a first-name basis or when speaking
with a child. The second form generally would be used in other situations. Usage can
depend quite a bit on where you are; in some areas, the informal form (ests) would be
expected where under the same circumstances the formal form would be used in other
areas. If you're a foreigner, chances are no one will criticize you for using the wrong
form, although you may be politely corrected.
Muy bien, gracias Very well, thank you.
Buenos das Good day, good morning In some areas, a shortened form, buen da, is
used.
Buenas tardes Good afternoon, good evening In most areas, buenas tardes should
be used in the early evening in preference to buenas noches.
Buenas noches Good night Unlike the English translation, buenas noches can be
used as a greeting as well as a farewell.
Cmo te va? Cmo le va?1 Qu tal? Qu hay? How's it going? What's
happening? There is also a variety of colloquial alternatives uses, although many of
them depend on the area.
Qu pasa? What's happening?
Qu hubo? Qu onda? How is it going? What's happening? These phrases are
most common in Mexico.
Cmo te llamas? Cmo se llama usted? What's your name? A literal translation
would be "What do you call yourself?" or, somewhat less literally, "What are you
called?" The first form normally would be used with a child, or possibly with someone of

equal social status at an informal occasion. If you're uncertain which form to use, the
second one is safer. Also see the above note. Also see the note with the entry for "Cmo
ests?"
Me llamo (nombre). My name is (name). A literal translation would be "I call
myself (name)" or, somewhat less literally, "I am called (name)." You can also literally
translate the English: Mi nombre es (nombre).
Mucho gusto. Encantado. It's a pleasure to meet you. Either of these could be said
upon meeting someone. If you're female, you should say encantada instead of encantado.
These literally mean "much pleasure" and "delighted," respectively, so they would have
different meanings in other contexts.
Bienvenido, bienvenida, bienvenidos, bienvenidas Welcome Note the difference in
number and gender. Bienvenido would be used with a man, bienvenida with a woman,
bienvenidas with a group of all females, and bienvenidos with males or a mixed group.

Lesson 6 - Making Nouns and Adjectives Plural

In English, as you already know, we usually make nouns plural by adding "-s" to the end
of the word, unless it ends in "-y," in which case the "-y" is dropped and replaced by an "-ies."
(Hyphens indicate word endings, not that a hyphen is used.) In Spanish, it is almost as simple,
and Spanish has few of the numerous and unpredictable exceptions that English has. For the sake
of simplicity and clarity, the examples given in this lesson are for nouns, but the same rules apply
for adjectives.
The basic rule: The rule that you follow most of the time is roughly the same as the rule
in English: If a word ends in a consonant, add -es. If it ends in an unaccented vowel, simply add
an -s. In Spanish, y is treated as a consonant for purposes of pluralization.

Examples: un rbol (one tree), dos rboles (two trees), el

actor (the actor), los actores (the actors), el hotel (the
hotel), los hoteles (the hotels), un taco (a taco), dos tacos
(two tacos), un perro (a dog), tres perros (three dogs), un
rey (a king), cuatro reyes (four kings).
Orthographic changes: Some words follow the general rule in terms of pronunciation,
but a change in either a letter or an accent mark is needed. In plurals of words that end in -z, the
-z changes to -ces for the plural. And if the addition of -es would change which syllable gets the
accent, an accent is either dropped or added.
Examples: el juez (the judge), los jueces (the judges), una vez (once), dos veces (twice),
el ingls (the Englishman), los ingleses (the Englishmen), la cancin (the song), las
canciones (the songs), el examen (the exam), los exmenes, the exams.

Words ending in stressed vowels: Words that end in a stressed - form the plural simply
by adding -s. Words that end in other stressed vowels have an -es added. There are four common
exceptions: el pap (the father), los paps (the fathers), una mam (a mother), dos mams (two
mothers), el domin (the domino), los domins (the dominoes), and un sof (a sofa), tres sofs
(three sofas).
Examples: el rub (the ruby), los rubes (the rubies), el hind (the Hindu), los hindes
(the Hindus), el caf (the coffee), los cafs (the coffees).
Finally, the exceptions: The above rules cover probably 99 percent of the nouns you will use.
Most of them are words that are identical in the singular and plural e.g., la crisis (the crisis),
las crisis (the crises) and new words of foreign origin, which often follow the pluralization
rules of the originating language e.g., el applet Java (the Java applet), los applets Java (the
Java applets). As a beginner, the main exceptions you need to know are the days of the week,
Monday through Friday, which are the same in singular and plural los lunes (Mondays), los
martes (Tuesdays), and so on.
For a more thorough treatment of the exceptions, see this longer lesson on plurals.

Lesson 7 - Gender, an Inherent Characteristic of

Spanish Nouns (Two Classifications for Nouns: Masculine
and Feminine)
Just as maleness or femaleness is an inherent characteristic of human beings and most
animals, so is gender an inherent characteristic of nouns in Spanish. With only a few exceptions,
mostly those of occupations such as dentista, the gender of nouns doesn't change with the
context, and a noun's gender determines the form of many adjectives that describe it.
Although Spanish nouns are classified as either feminine or masculine, remember that
there can be feminine nouns that describe things we think of as masculine, and vice versa. For
example, un elefante, which is masculine in form, refers to an elephant whether it's male or
female. For some people, it might be easier to think of them as simply two classifications rather
than giving them a sexual identity. Unlike German and some other Indo-European languages,
Spanish has no neuter nouns. (There are a few neuter pronouns, such as lo and ello, that are used
under limited circumstances, however.)
The basic rule is that masculine nouns go with masculine adjectives and articles, and
feminine nouns go with feminine adjectives and articles. (In English, the articles are "a," "an"
and "the." Also note that in Spanish many adjectives don't have separate masculine and feminine
forms.) And if you use a pronoun to refer to a masculine noun, you use a masculine pronoun;
feminine pronouns refer to feminine nouns.
Nouns and adjectives that end in -o (or -os for plural adjectives) generally are masculine,
and nouns and adjectives that end in -a (or -as for plural adjectives) generally are feminine,

although there are exceptions. For example, cada da means "each day." Da ("day") is a
masculine noun; cada ("each") can be either feminine or masculine.
Since you can't always tell by looking at a noun or knowing its meaning whether it's
masculine or feminine, most dictionaries use notations (f or m) to indicate the gender. And it's
also common in vocabulary lists, such as many of them at this site, to precede words with an el
for masculine words and a la for feminine words. (El and la both mean "the.")
Here are examples that show some of the ways a noun's gender affects the usage of other
words. Some of the examples may be more understandable once you study the lessons on
adjectives, articles and pronouns.

the man: el hombre (masculine article, masculine noun)

the woman: la mujer (feminine article, feminine noun)
a man: un hombre (masculine article, masculine noun)
a woman: una mujer (feminine article, feminine noun)
the men: los hombres (masculine article, masculine noun)
the women: las mujeres (feminine article, feminine noun)
the fat man: el hombre gordo (masculine adjective, masculine noun)
the fat woman: la mujer gorda (feminine adjective, feminine noun)
some men: unos hombres (masculine determiner, masculine noun)
some women: unas mujeres (feminine determiner, feminine noun)
He is fat: l es gordo. (masculine pronoun, masculine adjective)
She is fat: Ella es gorda. (feminine pronoun, feminine adjective)

If you have two or more nouns that are being described by a single adjective, and they are of
mixed genders, the masculine adjective is used.
Example: El carro es caro, the car is expensive (masculine noun and adjective). La
bicicleta es cara, the bicycle is expensive (feminine noun and adjective). El carro y la
bicicleta son caros, the car and the bicycle are expensive (masculine and feminine nouns
described by a masculine adjective).

Lesson 8 - Noun-Adjective Agreement

As in English, nouns in Spanish can be either singular or plural. But, unlike in English,
adjectives in Spanish can also be singular or plural. Also, nouns in Spanish can be either
masculine or feminine, and so can adjectives.
The general rule of noun-adjective agreement in Spanish is simple: Singular nouns are
accompanied by singular adjectives, and plural nouns are accompanied by plural adjectives.
Masculine nouns are described by masculine adjectives, and feminine nouns are described by

feminine adjectives. In other words, the adjectives chosen to describe nouns must match in both
number and gender.
Generally, the "normal" form of adjectives, the form you will find listed in dictionaries, is
singular and masculine. To make the adjective plural, follow one of these steps:

If it ends in an unstressed vowel, add -s. Examples: verde ("green," singular), verdes
("green," plural). El rbol es verde, the tree is green. Los rboles son verdes, the trees are
green.
If it ends in a z, change the z to a c and add -es. Example: feliz ("happy," singular), felices
("happy," plural). Soy feliz, I'm a happy person; somos felices, we are happy people.
If it ends in another consonant or a stressed vowel, add -es. Example: difcil ("difficult,"
singular), difciles ("difficult," plural). La tarea es difcil, the task is difficult; las tareas
son difciles, the tasks are difficult.
Note that in some cases it is necessary to add or remove an accent mark to maintain the
stress on the correct syllable.

Making a masculine adjective feminine is even easier. Just follow these steps:
If the singular masculine adjective ends in an -o, change it to an -a. Example: pequeo
("small," masculine singular), pequea ("small," feminine singular). El gato es pequeo,
the cat is small; los gatos son pequeos, the cats are small; la chica es pequea, the girl is
small; las chicas son pequeas, the girls are small.
If the singular masculine adjective ends in any other letter, the feminine form is the same.
El autobs es grande, the bus is big; la casa es grande, the house is big.
As you will learn elsewhere, adjectives can come before or after nouns, or they can be used
with verbs such as ser ("to be") to describe nouns. But (except for invariable adjectives) they will
always match the nouns they describe in both number and gender.
Important note: Invariable adjectives don't change in form and are very rare. Most of them
are either uncommon colors or words of foreign origin. An example is web as in la pgina web
(the web page) and las pginas web (the web pages). As a beginner you will seldom have the
need to use invariable adjectives, but you should be aware that they exist so they don't confuse
you when you see them.

Lesson 9 - Introduction to the Definite Article

The word "the" occupies a unique place in the English language as the only word that
grammarians classify as a definite article. It's not quite so simple in Spanish, where the English
"the" has four equivalents. Like most adjectives, the definite article in Spanish varies with
number and gender:
Singular masculine: el
Singular feminine: la
Plural masculine: los

Plural feminine: las

Although there are a few exceptions, as a general rule a definite article is used in Spanish
whenever "the" is used in English. But Spanish also uses a definite article in many cases where
English does not. Although the following list isn't exhaustive, and there are exceptions some of
these rules, here are the major instances where Spanish includes a definite article absent in
English:
With abstract nouns and nouns used in a general sense: In English, the article is often
omitted with abstract nouns and nouns that refer more to a concept than a tangible item. But it
still is needed in Spanish. A few examples might help clarify: La ciencia es importante. (Science
is important.) Creo en la justicia. (I believe in justice.) Estudio la literatura. (I study literature.)
La primavera es bella. (Spring is beautiful.)
With most titles of people: The definite article is used before most titles of a person being
talked about. El presidente Bush vive en la Casa Blanca. (President Bush lives in the White
House.) Voy a la oficina de la doctora Gonzlez. (I'm going to the office of Dr. Gonzalez.) Mi
vecina es la seora Jones. (My neighbor is Mrs. Jones.) The article is omitted, however, when
directly addressing the person. Cmo est usted? profesora Barrera. (How are you, Professor
Barrera?)
Before days of the week: Days of the week are always masculine. Except in constructions
where the day of the week follows a form of ser (a verb for "to be"), as in hoy es martes (today is
Tuesday), the article is needed. Vamos a la escuela los lunes. (We go to school on Mondays.) El
tren sale el mircoles. (The train leaves on Wednesday.)
Before verbs used as subjects: In Spanish, infinitives (the basic form of a verb) can be used as
nouns. The article el is used when one is used as the subject of a sentence. El escribir es difcil.
(Writing is difficult.) El esquiar es peligroso. (Skiing is dangerous.) No me gusta el nadar. (I
don't like swimming. In Spanish, this sentence has an inverted word order that makes nadar the
subject.)
Often before names of languages: The article generally is used before names of languages. But
it can be omitted immediately following a verb that is used often with languages, such as hablar
(to speak), or after the preposition en. El ingls es la lengua de Belice. (English is the language
of Belize.) El alemn es difcil. (German is difficult.) Hablo bien el espaol. (I speak Spanish
well.) But, hablo espaol. (I speak Spanish.) No puede escribir en francs. (He can't write in
French.)
With some place names: Although the definite article is seldom mandatory with place names, it
is often used with many of them. The list of place names using the definite article is quite
arbitrary and can be found here. La Habana es bonita. (Havana is pretty.) La India tiene muchas
lenguas. (India has many languages.)

With nouns joined by "and": In English, it often isn't necessary to include the "the" before
each noun in a series. But Spanish often requires it. La madre y el padre estn felices. (The
mother and father are happy.) Compr la silla y la mesa. (I bought the chair and table.)
Note: Spanish also has a neuter definite article, lo, explained in this lesson. It has specific uses
different than most of the ones listed on this page.

Lesson 10 - Types of Pronouns

Almost all of us like to take shortcuts, and that's one way to think about what pronouns
are: They're usually a shorter and quicker way of referring to a noun. Common pronouns in
English include "he," "she," "what," "that" and "yours," all of which often would be replaced by
longer words or more words if we didn't have the pronouns at our disposal.
In general, pronouns in Spanish function much as they do in English. They can fulfill any
role in a sentence that a noun can, and some of them vary in form depending on whether they're
used a subject or an object. Probably the biggest difference is that in Spanish most pronouns
have gender, whereas in English the only ones that do are those that refer specifically to males or
females.
If a pronoun has gender, it is the same as the noun to which it refers, and they are nearly
always masculine or feminine. (Two of the very rare cases this is done in English is when a ship
or a nation is referred to as "she" instead of "it.") There are also a few neuter pronouns that can
be used to refer to an unknown object or to ideas or concepts.
The chart below shows the different types of pronouns, which will be discussed in more
detail in other lessons. Each entry below lists the type of pronoun, its purpose, example in
Spanish with translations (not all examples are listed), and sample sentences in Spanish and
English using that type of pronoun.

Subject pronoun replaces the subject of a sentence yo (I), t (you), l (he), ella
(she), ellos (they), ellas (they) I want to leave. Yo quiero salir.
Demonstrative pronoun replaces a noun while also pointing to it ste (this one),
sta (this one), sa (that one), aqullos (those ones) Quiero sta. I want this. (Note
that many demonstrative pronouns have written or orthographic accents on the stressed
vowel. Although such accents used to be considered mandatory, these days they generally
are considered optional if they can be omitted without causing confusion. However, many
writers and publications continue to use them even though they don't affect
pronunciation.)
Object pronoun functions as the object of a verb or preposition l (him), ella
(her), m (me), me (me), ellos (them) No puedo verlo. I can't see it.
Reflexive pronoun used when the direct object and the subject of a verb refer to the
same person. These are used much more in Spanish than in English. me (myself), te
(yourself), se (himself, herself, themselves) Juan se baa. John is bathing himself.
Possessive pronoun refers to something owned or possessed by someone or
something mo (mine), ma (mine), mos (mine), mas (mine), suyo (his, hers, theirs)

La ma es verde. Mine is green. (The possessive pronouns are usually preceded by el,
la, los or las, but not always.)
Indefinite pronoun refers to nonspecific people or things algo (something), nadie
(nobody), alguien (anybody), todo (all), todas (all), uno (one), unos (some), ninguno
(none) Nadie puede decir que su vida es perfecta. Nobody can say his life is perfect.
Relative pronoun introduces a clause that gives more information about a noun or
pronoun que (that, which, who, whom), quien (who, whom), cuyo (whose), cuyas
(whose), donde (where), lo cual (which, that which) Nadie puede decir que su vida es
perfecta. Nobody can say that his life is perfect.
Interrogative pronoun used in questions qu (what), quin (what), cundo
(when) Cul es tu problema? What is your problem? (Note that interrogative
pronouns in Spanish use an orthographic accent.)

Note: Many of the pronouns can have more than one translation, many English pronouns can
have more than one Spanish equivalent, and not all pronouns are listed in the examples. For
example, the English "me" can be translated as both me and m, depending on the context, and
the Spanish lo can be translated as "him," or "it." Many of the Spanish pronouns exist in
masculine, feminine and (rarely) neuter forms, not all of which are listed, as well as sometimes
plurals. Note also that many of these words that function as pronouns, particularly the indefinite
and relative pronouns, can serve as other parts of speech.

Lesson 11- Capitalization

Spanish uses significantly fewer capital letters than does English. Whenever Spanish
capitalizes a word, the corresponding word in English is capitalized, but the opposite is far from
true. There are numerous instances where English capitalizes that Spanish does not.
What Spanish does capitalize are proper names for people, places, newspapers and
magazines; abbreviations of personal titles such as Dr., the equivalent of the English "Dr.," and
Sr., the equivalent of "Mr."; and the first word in the titles of books, plays, movies and similar
works.
Here are the most common cases where English capitalizes that Spanish does not:
Calendar: Names of the days of the week and months of the year use lower-case letters. Hoy es
martes. (Today is Tuesday.) Mxico celebra su independencia el 16 de septiembre. (Mexico
celebrates its independence on September 16.)
Composition titles: In formal written Spanish, titles of movies, books, plays and similar works
capitalize only the first word and proper nouns. La guerra de las galaxias ("Star Wars"), Harry
Potter y la piedra filosofal ("Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone") Note: In informal written
Spanish, and on book covers and movie posters, it is not unusual to see such composition titles
capitalized as in English.

Personal titles: Introductory titles are not capitalized, although common abbreviations of them
(such as Sr. for seor, Dr. for doctor, D. for don and Srta. for seorita) are. Conoces a la seora
Wilson? (Do you know Mrs. Wilson?) Conoces a la Sra. Wilson? (Do you know Mrs. Wilson?)
La reina Victoria fue mi abuela. (Queen Victoria was my grandmother.)
Religions: Names of religions and their adherents aren't capitalized. Mi madre es catlica. (My
mother is Catholic.) Estudio el cristianismo. (I'm studying Christianity.)
Ordinal numbers: When an ordinal number is used after a name, it isn't capitalized. Luis
catorce (Luis the Fourteenth), Carlos octavo (Charles the Eighth)
Place names: Although the given name of rivers, lakes, mountains and other geographic features
are capitalized, the place identifier is not. No vimos el ro Amazonas. (We didn't see the Amazon
River.) Vivimos cerca de la montaa Rainier. (We live near Mount Rainier.)
Nationality: Although names of countries and cities are capitalized, words derived from them
are not. Soy ingls. (I'm English.) Prefiero los cocos puertorriqueos. (I prefer the Puerto Rican
coconuts.)
Languages: Names of languages aren't capitalized. Hablo ingls. (I speak English.) Quiero
estudiar alemn. (I want to study German.)

Lesson 12 - Stress and Accent Marks

Knowing how letters are pronounced is only one aspect of learning Spanish
pronunciation. Another key aspect is knowing which syllable should be stressed.
Fortunately, in Spanish the rules for stress (also known as accent) are straightforward. In fact,
there are only three basic rules that cover nearly every word:

If a word ends in a vowel, n or s, the stress is on the penultimate (next to last) syllable.
For example, toro, computadora, joven and zapatos all have their accent on the next-tolast syllable. Most words fit this category.
Words than end in other letters have the stress on the last syllable. For example, hotel,
hablar, madador and virtud all have the accent on the final syllable.
If a word isn't pronounced according to the above two rules, an accent is placed over the
vowel of the syllable that gets the stress. For example, comn, lpiz, mdico, ingls, and
ojal all have the stress on the indicated syllable.

The only exceptions to the above words are some words of foreign origin, generally words
adopted from English, that retain their original spelling and pronunciation. For example,

sandwich is usually spelled without an accent over the initial a, even though the stress is as in
English. Similarly, personal names and place names of foreign origin usually are written without
accents (unless accents are used in the originating language).
Note also that some publications and signs do not use accent marks over capital letters,
although it is normally best to use them when possible.
You should be aware that sometimes accent marks are used only to distinguish two similar
words, and they don't affect pronunciation (because the marks are already on a syllable that is
being stressed). For example, el and l are both pronounced the same way, even though they
have quite different meanings. Similarly, some words, such as que and quien, use accent marks
when they appear in questions, but usually not otherwise. Accents that don't affect pronunciation
are known as orthographic accents.

Lesson 13 - Placement of Adjectives

It is often said that adjectives come after nouns in Spanish. But this isn't entirely true
some types of adjectives frequently or always come before the nouns they modify, and some can
be placed either before or after nouns. Often, the determining factor in an adjective's placement
is its purpose in the sentence.
Beginners usually don't have much difficulty with the placement of numbers, indefinite
adjectives (words like cada/"each" and algunos/"some") and adjectives of quantity (such as
mucho/"much" and pocos/"few"), which precede nouns in both languages. The main difficulty
facing beginners is with descriptive adjectives. Students often learn that they are placed after the
noun (which they usually are), but then they are surprised to find when they're reading "real"
Spanish outside their textbooks that adjectives are often used before the nouns they modify.
Tip for beginners: Most of the material in this lesson is more appropriate for
intermediate students than for beginners. If you're new to learning Spanish, it isn't
important at this point to memorize the rules. What is important to remember is that while
descriptive adjectives usually follow the nouns they modify, if one appears before the
noun in something written or said by a native speaker it's probably not a mistake, and
there is probably a reason why the adjective is where it is.
Most of the words we think of as adjectives are descriptive adjectives, words that impart
a quality of some sort to the noun. Most of them can appear either before or after a noun, and
here is the general rule for where:
After the noun: If an adjective classifies a noun, that is, if it is used to distinguish that particular
person or object from others that could be represented by the same noun, it is placed after the

noun. Adjectives of color, nationality, and affiliation (such as of religion or political party)
usually fit in this category, as do many others. A grammarian might say in these cases that the
adjective restricts the noun.
Before the noun: If the main purpose of the adjective is to reinforce the meaning of the noun,
to impart emotional effect on the noun, or to convey appreciation of some sort for the noun,
then the adjective often is placed before the noun. A grammarian might say these are adjectives
used nonrestrictively. Another way of looking at it is that placement before the noun often
indicates a subjective quality (one dependent on the view of the person speaking) rather than an
objective (demonstrable) one.
Keep in mind that this is a general rule only, and sometimes there is no discernible reason for
a speaker's choice of word order. But you can see some of the common differences in usage in
the following examples:

la luz fluorescente (the fluorescent light) Fluorescente is a category or classification of

light, so it follows luz.
un hombre mexicano (a Mexican man) Mexicano serves to classify un hombre, in this
case by nationality.
La blanca nieve estaba por todas partes. (The white snow was everywhere.) Blanca
(white) reinforces the meaning of nieve (snow) and could also impart an emotional effect.
Es ladrn condenado. (He is a convicted thief.) Condenado (convicted) distinguishes
the ladrn (thief) from others and is an objective quality.
Condenada computadora! (Blasted computer!) Condenada is used for emotional
effect, making it emphatically subjective. For this reason, most vulgar adjectives of
disparagement precede the nouns they describe.

To see how word order could make a difference, examine the following two sentences:
Me gusta tener un csped verde. (I like having a green lawn.)
Me gusta tener un verde csped. (I like having a green lawn.)
The difference between these two sentences is subtle and not readily translated. Depending
on the context, the first might be translated as "I like having a green lawn (as opposed to a brown
one)," while the second might be translated as "I like having a green lawn (as opposed to not
having a lawn)" or "I like having a beautiful lawn." In the first sentence, the placement of verde
(green) after csped (lawn) indicates a classification. In the second sentence verde, by being
placed first, reinforces the meaning of csped and indicates some aesthetic appreciation.
The effects of word order indicate why some adjectives are translated into English differently
depending on their location. For example, un amigo viejo usually is translated as "a friend who is
old," while un viejo amigo is usually translated as "a longtime friend," indicating some emotional
appreciation. Similarly, un hombre grande is usually translated as "a big man," while un gran
hombre is "a great man," indicating a subjective quality rather than an objective one. (Grande,
when it precedes a noun, is shorted to gran.) As you continue your studies, you will come across
about another dozen adjectives that are similar.

Final note: If an adjective is modified by an adverb, it follows the noun. Compro un coche muy
caro, I am buying a very (muy) expensive (caro) car (coche.)

Lesson 14 Introduction to Spanish Verb Conjugation

Concept Is Similar to Verb Conjugation in English, But It's

More Extensive
The concept of verb conjugation is the same as in English only the details are far more
complicated.
Verb conjugation refers to the process of changing a verb form to provide information
about the action being performed. The form of the verb can gives us some idea about who is
performing the action, when the action is being performed, and the relation of the verb to other
parts of the sentence.
To better understand the concept of conjugation in Spanish, let's look at some
conjugationed forms in English and compare them with some Spanish forms. In the examples
below, the English verbs are explained first, followed by the corresponding Spanish forms. If
you're a beginner, don't worry for now about what terms like "present tense," "auxiliary verb"
and "indicative" mean. If you can't understand what they refer to by the examples given, you will
learn them in your later studies. This lesson isn't intended to be an exhaustive analysis of the
subject, but rather just enough that you can grasp the concept of how conjugation works.

Infinitive

To talk is the infinitive form of the verb in English. It is the basic form of the verb, by
itself conveying no information about the verb action. It can be used as a noun, as in "To
talk in public is difficult." (Some grammarians classify talk by itself as the infinitive).
The same things are true of Spanish infinitives; they convey no information about the
verb action, and they can be used as nouns. Infinitives in Spanish always end in -ar, -er,
or -ir. The verb for "to talk" is hablar.

Present-tense indicative verbs

I talk, you talk, he talks, she talks, we talk, they talk. In English, an "-s" is added at the
end of most verbs to indicate that it is being used in the third-person, present-tense
singular form. No suffix is added to indicate any subject other than the third person
(someone other than the person speaking, also known as the first person, or the person
being spoken to, the second person). Thus we say, "I speak, you speak, he speaks, she
speaks, we speak, they speak."
In Spanish, various endings are attached to verbs to indicate who is speaking for first-,
second-, and third-person forms in singular and plural. For regular verbs, the -ar, -er or
-ir at the end is replaced with the appropriate ending. Examples: yo hablo, I talk; t

hablas, you (singular) talk; l habla, he talks; ella habla, she talks; nosotros hablamos,
we talk; ellos hablan, they talk. In many cases the verb form gives enough information
that it isn't necessary to indicate with a subject noun or pronoun who is performing the
action. Example: canto, I sing.

Future-tense indicative

I will talk, you will talk, he will talk, we will talk, they will talk. In English, the future
tense is formed by using the auxiliary verb "will."
For the future tense, Spanish uses a set of verb endings that indicate who is performing
the action as well as indicate that it is happening in the future.. Examples: hablar, I will
speak; hablars, you (singular) will speak; l hablar, he will speak; hablaremos, we
will speak; hablarn, they will speak.

Preterite (a type of past tense)

I talked, you talked, he talked, we talked, they talked. In English, the simple past tense
usually is formed by adding "-ed."
Spanish endings for the preterite tense also indicate who performed the action. Examples:
habl, I talked; hablaste, you (singular) talked; habl, she talked; hablamos, we talked;
hablaron, they talked.

Present perfect (another type of past tense)

I have talked, you have talked, he has talked, we have talked, they have talked. In
English, the imperfect is formed by using the present tense of "to have" and adding a
participle, which usually ends in "-ed."
The rule in Spanish is basically the same. Forms of haber are followed by a participle,
which usually ends in -ado or -ido. Examples: he hablado, I have spoken; l ha hablado,
he has spoken.

The gerund and progressive tenses

I am talking, you are talking, she is talking, we are talking, they are talking. English
forms a gerund by adding "-ing" to the end of verbs and uses it in conjunction with forms
of "to be" to indicate a continuity of action.
Spanish has a corresponding form that ends in -ndo and is used with forms of estar ("to
be"). But it is used less often in Spanish than in English. Examples: estoy hablando, I am
talking; estuvo hablando, he was talking.

Subjunctive mood

If I were rich ... If that be the case ... English sometimes uses the subjunctive mood to
indicate something that is hypothetical or contrary to fact. Distinctive forms for the
subjunctive mood, although they used to be somewhat common, are nearly absent from
modern English conversation.
Spanish also uses a subjunctive mood, but it is far, far more common than in English.
Going into details about its use is beyond the scope of this lesson, but it is usually used in
dependent clauses. Example: In Quiero que ella hable ("I want her to talk," or, literally, "I
want that she talk."), hable is in the subjunctive mood.

Commands (imperative mood)

Talk! English has a simple command form based on an unconjugated form of the verb.
To give a command, you simply use the infinitive without the "to."
Spanish has both formal and familiar requests that are indicated by verb endings.
Examples: hable (usted), habla (t), (you) talk.

Other verb forms

I could talk, I would talk, I could have talked, I will have talked, I was talking, I will
be talking. English uses several auxiliary verbs to convey a sense of time for a verb's
action.
Spanish uses the verb haber and/or a variety of endings to convey a similar sense of time.
Most learning Spanish as a second language learn these forms at an intermediate level.

Summary
As you can see, the verb forms are much more extensive in Spanish than they are in English.
Also complicating things some is that the most common verbs are also irregular, as they are in
English ("I go," but "I went," and "I see," but "I saw"). The important thing to keep in mind is
that Spanish usually uses endings to more fully convey the nature of the action, while English is
much more likely to use auxiliary verbs and other sentence components.